Disaccharide
– A carbohydrate in which two
monosaccharide are bonded together.
Glycosidic Linkage
- is the bond in a disaccharide resulting
from the reaction between the hemiacetal
carbon (anomeric carbon) atom. The –OH group
of one monosaccharide and an –OH group on
the other monosaccharide.
- Basis for the formation of
oligosaccharide and polysaccharides because
the oligosaccharides and polysaccharide’s
nature depend on which monosaccharides are
linked together and on the particular glycosidic
bond formed.
- the glycosidic bond can either be
alpha or beta glycosidic bond.
- a (1 – 4), a (1-6)
- B, B (1 -1)
- the glycosidic bond can either be
linear or branched- chain.
Important Disaccharides
- Maltose
- Lactose
- Sucrose
Sucrose
- From sugarcane and sugar beets.
- composed of a-d –glucose and b-d –
fructose
- Sucrose is a non-reducing sugar
Note : Non reducing sugar is wala nay –OH
group sa iyang carbon1 (or anomeric carbon).
Non reducing sugars can no longer react
whereas the reducing sugar can still react
because it still has –OH group in the anomeric
carbon. Using Benedict’s Reagent you can
identify if a chemical is a reducing or non-
reducing sugar. If the solution turns blue then it
is a non reducing sugar if it turns red or orange
then it is a reducing sugar.
Sucrose Metabolism to ATP
Fructose
Sucrose Enzyme Sucrase
Pyruvate Glucose
Glyceraldehyde
ATP
Dehydroxyacetone
-Excess consumption of sucrose can
contribute to health problems.
10 Ways Sugars can Harm your Health
1.) Causes blood glucose to spike and
plummet
2.) Increases the risk of obesity,
diabetes and heart disease.
3.) Interferes with immune function
4.) A high sugar diet often results in
chromium deficiency
5.) Accelerates Aging.
6.) Causes tooth decay
 7.) Can cause gum disease which can
lead to heart disease
8.) Affects behavior and cognition in
children.
Aspartame
-Suspected to cause neurological
problems especially in individuals whose
metabolism cannot tolerate phenylalanine

9.) Increases stress. - Artifical sweetener which is derivative

of sucrose.
10.) Takes the place of important
nutrients. Sucralose

Use of Sucrose - also known as Splenda.

- Sweetener and increase of energy - Differ in sucrose in 2 ways

levels
1.) Three of the –OH groups have been
Alternative Sweeteners replaced with 3 chlorine (C1 and 6 of the
fructose moiety and C4 of the galactose moiety)
- Splenda, High fructose corn syrup,
Saccharin. 2.) Configuration at C4 of the 6-
membered pyranose ring of glucose, producing
Fructose galactose derivative.
- Sweeter than Sucrose - Sucralose is not metabolized by the
- Can produce the same sweetening body.
effect with fewer calories.
- Does not provide calories.
- High Fructose Corn Syrup is frequently
- It is a safe sugar substitute.
used in food processing.
Lactose
- Presence of fructose changes the
texture of food. -Made up of B-D- galactose and D-
Glucose.
- Artificial Sweeteners produced in the
laboratory (suspected to have harmful side - Glycosidic Linkage B(1-4) between the
effects ) anomeric carbon 1 of B-D-galactose and Carbon
4 of D-glucose.
Saccharine
Lactose Intolerance
- Has been found to cause cancer in
laboratory animals. -People who are lactose intolerant
doesn’t have the enzyme lactase in their body.
- Contains cyclamates. Cyclamate is a Lactase (found in small intestine) breaks down
synthetic artificial sweetener that is 30 to 50 lactose into two molecules: Galactose and
times sweeter than sugar. Glucose and they are then used by the body.
Whereas a lactose intolerant person who
doesn’t have the enzyme lactase cannot break it
down into galactose and glucose. What will
happen is that the bacteria in large intestine will
be the one to break down the lactose but they
will not produce glucose and galactose instead
they will produce hydrogen gas, carbon dioxide
and lactic acid and that will cause flatulence and
abdominal pain.
-Symptoms of Lactose Intolerance are
Pain, Bloating and Rumbling of stomach.
-Solutions to avoid spending time in the
bathroom: No eating of Dairy Food, Lactose-
Free foods, and intaking lactacid pills before
eating.
- Pharmaceutical use of Lactose : widely
used as a filler or diluents in tablets and
capsule.
Maltose
- Product of starch hydrolysis
-Can be digest by mammals.
- Common ingredient in baby foods.
-Found in malted milk
- Yeast (brewer’s yeast) contains
enzymes that hydrolyze the starch in sprouted
barley (barley malt) first to maltose then to
glucose, which is fermented in the brewing of
beer.
Polysaccharide
-Made up of many monosaccharides
unit.
-Can be classified as
homopolysaccharide and heteropolysaccharide.
- Homopolysaccharide - are
polysaccharides composed of a single type of
sugar monomer. For example, cellulose is an
linear homopolysaccharide made up of glucose
monomers.
- Heteropolysaccharide –
polysaccharides that contain two or more
different monosaccharide units. For example,
Hyaluronic acid, formed by thousands of
alternative units of N-acetyl glucosamine and
glucuronic acid.
Complete Characterization of Polysaccharide
- Specification of monomers
- Sequence of monomers
- Type of glycosidic Linkage (Note:
Nature of linkage determines the
polysaccharide function)
Cellulose
- Linear homopolysaccharide of b-d-
glucose
-Linked in B(1-4)
-Polysaccharide Chain are hydrogen
bonded
- Hydrolyzed by cellulase to two glucose
unit
-Animals lack the enzyme cellulase in
order to break down cellulose that’s why they
can’t eat nor digest tree barks for energy.
 -Cellulase attack the B-linkage between
glucoses.
- B-linkage common to structural
polymers.
-Cellulase is found in certain bacteria
(inhabit the digestive tracts of insects such as
termites and grazing animals such as cattle and
horses)
Starch
-Can be classififed into two: Amylose
and Amylopectin.
- Amylose is a linear polysaccharide. It’s
glycosidic linkage is a-(1-4).
-Amylopectin is a branched-chain
polysaccharide. Its glycosidic linkage in its main
linear body is a-(1-4) whereas the glycosidic
bond for its branched body is a-(1-6).
Amylopectin is branched every 25 residues.
-Two enzymes hydrolyzes starches : a-
amylase and b-amylase. Attacks a(1-4)
glycosidic linkages
-B-amylase: Exoglycosidase (they only
attack at the outer part of the chain). They
cleave from the non reducing end of the
polymer. Maltose is the product of reaction
-A-amylase: Endoglycosidase (attacks
only at the inner part of the chain). They
hydrolyze a glycosidic linkage anywhere along
the chain to produce glucose and maltose.
- Amylose can be completely degraded
to glucose and amylase by two amylases.
-Amylopectin is not completely
degraded because of the branching linkages are
not attacked.
-Iodine Molecule can form a starch-
iodine complex (dark-blue color): well known
test for the presence of starch amylase.
Glycogen
-It is energy storage. It has a capacity to
store 2000 calories.
-Branched chain polymer of a d-glucose.
It is branched every 10 residues.
-Average chain length is 13 glucose
residues, and there are 12 layers of branching.
-At the heart of every glycogen
molecule is a protein called glycogenin.
- Found in animal cells in granules
similar to the starch granules in plant cells.
- Glycogen granules found in well-fed
liver and muscles but not seen in brain and
heart cells in normal condition.
- Glycogen (if broken down) becomes
Glucose then becomes Energy
 -Significance of branching:

1.) More branched polysaccharide is

more water soluble.

2.) When an organism needs energy

quickly, the glycogen phosporylase has more
potential targets if there are more branches
allowing a quicker mobilization of glucose.

Chitin

- A polysaccharide that is similar to

cellulose in both structure and function.

-Linear homopolysaccharide.

- All the residues linked in B(1-4)

glycosidic bonds.

-Chitin differs from cellulose in the

nature of the monosaccharide unit: In cellulose
the monomer is B-D-Glucose whereas in chitin
the monomer is N-acetyl-B-D-glucosamine

- Plays a structural role and has a fair

amount of mechanical strength because the
individual strands are held together by
hydrogen bonds

-It is the major structural component of

the exoskeletons of invertebrates such as
insects and crustaceans cell walls of algae, fungi
and yeasts.