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Abstract. In this conceptual article the topic of “Prospective Ergonomics” will be discussed within the context of innovation,
design thinking and design processes & methods. Design thinking is essentially a human-centred innovation process that em-
phasises observation, collaboration, interpretation, visualisation of ideas, rapid concept prototyping and concurrent business
analysis, which ultimately influences innovation and business strategy. The objective of this project is to develop a roadmap
for innovation, involving consumers, designers and business people in an integrative process, which can be applied to product,
service and business design. A theoretical structure comprising of Innovation perspectives (1), Worldviews supported by ra-
tionalist-historicist and empirical-idealistic dimensions (2) and Models of “design” reasoning (3) precedes the development
and classification of existing methods as well as the introduction of new ones.
Keywords: Prospective Ergonomics, Innovation, Human Centred Research and Design, Worldviews, Processes and Methods.
1051-9815/12/$27.50 © 2012 – IOS Press and the authors. All rights reserved
5244 A. Liem and E. Brangier / Innovation and Design Approaches within Prospective Ergonomics
A posteriori
/ Empirical
User- Market-
Driven Driven
PULL
Historicist Rationalist
/ Contextual / General
PUSH
Design- Technology-
Driven Driven
Idealistic
/ A priori
In terms of research and information gathering, a processes, is hardly based on formal roles and
priori (idealistic) and a posteriori (empirical) data methods, such as ethnographic research. Design-
are gathered and synthesized, as well as which driven innovation may be considered as a
actors are involved. These opposites are considered manifestation of a “reconstructionist” [21]. or
as equivalent to the push and pull models of “social-constructionist” [22] view of the market,
innovation. The description is polarized in order to where the market is not “given” a priori, but is the
contrast the different models of innovation, where result of an interaction between consumers and
the real world would reflect a continuous transition firms. Hereby, actors and stakeholders need to
between the extremities described in this paper. understand the radically new language and message,
In user-centred innovation, product development to find new connections to their socio-cultural
activities start from a deep analysis of user needs. In context, and to explore new symbolic values and
practice, researchers spend time in the field patterns of interaction with the product. In other
observing customers and their environment to words, radical innovations of meaning solicit
acquire an in-depth understanding of customer’s profound changes in socio-cultural regimes in the
lifestyles and cultures as a basis for better same way as radical technological innovations,
understanding their needs and problems [19]. Latest which solicit profound changes in technological
developments in user involved innovation have regimes [23].
challenged user-centred design methods from a In terms of “Marketing/ Consumer Research
participatory design and generative design research Driven Innovation”, qualitative and quantitative
perspective through the introduction of co-creation approaches, supported by statistical methods play an
methods [20]. Design-driven innovation, which important role in analysing consumer and emerging
mimics Technology Driven Innovation, has largely globalisation trends [2].
remained unexplored and unlike user-centred
5246 A. Liem and E. Brangier / Innovation and Design Approaches within Prospective Ergonomics
A posteriori
/ Empirical
Hermeneutic Participatory
Reflective
Practise
Historicist Rationalist
/ Contextual / General
Problem
-Solving
Social
Normative
Idealistic
/ A priori
Fig. 2: Mapping of models of design reasoning in relation to Rationalist-Historicist and Empirical-Idealistic dimensions
With respect to figure 2, models of design member of the society. Hence, the decisions
reasoning will be discussed in relation to defining this type of process are taken on an
Rationalist-Historicist and Empirical-Idealistic idealistic and contextual basis.
dimensions. The following assumptions are made in Despite its focus on reflections and experience of
terms of positioning. In the future, these the designer, the reflective practice-model is highly
assumptions need to be verified and elaborated dependent on the scope and context of the design
through in depth literature studies, interviews with project. As constructivist-thinking processes are
practicing designers and engineers, as well as considered unique, comprising of both “A Priori”
through experiments in educational settings. and “a posteriori” inputs, the mind of the designer is
Potentially, theses figures (1&2) provide a the principal factor determining the design.
framework for prospective ergonomics. Therefore, this model is classified as strictly
The Problem Solving model, where generic historicist with regard to the design epistemology.
methods are proposed to tackle different types of Reference to a Post-Positivism, Hermeneutics
well-defined problems, is positivist in nature. It is emphasise the importance of how knowledge is
being positioned as a rationalist approach with some interpreted in society or in its area of influence, and
“a priori” influence, because of its structured must therefore be classified as empirical and
relationship between the problem and the solution as historicist. The hermeneutic perspective on design
well as its rational decomposition of the design focuses on how the election of methods in the
process into smaller sub-problems. process impacts the end result.
The normative model focuses less on the The participatory model can be seen as a response
decomposition into sub-problems, but more on the to designers´ lack of ability to manage and solve
determined or desired idealistic principles, it is wicked problems [35]. Solutions to wicked
classified as a less generic approach, using more problems derived from a rational decomposition of
implicit, a priori knowledge. The normative view the design process were obtained through user
evaluates whether a solution is good or bad, using a involvement in the design process. The Information
comparison of ideal references. gathered from users is considered external and
According to the social design perspective, the therefore classified as empirical. The identification
social constellation executing the process also of problems, and determination which decisions
defines it. This highly contextual approach of the need to be taken, is considered a rational approach.
social design model emphasises in an idealistic
manner the responsibility of the designer as a
5248 A. Liem and E. Brangier / Innovation and Design Approaches within Prospective Ergonomics
A posteriori
/ Empirical
Questionaries
Interviews
Focus
Observations Groups
Hermeneutic
Usability
Naming- Participatory
Testing
framing-
reflecting Reflective
Practise User Market
Historicist Rationalist
/ Contextual Design Techn / General
ology Problem- TRIZ
Intuition Solving
Social Structural
Universal
Design Normative Complexity
Management
Sustainable Design For X
Design
Idealistic
/ A priori
Fig. 3. Epistemological relations between innovation triggers, design models and methods.
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