IIT Delhi

APL 102

Phase transformations in Materials

Concepts: Driving force, Nucleation (homogeneous & heterogeneous), Growth,
Critical radii
Lecture 38
 Recap
IIT Delhi Strain hardening Flow stress or power law equation:
K → strength coefficient
n → strain / work hardening coefficient
Grain size strengthening By d, more barriers introduced in the dislocation path and
hence the strength and also toughness should increase
Hall-Petch equation:

Grain boundary acts as a barrier to slip How to refine grain size--??

1. Solidification
2. Cold deformation and
70 Cu - 30 Zn annealing treatment
brass alloy
Barrier "strength“ increases with mis-orientation
 Solid solution strengthening
Recap
IIT Delhi Precipitation strengthening/Age hardening

Coherent Incoherent

Factors that control the stress required:

1. Strain field intensity
2. Concentration of solute Precipitate cutting Bypassing Precipitate
(Orowan strengthening

 TS peaks with precipitation

 %EL reaches minimum with precipitation
 Forms of Phase transformation
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Solid 1 Solid 2
Solid state phase
transformation

condensation
gas
Liquid

evaporation
IIT Delhi We shall understand the phase transformation by taking an example of
solidification process

L ---- β

What is the thermodynamic driving force for a phase transformation?

Decrease in Gibbs free energy

Liquid solid
gs - gl = g = -ve
 Gibbs free energy as a function of temperature
IIT Delhi g gL
 g   2g  cp
   s  2   
gS  T  p  T  p T
g

gL < gS
Solid is stable Liquid is stable
gS < gL

gS

gL

Tfreezing Tm T
 Nature and mechanism of transformation
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Nucleation once stable then grow

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Question for thought

What are the two stages in a phase transformation?

Two steps of Phase transformation

Nucleation: Formation of tiny stable particles of β

Growth: Increase in size of these stable particles

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Nucleation
IIT Delhi 1. Homogenous nucleation
The probability of nucleation occurring at any given site in
volume of parent phase is identical to that of any other site
2. Heterogeneous nucleation
The probability of nucleation occurring at preferred site
(e.g. GB junctions, GB’s, mould wall) is much more than that at any other site

r
r

r
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Artificial
Rain

by
Cloud
Seeding
 Homogenous nucleation
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Consider two things:

Volume transformed r

Area of the interface created

 Change in free energy of the system due 4 3
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to formation of the solid ball of radius r : f   r ( g s  g L ) + 4 r 2 γ
3
+ve: barrier to nucleation

 4 r 2 

f
r
r*

4 3
 r (gs  gL )
3
 4
IIT Delhi Solid balls of radius r < r* f   r 3 g + 4 r 2 γ
cannot grow as it will lead 3
to increase in the free
energy of the system !!!
 4 r 2 

Solid balls of radii r > r*

will grow
f
r
r* is known as the CRITICAL r*
RADIUS OF HOMOGENEOUS
NUCLEATION
4 3
 r g
3
 4
IIT Delhi  4 r 2  f   r 3 g + 4 r 2 γ
3

f
f * 0
f r r r *

r
r*
2
r*  
4 3
g
 r g
3

16   3
f * 
3 ( g ) 2
 Atoms surrounding the
Formation of critical nucleus by critical particle
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statistical fluctuation

Critical
particle

Diffuse jump of a
surrounding atom
to the critical
particle makes it a
nucleation
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Question for thought

What do the f * or r* depend on?

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Dependence of f * on temperature

One assumption would be that close to melting point latent heat of fusion
(Δh) and change in entropy (ΔS) do not vary much with the temperature
 Announcement
IIT Delhi  Impact energy lab location (Next Week Lab):
- Room No.:136, Block IV, Strength of Materials Lab

 Quiz 2: November 1st (TODAY) @ 5:30 pm (Syllabus: Minor 1 & Topics after
Minor 2 till 25th Oct.)
LH 108 – Monday’s & Tuesday’s Lab groups
LH 121 – Thursday’s & Friday’s Lab groups
 Buffer lab: E-mail request to be given by 8th Nov.
- Will happen in the last week (13th to 16th Nov)
- only for students who missed due to medical/emergency reasons

 Updated Lab marks & Minor 1 & 2, Quiz 1 & 2 marks:

Will be uploaded by 3rd Nov. Last date for informing discrepancies 10th Nov.
E-mail with a picture of the mark (subject: Re: APL 102…)