Cement and Concrete

Unit 1
Materials and construction iv
In the early period, cement was used for making mortar only.

Later the use of cement was extended for making concrete.

As the use of Portland cement was increased for making concrete,

engineers called for consistently higher standard material for use in
major works.

Association of Engineers, Consumers and Cement Manufacturers

have been established to specify standards for cement.

The German standard specification for Portland cement was drawn

in 1877.

The British standard specification was first drawn up in 1904.

The first ASTM specification was issued in 1904.

In India, Portland cement was first manufactured in 1904 near
Madras, by the South India Industrial Ltd.
But this venture failed.

Between 1912 and 1913, the Indian Cement Co. Ltd., was established
at Porbander (Gujarat) and by 1914 this Company was able to deliver
about 1000 tons of Portland cement.

By 1918 three factories were established. Together they were

able to produce about 85000 tons of cement per year.

During the First Five-Year Plan (1951- 1956) cement production in

India rose from 2.69 million tons to 4.60 million tons.
Modern Cement Factory Grasim Industries
Cement Division RAW MILL

RAW MEAL SILO

A view of Limestone quarry,
 The process of manufacture of cement
consists of grinding the raw materials,
mixing them intimately in certain
proportions depending upon their purity and
composition and burning them in a kiln at a
temperature of about 1300 to 1500°C, at
which temperature, the material sinters and
partially fuses to form nodular shaped
clinker.
The clinker is cooled and ground to fine
powder with addition of about 3 to 5% of
gypsum.
The product formed by using this procedure
is Portland cement

There are two processes known as “wet”

and “dry” processes depending upon
whether the mixing and grinding of raw
materials is done in wet or dry conditions.

Diagrammatic representation of the

dry process of manufacure of cement
THE CEMENT MANUFACTURING PROCESS
quarry
raw grinding and burning
grinding, storage, packing, dispatch

HOW TO USE THIS PRESENTATION :

> once the animation has finished, click anywhere on the screen to move on
> click on « next » to see the next stage of the cement manufacturing process

Click here to start

 THE CEMENT MANUFACTURING PROCESS
quarry

dumper
loader

Quarry face

1. BLASTING 2. TRANSPORT

storage at
crushing
the plant
conveyor

3. CRUSHING & TRANSPORTATION

1. BLASTING : The raw materials that are used to manufacture cement (mainly limestone and clay) are blasted
from the quarry.
2. TRANSPORT : The raw materials are loaded into a dumper.
3. CRUSHING AND TRANSPORTATION : The raw materials, after crushing, are
transported to the plant by conveyor. The plant stores the materials before they are Next
homogenized.
 THE CEMENT MANUFACTURING PROCESS
Raw grinding and burning

storage at Raw mill

the plant
conveyor
Raw mix

1. RAW GRINDING
preheating

kiln

cooling

clinker

2. BURNING

1. RAW GRINDING : The raw materials are very finely ground in order to produce the raw mix.
2. BURNING : The raw mix is preheated before it goes into the kiln, which is heated by a flame that can
be as hot as 2000 °C. The raw mix burns at 1500 °C producing clinker which, when it leaves the kiln, is
rapidly cooled with air fans. So, the raw mix is burnt to produce clinker : the basic material needed to
make cement.
Back Next
 THE CEMENT MANUFACTURING PROCESS
Grinding, storage, packing, dispatch

Gypsum and the secondary additives are added

to the clinker.
clinker
storage Finish grinding

1. GRINDING
silos

dispatch

bags

2. STORAGE, PACKING, DISPATCH

1.GRINDING : The clinker and the gypsum are very finely ground giving a “pure cement”. Other secondary
additives and cementitious materials can also be added to make a blended cement.

2. STORAGE, PACKING, DISPATCH :The cement is stored in silos before being dispatched either in
bulk or in bags to its final destination.
Back Home page
Portland Pozzolana Cement

Portland Pozzolana cement (PPC) is manufactured by the inter

grinding of OPC clinker with 10 to 25 per cent of pozzolanic
material
The pozzolanic materials generally used for manufacture of PPC
are calcined clay (IS 1489 part 2 of 1991) or fly ash (IS1489 part I
of 1991).
Fly ash is a waste material, generated in the thermal power
station, when powdered coal is used as a fuel.
Portland pozzolana cement produces less heat of hydration and
offers greater resistanceto the attack of aggressive waters than
ordinary Portland cement. Moreover, it reduces the
leaching of calcium hydroxide when used in hydraulic
structures.
It is particularly useful in marine and hydraulic construction and
other mass concrete constructions
Technically PPC has considerable advantages over OPC when made
by using optimum
percentage of right quality of fly ash.
Advantages of PPC
(a ) In PPC, costly clinker is replaced by cheaper pozzolanic material -
Hence economical.
(b ) Soluble calcium hydroxide is converted into insoluble
cementitious products resulting in improvement of permeability.
Hence it offers, alround durability characteristics, particularly in
hydraulic structures and marine construction.
(c) PPC consumes calcium hydroxide and does not produce calcium
hydroxide as much as that of OPC.
(d) It generates reduced heat of hydration and that too at a low rate.
(e) PPC being finer than OPC and also due to pozzolanic action, it
improves the pore size distribution and also reduces the microcracks
at the transition zone.
(f ) Reduction in permeability of PPC offers many other alround
advantages.
(g) As the fly ash is finer and of lower density, the bulk volume of 50
kg bag is slightly more than OPC. Therefore, PPC gives more volume
of mortar than OPC.
(h) The long term strength of PPC beyond a couple of months is
higher than OPC if enough moisture is available for continued
pozzolanic action.
Application
Portland pozzolana cement can be used in all situations where OPC
is used except where high early strength is of special requirement.
As PPC needs enough moisture for sustained pozzolanic activity, a
little longer curing is desirable. Use of PPC would be particularly
suitable for the following situations:
(a ) For hydraulic structures;
(b) For mass concrete structures like dam, bridge piers and thick foundation;
(c ) For marine structures;
(d ) For sewers and sewage disposal works etc.
TESTING OF CEMENT
Testing of cement can be brought under two categories:
(a) Field testing
(b) Laboratory testing.

Field Testing
It is sufficient to subject the cement to field tests when it is used for minor works.
The following are the field tests:

(a) Open the bag and take a good look at the cement. There should not be any visible lumps.
The colour of the cement should normally be greenish grey.
(b) Thrust your hand into the cement bag. It must give you a cool feeling. There should not
be any lump inside.
(c) Take a pinch of cement and feel-between the fingers. It should give a smooth and not a
gritty feeling.
(d) Take a handful of cement and throw it on a bucket full of water, the particles should
float for some time before they sink.
(e) Take about 100 grams of cement and a small quantity of water and make a stiff paste.
From the stiff paste, pat a cake with sharp edges. Put it on a glass plate and slowly
take it under water in a bucket. See that the shape of the cake is not disturbed while
taking it down to the bottom of the bucket. After 24 hours the cake should retain its
original shape and at the same time it should also set and attain some strength.
LABORATORY TESTS

The following tests are usually conducted in

the laboratory.

(a) Fineness test.

(b) Setting time test.

(c) Strength test.

(d) Soundness test.

(e) Heat of hydration test.

(f ) Chemical composition test.

 Characteristics of Cement
• Color
• Physical properties
• Presence of lumps
• Strength
Colour should be uniform
Typical cement colour (gray colour
with light greenish shade)
It gives an indication of excess of
lime or clay and the degree of
burning.
 Physical properties
 Feel smooth when touched or rubbed in between
fingers.
 If felt rough, indicates adulteration with sand.
 If hand is inserted in cement bag, hand feels cool and
not warm.
 If it immersed in water, it should sink and should not
float
 A paste of cement feel sticky
 If it contains clay & silt as adulterant, it give earthy
smell.
 Presence of Lumps
• It should free from hard lumps.
• It is due to the absorption of moisture
from atmosphere.
• If a bag contains lumps it should be
rejected.
 Strength
• It is tested by three methods:
1. Briquettes with a lean or weak mortar are
made (75mm x 25mm x 12mm).
The proportion of cement & sand is 1:6.
Immersed in water for 3 days.
• If cement is good it will not be broken easily
and difficult to convert powder form.
2. A block is prepared (25 x 25 x 200) and
immersed in water for 7 days.
• Then it is placed on supports 150 mm apart
and loaded 340N.
• It should not show signs of failure.

3. Thick paste of cement with water is made on

thick glass and kept in water for 24 hours.
• It should set and not crack
Concrete
 Concrete
• is a mixture of portland cement, water, aggregates, and in some cases,
admixtures.

• The cement and water form a paste that hardens and bonds the aggregates
together.

• Concrete is often looked upon as “man made rock”.

• Concrete is a versatile construction material, adaptable to a wide variety of

agricultural and residential uses.

• Concrete has strength, durability, versatility, and economy.

• It can be placed or molded into virtually any shape and reproduce any surface
texture.

• Concrete is the most widely used construction material in the world.

• With proper materials and techniques, concrete can
withstand many acids, silage, milk, manure, fertilizers, water,
fire, and abrasion.

• Concrete can be finished to produce surfaces ranging from

glass-smooth to coarsely textured, and it can be colored with
pigments or painted.

• Concrete has substantial strength in compression, but is weak

in tension.

• Most structural uses, such as beams, slats, and manure tank

lids, involve reinforced concrete, which depends on concrete's
strength in compression and steel's strength in tension
• Since concrete is a structural material,
strength is a desirable property.

• Compressive strengths of concrete generally

range from 2000 to 5000 pounds per square
inch (psi), but concrete can be made to
withstand over 10,000 psi for special jobs.
 Components of Concrete
• CEMENT
• WATER
• AGGREGATES (fine & Coarse)
• Admixtures & construction chemicals
 Portland Cement
• Portland cement was named for the Isle of
Portland, a peninsula in the English Channel
where it was first produced in the 1800's.
• Since that time, a number of developments and
improvements have been made in the production
process and cement properties.

• The production process for portland cement first

involves grinding limestone or chalk and alumina
and silica from shale or clay.
• The raw materials are proportioned, mixed,
and then burned in large rotary kilns at
approximately 2500°F until partially fused into
marble-sized masses known as clinker.
• After the clinker cools, gypsum is added, and
both materials are ground into a fine powder
which is portland cement.
Three types of portland cement are used for
construction applications:
Type I cement is the general purpose and most common
type. Unless an alternative is specified, Type I is usually
used.

Type II cement releases less heat during hardening. It is

more suitable for projects involving large masses of
concrete--heavy retaining walls, and for suspension
bridges.

Type III cement produces concrete that gains strength

very rapidly.
It is very finely ground and sets rapidly, making it useful
for cold weather jobs.
WATER

Water is an important ingredient of concrete as it actively

participates in the chemical reaction with cement. Since it helps to
form the strength giving cement gel, the quantity and quality of
water is required to be looked into very carefully. Since quality of
water affects the strength, it is necessary for us to go into the
purity and quality of water.

Qualities of Water

A popular yard-stick to the suitability of water for mixing concrete

is that, if water is fit for drinking it is fit for making concrete.
Some specification also accept water for making concrete if the
pH value of water lies between 6 and 8 and the water is free from
organic matter.
Instead of depending upon pH value and other chemical composition,
the best course to find out whether a particular source of water is
suitable for concrete making or not, is to make concrete with this
water and compare its 7 days’ and 28 days’ strength with companion
cubes made with distilled water.
If the compressive strength is upto 90 per cent, the source of water
may be accepted
Carbonates and bi-carbonates of sodium and potassium effect the
setting time of cement.
While sodium carbonate may cause quick setting, the bi-carbonates
may either accelerate or retard the setting. The other higher
concentrations of these salts will materially reduce the concrete
strength..
Brackish water contains chlorides and sulphates.
When chloride does not exceed 10,000 ppm and sulphate does not
exceed 3,000 ppm the water is harmless,
Salts of Manganese, Tin, Zinc, Copper and Lead cause a marked
reduction in strength of concrete. Sodium iodate, sodium phosphate,
and sodium borate reduce the initial strength of concrete to an extra-
ordinarily high degree.
Another salt that is detrimental to concrete is sodium sulphide and
even a sulphide content of 100 ppm warrants testing
Water requires to be tested to find out its
suitability for large projects
Underground water is sometime
found unsuitable for mixing or even
for curing concrete.
The quality of underground water
is to be checked
The following guidelines should also be taken into consideration regarding the quality of
water.

(a) To neutralize 100 ml sample of water using phenoplhaline as an indicator, it should

not require more than 5 ml of 0.02 normal NaOH.

(b) To neutralise 100 ml of sample of water, using mixed indicator, it should not require
more than 25 ml of 0.02 normal H2So4.

(c) Permissible limits for solids is as given below in table 4.2.

 Aggregates
• Aggregates give body to the Concrete.

• They reduce Shrinkage and effect Economy.

• Aggregates occupy 70 – 80% of Volume of Concrete.

• Cement is standard component in concrete. Sand, gravel

and crushed stone are the primary aggregates used.

• All aggregates must be essentially free of silt and/or

organic matter.
• Concrete can be considered as Two phases:

• PASTE phase

• AGGREGATE phase(contains Aggregates)

The study of aggregates can best be done under the following
sub-headings:

(a) Classification
(b) Source
(c) Size
(d) Shape
(e ) Texture
(f ) Strength
(g) Specific gravity and bulk density
(h) Moisture content
(i ) Bulking factor
( j ) Cleanliness
(k ) Soundness
(l ) Chemical properties
(m) Thermal properties
(n) Durability
(o) Sieve analysis
(p Grading
Classification
Aggregates can be classified as
(i ) Normal weight aggregates,
(ii ) Light weight aggregates and
(iii) Heary weight aggregates.

Normal weight aggregates can be further classified as

Natural aggregates and

Artificial aggregates.

Natural Artificial
Sand, Gravel, Crushed Broken Brick,
Rock such as Granite, Air-cooled Slag.
Quartzite, Basalt, Sintered fly ash
Sandstone Bloated clay

Aggregates can also be classified on the basis of the size of the aggregates as

coarse aggregate and

fine aggregate.
 Shapes of Aggregates
• Rounded Aggregates – fully water worn

• Irregular Aggregates – having rounded edges

• Angular Aggregates – well defined edges

• Flaky Aggregates – with small thickness, angular

Round concrete aggregate. Flaky concrete aggregate Crushed concrete aggregate.
 Admixtures
• Admixture is defined as a material, other than
cement, water and aggregates, that is used as
an ingredient of concrete and is added to the
batch immediately before or during mixing.

• Additive is a material which is added at the time

of grinding cement clinker at the cement factory

• Admixture is used to modify the properties of

ordinary concrete so as to make it more suitable
for any situation.

Admixtures
" Plasticizers
" Superplasticizers
" Retarders and Retarding Plasticizers
" Accelerators and Accelerating Plasticizers
" Air-entraining Admixtures
" Pozzolanic or Mineral Admixtures
" Damp-proofing and Waterproofing
Admixtures
" Gas forming Admixtures
" Air-detraining Admixtures
" Alkali-aggregate Expansion Inhibiting
Admixtures
" Workability Admixtures
" Grouting Admixtures
" Corrosion Inhibiting Admixtures
" Bonding Admixtures
" Fungicidal, Germicidal, Insecticidal
Admixtures
" Colouring Admixtures
Construction Chemicals
" Concrete Curing Compounds
" Polymer Bonding Agents
" Polymer Modified Mortar for Repair and
Maintenance
" Mould Releasing Agents
" Protective and Decorative Coatings
" Installation Aids
" Floor Hardeners and Dust-proofers
" Non-shrink High Strength Grout
" Surface Retarders
" Bond-aid for Plastering
" Ready to use Plaster
" Guniting Aid
" Construction Chemicals for Water-proofing
1. Integral Water-proofing Compounds
2. Membrane Forming Coatings
3. Polymer Modified Mineral Slurry Coatings
4. Protective and Decorative Coatings
5. Chemical DPC
6. Silicon Based Water-repellent Material
7. Waterproofing Adhesive for Tiles, Marble
and Granite
8. Injection Grout for Cracks
9. Joint Sealants
 Concrete chain
Cement supply sand supply Coarse aggregate Water supply
supply

Transporting, unloading and stacking

Gauging

Mixing Slump test

Cube test
Transporting

Placing

Compaction Curing 102

 Properties of concrete
• Workability
• Strength
• Elasticity
• Creep
• Cracking
• Shrinkage cracking
• Tension cracking
 Workability
 – ease with concrete can be placed and compacted.

 Factors affecting:
1. Water Content
2. Size of Aggregates
3. Shape of Aggregates
4. Use of admixtures
5. Mix proportions
6. Grading of Aggregates
7. Surface Texture of Aggregates
The following tests are commonly employed to measure workability.

(a ) Slump Test

(b) Compacting Factor Test

(c ) Flow Test

(d) Kelly Ball Test

(e ) Vee Bee Consistometer Test.

Slump test to test workability

106
 SLUMP TEST
SLUMP TEST IS A TEST CONDUCTING BEFORE CONCRETE TO
BE USED FOR CASTING. THE PURPOSE OF SLUMP TEST
IS TO DETERMINE THE WATER CONTENT IN CONCRETE
AND ITS WORKABILITY

EQUIPMENT FOR SLUMP TEST:

1. BASE PLATE.
2. TROWEL TO MIX CONCRETE.
3. STEEL TAMPING ROD.
4. SLUMP CONE.
5. RULER.
 Strength
Concrete has relatively
• High compressive strength,
• Low tensile strength
• Fair to assume that a concrete sample's tensile strength is about
10%-15% of its compressive strength
• The ultimate strength of concrete is influenced by
- water-cementitious ratio
-the design constituents
- the mixing
-placement
-curing methods
 Elasticity
• In the theory of reinforced concrete, it is assumed that concrete is elastic,
isotropic, homogenous and that it conforms to Hooke’s law. Actually none of
these assumptions are strictly true and concrete is not a prefectly elastic
material
• When reinforced concrete is designed by elastic theory it is assumed that a
perfect bond exists between concrete and steel. The stress in steel is “m” times
the stress in concrete where “m” is the ratio between modulus of elasticity of
steel and concrete, known as modular ratio or modulus of elasticity
• The elastic modulus of concrete is a very important
mechanical parameter reflecting the ability of the concrete to deform elastically.
For example, in prestressed concrete structures,elastic shortening of prestressed
concrete is one of the main factors contributing to prestress loss.
• In addition, in order to make full use of the compressive strength potential, the
structures using high-strength concrete tend to be slimmer and require a
higher elastic modulus so as to maintain its stiffness. Therefore, knowledge of
the modulus of high-strength concrete is very important in avoiding excessive
deformation, providing satisfactory serviceability and achieving the most cost-
effective designs.
Modulus of elasticity of concrete increases approximately with the
square root of the strength.

Stronger the concrete higher the modulus of elasticity

The IS 456 of 2000 gives the Modulus of elasticity as

where EC is the short term static modulus of elasticity in N/mm2.

Creep
Creep can be defined as “the time-dependent” part of the strain
resulting from stress

the relation between stress and strain for concrete is a function of

time.
The gradual increase in strain, without increase in stress, with
the time is due to creep.

From this explanation creep can also be defined as the increase in

strain under sustained stress.

Factors Affecting Creep

Influence of Aggregate
Influence of Mix Proportions
Influence of Age
 Shrinkage
• Occur when concrete members undergo restrained volumetric changes
(shrinkage) as a result of either drying, autogenous shrinkage or thermal
effects.

• The number and width of shrinkage

cracks that develop are influenced by
. the amount of shrinkage that occurs
. the amount of restraint present
. the amount and spacing of reinforcement provided.

Types of shrinkage
Plastic Shrinkage
Drying Shrinkage
Autogeneous Shrinkage
Carbonation Shrinkage
Factors Affecting Shrinkage

One of the most important factors that affects shrinkage is the

drying condition or in other words, the relative humidity of the
atmosphere at which the concrete specimen is kept

Another important factor which influences the magnitude of

shrinkage is water/cement ratio of the concrete.

Aggregate plays an important role in the shrinkage properties of

concrete. The quantum of an aggregate, its size, and its modulus of
elasticity influence the magnitude of drying shrinkage
Durability
The durability of cement concrete is defined as its ability to resist
weathering action, chemical attack, abrasion, or any other process
of deterioration.

Durable concrete will retain its original form, quality, and

serviceability when exposed to its environment.

For a durable concrete, use of lowest possible W/C ratio is the

fundamental requirement to produce dense and impermeable
concrete
 Cracking

• All concrete structures will crack to some extent.

• Cracks due to tensile stress induced by shrinkage or stresses
occurring during setting or use

http://www.hughpearman.com/2007/illustrati
ons/shibboleth01.jpg
 Tension cracking

• Most common in concrete beams where a transversely applied

load will put one surface into compression and the opposite
surface into tension due to induced bending.
• The size and length of cracks is dependent on
- The magnitude of the bending moment
- The design of the reinforcing in the beam at the point
under consideration.
 Types of Concrete
• Light – Weight Concrete
• Aerated concrete
• No- fines concrete
• High Density Concrete
• Sulphur-Infiltrated Concrete
• Fibre Reinforced Concrete
• Pre-Packed Concrete
• Vacuum Concrete
• Vacuum Dewatered Concrete
• The Gunite or Shotcrete
• Ferrocement concrete
• Roller Compacted Concrete
• Self Compacting Concrete(scc)
• Bacterial Concrete
• Zeopolymer Concrete
• Basalt Fibre Concrete and Concrete Reinforced with Basalt Fibre
Reinforcements
 Process of Manufacturing of Concrete

• Batching
Volume Batching
Weigh Batching
• Mixing
Machine Mixing
Hand Mixing
• Transportation
Pumps and Pipelines
• Placing
Form work
Stripping time
Under Water Concreting
• Compaction
Hand compaction
Internal vibrators
Vibratory Rollers
• Curing
Water Curing
Membarane curing
Steam Curing
Electrical Curing
• Finishing
Form work finishes
Applied Finish
Grinding and Polishing
Curing of Concrete
Curing can also be described as keeping the concrete moist and
warm enough so that the hydration of cement can continue.
More elaborately, it can be described as the process of maintaining a
satisfactory moisture content and a favourable temperature in
concrete during the period immediately following placement, so that
hydration of cement may continue until the desired properties are
developed to a sufficient degree to meet the requirement of service.

It has been recognized that the quality of concrete shows all round
improvement with efficient uninterrupted curing. If curing is
neglected in the early period of hydration, the quality of concrete
will experience a sort of irreparable loss.
An efficient curing in the early period of hydration can be compared
to a good and wholesome feeding given to a new born baby.
Cracks on concrete surface due to
inadequate curing
Curing Methods
Curing methods may be divided broadly into four categories:
(a) Water curing
(b) Membrane curing
(c ) Application of heat
(d) Miscellaneous
Water curing
This is by far the best method of curing as it satisfies all the
requirements of curing, namely, promotion of hydration, elimination
of shrinkage and absorption of the heat of hydration.
It is pointed out that even if the membrane method is adopted, it is
desirable that a certain extent of water curing is done before the
concrete is covered with membranes.

Water curing can be done in the following ways

(a ) Immersion (b) Ponding
(c ) Spraying or Fogging (d ) Wet covering
Membrane Curing
Sometimes, concrete works are carried out in places where there is
acute shortage of water.
The quantity of water, normally mixed for making concrete is
more than sufficient to hydrate the cement, provided this water is not
allowed to go out from the body of concrete.
For this reason, concrete could be covered with membrane
which will effectively seal off the evaporation of water from concrete.

It is found that the application of

membrane or a sealing compound,
after a short spell of water curing
for one or two days is sometimes
beneficial

Membrane curing by spraying.

Application of heat
The development of strength of concrete is a function of not only
time but also that of temperature.

When concrete is subjected to higher temperature it accelerates

the hydration process resulting in faster development of strength.

The exposure of concrete to higher temperature is done in the

following manner:

(a) Steam curing at ordinary pressure.

(b) Steam curing at high pressure.
(c) Curing by Infra-red radiation.
(d) Electrical curing.
Steam curing at ordinary
pressure
This method of curing is often
adopted for prefabricated
concrete elements.
Steam curing at ordinary
pressure is applied mostly on
prefabricated elements stored
in a chamber.
Beam under steam curing.

The door is closed and steam is applied. The steam may be

applied either continuously or intermittently.
An accelerated hydration takes place at this higher temperature
and the concrete products attain the 28 days strength of normal
concrete in about 3 days.
High Pressure Steam Curing
The high pressure steam curing is something different from
ordinary steam curing, in that the curing is carried out in a closed
chamber.
The superheated steam at high pressure and high temperature is
applied on the concrete.
This process is also called “Autoclaving”.
The autoclaving process is practised in curing precast concrete
products in the factory, particularly, for the lightweight concrete
products.
The following advantages are derived from high pressure steam
curing process:
(a ) High pressure steam cured concrete develops in one day, or less the strength
as much as the 28 days’ strength of normally cured concrete
(b) High pressure steam cured concrete exhibits higher resistance to sulphate
attack,freezing and thawing action and chemical action. It also shows less
efflorescence.
(c ) High pressure steam cured concrete exhibits lower drying shrinkage, and
moisture movement.
Curing by Infra-red Radiation
Curing of concrete by Infra-red Radiation has been practised in very
cold climatic regions in Russia.
It is claimed that much more rapid gain of strength can be obtained
than with steam curing .
The system is very often adopted for the curing of hollow concrete
products. The normal operative temperature is kept at about 90°C.

Electrical Curing
Another method of curing concrete, which is applicable mostly to
very cold climatic regions is the use of electricity.

Concrete can be cured electrically by passing an alternating current

(Electrolysis trouble will be encountered if direct current is used)
through the concrete itself between two electrodes either buried in
or applied to the surface of the concrete.
Miscellaneous Methods of Curing
Calcium chloride is used either as a surface coating or as an
admixture. It has been used satisfactorily as a curing medium.
Both these methods are based on the fact that calcium
chloride being a salt, shows affinity for moisture.

The salt, not only absorbs moisture from atmosphere but also
retains it at the surface.

This moisture held at the surface prevents the mixing water from
evaporation and thereby keeps the concrete wet for a long time to
promote hydration.