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APL 102

y1 large hardening
y0 small hardening

Impact toughness & Strengthening mechanisms

Concepts: Fracture toughness, ductile-to-brittle transition, strain hardening, cold work

Lecture 35
 Recap Mechanical behaviour of
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Ductile matrix Brittle Fracture Ceramics (glass)
Griffith Criterion (Next week lab)
Esurface  4ct
2
Estrain    2c 2t
2Y
Etotal  Esurface  Estrain

Etotal
0
c c c*

Strength of glass
2 E Measured in 3 point
f 
Brittle c bend test

matrix
Surface crack (of depth c) is
more deleterious than internal
cracks (length 2c)
IIT Delhi Question for thought

So what is the material property that measures the

resistance to the fracture?

Toughness
 Tests for toughness measurement
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The problem is that they do not measure a true material property, meaning one that is
independent of the size and shape of the test sample

Hence we needed the ideas of stress intensity and fracture toughness

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Fracture toughness, K1c

The material property that measures the resistance for crack
propagation
IIT Delhi A material transitions from yield to Crack length necessary
fracture at a critical crack length for fracture at a materials
yield strength

Stress required for

fracture for a given
crack length

Materials: engineering, science, processing and design, 2nd edition Copyright (c)2010 Michael Ashby, Hugh Shercliff, David Cebon
IIT Delhi Critical crack lengths are a measure of the
damage tolerance of a material

Tough metals are able to contain large cracks but still yield in a
Predictable and ductile manner
 Impact Test (Last Lab experiment)
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Measures the energy necessary to fracture a standard notched specimen

Why this
behavior?
 Ductile-to-Brittle Transition (DBTT)
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At low temperatures some metals and all polymers become brittle

As temperatures decrease, yield strengths of most materials increase leading

to a reduction in the plastic zone size

Steel structures are more likely to fail in winter than in summer

Materials: engineering, science, processing and design, 2nd edition Copyright (c)2010 Michael Ashby, Hugh Shercliff, David Cebon
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Question for thought

What is the material that is used for liquid nitrogen container?

Stainless steel (austenitic)

 Hardness
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• Resistance to deformation
• Various Hardness Tests

11
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Let’s get back to Plastic Deformation…..

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Recipe for higher strength?

Remove the dislocation:

Possible but Impractical

Alternative:
Make the dislocation motion DIFFICULT
 Key ways of improving the strength of materials..
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Strengthening Mechanisms

 Work hardening or strain hardening or dislocation hardening

 Grain size strengthening or grain refinement

 Alloying or solid solution hardening

 Precipitation hardening or age hardening

 Strain hardening
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 Strain hardening is the very common industrial process that is often used
to harden the materials: especially for the materials that cannot be heat treated

 The extent of strain hardening is gauged by slope of stress strain curve


y1 large hardening
y0 small hardening


Mechanical loading
 Strain hardening or Cold working (%CW)
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Room temperature deformation

Common forming operations change the cross-sectional area:
Forging force Rolling
die roll
Ad
Ao blank Ad Ao
roll
force
Drawing Extrusion Hammering
Ao
die Ad container
tensile die holder
Ao force
force ram billet extrusion Ad
die container die

Ao  Ad
%CW  X 100
Ao
 Strain Hardening or Work hardening
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y

y

Strain, ε

Plastic deformation is causing increase in yield strength of the crystal

due to strain hardening or work hardening
 Effect of cold work
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Already deformed material pulled in tension

As cold work is increased
 Yield strength increases
 Tensile strength increases
 Ductility (%EL or %AR) decreases

CW d
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Question for thought

Why do we get an increase in stress with an increase in

plastic strain??
IIT Delhi Dislocations moving on different intersecting slip planes interact and obstruct
each others motion and accumulate in the material: the result is work hardening

 Dislocations entangle with one another

during cold work
 Dislocation motion becomes more
difficult, more so with obstacles

Dislocation density (d) and its distribution

 Strain Hardening or Work hardening
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In case of FCC/BCC crystals we have slip planes intersecting with each other

Imagine two FR sources are operating on two intersecting planes

 Announcement
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 Minor 2 Copies: will be shown on Monday (from 5:00 pm @ LH 108)

 Quiz 2: November 1st (Wednesday) @ 5:30 pm

Syllabus: Minor 1 & Topics after Minor 2 till today(25th Oct.)

 Next Compensating Class: 31st October (Tuesday) @ 6:00 to 6:50 pm, LH 325

 Attendance uploaded: Last date for informing discrepancies TODAY.

(those already informed by email will be looked into)

 Lab marks & Minor 1, Quiz marks: Uploaded. Last date for informing any
discrepancies is 30th Oct.
E-mail with a picture of the mark (subject: Re: APL 102…)