IIT Delhi

APL 102

Phase transformations in Materials

Concepts: Nucleation rate, growth, transformation rate, phase fraction

Lecture 40
 Recap
IIT Delhi Phase transformations
Driving force for solidification
Embryo, critical nuclei and super critical nuclei
T 2  Tm
g (T )  hm r*  
f , r for the formation of critical nuclei
* *
Tm T hm
2 16   3 16   3Tm2
r*   f *  f * , r * depend on T f * 
g 3 ( g ) 2 3 (T ) 2 (hm ) 2
Heterogeneous nucleation T

2 L
rhetero  
*

g
4  L
3

f *
hetero  
3 g 2

2  3Cos  Cos 3
 

f hetero
*

1 *
4

f homo 2  3Cos  Cos 3 
IIT Delhi
Question for thought

What will give the no./amount of such nuclei that form

per unit time?
IIT Delhi
Nucleation rate (dN/dt, number of
nucleation events per unit time)
— Homogenous nucleation

The process of nucleation and growth is dynamic in nature

IIT Delhi
It is the rate at which critical sized nuclei becomes supercritical
f * 
Number of critical sized nuclei (particle): N *  N t exp  
 KT 

The rate of successful addition of an atom to a critical sized particle

 H d 
 '  v s * exp   
 KT 

Hd = activation energy for diffusive jump

from liquid to the solid phase

s* = no. of liquid phase atoms facing the

critical sized particle (or interface)

 = atomic vibration frequency

 Nucleation rate
IIT Delhi
No. of critical sized x Frequency with which they
Rate of nucleation = particles become supercritical

dN  f *   H d 
   
I  kT 
dt N *  Nt e  
 '  s * e  kT 

No. of particles/volume in L  → lattice vibration frequency (~1013 /s)

s* atoms of the liquid facing the nucleus

Critical sized nucleus

Jump taking particle to supercriticality

→ nucleated (enthalpy of activation = Hd)

Critical sized nucleus

 Nucleation rate
IIT Delhi

 f *  H d 
 

kT
I  Nt s  e*  

f* reaches to negligible value as compared to Hd

IIT Delhi
Question for thought

What do the nucleation rate depend on?

 Nucleation rate vs. Temp.
IIT Delhi

Tm

Increasing T
T (K) →

0
I →

f* reaches to negligible value as compared to Hd

IIT Delhi
Question for thought

What is the second stage after nucleation in phase

transformation?
IIT Delhi

Growth:
Step-II in phase transformation
IIT Delhi

Nucleation Growth of 
Transformation
= of stable + till
L→  phase L is
exhausted

Growth
We must recognize that nucleation is ‘uphill’
in ‘g’ process, while growth is ‘downhill’ in ‘g’
 Growth
IIT Delhi

 Growth of particle whose size r > r* : Jumping of atoms

 Growth proceeds below the transformation temperature, wherein the
activation barrier for the reverse jump is higher

 Hd
Hd – vatom gv

L phase

 phase

Probability of forward jump is much more than the reverse jump

 Growth
IIT Delhi

H d H d  vg
J For  exp( ) J Back  exp( )
KT KT
Lets assume proportionality constant is same for both then

J Net  J For  J Back

H d vg
J Net  A exp( )[1  exp( )]
KT KT
 Temperature dependence of the growth rate
IIT Delhi

Tm Maximum of growth rate usually

U at higher temperature than
maximum of nucleation rate
Increasing T

I Nucleation rate curve

superimposed on growth
rate curve
T (K) →

0
Rate: U , I
IIT Delhi

As stated earlier the process of nucleation and

growth go hand in hand. So overall transformation
rate will be the product of two
IIT Delhi
Question for thought

What do the transformation rate depend on?

 Transformation rate  f (Nucleation rate, Growth rate)
IIT Delhi

dX 
T  f (I , U )
dt
Tm
Increasing T U

I
T (K) →

0
I, U, T →
 Experimental Measurement
IIT Delhi

Fraction transformed as a function of time

X
Slow due to final
impingement

Slow due to very

few nuclei

t
ts tf

Incubation period: Takes time to resolve events

IIT Delhi
Question for thought

The transformation fraction is given for one T, what is the best

way to plot this information including the rate as f(T)?

T-T-T (time-transformation-temperature) curve

 Applications
IIT Delhi

Solidification and crystallization

Phase Transformations in Steel

Precipitation
Recovery recrystallization & grain growth
IIT Delhi

TTT diagram of Liquid to solid

transformation
 Announcement
IIT Delhi

 Buffer lab: will happen from 13th to 16th Nov

- E-mail sent until 8th Nov. were considered
- Will notify those students (medical/emergency reasons) by this week end

 Updated Lab marks & Minor 1 & 2, Quiz 1 & 2 marks (PMT):
Will be uploaded by 13th Nov. Last date for informing discrepancies 17th Nov.
E-mail with a picture of the mark (subject: Re: APL 102…)

 Re-minor/Quiz: Weightage of that will be added to Major.

 Major exam: 20th Nov., 10:30 am to 12:30 pm;