Functional Programming in C# - CodeProject

16/07/2019 Functional programming in C# - CodeProject
Functional programming in C#
Akram El Assas
16 Jul 2019 CPOL
This article discusses functional programming in C# through algebra, numbers, euclidean plane and fractals.
Download source - 121.6 KB
Representing data through functions

Let S be any set of elements a, b, c ... (for instance the books on the table, or the points of the Euclidean plane) and let S' be any
subset of these elements (for instance the green books on the table, or the points in the circle of radius 1 centered at the origin of
the Euclidean plane).
The Characteristic Function S'(x) of the set S' is a function which associates either true or false with each element x of S.
S'(x) = true if x is in S'

S'(x) = false if x is not in S'
Let S be the set of books on the table and let S' be the set of green books on the table. Let a and b be two green books, and let c
and d be two red books on the table. Then:
S'(a) = S'(b) = true

S'(c) = S'(d) = false
Let S be the set of the points in the Euclidean plane and let S' be the set of the points in the circle of radius 1 centered at the
origin of the Euclidean plane (0, 0) (unit circle). Let a and b be two points in the unit circle, and let c and d be two points in a circle
of radius 2 centered at the origin of the Euclidean plane. Then:
https://www.codeproject.com/Articles/1160683/Functional-programming-in-Csharp-2?display=Print 1/27
S'(a) = S'(b) = true

S'(c) = S'(d) = false
Thus, any set S' can always be represented by its Characteristic Function. A function that takes as argument an element and returns
true if this element is in S', false otherwise. In other words, a set (abstract data type) can be represented through a Predicate
in C#.
Predicate<T> set;
In the next sections, we will see how to represent some fundamental sets in the algebra of sets through C# in a functional way, then
we will define generic binary operations on sets. We will then apply these operations on numbers then on subsets of the Euclidean
Plane. Sets are abstract data structures, the subsets of numbers and the subsets of the Euclidean plane are the representation of
abstract data-structures, and finally the binary operations are the generic logics that works on any representation of the abstract
data structures.
Sets
This section introduces the representation of some fundamental sets in the algebra of sets through C#.
Empty set
Let E be the empty set and Empty its Characteristic function. In algebra of sets, E is the unique set having no elements. Therefore,
Empty can be defined as follows:
Empty(x) = false if x is in E
Empty(x) = false if x is not in E
Thus, the representation of E in C# can be defined as follows:
public static Predicate<T> Empty<T>()

{
return x => false;
}
In algebra of sets, Empty is represented as follows:
Thus, running the code below:
Console.WriteLine("\nEmpty set:");
Console.WriteLine("Is 7 in {{}}? {0}", Empty<int>()(7));
gives the following results:
Set All
Let S be a set and S' be the subset of S that contains all the elements and All its Characteristic function. In algebra of sets, S' is
the full set that contains all the elements. Therefore, All can be defined like this:
All(x) = true if x is in S
Thus, the representation of S' in C# can be defined as follows:
public static Predicate<T> All<T>()

{
return x => true;
}
In algebra of sets, All is represented as follows:
Console.WriteLine("Is 7 in the integers set? {0}", All<int>()(7));
Singleton set
Let E be the Singleton set and Singleton its Characteristic function. In algebra of sets, E also known as unit set, or 1-tuple is a
set with exactly one element e. Therefore, Singleton can be defined as follows:
Singleton(x) = true if x is e
Singleton(x) = false if x is not e
public static Predicate<T> Singleton<T>(T e)

{
return x => e.Equals(x);
}
Console.WriteLine("Is 7 in the singleton {{0}}? {0}", Singleton(0)(7));

Console.WriteLine("Is 7 in the singleton {{7}}? {0}", Singleton(7)(7));
Other sets
This section presents subsets of the integers set.
Even numbers
Let E be the set of even numbers and Even its Characteristic function. In mathematics, an even number is a number which is a
multiple of two. Therefore, Even can be defined as follows:
Even(x) = true if x is a multiple of 2

Even(x) = false if x is not a multiple of 2
Predicate<int> even = i => i % 2 == 0;
Console.WriteLine("Is {0} even? {1}", 99, even(99));

Console.WriteLine("Is {0} even? {1}", 998, even(998));
Odd numbers
Let E be the set of odd numbers and Odd its Characteristic function. In mathematics, an odd number is a number which is not a
multiple of two. Therefore, Odd can be defined as follows:
Odd(x) = true if x is not a multiple of 2

Odd(x) = false if x is a multiple of 2
Predicate<int> odd = i => i % 2 == 1;
Console.WriteLine("Is {0} odd? {1}", 99, odd(99));

Console.WriteLine("Is {0} odd? {1}", 998, odd(998));
Multiples of 3
Let E be the set of multiples of 3 and MultipleOfThree its Characteristic function. In mathematics, a multiple of 3 is a number
divisible by 3. Therefore, MultipleOfThree can be defined as follows:
MultipleOfThree(x) = true if x is divisible by 3

MultipleOfThree(x) = false if x is not divisible by 3
Predicate<int> multipleOfThree = i => i % 3 == 0;
Console.WriteLine("Is {0} a multiple of 3? {1}", 99, multipleOfThree(99));

Console.WriteLine("Is {0} a multiple of 3? {1}", 998, multipleOfThree(998));
Multiples of 5
Let E be the set of multiples of 5 and MultipleOfFive its Characteristic function. In mathematics, a multiple of 5 is a number
divisible by 5. Therefore, MultipleOfFive can be defined as follows:
MultipleOfFive(x) = true if x is divisible by 5

MultipleOfFive(x) = false if x is not divisible by 5
Predicate<int> multipleOfFive = i => i % 5 == 0;
Console.WriteLine("Is {0} a multiple of 5? {1}", 15, multipleOfFive(15));

Console.WriteLine("Is {0} a multiple of 5? {1}", 998, multipleOfFive(998));
Prime numbers
A long time ago, When I was playing with Project Euler problems, I had to resolve the following one:
By listing the first six prime numbers: 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, and 13, we can see that the 6th prime
is 13.
What is the 10 001st prime number?
To resolve this problem, I first had to write a fast algorithm that checks whether a given number is prime or not. Once the algorithm
written, I wrote an iterative algorithm that iterates through primes until the 10 001st prime number was found.
Let E be the set of primes and Prime its Characteristic function. In mathematics, a prime is a natural number greater than 1 that
has no positive divisors other than 1 and itself. Therefore, Prime can be defined as follows:
Prime(x) = true if x is prime

Prime(x) = false if x is not prime
Predicate<int> prime = IsPrime;
where IsPrime is a method that checks whether a given number is prime or not.
static bool IsPrime(int i)

{
if (i == 1) return false; // 1 is not prime
if (i < 4) return true; // 2 and 3 are primes
if ((i >> 1) * 2 == i) return false; // multiples of 2 are not prime
if (i < 9) return true; // 5 and 7 are primes
if (i % 3 == 0) return false; // multiples of 3 are not primes
// If a divisor less than or equal to sqrt(i) is found

// then i is not prime
int sqrt = (int)Math.Sqrt(i);
for (int d = 5; d <= sqrt; d += 6)
{
if (i % d == 0) return false;
if (i % (d + 2) == 0) return false;
}
// Otherwise i is prime
return true;
}
Thus, running the code below to resolve our problem:
int p = Primes(prime).Skip(10000).First();
Console.WriteLine("The 10 001st prime number is {0}", p);
where Primes is defined below:
static IEnumerable <int> Primes(Predicate<int> prime)

{
yield return 2;
int p = 3;
while (true)
{
if (prime(p)) yield return p;
p += 2;
}
}
Binary operations
This section presents several fundamental operations for constructing new sets from given sets and for manipulating sets. Below the
Ven diagram in the algebra of sets.
Union
Let E and F be two sets. The union of E and F, denoted by E u F is the set of all elements wich are members of E or F.
Let Union be the union operation. Thus, the Union operation can be implemented as follows in C#:
public static Predicate<T> Union<T>(this Predicate<T> e, Predicate<T> f)

{
return x => e(x) || f(x);
}
As you can see, Union is an extension function on the Characteristic function of a set. All the operations will be defined as
extension functions on the Characteristic function of a set. Thereby, running the code below:
Console.WriteLine("Is 7 in the union of Even and Odd Integers Set? {0}", Even.Union(Odd)(7));
Intersection
Let E and F be two sets. The intersection of E and F, denoted by E n F is the set of all elements wich are members of both E and
F.
Let Intersection be the intersection operation. Thus, the Intersection operation can be implemented as follows in C#:
public static Predicate<T> Intersection<T>(this Predicate<T> e, Predicate<T> f)

{
return x => e(x) && f(x);
}
As you can see, Intersection is an extension function on the Characteristic function of a set. Thereby, running the code below:
Predicate<int> multiplesOfThreeAndFive = multipleOfThree.Intersection(multipleOfFive);

Console.WriteLine("Is 15 a multiple of 3 and 5? {0}", multiplesOfThreeAndFive(15));
Console.WriteLine("Is 10 a multiple of 3 and 5? {0}", multiplesOfThreeAndFive(10));
Cartesian product
Let E and F be two sets. The cartesian product of E and F, denoted by E × F is the set of all ordered pairs (e, f) such that e is
a member of E and f is a member of F.
Let CartesianProduct be the cartesian product operation. Thus, the CartesianProduct operation can be implemented
as follows in C#:
public static Func<T1, T2, bool> CartesianProduct<T1, T2>(this Predicate<T1> e, Predicate<T2>

f)
{
return (x, y) => e(x) && f(y);
}
As you can see, CartesianProduct is an extension function on the Characteristic function of a set. Thereby, running the code
below:
Func<int, int, bool> cartesianProduct = multipleOfThree.CartesianProduct(multipleOfFive);

Console.WriteLine("Is (9, 15) in MultipleOfThree x MultipleOfFive? {0}", cartesianProduct(9,
15));
Complements
Let E and F be two sets. The relative complement of F in E, denoted by E \ F is the set of all elements wich are members of E
but not members of F.
Let Complement be the relative complement operation. Thus, the Complement operation can be implemented as follows in C#:
public static Predicate<T> Complement<T>(this Predicate<T> e, Predicate<T> f)

{
return x => e(x) && !f(x);
}
As you can see, Complement is an extension method on the Characteristic function of a set. Thereby, running the code below:
Console.WriteLine("Is 15 in MultipleOfThree \\ MultipleOfFive set? {0}",

multipleOfThree.Complement(multipleOfFive)(15));
Console.WriteLine("Is 9 in MultipleOfThree \\ MultipleOfFive set? {0}",
multipleOfThree.Complement(multipleOfFive)(9));
gives the following results
Symmetric Difference
Let E and F be two sets. The symmetric difference of E and F, denoted by E ▲ F is the set of all elements wich are members of
either E and F but not in the intersection of E and F.
Let SymmetricDifference be the symmetric difference operation. Thus, the SymmetricDifference operation can be
implemented in two ways in C#. A trivial way is to use the union and complement operations as follows:
public static Predicate<T> SymmetricDifferenceWithoutXor<T>(this Predicate<T> e, Predicate<T>

f)
{
return Union(e.Complement(f), f.Complement(e));
}
Another way is to use the XOR binary operation as follows:
public static Predicate<T> SymmetricDifferenceWithXor<T>(this Predicate<T> e, Predicate<T> f)

{
return x => e(x) ^ f(x);
}
As you can see, SymmetricDifferenceWithoutXor and SymmetricDifferenceWithXor are extension methods

on the Characteristic function of a set. Thereby, running the code below:
// SymmetricDifference without XOR

Console.WriteLine("\nSymmetricDifference without XOR:");
Predicate<int> sdWithoutXor = prime.SymmetricDifferenceWithoutXor(even);
Console.WriteLine("Is 2 in the symetric difference of prime and even Sets? {0}",
sdWithoutXor(2));
sdWithoutXor(4));
sdWithoutXor(7));
// SymmetricDifference with XOR

Console.WriteLine("\nSymmetricDifference with XOR:");
Predicate<int> sdWithXor = prime.SymmetricDifferenceWithXor(even);

Console.WriteLine("Is 2 in the symetric difference of prime and even Sets? {0}", sdWithXor(2));
Other operations
This section presents other useful binary operations on sets.
Contains
Let Contains be the operation that checks whether or not an element is in a set. This operation is an extension function on the
Characteristic function of a set that takes as parameter an element and returns true if the element is in the set, false otherwise.
Thus, this operation is defined as follows in C#:
public static bool Contains<T>(this Predicate<T> e, T x)

{
return e(x);
}
Therefore, running the code below:
Console.WriteLine("Is 7 in the singleton {{0}}? {0}", Singleton(0).Contains(7));

Console.WriteLine("Is 7 in the singleton {{7}}? {0}", Singleton(7).Contains(7));
gives the following result:
Add
Let Add be the operation that adds an element to a set. This operation is an extension function on the Characteristic function of a
set that takes as parameter an element and adds it to the set.
public static Predicate<T> Add<T>(this Predicate<T> s, T e)

{
return x => x.Equals(e) || s(x);
}
Console.WriteLine("Is 7 in {{0, 7}}? {0}", Singleton(0).Add(7)(7));

Remove
Let Remove be the operation that removes an element from a set. This operations is an extension function on the Characteristic
function of a set that takes as parameter an element and removes it from the set.
public static Predicate<T> Remove<T>(this Predicate<T> s, T e)

{
return x => !x.Equals(e) && s(x);
}
Console.WriteLine("Is 7 in {{}}? {0}", Singleton(0).Remove(0)(7));

Console.WriteLine("Is 0 in {{}}? {0}", Singleton(7).Remove(7)(0));
For those who want to go further

You can see how easy we can do some algebra of sets in C# through functional programming. In the previous sections was shown
the most fundamental definitions. But, If you want to go further, you can think about:
Relations over sets

Abstract algebra, such as monoids, groups, fields, rings, K-vectorial spaces and so on
Inclusion-exclusion principle
Russell's paradox
Cantor's paradox
Dual vector space
Theorems and Corollaries
Euclidean Plane
In the previous section, the fundamental concepts on sets were implemented in C#. In this section we will practice the concepts
implemented on the set of plane points (Euclidean plane).
Drawing a disk
A disk is a subset of a plane bounded by a circle. There are two types of disks. Closed disks which are disks that contain the points of
the circle that constitutes its boundary, and Open disks wich are disks that do not contain the points of the circle that constitutes its
boundary.
In this section, we will set up the Characterstic function of the Closed disk and draw it in a WPF application.
To set up the Characterstic function we need first a function that calculates the Euclidean Distance between two points in the plane.
This function is implemented as follows:
public static double EuclidianDistance(Point point1, Point point2)

{
return Math.Sqrt(Math.Pow(point1.X - point2.X, 2) + Math.Pow(point1.Y - point2.Y, 2));
}
where Point is a struct defined in the System.Windows namespace. This formula is based on Pythagoras' Theorem.
where c is the Euclidean distance, a² is (point1.X - point2.X)² and b² is (point1.Y - point2.Y)².

Let Disk be the Characteristic function of a closed disk. In algebra of sets, the definition of a closed disk in the reals set is as
follows:
where a and b are the coordinates of the center and R the radius.
Thus, the implementation of Disk in C# is as follows:
public static Predicate<Point> Disk(Point center, double radius)

{
return p => EuclidianDistance(center, p) <= radius;
}
In order to view the set, I decided to implement a function Draw that draws a set in the Euclidean plane. I chose WPF and thus used
the System.Windows.Controls.Image as a canvas and a Bitmap as the context.
Thus, I've built the Euclidean plane illustrated below through the method Draw.
Below the implementation of the method.
public static void Draw(this Predicate<Point> set, Image plan)

{
Drawing.Bitmap bitmap = new Drawing.Bitmap((int)plan.Width, (int)plan.Height);
//
// Graph drawing
//
double semiWidth = plan.Width / 2;
double semiHeight = plan.Height / 2;
double xMin = -semiWidth;

double xMax = +semiWidth;
double yMin = -semiHeight;
double yMax = +semiHeight;
for (int x = 0; x < bitmap.Height; x++)

{
double xp = xMin + x * (xMax - xMin) / plan.Width;
for (int y = 0; y < bitmap.Width; y++)

{
double yp = yMax - y * (yMax - yMin) / plan.Height;
if (set(new Point(xp, yp)))

{
bitmap.SetPixel(x, y, Drawing.Color.Black);
}
}
}
plan.Source = Imaging.CreateBitmapSourceFromHBitmap(
bitmap.GetHbitmap(),
IntPtr.Zero,
System.Windows.Int32Rect.Empty,
BitmapSizeOptions.FromWidthAndHeight(bitmap.Width, bitmap.Height));
In the Draw method, a bitmap having the same width and same height as the Euclidean plane container is created. Then each
point in pixels (x,y) of the bitmap is replaced by a black point if it belongs to the set. xMin, xMax, yMin and yMax are the
bounding values illustrated in the figure of the Euclidean plane above.
As you can see, Draw is an extension function on the Characteristic function of a set of points. Therefore, running the code below.
Plan.Disk(new Point(0, 0), 20).Draw(plan);
Drawing horizontal and vertical half-planes

A horizontal or a vertical half-plane is either of the two subsets into which a plane divides the Euclidean space. A horizontal half-
plane is either of the two subsets into which a plane divides the Euclidean space through a line perpendicular with the Y axis. A
vertical half-plane is either of the two subsets into which a plane divides the Euclidean space through a line perpendicular with the X
axis.
In this section, we will set up the Characteristic functions of the horizontal and vertical half-planes, draw them in a WPF application
and see what we can do if we combine them with the disk subset.
Let HorizontalHalfPlane be the Characteristic function of a horizontal half-plane. The implementation of

HorizontalHalfPlane in C# is as follows:
public static Predicate<Point> HorizontalHalfPlane(double y, bool lowerThan)

{
return p => lowerThan ? p.Y <= y : p.Y >= y;
}
Plan.HorizontalHalfPlane(0, true).Draw(plan);
Let VerticalHalfPlane be the Characteristic function of a vertical half-plane. The implementation of

VerticalHalfPlane in C# is as follows:
public static Predicate<Point> VerticalHalfPlane(double x, bool lowerThan)

{
return p => lowerThan ? p.X <= x : p.X >= x;
}
Plan.VerticalHalfPlane(0, false).Draw(plan);
In the first section of the article we set up basic binary operations on sets. Thus, by combining the intersection of a disk and a
half-plane for example, we can draw the half-disk subset.
Therefore, running the sample below:
Plan.VerticalHalfPlane(0, false).Intersection(Plan.Disk(new Point(0, 0), 20)).Draw(plan);
Functions
This section presents functions on the sets in the Euclidean plane.
Translate
Let Translate be the function that translates a point in the plane. In Euclidean geometry, Translate is a function that moves
a given point a constant distance in a specified direction. Thus the implementation in C# is as follows:
public static Func<Point, Point> Translate(double deltax, double deltay)

{
return p => new Point(p.X + deltax, p.Y + deltay);
}
where (deltax, deltay) is the constant vector of the translation.

Let TranslateSet be the function that translates a set in the plane. This function is simply implemented as follows in C#:
public static Predicate<Point> TranslateSet(this Predicate<Point> set, double deltax, double

deltay)
{
return x => set(Translate(-deltax, -deltay)(x));
}
TranslateSet is an extension function on a set. It takes as parameters deltax which is the delta distance in the first
Euclidean dimension and deltay which is the delta distance in the second Euclidean dimension. If a point P (x, y) is translated in a
set S, then its coordinates will change to (x', y') = (x + delatx, y + deltay). Thus, the point (x' - delatx, y' - deltay) will always belong to
the set S. In set algebra, TranslateSet is called isomorph, in other words the set of all translations forms the translation group
T, which is isomorphic to the space itself. This explains the main logic of the function.
Thus, running the code below in our WPF application:
TranslateDiskAnimation();
where TranslateDiskAnimation is described below:
private const double Delta = 50;

private double _diskDeltay;
private readonly Predicate<Point> _disk = Plan.Disk(new Point(0, -170), 80);
private void TranslateDiskAnimation()

{
DispatcherTimer diskTimer = new DispatcherTimer { Interval = new TimeSpan(0, 0, 0, 1, 0) };
diskTimer.Tick += TranslateTimer_Tick;
diskTimer.Start();
}
private void TranslateTimer_Tick(object sender, EventArgs e)

{
_diskDeltay = _diskDeltay <= plan.Height ? _diskDeltay + Delta : Delta;
Predicate<Point> translatedDisk = _diskDeltay <= plan.Height ? _disk.TranslateSet(0,
_diskDeltay) : _disk;
translatedDisk.Draw(plan);
}
Homothety
Let Scale be the function that sends any point M to another point N such that the segment SN is on the same line as SM, but
scaled by a factor lambda. In algebra of sets, Scale is formulated as follows:
Thus the implementation in C# is as follows:
public static Func<Point, Point> Scale(double deltax, double deltay, double lambdax, double
lambday)
{
return p => new Point(lambdax * p.X + deltax, lambday * p.Y + deltay);
}
where (deltax, deltay) is the constant vector of the translation and (lambdax, lambday) is the ? vector.
Let ScaleSet be the function that applies an homothety on a set in the plan. This function is simply implemented as follows in
C#:
public static Predicate<Point> ScaleSet(this Predicate<Point> set,

double deltax, double deltay, double lambdax, double lambday)
{
return x => set(Scale(-deltax / lambdax, -deltay / lambday, 1 / lambdax, 1 / lambday)(x));
}
ScaleSet is an extension function on a set. It takes as parameters deltax which is the delta distance in the first Euclidean
dimension, deltay which is the delta distance in the second Euclidean dimension and (lambdax, lambday) wich is the
constant factor vector ?. If a point P (x, y) is transformed through ScaleSet in a set S, then its coordinates will change to (x', y') =
(lambdax * x + delatx, lambday * y + deltay). Thus, the point ((x'- delatx)/lambdax, (y' - deltay)/lambday) will always belong to the set
S, If ? is different from the vector 0, of course. In algebra of sets, ScaleSet is called isomorph, in other words the set of all
homotheties forms the Homothety group H, wich is isomorphic to the space itself \ {0}. This explains the main logic of the function.
ScaleDiskAnimation();
where ScaleDiskAnimation is described below:
private const double Delta = 50;

private double _lambdaFactor = 1;
private double _diskScaleDeltay;
private readonly Predicate<Point> _disk2 = Plan.Disk(new Point(0, -230), 20);
private void ScaleDiskAnimation()

{
DispatcherTimer scaleTimer = new DispatcherTimer { Interval = new TimeSpan(0, 0, 0, 1, 0)
};
scaleTimer.Tick += ScaleTimer_Tick;
scaleTimer.Start();
}
private void ScaleTimer_Tick(object sender, EventArgs e)

{
_diskScaleDeltay = _diskScaleDeltay <= plan.Height ? _diskScaleDeltay + Delta : Delta;
_lambdaFactor = _diskScaleDeltay <= plan.Height ? _lambdaFactor + 0.5 : 1;
Predicate<Point> scaledDisk = _diskScaleDeltay <= plan.Height
? _disk2.ScaleSet(0, _diskScaleDeltay, _lambdaFactor,
1)
: _disk2;
scaledDisk.Draw(plan);
}
Rotate
Let Rotation be the function that rotates a point with an angle theta. In matrix algebra, Rotation is formulated as follows:
where (x', y') are the coordinates of the point after rotation, and the formula for x' and y' is as follows:
The demonstration of this formula is very simple. Have a look at this rotation.
Below the demonstration:
Thus the implementation in C# is as follows:
public static Func<Point, Point> Rotate(double theta)

{
return p => new Point(p.X * Math.Cos(theta) - p.Y * Math.Sin(theta),
p.X * Math.Cos(theta) + p.Y * Math.Sin(theta));
}
Let RotateSet be the function that applies a rotation on a set in the plane with the angle ?. This function is simply implemented
as follow in C#.
public static Predicate<Point> RotateSet(this Predicate<Point> set, double theta)

{
return p => set(Rotate(-theta)(p));
}
RotateSet is an extension function on a set. It takes as parameter theta which is the angle of the rotation. If a point P (x, y) is
transformed through RotateSet in a set S, then its coordinates will change to (x', y') = (x * cos(?) - y * sin(?), x * cos(?) + y * sin(?)).
Thus, the point (x' * cos(?) + y' * sin(?), x' * cos(?) - y' * sin(?)) will always belong to the set S. In algebra of sets, RotateSet is called
isomorph, in other words the set of all rotations forms the Rotation group R, which is isomorphic to the space itself. This explains the
main logic of the function.
RotateHalfPlaneAnimation();
where RotateHalfPlaneAnimation is described below:
private double _theta;

private const double TwoPi = 2 * Math.PI;
private const double HalfPi = Math.PI / 2;
private readonly Predicate<Point> _halfPlane = Plan.VerticalHalfPlane(220, false);
private void RotateHalfPlaneAnimation()

{
DispatcherTimer rotateTimer = new DispatcherTimer { Interval = new TimeSpan(0, 0, 0, 1, 0)
};
rotateTimer.Tick += RotateTimer_Tick;
rotateTimer.Start();
}
private void RotateTimer_Tick(object sender, EventArgs e)

{
_halfPlane.RotateSet(_theta).Draw(plan);
_theta += HalfPi;
_theta = _theta % TwoPi;
}

Very simple, isn't it? For those who want to go further, you can explore these:
Ellipse
Three-dimensional Euclidean space
Ellipsoide
Paraboloid
Hyperboloid
Spherical harmonics
Superellipsoid
Haumea
Homoeoid
Focaloid
Fractals
Fractals are sets that have a fractal dimension that usually exceeds their topological dimension and may fall between the integers.
For example, the Mandelbrot set is a fractal defined by a family of complex quadratic polynomials:
Pc(z) = z^2 + c
where c is a complex. The Mandelbrot fractal is defined as the set of all points c such that the above sequence does not escape to
infinity. In algebra of sets, this is formulated as follows:
A Mandelbrot set is illustrated above.
Fractals (abstract data type) can always be represented as follows in C#:
Func<Complex, Complex> fractal;
Complex numbers and drawing

In order to be able to draw fractals, I needed to manipulate Complex numbers. Thus, I've used Meta.numerics library. I also needed
an utility to draw complex numbers in a Bitmap, thus I used ColorMap and ClorTriplet classes that are available on
CodeProject.
Newton Fractal
I've created a Newton Fractal (abstract data type representation) P(z) = z^3 - 2*z + 2 that is available below.
public static Func<Complex, Complex> NewtonFractal()

{
return z => z * z * z - 2 * z + 2;
}
In order to be able to draw Complex numbers, I needed to update the Draw function. Thus, I created an overload of the Draw
function that uses ColorMap and ClorTriplet classes. Below the implementation in C#.
public static void Draw(this Func<Complex, Complex> fractal, Image plan)

{
var bitmap = new Bitmap((int) plan.Width, (int) plan.Height);
const double reMin = -3.0;

const double reMax = +3.0;
const double imMin = -3.0;
const double imMax = +3.0;
for (int x = 0; x < plan.Width; x++)

{
double re = reMin + x*(reMax - reMin)/plan.Width;
for (int y = 0; y < plan.Height; y++)
{
double im = imMax - y*(imMax - imMin)/plan.Height;
var z = new Complex(re, im);

Complex fz = fractal(z);
if (Double.IsInfinity(fz.Re) || Double.IsNaN(fz.Re) || Double.IsInfinity(fz.Im) ||

Double.IsNaN(fz.Im))
{
continue;
}
ColorTriplet hsv = ColorMap.ComplexToHsv(fz);
ColorTriplet rgb = ColorMap.HsvToRgb(hsv);

var r = (int) Math.Truncate(255.0*rgb.X);
var g = (int) Math.Truncate(255.0*rgb.Y);
var b = (int) Math.Truncate(255.0*rgb.Z);
Color color = Color.FromArgb(r, g, b);
bitmap.SetPixel(x, y, color);
}
}
plan.Source = Imaging.CreateBitmapSourceFromHBitmap(
bitmap.GetHbitmap(),
IntPtr.Zero,
Int32Rect.Empty,
BitmapSizeOptions.FromWidthAndHeight(bitmap.Width, bitmap.Height));
}
Plan.NewtonFractal().Draw(plan);

For those who want to go further, you can explore these:
Mandelbrot Fractals
Julia Fractals
Other Newton Fractals
Other Fractals
Introduction to Laziness
In this section, we will see how to make a type Lazy starting from the version 3.5 of the .NET Framework.
Lazy evaluation is an evaluation strategy which delays the evaluation of an expression until its value is needed and which also avoids
repeated evaluations. The sharing can reduce the running time of certain functions by an exponential factor over other non-strict
evaluation strategies, such as call-by-name. Below the benefits of Lazy evaluation.
Performance increases by avoiding needless calculations, and error conditions in evaluating compound expressions
The ability to construct potentially infinite data structure: We can easily create an infinite set of integers for example through
a function (see the example on prime numbers in the Sets section)
The ability to define control flow (structures) as abstractions instead of primitives
Let's have a look at the code below:
public class MyLazy<T>

{
#region Fields
private readonly Func<T> _f;

private bool _hasValue;
private T _value;
#endregion
#region Constructors
public MyLazy(Func<T> f)
{
_f = f;
}
#endregion
#region Operators
//
// Use objects of type MyLazy<T> as objects of type T
// through implicit keyword
//
public static implicit operator T(MyLazy<T> lazy)
{
if (!lazy._hasValue)
{
lazy._value = lazy._f();
lazy._hasValue = true;
}
return lazy._value;
}
#endregion
}
MyLazy<T> is a generic class that contains the following fields:

_f: A function for lazy evaluation that returns a value of type T
_value: A value of type T (frozen value)
_hasValue: A boolean that indicates wether the value has been calculated or not
In order to use objects of type MyLazy<T> as objects of type T, the implicit keyword is used. The evaluation is done at type
casting time, this operation is called thaw.
var myLazyRandom = new MyLazy<double>(GetRandomNumber);

double myRandomX = myLazyRandom;
Console.WriteLine("\n Random with MyLazy<double>: {0}", myRandomX);
where GetRandomNumber returns a random double as follows:
static double GetRandomNumber()

{
Random r = new Random();
return r.NextDouble();
}
gives the following output:
The .NET Framework 4 introduces a class System.Lazy<T> for lazy evaluation. This class returns the value through the property
Value. Running the code below:
var lazyRandom = new Lazy<double>(GetRandomNumber);

double randomX = lazyRandom;
gives a compilation error because the type Lazy<T> is different from the type double.
To work with the value of the class System.Lazy<T>, the property Value has to be used as follows:
var lazyRandom = new Lazy<double>(GetRandomNumber);

double randomX = lazyRandom.Value;
Console.WriteLine("\n Random with System.Lazy<double>.Value: {0}", randomX);
which gives the following output:
The .NET Framework 4 also introduced ThreadLocal and LazyInitializer for Lazy evaluation.
That's it! I hope you enjoyed reading.
References
Visualizing Complex Functions
License
This article, along with any associated source code and files, is licensed under The Code Project Open License (CPOL)
About the Author

Akram El Assas
Engineer
Morocco
Akram El Assas graduated from the french engineering school ENSEIRB located in Bordeaux, a city in the south of France, and got
his diploma in software engineering in 2010. He worked in France for Mediatvcom, a company specialized in audiovisual, digital
television and new technologies. Mediatvcom offers services such as consulting, project management, audit and turnkey
solutions adapted to the needs of customers. Akram worked mainly with Microsoft technologies such as C#, ASP.NET and SQL
Server but also with JavaScript, jQuery, HTML5 and CSS3. Akram worked on different projects around digital medias such as
Media Asset Management systems, Digital Asset Management systems and sometimes on HbbTV apps.
Comments and Discussions
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Permalink Article Copyright 2016 by Akram El Assas

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Representing data through functions

S'(x) = true if x is in S'

S'(a) = S'(b) = true

S'(a) = S'(b) = true

Thus, the representation of E in C# can be defined as follows:

public static Predicate<T> Empty<T>()

In algebra of sets, Empty is represented as follows:

Thus, running the code below:

gives the following results:

Thus, the representation of S' in C# can be defined as follows:

public static Predicate<T> All<T>()

In algebra of sets, All is represented as follows:

Thus, running the code below:

Console.WriteLine("Is 7 in the integers set? {0}", All<int>()(7));

gives the following results:

Thus, the representation of E in C# can be defined as follows:

public static Predicate<T> Singleton<T>(T e)

Thus, running the code below:

Console.WriteLine("Is 7 in the singleton {{0}}? {0}", Singleton(0)(7));

gives the following results:

This section presents subsets of the integers set.

Even(x) = true if x is a multiple of 2

Thus, the representation of E in C# can be defined as follows:

Predicate<int> even = i => i % 2 == 0;

Thus, running the code below:

Console.WriteLine("Is {0} even? {1}", 99, even(99));

gives the following results:

Odd(x) = true if x is not a multiple of 2

Thus, the representation of E in C# can be defined as follows:

Predicate<int> odd = i => i % 2 == 1;

Thus, running the code below:

Console.WriteLine("Is {0} odd? {1}", 99, odd(99));

gives the following results:

MultipleOfThree(x) = true if x is divisible by 3

Thus, the representation of E in C# can be defined as follows:

Predicate<int> multipleOfThree = i => i % 3 == 0;

Thus, running the code below:

Console.WriteLine("Is {0} a multiple of 3? {1}", 99, multipleOfThree(99));

gives the following results:

MultipleOfFive(x) = true if x is divisible by 5

Thus, the representation of E in C# can be defined as follows:

Predicate<int> multipleOfFive = i => i % 5 == 0;

Thus, running the code below:

Console.WriteLine("Is {0} a multiple of 5? {1}", 15, multipleOfFive(15));

gives the following results:

Prime(x) = true if x is prime

Thus, the representation of E in C# can be defined as follows:

Predicate<int> prime = IsPrime;

static bool IsPrime(int i)

// If a divisor less than or equal to sqrt(i) is found

Thus, running the code below to resolve our problem:

where Primes is defined below:

static IEnumerable <int> Primes(Predicate<int> prime)

gives the following results:

public static Predicate<T> Union<T>(this Predicate<T> e, Predicate<T> f)

gives the following results:

public static Predicate<T> Intersection<T>(this Predicate<T> e, Predicate<T> f)

Predicate<int> multiplesOfThreeAndFive = multipleOfThree.Intersection(multipleOfFive);

gives the following results:

public static Func<T1, T2, bool> CartesianProduct<T1, T2>(this Predicate<T1> e, Predicate<T2>

Func<int, int, bool> cartesianProduct = multipleOfThree.CartesianProduct(multipleOfFive);