WATER DEMAND

1
1.0 WATER DEMAND CALCULATION

Population for Year 2007 = 50596 people

Geometric Growth

Pn = Po (1 + r)n
Assuming natural growth 2.5% ( Parit Raja )

Where:-
Pn = Projected Population
Po = Population at the beginning of the year
r = assumed population growth rate
n = number of years

Po = 50596 , r = 0.025 , n = 10 .

Year 2017
P2017 = 50596 ( 1 + 0.025 )10
= 64767 people

Year 2027
P2027 = 64767 ( 1 + 0.025 )10
= 82907 people

Year 2037
P2037 = 82907 ( 1 + 0.025 )10
= 106128 people

Assume immigration = 7000 people.

Total Population 2037 = 113128 people.

2
Water Demand Calculation, 2037

Assume:
Service factor = 0.99
Percapita = 380 l / h / d
Industrial demand = 22000 l / hec / d

Water Demand :
Wdn = ( P n x C x F ) + DM
= ( 113128 x 380 x 0.99 ) + DM
= 42.56 MLD

Industrial Needs

Industrial demand = 22000 l / hec / d

Industrial Area = 500 hec

Total Demand = 22000 l / hec / d x 500 hec

= 11 MLD

Institutional Needs

Primary school + secondary school + Institutional = 35000 head (2037)

Total demand = 35000 head x 45 l / head / day

= 1.58 MLD

Commercial Needs

Assuming; Commercial demand = 380  / unit / d

No. Unit = 5000 unit (2037)

Total demand = 380  / unit / d x 5000 unit

= 1.90 MLD

3
Total Demand (2037)
Domestic 42.56 MLD
Institutional 1.58 MLD
Comercial 1.90 MLD
Industri 11.00 MLD

Total water demand = 57.04 MLD (0.66 m3/s)

Water Demand

For year 2037 demand,

Output required = 57.04 MLD
Q = 57.04 MLD
q = 5 % at Q

Water read to be abstracted = 1.55Q + q

= 1.55 (57.04) + 0.05 (57.04)
= 91.26 MLD
 92MLD

Design of Intake Aqueducts

The intake aqueducts used will be an open channel.

Calculation quantity of water.
If the plant is designed to operate 24 hours.

Hourly input = 92.0 MLD x1day / 24hr

= 3.833 million liters/hr
= 3833 m³/hr
 3900m 3 / hr

4
Sizing of Open Channel

Assume mean velocity = 1.0 m/s

Side slope = 1 : 1.5

y
1.5

A = (b + zy)y
B+ 2 zy = 2y (1 + z²)1/2

Area = Q/V

= 3900 m³/hr x 1hr___

1.0 m/s 60 x 60s
3
3900m 1hr s
 x x
hr 3600s 1.0m

= 1.083 m²
= 10833 cm²

For min discharge ;

B + 2 zy = 2y (1 + z²)½

If b = 42cm
42 + 2(1.5)y = 2y(3.25) ½
y = 42/0.61
= 68.85

A = (42 + 103.28) 68.85

= 10 002 cm² not ok!

If b = 43cm
43 + 2(1.5)y = 2y(3.25)½
y = 43/0.606
= 71.01 cm
A = (43 + (71.01x1.5)) 71.01
= 10 617 cm² not ok!

5
If b = 44cm
44 + 2(1.5)y = 2y(1+ 2.25) ½
44 + 3y = 3.606y
y = 44/0.6061y
= 72.66 cm

A = (b + Ny)y
= (44 + (72.66 x 1.5) 72.66
= 11 116 cm² ok!

Value of :
b = 44 cm
A = 11 116 cm²
y = 72.66 cm

To find head loss

Use Manning`s formula,

2 1
R 3 So 2
v
n

R = A/P
=
b  zy y
 
1
b  2 y  1  z 2 2

= [0.44 + (1.5 x 0.7266)] 0.7266_

0.44 + (2 x 0.7266) (1 + 1.5²)1/2

= 1.112 / 3.060
= 0.363

Since v = 1 m/s, n = 0.014

Use Manning’s formula,

1 = 0.3632/3 i1/2
0.014
i1/2 = 0.027
= 7.557 x 10-4

* head loss is 0.756m per 1000m

6
Mixing Flum Design

Design criteria
i. intensity of agitution
ii. duration of agitation

Qp = flow in prototype
= 3900 m³/hr
= 1.083 m³/s

Qm = flow in model
= 0.0006012 m³/s
ε = Scalar factor

5
Given Qp / Qm   2

2/5
ε = 1.083
0.0006012

= 20

Every dimension in the model will be multiplied by 20 to get prototype dimensions.

7
Inlet settling
basin
10.67m 3.53m 3.05m 10.67m

1.63m

0.89m 0.72
Inlet setting water level

Figure 1.0 : Sectional View

direction of flow 0.57 m

0.77 m 1.91 m
0.57 m

10.67 m 3.57 m 3.57 m 10.67 m

Figure 1.1 : Plan View

8
GRIT CHAMBER

9
2.0 DESIGN OF GRIT CHAMBER

For rural water supply schemes in Malaysia, grit chambers are designed based on
the following criteria:
a) The smallest particle size to be settled is 0.2mm
b) The mean horizontal velocity to be used in calculating the minimum cross-
sectional area of flow in the grit chamber is between 50% to 60% of the
entraining velocity for 0.2mm diameter particles. The entrained velocity
for 0.2mm diameter particles (at 30ºC water temperature) is 0.27m/sec.
c) Mean flow velocity of 2 to 7 cm/s.
d) Effective depth of 3 to 4 meters.

Length of grit chamber;

L = kHυ
u

Assume; H = 3.5 m
υ = 6.0 cm/s
u = 2.0 cm/s
k = 2.0

L = 2.0 x 3.5 x 6.0

2.0

= 21.00 m

Q = 3900m³/hr x 1/(60 x 60)

= 1.083 m³/s

Area of cross-section

A = Q/v

= 1.083 m³/s
0.060 m/s

= 18.05 m²

10
Grit width, w = A/H
= 18.05 / 3.5
= 5.157 m

w/L = 5.157_
21.00
1
= ok!
4.072

Lengthwise slope toward outlet = 1 : 100

Mean velocity of flow,

2 1
R 3 So 2
v
n

R = A/ P

= 3.5 x 5.157
(2 x 3.5) + 5.157

= 1.485 m

So = 0.060 x 0.014 ²
1.4852/3

= 0.0000004

= 4.165 x 10-7

1
=
2,401,099

Head loss is 1m in 2 401 099 m  accepted!

11
PUMP SUMP

12
3.0 DESIGN OF PUMP SUMP

Quantity of water to be pumped

Q = 3900 m³/hr

= 65.00 m³/min

If 5 pump are to pump this amount, then each pump shall be rate at 13.00 m³/min

Qp = 13 m³/min

T suggest in between 10 to 15 per hour for frequency of 12 parts per hour

T = 5 min

Minimum sump volume between start and stop level

TQ p

4
= 5 x 13 / 4
= 16.25 m³

13
RAW WATER INTAKE,
SCREENING AND
AERATION

14
4.0 RAW WATER INTAKE, SCREENING AND AERATION

Design Criteria Used

The following design criteria are used to develop the design of the raw water
intake and screening facility:-

1. Hydraulic Data
a- Design flow (maximum day demand) = 93,600 m3/day
b- Minimum reservoir elevation = 70.00 m (mean sea level [msl])
c- Maximum reservoir elevation = 90.00 m (msl)
d- Normal water surface elevation = 85.00 m (msl)
e- Bottom elevation = 60.00 m (msl)

2. General design guidelines

a- The raw water intake shall be a dry-tower design, with several gates to
allow the water to be selectively withdrawn from the levels that yields the
most desirable quality of water
b- A coarse screen shall be provided at each gate to prevent large objects
from entering the intake. The velocity through the rack should be less than
8 cm/s
c- A mechanically-cleaned fine screen shall be provided at the pump station
in order to prevent fish and trash from entering the wet well of the pump
station. The velocity through the fine screen shall be less than 0.2 m/s
d- Aeration of raw water at the head works is not required

15
Design Calculations

- Design of Intake Structure

1. Size of the intake gate

The dimensions of the gates will set the minimum requirements for the size of the
intake tower. The gates are sized such that the entire maximum flow of 93, 600
m3/day can be withdrawn from a single level at a maximum velocity of 0.08 m/s.

Q = 93, 600 m3/day

= 1.08 m3/s

A = 1.08 m3/s
0.08 m/s

= 13.5 m2

This is too large for a single gate, so select two equal-size square gates.

Width = (13.5 m2/2)1/2

= 2.59 m

So, size of the gate has:

Width and height = 3 m

Velocity through the gate = 1.08 m3/s

3mx3m
= 0.12 m/s

16
 2. The layout of the intake gates
The highest gate with its top two meters below the normal water-surface elevation
of 85 m was set, resulting in a centerline elevation of 81.5 m. in order to provide
the flexibility to withdraw water from intermediate elevations, additional gates
will provide at two levels equally spaced over the 16.5 m. So, gates will be
provided at elevations 81.5, 76, 70.5 and 65 m.

Locate two gates on each side of the intake structures

Each gate is 3 m wide, so the width of the tower wall is 8 m
The overall dimensions of the tower are 10 m x 10 m.

Figure 4.0 : Intake Structures Layout

17
- Design of Coarse Screen

1. Bar arrangement
Use 13 mm2 edge bars, 4.8 m long, space 8 cm and the bars cover 3.6 m

No. of spaces = 360 cm __

8 cm/spaces

= 45 spaces

The no of bars = 45 – 1 = 44 bars

2. Velocity through the bar rack

Area of the rack = Total area – area of the bars

Total area = 3.6 m x 4.8 m = 17.28 m2

Area of the bars = 44 bars x 0.013 m x 4.8 m = 2.75 m2

So, area of the rack = 17.28 m2 – 2.75 m2 = 14.53 m2

Velocity = 1.08 m3/s

14.53 m2
= 0.074 m/s

18
- Design of Fine Screen

1. Screening Equipment

Use two fine screens with opening size 9.5 mm

Depth of the flow is 9.53 m
Maximum velocity through the screen is 0.2 m/s
The recommended efficiency factor is 0.56 for stainless-steel screens
The design flow under normal conditions is 0.66 m3/s
The smallest screen available is 0.9 m

Width of screen = 0.66 m3/s______

9.53 m x 0.2 m/s x 0.56

= 0.62 m

Velocity through the screen = 0.66 m3/s______

9.53 m x 0.9 m x 0.56

= 0.14 m/s

Figure 4.1 : Coarse screen dimensions

19
- Hydraulic Calculations

1. Head loss through the coarse screen

hL = (v2-vv2) x 1_
2g 0.7

where:-
hL = head loss through the screen, m
v = velocity through the screen opening, m/s
vv = velocity upstream of the screen (0 in most cases), m/s
g = acceleration due to gravity, m/s2

So, hL = (0.0742 – 02) x 1_

2 (9.81) 0.7

= 0.0004 m

2. Head loss through the intake port

hL = _1_ x v_2
2g Cd A

where:-
hL = head loss, m
g = acceleration due to gravity, m/s2
v = velocity
Cd = coefficient of discharge for orifice (usually 0.6-0.9)
A = effective submerged orifice area, m2

So, hL = __1___ x 0.66 m3/s __ 2

2(9.81) 0.6 x 9 m2

= 0.0008 m

20
 3. Head loss through the fine screens

hL = __1___ x ____1.08 m3/s____ __ 2

2(9.81) 0.6 x 0.9 x 9.53 x 0.56

= 0.0072 m

So, total head loss = 0.0004 m + 0.0008 m + 0.0072 m

= 0.0084 m

- Stability Calculations

The outside and inside dimensions of the tower are 10 m and 8 m

The base slab is 15 m x 15 m x 2.5 m
Height of the tower = 35 m
Water depth = 30 m

1. Uplift forces
Volume of water displaced by tower and base slab
= (10m x 10 m x 30 m) + (15 m x 15 m x 2.5 m)
= 3563 m3

The weight of the water displaced = 1000 kg/m3 x 3563 m3

= 3.56 x 106 kg

So, the weight of the structure must be more than 3.56 x 106 kg to provide stability

21
2. Weight of structure

Unit weight of concrete is 2308 kg/m3

Weight of the side walls

= [(10 m x 10 m x 35 m) – (8 m x 8 m x 35 m)] x (2308 kg/m3)
= 2.91 x 106 kg

Weight of the foundation slab

= (15 m x 15 m x 2.5 m) x (2308 kg/m3)
= 1.30 x 106 kg

Total downward weight

= 2.91 x 106 kg + 1.30 x 106 kg
= 4.21 x 106 kg

Factor of safety should be in the range 1.5 to 2.0

Factor of safety = 4.21 x 106 kg

3.56 x 106 kg

= 1.2

The factor of safety of this structure can be increased by adding additional weight
to the structure or by anchoring the footing by the use of piles or drilled piers
embedded into a strong foundation material such as bed rock.

22
Design of Cascade Aerator

These aerators consist of tree circular trays, staked one above the other with a
central vertical feed pipe with the total height of fall being calculated from Gameson`s for
formula which is:
r = 1 + 0.5( a x b x h )
Where:

r = The ratio of the oxygen deficit just before the aerator to that just after the aerator.
The ‘oxygen deficit’ is the difference between the actual oxygen content and the
equilibrium oxygen content for the water at the temperature and pressure

a = 1.25 in slightly polluted water

1.00 in moderately polluted water]

b = 1.00 for a free fall weir

1.30 for a stepped weir

h = the total height of the fall in metres

23
Dissolved oxygen content (DO) of row water = 4.8 mg/l
DO saturated = 8.5 mg/l

DO required (80% at DO saturated)

= 0.8 x 8.5
= 6.80 mg/l

v = DO deficit before aeration

DO deficit after aeration

= (8.5 – 4.8)_
(8.5 – 6.80)

= 2.18

Applying Gameson’s formula for slightly polluted

r = 1 + 0.5 (a x b x h)
2.18 = 1 + 0.5 (1.25 x 1.3 x h)
h = 2.18/0.8125
= 2.68m ~ 2.70m

Area of collecting basin of aerator

Inflow = 3900 x 10³ l/hr

Flow rate = 49 000 l/hr/m²

A = 3900 x 10³ l/hr = 79.59 m²

49 000 l/hr/m²
½
d = 79.59 x 4 = 10 m
Π

24
Checking,

Overflow rate = 3900 x 10³ x 4

Π x 102

= 49 656 l/hr/ m² > 49,000 l/hr/m2 (ok)

0.68 m

0.68 m

0.68 m

0.68 m

Raw water
Figure 4.2 : Cascade Aerator

25
COAGULATION AND
FLOCCULATION

26
5.0 DESIGN OF COAGULATION AND FLOCCULATION FACILITIES.

Step A. Rapid mix basin design.

1. Unit dimension.

a) Design flow for each process train.

Max. design flow = 3900 m3/hr
Each process train receives one fifth of max design flow.
Design flow for each process train = 3900 / 5
= 780 m3/day
= 0.22 m3/s

b) Calculate basin vol. for 40 second detention time at design flow rate.

V=Qxt
= 0.22 m3/s x 40 s.
= 8.8 m3.

Use rectangular basin, depth is 1.5 width. 1.5 yield suitable use turbine
mixer.

Volume = w x L x d
= w x w x 1.5 w
= 1.5 w3

Solve, to get w.
W = (vol / 1.5)1/3
= ( 8.8 / 1.5 )1/3
= 1.80 m
So, width is 1.80 m and depth is 2.70 m.

27
 So provide 5 basin, with dimension 1.80 m width, 2.70 m depth (from
bottom to top effluent weir) and
volume, V = 1.5 w3
= 1.5 (1.8)3
= 8.75 m3.

2. Influent structure.

Consist:
 Forebay
 Lime mixing chamber
 Common influent channel.

Forebay receiver raw water from 150 cm Ǿ conduit.

Water flows upwards through forebay and discharge from 2 m weir.
The square shape lime mixing chamber = 2m x 2m
The selkected sluices gate = 1.0 m x 1.0 m
Width influent channel = 2m
Rapid mix basin connected underneath = 60 cm Ǿ pipe.

3. Effluent structure.

Consist:
 Straight weir on 3 side
 Two 0.8 m wide effluent collection flumes.
 1.0 m wide exit channel.
 Width is equal to entrance width for a standard Parshall flumes.

28
4. Equipment design.

a) Rapid mixer.
i) Mixer power requirement.
G = 950/s
Q = 0.22 m3/s
T = 5°C – 28 º C (take 5 ° C = critical condition)

ii) Mixed Power

P = G2Vµ
= (950)2 L/s x 8.8 m3 x (1.518 x 10-3 N-s/m2)
= 12.06 x 103 N-m/s
= 12.06 kW (power imparted to w, P)

Power of driver, (P’) = P/ efficiency gearbox

= 12.06 kW/ 1.0
= 12.06 kW

iii) Impeller size and rotational speed.

The rapid mix basin will be an ‘up flow’ type. Choose radial flow
mixes because experience shown it perform better than axial flow in
vertical flow basin.

Get impeller speed.

n = ( P / (ÞNpd5))1/3 where Þ = 1000 kg/m3 at 5º C
= 12.06 kW
= ((12.06 x 1000) / ( 1000 x 2.75 x 0.955)) 1/3
= 1.78 rps
= 106.8 rpm

29
 Check Reynolds number for turbulent flow:
NR = d2 nÞ/µ
= 0.952 (1.58)(1000)/(1.518 x 10-3)
= 93.9 x 104 > 10 000

Therefore, P value is valid.

5. Head loss calculation and hydraulic profile through rapid mix basin.

For the head losses from forebay to Parshall flume.

Head losses through 122 cm Ǿ conduit between Junction Box A and forebay.

a) Head loss at the influent structure. Due to

1) Free fall from forebay into lime mixing chamber.
2) Loss through isolation gate.
3) Loss in the common influent channel.
4) Loss through influent pipe to rapid mix basin.

i) Head over forebay discharge weir from Francais equation.

Q = 2/3 Cd L’ (2gH3)1/2

0.22 = 2/3 (0.8) (2) (2gH3)1/2

1.07(19.62H3)1/2 = 0.22
(19.62H3)1/2 = 0.21
19.62 H3 = 0.04
H3 = 0.002
H = 0.126 m

A free fall of 0,95 m is provided at the weir.

30
ii) Head loss through isolation gate.

hL = ((v2 – Vv2))2g X (1/0.7)

or hL = 1/2g (r/Cd)2
= 1/(2x 9.81) X 0.296/ (0.8 x 1.02)
= 0.019 m.

One half of total maximum flow rate goes through each gate.
Q = 0.592 / 2
= 0.296

iii) Head loss through common influent channel.

 Influent channel = 2m
 Average water depth = 5 m
 Max flow = 0.296 m3/s enter the head of each channel
and distribute = 0.148 m3/s.
 Max. velocity at the head of each channel = 0.07 m/s
 Head loss in influent channel = small and ignored.

iv) Head loss through influent pipe of rapid mix basin. The 60 cm Ǿ
influent pipe receives flow = 0.148 m3/s

Velocity in pipe = 4Q/ 3.142Ǿ2

= 4 x 0.148/ 3.142(0.60)2
= 0.523 m/s

Minor head loses due to k = 0.5, one 90 º elbow, k = 0.3,

exit loss, k = 1.0
hm = k x Vpipe/ 2 g
hm = (0.5 + 0.3 + 1.0) x 0.5232/ /(2 x 9.81)
= 0.025 m.

31
 v) Total head losses through effluent structure.
 Free fall provided at the forebay weir = 0.95
 Head loss through the isolation gate = 0.296
 Head loss through the influent pipe = 0.025
Total = 1.271 m.

b) Head loss at effluent structure. Due to:

 Free fall from weir into the effluent flume.

 Loss in the effluent flume.
 Loss in the effluent channel.

The water surface elevation in the effluent channel is controlled by the

Parshall flume provided at the influent end of the flocculator. With normal
flow conditions in the effluent channel, head loss calculation can perform.

i) Head over the effluent weir. Substitute n = 0, L = 5.7 (3 x

1.9 m), Q = 0.148 m3/s. H = 0.10 m. A free fall of 0.33 m is
provided at the effluent weir.
ii) Depth of flow in the effluent channel. Calculation start
from Parshall flume. Required water depth at entrance
flume = 0.71 m.

A normal flow condition in the channel.

n (Manning’s roughness coefficient ) = 0.013
d ( water depth) = 0.71 m
B (width of effluent channel ) = 0.85 m

V = Q/ (B x d)
= 0.148 / (0.85 x 0.71)
= 0.245 m/s

32
 R = B x d / (2d+b)
= 0.85 x 0.71 / (2x 0.71)+0.85
= 0.266 m.

Substitute in equation:

V = (1/n) x r2/3 x s1/2

0.245 = 1/0.013 x 0.2662/3 x s 1/2
S1/2 = 931.82) = 0.245
1/2
S = 7.70 x 10-3
Ss = 5.929 x 10-5
= 0.00006

iii) Depth of water at upstream end of the effluent flume.

y1 = (y22 +( 2Q2/ gb2y2))1/2
y2 = 0.71 – 0.30
= 0.41 m

The length of each effluent flume = half the length of the

effluent weir – half the width effluent channel
= (5.7/0.85) / 2
= 2.43 m

Total flow of downstream end of each effluent flume.

= total flow per rapid mixer x (length of each effluent/total

length of effluent weir)

= 0.148 x (2.43/5.7) = 0.347 m3/s

33
 The width of flume, b = 0.6

y1 = (0.412 + 2(0.148)2
9.81 (0.6)2(0.41))1/2

= 0.445.

Add 30% for losses due to friction, turbulence and 90% turn in the
flume. The depth of the water at the upstream end of the flume = 0.44 m
∞ 1.30 = 0.57 m. The head loss through the effluent flume is 0.57 – 0.41
= 0.16 m.

iv) Total head loss due to the slope of the channel (friction losses)
= 25 m (approximately) ∞ 0.00006 = 0.0015 m. The free water
surface will rise and reach the normal depth = 0.71 m.

v) Total head losses through the effluent structure.

 Free fall provided at the effluent weir = 0.33
 Head loss through the effluent flume = 0.16
 Head loss through the effluent channel = 0.0015
Total = 0.492
≈ 0.50 m

c) Hydraulic profile through the rapid mix basin.

i) WSEL (water surface elevation) in the rapid mix basin

((downstream WSEL in the effluent channel at the entrance of
the Parshall flume) + (total head losses through at the effluent
structure)

34
 = 106.85 + 0.50
= 107.35 m.

The top elevation of the effluent weir,

= ((WSEL in the rapid mix basin) – (head over the effluent weir ))
= 107.35 – 0.031
= 107.32 m.

The bottom elevation of rapid mix basin

= ((top elevation of the effluent of the weir ) – ( design water
depth )
= 107.32 – 2.4
= 104.92 m.

ii) WSEL & major design elevation in the effluent structure. The
WSEL in the forebay,

= ((WSEL in the rapid mix basin) + (total head losses through the
influent structure))

= 107.32 – 1.27
= 106.05 m

The top elevation of the forebay weir

= ((WSE in the forebay) – (head over the weir))

= 106.05 – 0.30
= 105.75 m.

35
Forebay weir height of of 5.7 m, the floor elevation of the forebay
= ((Top elevation of the forebay weir) – (provided forebay weir height)
= 106 – 5.7
= 100.3 m.

36
Figure 5.0 : General lay out of rapid mix basins, flocculation basin and chemical building

37
Step B: Flocculation Basin Design.

1. Unit dimensions.
a) Required volume.
Required design flow for each basin is one fourth of the maximum day flow &
total detention time is 40 minutes is provided for three stage flocculation
basin.

Volume = 0.148 m3/s x 60 min x 40 min = 355.2 m3.

The vol. of each stage of flocculation basin = 355.2/3 = 118.4 m3.

b) Basin dimension.
Flocculator axis perpendicular to the flow direction is provided in the
flocculation basin.

= Width of sedimentation basin which is 10 m.

Length of each stage perpendicular to the axis of the flocculator = water
depth.

There are 3 flocculation stages.

Total length of three stages = 3d.

Volume of each stage of the flocculator, V = 10 x d x d .

d = (118.4 m3/10)1/2
= 3.44 m . (The required water depth)

38
 Water depth = 3.44 m, the dimension of each stage = 3.4 m long ∞ 10 m
wide ∞ 3.44 deep. For a volume of 117 m3. The water flows from one stage
into the other through a baffle wall. The total length of three stage plus 0.03
m for two baffle walls is = 10.23 m (10 m). Therefore, the dimensions of
each of the four flocculation basins are 10 m long ∞ 10 m wide ∞ 3.44
depth. The total volume of each basin (including the volume of baffle walls)
is 344 m3. The general layout illustrated in figure at appendix.

2. Influent structures of each flocculation basin;

Consist :-
 Parshall flume.
 An influent channel.
 An influent distribution channel.
 An influent distribution weirs.

The coagulated water is conveyed by 1.0 m wide effluent channel from the
rapid mix basin to the Parshall flume. A free fall is provided after the
Parshall flume. The meterted water flows into the influent distribution
channel through a short influent channel with 2 90º turns.

3. Effluent structure consists of simply a diffusion wall.

4. Parshall flume and equipment design.

a) Design of Parshall flume.
Located at the head influent distribution channel of the flocculation basin.
Consist 3 basic sections.
1) a converging upstream section.
2) a constant width throat section.
3) a diverging downstream section.

39
The free fall condition in a Parshall flume is dependent upon Hb/Ha ratio at
different throat widths.

This following criteria are commonly used to check the free fall condition.
W, throat width Hb/Ha ratio
3-9 inc (76-229 mm) < 0.6
1-8 ft (0.30-2.44 m) < 0.7
0-50 ft (3.05-15.2m) < 0.8

b) Flocculator paddle design.

Involves selection of;
 mixed speed
 paddle size
 power requirement
 number of paddles
 paddle wheel size
 layout

i) Flocculator power requirement.

Velocity gradient in the first stage of flocculator, G = 60/s. The basin
volume, V = 117 m3 and µ = 1.518 x 10-3 N-s/m2 at 5 º C .

P = (60/s)2 x 117 m3 x 1.518 x 10-3 N-s/m2

= 639 N-m/s
= 0.64 kW.

The motor power requirement is calculated from the efficiencies of the

gearbox and the flocculator bearings.
P’ = P/ (Egears x Ebearings)
= 0.64 kW / (0.90 x 0.7)
= 1.01 kW (1.32 hp)

40
 Power imparted for the 2nd and 3rd flocculator stages at a g value of 30/s and 15/s
have been determined. These value are 0.25 kW and 0.06 kW. The motor power
requirement are 0.16 kW and 0.04 kW.

ii) Paddle size, number of paddles and paddles wheel layout.

The paddle wheels shall be constructed in segments to facilitate
construction, installation and shipping. Each segments will be 3.44 m
long. The paddle wheel Ǿ will be approximately 85% of water depth in the
flocculation basin. This will ensure complete mixing within the
flocculation chamber.

Each stage of the flocculation basin is = 5 segments and each segments

has a total of twelve paddle blades. Each paddle blade is 20 cm wide and
3.4 long. The space between 2 adjacent blades is 15 cm.

iii) Flocculator speed requirement.

First stage, a total of 5 segments or paddle wheels is provided. Each
paddle wheel contain 12 paddles, 3.44 m long ∞ 0.20 m wide.

6. Head losses and hydraulic profile.

a) Head loss at the Parshall flume.

i) Flow depth Ha at max. day flow of 0.148 m3 ( 5.20 cfs)

Q = 4 W Ha 1.522 W 0.026
5.20 = 4 (1) Ha 1.522 (1)0.026
4 Ha 1.01 = 5.20
Ha 1.01 = 1.3
Ha = 1.01 √ 1.3
= 1.15 ft (0.35 m)

41
 ii) Head loss through the Parshall flume. At max. day flow of 0.148
m3 and 70 % submerge, the min. head loss must be provided is
0.24 m.

Ha – 0.24 = 0.35 – 0.24 = 0.11 m.

b) Head loss at the influent structure downstream of the Parshall flume. Due
to losses:-
 Influent channel
 In the distribution channel
 At the influent weir.

i) Head in the influent channel. Provide a water depth of

approximate 1.0 m in the influent channel.
ii) Head loss through the influent distribution channel. The
initial and final widths of channels are 1 m and 0.2 m.
iii) Head over influent distributions weir 5 straights side weirs
are provided. The length of each weir is L = 3.5 m. It is
assumed that each weirs receives one fifth of the max
design flow

Q = 0.148/ 5 = 0.03 m/s.

iv) Total head losses through the influent structure after the
Parshall flume.
 Head loss through the influent channel = 0.00 m
 Head loss through the distribution channel = 0.00 m
 Free fall provided at the distribution weir = 0.23 m
Total 0.23 m.

42
c) Head losses through flocculation basin and across the baffle walls between
stages are ignored.

d) Head loss at the effluent structure.

i) Diffusion wall arrangements. The diffusion wall separating

the flocculation and sedimentation basins is concrete.
ii) Total port area

A = 0.148/ 0.15 = 0.99 m2

≈ 1 m2

e) Hydraulic profile through the flocculation basin.

43
 Figure 5.1 : Detail of rapid mix basins.
(a) Overall layout. (b) Plan view of rapid mix basin (c) Section A-A (d) Section B-B.

44
 Figure 5.2 : Detail of flocculation basins.
(a) Flocculation basin plan (typical of four) (b) Section A-A.

45
 Figure 5.3 : Flocculation basin effluent structure and hydraulic profile.
(a) Detail of diffusion wall. (b). Hydraulic profile through the flocculation basins.

46
Step C : Chemical storage and feed systems.

1. Chemical systems.
a) Chemical storage.
b) Liquid ferric sulfate. Provide for 30 day supply.
c) Polymer. 2 separate polymer.
d) Lime.
e) Potassium permanganate.

2. Chemical quantities.
a) Liquid ferric sulfate storage.
Optimum feed rate = 25 mg/L = 0.025 kg/m3 as Fe2 (SO4)3.
Max flow rate = 3900 m3/hr
Max daily feed rate = 0.025 x 51120 = 1278 kg/d of Fe2(SO4)3.

For 30 days storage, 1278 kg/day ∞ 30 day = 38340 kg of Fe2 (SO4)3.

49% of liquid ferric sulfate is Fe2(SO4)3, mass of liquid ferric sulfate for 30
days storage required is 38340 / 0.49 = 78244.9 kg.

Bulk ferric sulfate liquid has mass density = 1122 kg/m3 . Total volume of
storage facility = 78245 kg/1122 kg/m = 70 m3.

There are 3 separate systems in chemicals buildings, so provide 23 m3 for

each.

47
 Figure 5.4 : Chemical feed system schematic.
(a) Ferric sulfate feed system. (b) Polymer feed system. (c) Potassium permanganate systems.

48
SEDIMENTATION

49
6.0 SEDIMENTATION PROCESS

Sedimentation is one type of physical treatment process that uses a gravity to

settle down the particles in water treatment. This process is use to remove turbidity
causing by the particles after coagulation and flocculation. There are also several
purposes on doing this process such as:

1. To recover water in the filter backwash recovery system

2. To increase sludge solids concentration in sludge thickening.

To build up this sedimentation process, there are some criteria that need to be
considered especially in designing the sedimentation basins or tank. The design of
sedimentation basin is depend on the concentration of sludge, size and behavior of the
solids suspension. Generally there are four types of sedimentation, but for this
sedimentation basin the type of sediment that always been considered is Type II -
flocculants settling. It describes a larger particle that agglomerate as they settle.

Type II - Flocculants Settling

The different thing in this type is the agglomerate of the particles that occurs.
This agglomerate is cause by the flocculation and coagulation process where there are
some chemical added. The concentrations in particle are too high and cause them to
collision. When the collision happens, the small particles will then combine with another
particle and become floc. The combined particles are heavier and will settle more rapidly
than the individual particle. The movement of the particle to the basin base is cause by
the settling velocity of the particles (Refer Figure 6.1).

50
 Figure 6.1: Flocculant Settling (Settling Trajectories of Flocculant Particles in Settling
Basin.

Sedimentation Basin Design

In designing the sedimentation basin, there are some important thing that need to
be considered such as basin geometry, surface loading rate, detention time, inlet and
outlet zone, weir loading rates and the sludge collection and removal system. The data
for detention time, surface loading rate and weir loading rate are shown in table below.
That is the typical data that always being referred while designing the basin.

51
 Table 6.1: Typical Water Treatment Sedimentation Design Parameters.
Basin type Detention time Surface loading Weir loading rate
3 2
(hours) rate (m /m .d) (m3/m.d)
Rectangular basin
Coagulation 4-8 20-40 250
Softening 2-6 40-60 250
Solids contact units
Coagulation 2 40-60 170
Softening 1 60-100 350
Up flow basins
Coagulation 2 40-60 170
Softening 1 60-1000 350

Geometries of Sedimentation Basin

There are three type of sedimentation basin that always been designed. That is
rectangular, circular and square basin. But for this design project, the selected shape is
rectangular basin. It has been selected because it is more economy and more convenient
to build rather than circular and square shape. Besides that it is also suitable to combine
the side of the basin with the flocculation basin. The standard length to width ration for
rectangular basin is 2:1 to 3:1. For this project the length to width ratio that being used is
3.5:1. This rectangular basin also offer the lower construction cost for multiple units as
compare to circular basin.

52
Design considerations

There are four things that need to be considered in designing sedimentation basin.
The four things are as follows.

1. Surface loading rate

These rates are used to calculate surface area of the basin. The typical data
such in the table 9.1 can be use in designing the basin.

2. Detention time
The detention time is use with the surface loading rate in determining the
volume and side water depth of the sedimentation basin. The typical
detention time that has been shown in table 9.1 also can be use directly to
design the basin.

3. Inlet Zone or Influent Structure

This zone distributes the flow across the sedimentation basin and dissipates
incoming velocity. The influent zone is designed differently between
rectangular and circular basin. For this project, the integration with
flocculation basin which is rectangular basin has been considered. Usually for
sedimentation basin, it being constructed to be integral with the flocculation
basin. A baffle of diffusion wall separate this two basin and serves as
sedimentation inlet. The performance of sedimentation basin is depending on
the floc quality that comes from the flocculation basin.

4. Outlet Zone or Effluent Structure

This zone has a great deal of influence on the flow pattern and settling
behavior of the floc. Generally, the weir and launder trough are provided to
act as outlet controller. The weir that always be used is V-notch weir or
submerged orifice weir plates. For this design project, the V-notch weir has

53
 been used as the outlet control of this sedimentation basin. The length of weir
required is determined by the weir loading rates. The typical value of these
rates has been shown in table 9.1.

The weir plate will then discharge into the launder trough and typical launder
troughs usually depend on the shape of the basin. The flow in the launder
trough is described as spatially varied flow. For rectangular basin, the weir
length requires long launder troughs. The long launder length effectively
lengthens the outlet zone and shortens the settling zone (Refer Figure 6.2).

Figure 6.2 : Typical Launder Trough Layouts. (a) Rectangular Basin. (b) Square Basin.
(c) Circular Basins.

54
Sludge Collection

Quantity of Solids Produced

The purpose of this sludge collection is to withdraw the sludge that accumulates
at the basin base. The sludge is produce from the particles that have been settled down.
The sludge also called residuals is being withdrawn for processing and disposal. The
quantity of solids that produce are depend on the total suspended solids in the water, type
and dosage of coagulant and the efficiency of the sedimentation basin.

The quantity of sludge is calculated by totaling the suspended solids and other
constituent removed, the amount of metal hydroxide, the calcium carbonate produced, the
amount of polymer added and the powdered activated carbon added. The theoretical
quantities of sludge produced by various coagulant chemicals are listed in table 6.2
below.

Table 6.2: Typical Constants for Estimating Sludge Production.

Source Sludge quantity constant
Turbidity removal 0.5 to 2mg TSS/L per NTU removed
Coagulation
Aluminum sulfate (alum), Al2(SO4)3.14H2O 0.26kg per kg of coagulant
Ferric sulfate, Fe2(SO4)3 0.54kg per kg of coagulant
Ferrous sulfate, FeSO4.7H2O 0.39 kg per kg of coagulant
Ferric chloride, FeCl3 0.66 kg per kg of coagulant
Polymers 1 kg per kg of coagulant
Powdered activated carbon 1kg per kg of carbon
Softening
Calcium 2.5kg per kg of calcium removed
Magnesium 2.4kg per kg of magnesium removed

55
Sludge Collection

Usually 80 to 95 percent of sludge is removed in the sedimentation process. This

sludge need to be removed before the accumulation of sludge become excessive. The
mechanical sludge collection equipment is use to remove the sludge to a hopper for
removal. The equipment can be classified as chain and flight type, traveling bridge type
or circular type and all this types are under the manufacturer responsibility to design. It
is essential that the collection and removal system should sweep and moved all settled
sludge.

56
Sedimentation Basin Design

Figure 6.3 : General Layout of Sedimentation Basins for Design.

Figure 6.4 : Plan View of One Sedimentation Basin (Typical of Four Basins)

57
Design criteria

1. Flow rate:
Maximum flow rate = 3900 m3/hrs = 93600 m3/d
Average flow rate = 93600 m3/d = 47755 m3/d
1.96
2. Design parameter:
Number of basin = 4 (each basin = 25% of maximum design flow).
Detention time = 4 hours
Length: width = 3.5:1 (width =15m, from flocculation design)
Surface loading rate = 30 m3/m2.day
Weir loading rate = 250 m3/m.day
Depth = 5m

Design calculation

A. Sedimentation Basin Design

Unit dimensions:

a. Required area of each basin which is ¼ from maximum design

flow;
Design flow for each basin = 93600 m3/d = 23400 m3/d
4
= 0.271 m3/s

Required basin area, Areq = design flow for each basin

Surface loading rate
= 23400 m3/d = 780 m2
30 m3/m2.day

58
 b. Required length of basin; (W= 15m)
Lreq = Area
Width
= 780 m2
15 m
= 52 m

Provide length basin of 52 m.

Check:
L = 52 = 3.5: 1 (ok!)
W 15

c. Required depth;

Depth = Surface loading rate x detention time

= 30 m3/m2.day x 4 hrs
24 hrs/day
= 5m

Actual depth = 5m + 0.65 (freeboard)

= 5.65m

Provide 4 basins with dimension 52m L x 15 W x 5m D each

Influent structure:
As in flocculation basin design.

Effluent structure:
Provide a 90o V-notch weir with 8, 0.5m wide launder trough and
0.65m wide center collection channel. Also provide a baffle board
between settling and outlet zones.

59
Equipment design:
Provide two circular collector mechanism 9.0m in diameter to provide
a space of 0.5m at each side to install tracks.

Head loss and hydraulic profile:

a. Head loss at V-notch weir,

i. Required weir length = Design flow for each basin
Weir loading rate
= 23400 m3/d
250 m3/m.day
= 93.6 m

Provide 8 launder trough; each trough 7m long

Actual weir length = (2 trough x 7m long x 1 side) +
(6 troughs x 7m long x 2 sides)
= 98 m > 93.6 m (ok!)

ii. Total number of V-notch,

Use standard 90o V-notch weir

Provide 9 notches per 2m long of weir and 3.5 plates on each
side of each 7m long. Notch shall be 7.5cm deep and spaced at
20cm from center to center.

Total number of notches = (2 trough x 1 side x 3.5 plates x 9

notches) + (6 troughs x 2 sides x
3.5 plates x 9 notches)
= 441 notches

60
iii. Head over the V-notch weirs,
Flow per notch, q = design flow for each basin
Number of notches
= 0.271 m3/s
441
= 6.15 x 10-4 m3/s per notch

Head over each notch;

q = 8 Cd (2g) 1/2 tan θ H 2/3 Cd = 0.6, θ = 90o
15 2

6.15 x 10-4 = 8 (0.6) (2x9.81) 1/2 tan 90 H 2/3

15 2

H = 0.037 m at maximum design flow

Weir freeboard = 7.5cm – 3.7cm

= 3.8cm

b. Head loss through the effluent launder trough,

i. Flow in the launder trough,

Q’ = q x 2 sides x 2 plates x 9 notches
= 6.15 x 10-4 x 2 x 3.5 x 9
= 0.039 m3/s

ii. Water depth at downstream end of the launder trough,

Critical depth, yc = Q’2 1/3

gb2
= 0.0392 1/3

9.81 x 0.52

61
 = 0.085m

iii. Water depth at upstream end of the launder trough, y1

Assume average depth in effluent launder trough, d = 0.12m.

Average hydraulic radius, ravg = 0.12 x 0.5

(2 x 0.12) + 0.5
= 0.081m

Assume f = 0.10, y2=yc = 0.085m

y1 = y22 + 2(Q2) + fLQ2 1/2

gb2 y2 12gb2rd

y1 = (0.085)2 + 2(0.039)2 + 0.1(7)(0.039)2 1/2

9.81(0.5)2(0.085) 12(9.81)(0.5)2(0.081)(0.12)

= 0.16 m

Check assumption:
d = 0.16 + 0.085 = 0.12 m (o.k!)
2

Head loss through the trough = y1-y2

= 0.16 – 0.085
= 0.075m ≈ 0.08m

Provide depth of effluent launder trough = 30cm

V-notch 5cm above the top of the effluent launders
Water surface = 30 + 5 + 3.7
= 38.7cm ≈ 0.39m

62
 iv. Free fall at V-notch weirs

Free fall = water surface – upstream depth

= 0.39 – 0.16
= 0.23 m

c. Head loss through the center effluent collection channel.

i. Flows at each segment of channel are as Figure 6.5

ii. Water depth at exit point of channel

yc = (0.271)2 1/2

9.81(0.65)2

= 0.26m

0.0195m3/s 0.039m3/s 0.039m3/s 0.039m3/s

0.117m3/s 0.195m3/s
0.039m3/s 0.271m3/s

Segment 4 Segment 3 Segment 2 Segment 1

0.0195m3/s 0.039m3/s 0.039m3/s 0.039m3/s

Figure 6.5 : Flow at Each Segment of Channel.

63
 Figure 6.6 : Example of Effluent Collection System.

Figure 6.7: Example of Launder Trough and V-Notch Weir Plate Design.

64
B. Sludge Withdraw System

1. Sludge quantity

a. Summary of chemical dosage and raw water constituent producing sludge

solids.

Max turbidity 17NTU

Max seasonal iron concentration 0.7mg/L
Max seasonal manganese concentration 0.4mg/L
Optimum coagulant, ferric sulfate, Fe2 (SO4)3 dosage 25mg/L
Optimum coagulant aid, cationic polymer 0.05mg/L
Hydrated lime, Ca(OH)2 for pH adjustment 15mg/L
Seasonal potassium permanganate, KMnO4 dosage 4mg/L
Seasonal powdered activated carbon (PAC)
for taste and odor control 5mg/L

b. Production of solids under maximum day flow condition.

i. Solids from raw water,

qraw solids, max = 17NTU x 1.0mg-TSS/NTU x 10-6 kg/mg x 103
L/m3 x 93600 m3/d
= 1591 kg/d

ii. Solids due to precipitation of iron content,

Fe(OH)3 = 55.85 + 3 (16) + 3 (1)
= 106.9 g/mol

qiron max = 106.9 g/mol of Fe(OH)3 x 0.7mg/L x 10-6 kg/mg x

55.85 g/mol Fe
103 L/m3 x 93600 m3/d

65
 = 125 kg/d

iii. Solids due to precipitation of manganese content

MnOOH = 54.94 + 16 + 16 + 1
= 87.94 g/mol

qmanganese, max = 87.94 g/mol of MnOOH x 0.4mg/L x

54.94 g/mol Mn
10 kg/mg x103 L/m3 x 93600 m3/d
-6

= 60 kg/d

iv. Solids due to precipitation of ferric sulfate,

qcoagulant, max = 0.54kg- Fe(OH)3 /kg-Fe2 (SO4)3 x
25g/m3 Fe2 (SO4)3 x 10-3kg/g x 93600m3/d
= 1264 kg/d

v. Solids from the polymer,

qpolymer, max = 0.05mg-polymer/L x 10-6 kg/mg x103 L/m3
x 93600 m3/d
= 5 kg/d

vi. Lime solids during pH adjustment,

Assume 20% of Ca(OH)2 precipitates as CaCO3.

CaCO3 = 40.08 + 12.01 + 3(16) = 100.09g/mol
Ca(OH)2 = 40.08 + 2(16) + 2(1) = 74.08g/mol

qlime,max = 0.2 x 100.09g/mol CaCO3 x15mg- Ca(OH)2/L

74.08g/mol Ca(OH)2
x 10-6 kg/mg x103 L/m3 x 93600 m3/d
= 379 kg/d

66
 vii. Solids due to precipitation of potassium permanganate
KMnO4 = 39.10 + 54.94 + 4(16) = 158.04g/mol

qpermanganate,max = 87.94 g/mol of MnOOH x 4mg- KMnO4/L

158.04g/mol KMnO4
x 10-6 kg/mg x103 L/m3 x 93600 m3/d
= 208 kg/d

viii. Solids from PAC

qPAC, max = 5mg PAC/L x 10-6 kg/mg x103 L/m3 x 93600 m3/d
= 468 kg/d

ix. Total solids produced = 1591 kg/d + 125 kg/d + 60 kg/d +

1264 kg/d + 5 kg/d + 379 kg/d
+ 208 kg/d + 468 kg/d
= 4100 kg/d

Assume increase 40% of total solids produced;

Total solids = (0.4 x 4100 kg/g) + 4100 kg/g
= 5740 kg/d

c. Quantity of residuals removed under maximum day flow condition.

Assume 90% are removed;

qremoved,max = 0.90 x 5740 kg/d

= 5166 kg/d

67
d. Specific gravity of wet sludge;
Mws = Ms + M w
Sg,ws Sg,s Sg,w
1kg = 0.02kg + 0.98kg
Sg,ws 2.4 1.0
Sg,ws = 1.012

e. Volume of sludge withdrawn under maximum day flow condition.

Vws,max = 5166 kg/d
0.02g/g x 1012kg/m3
= 255 m3/d

Quantity of sludge produced per 1000m3 of raw water treated;

(M/Q)max = 5166 kg/d x 1000m3
93600 m3/d
= 55.2 kg

f. Production of solids under average day flow condition;

qremoved, avg = 4100 kg/d x 47755m3/d
93600 m3/d

= 2091.8 kg/d

Assume 40% are removed;

qremoved, avg = 0.4 (2091.8 kg/d) + 2091.8 kg/d
= 2928.5 kg/d

g. Quantity of residuals removed;

90% are removed,
qremoved, avg = 0.90 x 2928.5 kg/d
= 2635.7 kg/d

68
 h. Volume of sludge withdrawn,
Vws,avg = 2635.7 kg/d
0.02g/g x 1012kg/m3
= 130.2 m3/d

2. Sludge withdrawal
a. Sludge pipeline design
Velocity = 0.6m/s
Total sludge flow from 4 sedimentation basin = 255 m3/d with 8
sludge pipeline.

For one sludge pipeline = 255 m3/d

8
= 31.9 m3/d

Use pipeline diameter 20cm,

Q = 0.6m/s x π x 0.202
4
= 0.019 m3/s
= 1642 m3/d

Opening time period for each valve;

Tmax = 31.9 m3/d
1642 m3/d
= 1.9 % of time ≈ 27 min per day

Tavg = 130.2 m3/d x 1.9 %

255 m3/d
= 0.97% of time ≈ 14 min per day

69
FILTRATION

70
7.0 DESIGNS FOR FILTRATION

7.1 Design Criteria

1. Flow rates

a. Maximum day flow = 93,600 m3/d

b. Average day flow = 47,760 m3/d

2. Design parameters

a. Filtration rate (hydraulic loading): 10 m3/m2 .h

b. Backwash rate: 10 percent of the settling velocity of the media or a
minimum of 37 m3/m2.h, which is higher
c. Surface wash rate: 0.061 m3/m2.min
d. Minimum filtration cycle: 24 h
e. Provision for applying filter aid at the designed capacity of the treatment
plant.

3. General design guidelines

a. Filters: A total of eight filter cells are provided. The capacity of each filter
cell is one-seventh of the total plant capacity. This allows one unit to be
out of service for back-washing or under maintenance, while maintaining
the design filtration rate at full plant capacity.
b. Filter media: The filters are of dual-media type, utilizing anthracite coal
and quartz sand. The effective size of the sand is 0.50 mm. The effective
size of the anthracite coal is such as to yield a settling velocity equal to the
average settling velocity of the sand. The uniformity coefficient, specific
gravity, and porosity ratio for the anthracite coal and sand are 1.6 and 1.4,
1.55 and 2.65, and 0.48 and 0.40, respectively.

71
 c. Under drain: A perforated clay tile under drain system is used.
d. Surface wash: A rotating-arm type surface wash system utilizing 0.061
m3/m2.min of water at a minimum pressure of 690 kPa is installed.
e. Backwash water system: Backwash water is supplied by an elevated tank
having the capacity to hold the quantity of water sufficient to backwash
two filters. Three backwash water pumps are provided to fill the elevated
tank.
f. Disposal of backwash water: The backwash water will be discharged into a
surge or equalization basin. The backwash water will then be released at a
constant-rate into a recovery basin. The supernatant from the recovery
basin will be returned to the rapid mix, and the sludge will be pumped into
the sludge thickening system.
g. Filter control system: Each filter has an effluent-controlled constant-rate
system.

4. Unit arrangement and layout

a. Unit arrangement:
Eight individual filter units are provided. Selection of the number of
filter units is based on reducing the impact of backwashing a filter unit
while also attempting to limit cost and the work load of the operators.
Increasing the number of filter units has less effect upon the hydraulic
loading on remaining filter units when one is taken out of service.
Therefore, the size of the individual units is reduced. As an example, if
only two units are provided, the loading on the other filter would increase
100 percent if one filter is taken out of service. This will require twice the
area of each filter. In this design, with eight units, the loading rate and
filter area are increased by only 14 percent, a more acceptable value.
Increasing the number of filter units results in less total filter area to
offset the loss of capacity during backwashing, but also increases
construction cost and operator work load. More filter units, while
occupying slightly less area, require more walls, piping, valves, and

72
 equipment. Furthermore, each additional filter unit must be cleaned and
monitored by the operator. Considerable experience in design operation
and economics is needed to properly select the number of filters for a
specific application.
In the judgment of the authors, eight filters is a good number for the size
of treatment plant used in this design. Smaller treatment plants would
certainly require fewer units, larger plants more; however, a minimum of
four units should be provided, even for small-or medium-sized treatment
plants.
b. Unit layout:
The filter units are laid out as illustrated in Figure 7.1. The overall
arrangement provides two banks of four filter units, with each bank
divided by the administration and control building. Each bank of filters is
further divided into two banks of two filter units with, a pipe gallery in
the middle. Provision for eight additional filters, for future expansion, is
also made. This arrangement provides the operator easy access to the
filter units to monitor backwash operations. It also allows efficient
layout of the filter piping.

The filter-complex plan is illustrated in Figure 7.2. This layout features an

influent header that extends the length of the filter unit and the
administration building complex. Water from the sedimentation basins is
fed into the header at each end of the pipe gallery. Each filter output is
measured by a flow meter in the effluent pipe. An effluent header also
extends along the length of the pipe gallery and connects to a filtered water
pipeline in the basement of the administration building. The pipeline carries
the filtered water to a filter back pressure weir common bay before the
chlorine contact channels. The third header is the backwash water header.
This pipe carries backwash water to each individual filter unit. The waste
backwash water piping is located around the perimeter and extends to a
surge storage tank of the backwash water recovery system.

73
Figure 7.1 : Layout of filter unit and backwash water system. ( Showing filter unit,
control and administration building, and backwash water system).

74
Figure 7.2: Filter-complex plan. ( Left side showing ground floor and right side showing
lower level ).

75
7.2 Design Calculations

Step A: Filter Unit Design

1. Unit dimensions

The filter units are designed at an average loading rate of 10 m3/m2.h. Under
maximum day flow conditions, the flow is distributed among seven filter units
assuming that one is out of service for backwashing.

a. Calculate the required area for each filter unit.

Maximum design flow = 93,600 m3/d

Design flow for each basin = 93,600 m3 /d = 13,371 m3/d

7

= 557 m3/h

= 0.155 m3 /s

At a filtration rate of 10 m3/m2.h. (Per Design Criteria), calculate the

required unit area as follows:

Areq = 557 m3/h

10 m3/m2.d

= 55.7 m2

b. Calculate dimensional requirements.

Using square filter units, the required dimensions are:

Length (L) = Width (W) = ( 55.7 m2 )∫ = 7.46m

Provide dimensions of L ∞W = 7.46 m ∞ 7.50 m. The surface area of each
filter unit is therefore Af = 56.3 m2. Detailed design dimensions of filter
units are shown in Figure 7.3.

76
 Figure 7.3: Plan view of filter units No. 5 and 6 in the Design.

2. Process design and media selection

a. Select media size.

The procedure here used for media design and selection is one
proposed by Kawamura. This procedure is generally used to estimate
the initial values for use in pilot plant tests. In many larger plants,
media selection is based on extensive pilot testing to identify the
optimum media design. Such testing is not always justified for small or
medium-size plants, so experience and judgment must be used. In this
design, the media selection procedure is based on the authors’
judgment, and the procedure is typical of many dual-media filters.

The top media layer is anthracite coal of an undetermined size. The

second media layer is quartz sand with an effective size d2 = 0.5 mm.
The upper anthracite layer must have a settling velocity compatible
with that of the sand layer, to ensure effective backwashing.. From Sg1
= 1.55 (anthracite), Sg2 = 2.65 (sand), and d2 = 0.5 mm (sand), the

77
 effective size of anthracite grains with the same settling velocity as the
sand layer is calculated from Equation below:

d1 = d2 Sg1 – 1 2/3

Sg1 – 1

= 0.5mm x 2.65 – 1 2/3

1.55 – 1

= 1.04mm or 1.0mm

b. Determine the depth of filter bed.

Assume that the anthracite is 2/3 of the total bed depth and sand is the
remaining 1/3. This ratio is also based on the judgment of the authors, and
is typical for dual-media filters.

1. Calculate the weighted average of the media size.

Weighted average media size = 1.0 x 2 + 0.5 x 1 = 0.83 mm

3 3
Weighted average porosity ratio = 0.48 x 2 + 0.40 x 1 = 0.45
3 3
2. Determine the total bed depth.
The total bed depth is calculated from Figure 10-6 by using the
average media size, 0.83 mm, and the average porosity ratio, 0.45.

I = 7.5 x 102 mm or 75 cm
3. Calculate the depth of each media layer.

I 1 = 75 cm x 2/3 = 50 cm

Sand depth I 2= 75 cm x 1 = 25 cm
3
The media details are summarized in Table 7.1. The total filter media depth is 0.75 m, as

78
shown in Figure 7.4 (a).

Table 7.1 : Summary Of Filter Media Design

Figure 7.4: Section views of filter units in Design. (Location of section A-A and B-B are
shown in figure 7.3). (a) Section A-A. (Showing filter media, gravel support, under drain,
and backwash water collection launders and gullet). (b) Section B-B. ( Showing piping
arrangement in piping gallery.)

79
3. Head losses and hydraulic profile.
In this section, the hydraulic calculations are conducted for the head losses from the begin-
ning of the filter influent header inside the filter piping gallery (point A in Figure 7.5) to
the chlorine contact channels. These channels are an integral part of the clear well/pump
station complex. (See Figure 7.1)

a. Calculate the head losses through the influent piping system.

Although the filter system is composed of eight filters configured in two symmetric
banks of four filters each, the head loss calculations are based on one filter's being
out of service under maximum day flow condition. The worst-case scenario is when
one of four outside filters (i.e., filter units No. 1, 3, 6 or 8) is taken out of service. It is
assumed that the flows in two pipes from the sedimentation basins are equal, and
Filter No.8 is closed. Under this condition, the flow distribution in the influent
piping system at maximum day flow is shown in Figure 7.5(a). A transfer of flow
(0.094 m3/s) from the right bank to the left bank of filters will occur. The control
route for head loss calculations is therefore from Point A (the entering point of
right influent header) to Point B (the entering of filter unit No.2). The piping
details and fittings are shown in Figure 7.5(b). The calculation procedures and
results are shown in Table 7.2. The total head loss through the influent piping is
0.41 m.

80
Figure 7.5: Filter influent piping layout for hydraulic calculation. (a) Flow distribution.
(b) Segment assignment and dimension.

81
Table 7.2: Calculation of Head Losses through Filter Influent Piping System

7.5

82
b. Calculate head losses through the filter media.

i. Calculate head losses through the clean filter media.

The Carmen-Kozeny equation is used to estimate the head loss through the clean
filter media that consist of two layers: 0.5 m anthracite layer on top of 0.25 m
sand layer. (See Figure 7.4(a) for filter media design details.) The head loss
through each layer is calculated from equation Carmen-Kozeny ( hL ), Reynolds
Number ( NR ) and Friction Factor ( f ) by using the following data:

Velocity v = 10 m/h = 0.0028 m/s

Density of water at 5°C (ρw) = 1000 kg/m3

Viscosity of water at 5°C (µ) = 1.518 ∞ 10-3 N·s/m2 (or kg/m·s)

Shape factor ø = 1.0

The head loss calculations are listed in Table 7.3

Table 7.3: Calculation of Head Loss through Clean Filter Media

Layer Size, mm Depth, Porosity Reynolds Friction Head
cm Number Coefficient Loss
( NR ) ( f ) ( hL ), m
Anthracite 1.0 50 0.48 1.84 44.1 0.083
layer
Sand layer 0.5 25 0.40 0.922 99.4 0.372
Total Depth Of The 75 cm or Total Head Loss Through Clean 0.455 m
Media layers 0.75 m Filter Media Layers or 0.46 m

Sample Calculation for Head Loss through Clean Filter Media :-

I. The Reynolds Number ( NR )

83
 II. The Friction Coefficient ( f )

III. The Head Loss ( hL )

Total head loss through the clean filter media is 0.46 m.

ii. Determine media terminal head loss and effluent monitoring

The terminal head loss of a clogged filter can be determined experimentally via
pilot plant testing. In a pilot plant test, various filtration rates and terminal head
loss values are tested to determine design values that optimize (1) finished water
quality and (2) total water volume filtered between backwash cycles. A
differential pressure gauge in each filter is provided to monitor, totalize, and
record the head loss through each filter medium. In this calculation, a terminal
head loss of 2.5 m is assumed. This value is a typical value for high-rate filters. It
will be used to determine head losses and the hydraulic profile through the filter
system. A time clock and pH meter will record the filter run and monitor the pH
of the filtered water. A turbid meter in each filter effluent pipe will be provided to
monitor the effluent turbidity. If justified, one on-line particle counter may be
provided and sample piping routed in such a way that the same particle counter
will monitor effluent quality from each filter. Valve limit switches will be
provided in each filter to display effluent valve position (percent open).

84
 iii. Determine minimum water depth in the filter

The minimum water level in the filter unit is controlled by a downstream

overflow weir. A weir structure containing a filter back-pressure weir common
bay is provided outside the filter building, upstream of the chlorine contact
channel. This weir controls the water level in the filter units (Figure 7.1). The
minimum water level must be selected to provide sufficient head over the filter
media to prevent negative pressures in the media. Such a phenomenon, called air
binding, is detrimental to proper filter operation. To ensure positive pressure, the
water depth over the media should exceed the maximum head loss through the
media bed. The terminal head loss is 2.5 m, so a water depth of 3.01 m (> 3 m,
required) above the filter media is provided in the filter unit. An ultrasonic level
transducer will be provided in each filter to monitor, display, and record the water
level over each filter.

c. Calculate head loss through the gravel support.

The calculations for head losses through the gravel support layers are similar to those
for clean filter media. The gravel support is made up of four layers of gravel, as
summarized in Table 7.4. This gravel support system is typical of rapid sand filters.
The total depth of the gravel support layers is 0.25 m (see Figure 7.4(a)). The head loss
calculations are also listed in Table 7.4. Total head loss through the gravel layers is
0.0028 m. This head loss is relatively small in comparison with that through the filter
media and is assumed to be zero.

85
 Table 7.4: Gravel Support Details and Head Loss Calculations*

*see table 7.3 for detailed explanation of calculation procedure

d. Calculation head loss the under drain system

In this design , a clay tile underdrain system is used. The hydraulic characteristics of
such systems can be determined from data published in the manufacturing catalog.

The constant k1 in this question will vary with the type of under drain system.

e. Calculation head losses through the effluent piping.

The head losses through the filter effluent piping system are calculated in a manner
similar to that used for the influent piping. As with the influent piping, the flow
distribution in the effluent piping system under maximum day flow condition is
prepared as shown in Figure 7.6(a). The head losses through the effluent piping
system are calculated only for the bank with all four filters in service, where the
higher head loss is encountered. Although this approach is not totally accurate, it
offers simplified calculations and a slightly conservative result the calculations are

86
 performed from Point C (the exit of Filter No.3) to Point D (the connecting point of
the effluent headers with the filtered water conduit). The calculation steps are
summarized in Table 7.5. The piping details and fittings are shown in Figure 7.6 (b).
The calculation procedures and results are shown in Table 7.3. The total head loss
through the effluent piping is 0.80 m.

Figure 7.6: Filter effluent piping layout for hydraulic calculation. (a) Flow distribution.
(b) Segment assignment and dimensions

87
Table 7.5: Calculations Of Head Losses through Filter Effluent Piping System

88
f. Calculate head loss through the filtered water conduit

The filtered effluent is conveyed to the filter back-pressure weir common bay through
a 122-cm diameter pipe. (See Figure 7.1.) The head losses include friction loss (C =
120) and minor losses that will occur at one 90° elbow (K = 0.6), one isolation gate
valve (K = 1.0), one Tee (branch-to-run, K = 1.8), and one exit (K = 1.0) in the
common bay. The head loss calculations show a total head loss or 0.52 m through the
filtered water pipe.

g. Calculate the head over the common bay weir.

In this Design, the filtered water from all filters is conveyed to a filter back-pressure
weir common bay. Readers should refer to Chapter 12 for design details of the back-
pressure weir common bay. The flow is split at the common bay over two weirs and
drops into two chlorine contact channels. The length of weir is flexible and can be
selected by an engineer to meet the specific needs of the design. A greater length 'will
cause lesser head variations between high and low flows but will increase the structure
cost. In this design, a weir length of 2.5 meters is satisfactory.

The head over the weir is calculated by using Q = 1.314m3/s = 0.67m3/s

2
Cd = 0.6, and two end contractions ( n = 2 and L = 2.5m).By trial-and error, the final
results are as follows :

L’ = 2.5m – 0.1 x 0.28 m x 2 = 2.44m

H = 3 x 0.657 m3/s 2/3

2 x 0.6 x 2.44m x ( 2 x 9.81 m/s2 )1/2

= 0.28 m
A free-fall of 0.39m is provided at the weir.

89
 h. Calculate the total head loss through the filter system.

The head losses through the filter system are as follows:

 Head loss through the filter influent piping 0.41 m
 Filter media terminal head losses 2.50 m
 Head loss through the gravel support 0.00 m
 Head loss through the under drain system 0.76 m
 Head loss through the filter effluent piping 0.05 m
 Head loss through the filtered water conduit 0.52 m
 Free fall provided at the filter common bay weir 0.39 m
Total = 4.63 m

The maximum head loss through the filter system is therefore 4.63 m when the filter
media are dirty before the backwash. After backwash, the total head loss is reduced to
2.59 m, the minimum head loss that can be achieved through the system under the
maximum day flow condition.

i. Prepare hydraulic profile through the filter system.

The water surface elevations in the filter units are controlled by the water level
in the filter back-pressure weir common bay and the head losses in the piping
between the filter units and the common bay. The water surface level in the
common bay is, further, affected by the weir elevation. (See Figure 7.9 for
design details of common bay.) A top elevation of 100.1 m is provided at the
weir. Starting from the weir elevation, the water surface elevation (WSEL) and
major design elevations are calculated, and the hydraulic profile through the
sedimentation basin is prepared. The results are shown in Figure 7.7.

The WSEL in the common bay = weir elevation + head over the weir = 100.10
m + 0.28 m = 100.38 m. The WSEL in the chlorine contact chamber = WSEL in
the common bay - free fall provided at the weir = 100.38 m - 0.39 m = 99.99 m.

The maximum WSEL in a filter unit when its filter media are dirty = WSEL in
the common bay + head losses through the filtered water conduit + head losses

90
through the filter effluent piping + head loss through the under drain system +
head losses through the gravel support + filter media terminal head losses =
100.38 m + 0.52 m + 0.76 m + 0.05 m + 0.00 m + 2.50 m = 104.21 m.

The elevation of the top of the filter media = the maximum WSEL in a filter unit
when the filter media are dirty - water depth above the media = 104.21m - 3.01
m = 101.20 m. The elevation of the bottom of the gravel support = elevation of
the top of the filter media - total depth of filter media - total depth of the gravel
layer = 10120 m - 0.75 m - 0.25 m = 100.20 m.
The WSEL (or pressure) at the beginning point of the filter influent header
(Point A in Figure 7.5(a)) = the maximum WSEL in a filter unit when its filter
media are dirty + head losses through the filter influent piping = 104.21 +0.41
m= 104.62m.
The WSEL in the Effluent Box I of the sedimentation basins = WSEL (or
pressure) at the beginning point of filter influent header + head losses through
the settled water conduit between Effluent Box I and the filter influent header =
104.62 m + 0.64 m = 105.26 m.

Figure 7.7: Hydraulic profile through the filter unit

91
Step B: Filter Backwash System

1. Estimate backwash flow rate.

The backwash flow rate should achieve 40 to 50 percent expansion of both the sand
and anthracite media layers. A backwash flow rate equal to 10 percent of the settling
velocity of the media is used for backwashing. Several limit switches will be provided
to monitor the position of influent, backwash, and waste valve positions and to monitor
backwash flow rate by displaying percent opening of flow controller position. Flow
meters will measure the filter backwash flow rate.

a. Calculate the media settling velocity at 20oC

Sand vs,20 = 10d60 = 10d10 x uniformity coefficient
= 10 x 0.5 x 1.4 = 7.0 m/min = 0.117 m/s
Anthracite vs,20 = 4.7d60 = 4.7d10 x uniformity coefficient
= 4.7 x 1.0 x 1.6 = 7.52 m/min = 0.125 m/s
b. Calculate the actual media settling velocity at 5oC
Trial-and-error method is used to calculate the actual media settling velocity at 5oC

i. Calculate the Reynolds number, NR

The Reynolds number at 50C by using the media settling velocity at 20oC (vs,20)

Sand NR = 0.117m/s x (0.0005 m x 1.4) x 1000kg/m3 = 54.0

1.518 x 10-3 m2/s

Anthracite NR = 0.125m/s x (0.0001 m x 1.6) x 1000kg/m3 = 132

1.518 x 10-3 m2/s

Both numbers are in the transitional range.

ii. Calculate the drag coefficient, CD

The drag coefficient is calculated by using Reynolds number, NR, calculated in

last step.

92
 Sand CD = 24 + 3 + 0.34 = 1.09
64.0 (64.0)1/2
Anthracite CD = 24 + 3 + 0.34 = 0.783
132 (132)1/2
iii. Calculate the terminal settling velocity.

The terminal settling velocity is calculated from

These calculated settling velocities at 5°C are close to those at 20°C. It is safe to
assume 0.12m/s as the average settling velocity of the media (sand and
anthracite).
c. Calculate the backwash flow rate.
At 10 percent settling velocity of the media ( sand and anthracite ), the average
backwash rate Ub = 0.012 m/s

Backwash flow rate Qb = Ub Af

= 0.012 m/s x 68.1 m2 x 60 s/min
= 49 m3/min
d. Calculate the surface wash flow rate.

The surface wash flow rate is calculated from the surface wash rate given in the
Design Criteria.

Surface wash flow rate Qs = Us Af

= 0.061 m3/m2·min x 68.1 m2
= 4.2 m3/min

93
2. Calculate bed expansion.

a. Calculate the porosity of the expanded bed.

The quantity eeb is a function of the settling velocity of the particles and the back-
wash velocity. An increase in backwash velocity will result in a greater expansion
of the bed. The expression commonly used to relate the bed expansion to
backwash velocity and settling velocity has been extensively reported in the
literature. This relationship is given by Equation:

Effective backwash is achieved at 10 percent of the settling velocity of the media

( ratio Ub to vs = 0.1)
Eeb = (0.1)0.22 = 0.60

b. Calculate expanded bed depth

The expanded bed depth is calculate from :

94
 The bed expansion is designed for sustained water temperature of 5°C during the
winter months. If the water temperature is lower than 5°C the settling velocity· of
the media will decrease. Therefore, the backwash rate should be reduced for
colder water temperatures.

c. Determine the vertical dimensions of the filter launder troughs.

Place the wash water troughs 1.02 m above the top of the expanded bed. This
will make the height of the wash water trough 1.30 m above the media bed at
rest. Provide a launder height of 0.6 m, and leave 0.42 m between the inside
bottom of the launder troughs and the top of the expanded media bed. Figure 7.8
illustrates the design vertical dimensions of the launder troughs.

Figure 7.8: Design elevation of wash water launder trough

95
 3. Determine the backwash cycle.
The backwash cycle will be as follows:
a. Initially, the surface wash will operate ·at Qs = 4.2 m3/min (or Us =0.061
m3/m2·min) during the operation time from 0 to 4 minutes.
b. The backwash will start at 3 min and will increase from zero to Qb = 49 m3/min
over a time period of 1.3 minutes.

c. The backwash flow rate of 49 m3/min will be maintained for an operation time
period of 6 minutes.

d. The backwash flow rate will be reduced from Qb = 49 m3/min to zero over the
1.3 minutes after the 6-minutes backwash.
e. Total backwash cycle will take an operation time period of 11.6 minutes.

The backwash cycle is graphically illustrated in Figure 7.9. It was developed through
the experience and judgment of the authors. Ideally, the most effective backwash
cycle should be determined by pilot plant testing. The actual operating experience of
the full scale plant may indicate the need for adjustments in the backwash cycle.
Design engineers should provide sufficient capacities in the backwash system to
make possible for adjustments for changes in the operating conditions.

Figure 7.9: Filter backwash cycle design

96
 4. Determine the volume of backwash water.
I. Calculate the volume of backwash water

a. Calculate surface wash water volume.

Vs = 4.2 m3/min x 4 min = 16.8 m3

b. Calculate backwash water volume.

Vb = 49 m3/min x 6 min + 2 x 49 m3/min x 1.3 m3/min = 358 m3
2

c. Calculate total volume for each filter backwash cycle.

Vf = Vs + Vb
= 16.8 m3 + 358 m3
= 375 m3

d. Calculate total volume of backwash water per day.

Assume each filter has a minimum run of 24hours. Calculate the total
quantity of filter backwash as follow:

Vdaily = 375 m3/backwash cycle x 1 backwash cycle/filter.d x 8 filters

= 3,000 m3/d

II. Determine the volume of the elevated storage tank for the backwash.

The storage volume should be sufficient to provide water for two backwash
cycles.

Vtank = 375 m3/backwash cycle x 2 cycles/tank

= 750 m3/tank

97
 In order to provide operational flexibility, increase storage by 10 percent.
Vtank = 750 m3/tank x 1.10
= 825 m3

For economy in construction, provide one tank with the closest available
standard size.
Vtank = 946 m3/tank

5. Size the backwash water pumps.

Select backwash water pumps to transfer a sufficient quantity of water from clear
wells into the elevated tank within 30 minutes after a filter backwash operation. In
order to ensure system reliability, provide three equal-size pumps, each having
sufficient capacity that two pumps operating in parallel will provide the required flow
rate.

a. Calculate the design flow rate

Q = 375 m3 = 12.5m3/min
30min

b. Calculate the capacity of each pump.

Q = 12.5 m3/min = 6.25 m3/min

2

c. Add 10 percent capacity in order to allow flexibility in operation.

Q = 6.25 m3/min x 1.10 = 6.9 m3/min

The required pump head is determined by the system TDH (i.e., the static head
plus the head losses between the clear well and the elevated backwash water
storage tank).

98
 d. Determine the operational sequence of the pumps.

Provide three identical pumps, each with a capacity of 6.9 m3/min. The pumps
shall be controlled by a device that alternates the lead pump each day. The
pumps shall be turned on and off by level switches in the elevated storage tank.
The level control design of the pumps is summarized in Table 7.6.

Table 7.6: Control Level Design for Backwash Pumps

6. Determine the height requirement of the backwash water storage tank.

a) Estimate head loss through the expanded media bed during backwash by using :

Sand : hL = 0.25 x ( 1 – 0.4 ) x ( 2.65 – 1 ) = 0.25m

Anthracite : hL = 0.50 x ( 1 – 0.48 ) x ( 1.55 – 1 ) = 0.14m

Total loss through expanded media = 0.14 m + 0.25 m = 0.39 m

b) Estimate head loss through gravel layer.

The head losses through the gravel layer are calculated from the Carmen-
Kozeny Equation. Using the average backwash rate, Ub = 0.012 m/s, the head
losses are calculated. These values are summarized in Table 7.7. The total head
loss through the gravel layer is 0.02 m.

Table 7.7: Backwash Head Losses Through Gravel Layer*

* see footnotes in table 7.3 for detailed explanation of calculation procedures

99
c) Estimate under drain system losses.
The under drain system losses are calculated by using v = 0.012 m/s ∞ 3,600s/h =
43.2m/h.
HL = 0.0005 x ( 43.2m/h )2 = 0.93 m

d) Estimate backwash water piping losses.

The losses through the backwash water piping between the elevated storage tank
and the filter under drain entry are computed in a manner similar to the
procedures used for the head losses in either influent or effluent heads. The results
of this calculation indicate a head loss of 0.55 m.
e) Calculate the required minimum water surface level in the storage tank.
The head losses through the backwash system are as follows:
 Head loss through the expanded media bed 0.39m
 Head loss through the gravel support 0.93 m
 Head loss through the under drain system 0.02 m
 Head losses through the backwash water piping 0.55 m
Total = 1.89 m

100
 Add 50% of head loss for additional flexibility. The minimum water surface level
in the storage tank should be at least 2.85 m above. the lip of the launder troughs.
A flow-modulating valve is used to maintain a constant backwash rate of Ub =
0.012 m/s.

7. Determine the characteristics of filter backwash.

a) Quantity of backwash

1. At maximum day flow

The total volume for each backwash cycle is 375 m3, and the total volume
of backwash water used in a day is 3000 m3/d . It has been assumed that
each filter will be backwashed at most once during any 24-hour period. The
maximum number of backwash cycles per day is therefore eight. The actual
number of backwash cycles may be smaller if the filter loading rate is
reduced and/or filter run times are longer.

2. Quantity at average day flow

Total volume of filter backwash water during design average day flow is
obtained in proportion to maximum day flow.

Filter backwash quantity at average day flow = 3000 m3 x 57,900 m3/d

113.500 m3/d

= 1530 m3/d

101
b) Quality of backwash

The solids concentration in the filter backwash ranges from 0.01 to 0.1
percent, depending on the efficiency of the filter and the degree of
pretreatment provided. This quantity was 7600 kg/d under maximum day flow
conditions. It has been assumed that 90 percent of these solids are removed in
the sedimentation basins. The quantity of solids remaining in the
sedimentation basin effluent is 760 kg/d. The solids production due to the
addition of nonionic polymer as filter aid is 2.3 kg/d at a dosage of 0.02 mg/L
under maximum day flow conditions. This quantity of solids from polymer is
relatively small and is assumed to be zero in subsequent calculation. It is
further assumed that 100 percent of incoming solids are captured by the filter
and then cleaned out during filter backwash. The quantity of solids released
into the backwash water (3000 m3/d) is therefore 760 kg/d. This will result in a
daily average TSS concentration of 254 mg/L (approximately 0.025 percent
solids). In a similar way, the quantity of solids in the backwash water is 386
kg/d under the average day flow condition. The filter backwash characteristics
under the maximum and the average day flow conditions are provided for
mass balance calculations.

102
DISINFECTION

103
8.0 DISINFECTION

Disinfection of potable water is employed to inactive and or to remove pathogens

in order to meet primary drinking water. It is satisfies part of the primary objective of
water treatment, which to provide water that is free from disease causing organisms.
Fluoridation is employed as a general public health measure to prevent dental cavity. The
specific objectives of disinfection for all public water supply systems are:
i. assure 99.9 % (3-log) and 99.99 % (4-log) inactivation of Giardia lamblia
cysts and viruses respectively;
ii. Do not impart toxicity and taste and odor to the disinfected water;
iii. Minimize the formation of undesired disinfection by products;
iv. Meet the maximum contaminant level (MCLs) for the disinfectants used and
by the by-products that can form.

Chlorine Chemistry

i. Free chlorine residual

When chlorine gas is dissolved in water, it hydrolyzes, to form hydrochlorous
acid (HOCl), in this form, chlorine exists as free chlorine residual.
Cl + H2O HOCl + H+ + Cl-
HOCl is a weal acid that ready to undergo the partial dissociation reaction
expressed by:
HOCl H+ + OCl-
Free chlorine is also added in water from hypochlorite salts (calcium and sodium
hypochlorites). The dissociation reactions of calcium and sodium hypochlorites
are given by:
Ca(OCl)2 + 2 H2O 2 HOCl + Ca2+ + 2 OH-
NaOCL + H2O HOCl + Na+ + OH-

104
ii. Reaction with Natural Organic Matter (NOM)
The chlorine reaction with NOM is provided by:
HOCl + Precursors CHCl3 + other chlorinated DBPs
HOCl +Br HOBr + Cl-
HOBr + Precursors CHBr3 + other brominated DBPs
HOCl + Br + Precursors
CHCl3 + CHBrCl2 + CHBr2Cl + CHBr3 + other halogenated DBPs

iii. Combined Chlorine Residual

Chlorine reacts readily with ammonia to form chloramines and exerts combined
chlorine residual.
NH3 + HOCl NH2Cl (monochloramine) + H2O
NH2Cl + HOCl NHCl2 (dichloramine) + H2O
NH2Cl + HOCl NCl3 (trichloramine) + H2O

Design Criteria Used

1) Flow rates
i. Maximum day flow = 93 600 m3/d
ii. Average day flow = 47 755 m3/d

Size of chlorine contact channel

a) Volume at peak design flow
Peak design flow = 1.08 m3/s
Contact period = 30 minutes
Volume = 1.08 m3/s ×30 min × 60s
= 1 944 m3
b) Select chamber configuration and dimensions provide 2 identical contact
chamber.
Size of chlorine contact channel = 35 m × 4 m × 7 m.

105
2) Design parameters and criteria

a. Chlorine and chloramines will be used as the primary disinfectant to satisfy the
CT requirement of SWTR. Chloramines will be used as secondary disinfectant.
b. Sufficient dose will be applied to maintain an average free chlorine residual of 2
mg/L in two contact channels in front of clearwells. Free chlorine residual will be
maintained in the channels. Chloramines residual will be maintained in the clear
wells. PH meters and chlorine residual meters will monitor the pH and chlorine
residuals in the chlorine contact channels and in the clearwells.
c. The anhydrous ammonia (stored in a bulk storage tank) will be applied
downstream of the effluent weir structure of the contact channel. A chlorine (Cl2)
to ammonia (NH3) weight ratio 5:1 will be used. The raw water does not have any
appreciable naturally occurring ammonia. A chloramines residual of 2 mg/L will
be maintained through the clearwell at maximum design flow of 93 600 m3/d.
d. The detention time in the chlorine contact channel at maximum design flow of
93 600 m3/d will be used to calculate T10 for the channel that will have superior
baffling.
e. The clearwell is unbaffled, therefore T10 in the clearwell at maximum design flow
will be estimated from the theoretical detention time of unbaffled basin.
f. The chlorination feed equipment shall be capable of delivering 5 mg/L chlorine at
maximum design flow. The ammonia feed equipment shall be able to deliver
ammonia in weight ratio 5:1.
g. A sodium fluoride solution prepared from powder or crystal will be used for
fluoridation of water. The fluoride applicaaation point will be downstream of the
effluent structure of the chlorine contact channel.
h. Fluoridation equipment shall be designed to deliver a maximum of 1.2 mg/L
fluoridation concentration at maximum design flow.

106
3. Unit arrangement and layout
a) Unit arrangement
The filtered water from all units reaches a filter common bay with 2 back pressure
weirs. This arrangement is shown in Figure 8.0. Chlorine is applied in the 122 cm
diameter filter effluent pipe ahead. A 12.5 extra length of the influent channel of
the clearwell is provided to feed ammonia, sodium fluoride and sodium carbonate
solutions through different diffuser systems. The free chlorine will be converted
into chloramline within this channel. The addition of sodium carbonate is required
for water stability control. The chlorinated, fluoridated and stability controlled
water will flow through a 90 cm × 90 cm isolation gate into the clearwell. The
finished quality water is delivered by 5 high service pumps to the customers
through the distribution system.

Figure 8.0 : Filter-complex plan. (Left side showing ground floor and right side
showing lower.

107
 b) Unit layout
2 chlorine contact channel are provided. The dimensions of each chlorine contact
channel are 35 m long, 4 m wide and 7 m deep (approximate water depth at
maximum day flow). The dimensions of each clearwell are 40 m × 40 m × 7m
deep (maximum water depth). A common wall constructed between the chlorine
contact channel and the clearwell. The high service pump station is located in the
middle between two clearwell. A total six pumps are installed, with five pumps in
service and one stand by under the maximum day flow condition. The general
layout and basic system design of the facilities are shown in Figures 8.1, 8.2.

Figure 8.1 : Design detail of chlorine contact channels and clearwells-plan view A-A.

Figure 8.2 : Design details of chlorine contact channels and clearwells-section B-B

108
DESIGN CALCULATION

A) Chlorine Contact Channel and Clearwell Design

1. T10 for free chlorine disinfection in the chlorine contact chamber.
Volume of each chlorine contact channel;
= 35 m × 4 m × 7 m
= 980 m3

Flow in each chlorine contact channel;

= 93 600 m3/d
2
= 46 800 m3/d

Theoretical detention time, T;

= 980 m3 x (1440 s)
46 800 m3/d
= 30.15 minute

For superior baffling in the chlorination channel, the ratio of T10/T is assumed to
be 0.7
T10 = 0.7 × 30.15 min = 21.1 min
Use a conservative value of 20 minute for CT calculation.

2. T10 for combined chlorine disinfection in the clearwell.

Volume of each clearwell;
= 35 m × 35 m × 7m = 8 575 m3

Theoretical detention time, T;

= 8 575 m3 × (1440 s)
46 800 m3/d
= 264 min

109
 For unbaffled clearwell, the ratio of T10/T is assumed to be 0.1 (Table 8.0)
T10 = 0.1 × 264 min = 26.4 min.
Table 8.0 : Baffling Classifications

3. a) Head loss at the effluent weir of the chlorine contact channel.

Q = 46 800 m3/d
= 0.542 m3/s
Cd = 0.60

No end contractions Cn = 0, L = 4 m
H = 3 × 0.542 m3/s 2/3

2 × 0.6 × 4m × √ (2.9081 m/s2)

= 0.18 m

b) Head loss through the isolation gate. The dimensions of the gate
are 90 m × 90 m. The velocity through the gate is calculated as follows;
V = 0.542 m3/s
0.9 m × 0.9 m
= 0.67 m/s
Head loss through the gate (Cd are = 0.6)
2
HL = 1 0.67 m/s
2 × 9.81 m/s 0.6
= 0.6 m
B) Chlorine Storage and Feed System Design

110
1. Chlorine storage
a) Average chorine required per day
Assume average chlorine dosage is 3 mg/L

Average chlorine required;

= 3 mg/L × 93 600 m3/d × 10-6 mg/kg × 103 L/m3
= 280.8 kg/d

b) Chlorine storage for 45 days.

= 280.8 kg/d × 45 d
= 12 636 kg
30 Number of 907 kg (1 ton) containers required
Number of chlorine required;
= 12 636 kg
907 kg/container
= 13.93 ≈ 14 container
Provide a chlorine storage facility for 14 ton containers.

2. Chlorine withdrawal
a) Maximum chlorine withdrawal per day
= 5 mg/L × 93 600 m3/d × 10-6 mg/kg × 103 L/m3
= 468 kg/d

b) Number of the chlorinator required

Select 450 kg/d chlorinators
Number of chlorinator;
= 468 kg/d
450 kg /d
= 1.04 chlorine
Provide 2 chlorinator, 1 will be used as a standby unit under average demand.

c) The number of chlorine containers manifolded.

111
 Assume that the maximum chlorine withdrawal rate is 400 kg/d per container;
= 468 kg/d
400 kg /d
= 1.14 chlorine
2 banks of containers are required.

3. Chlorine feed
The application points is in the filter effluent pipe, ahead of the filter back
pressure weir common bay (Figure 8.1).The injector water is the treatment
plant service water. The maximum chlorine feed rate is 468 kg/d. The diffuser
design should consider the following issues:
i. back pressure in the chlorine piping
ii. head loss through the piping
iii. orifice sizing
iv. velocity gradient for the desired mixing.
The velocity gradient should be graeter than 480 per second to provide
adequate mixing.

C) Ammonia Storage and Feed System design

1. Ammonia Storage
a) Average ammonia required per day.
Provide for chlorine to ammonia weight ratio 5:1
= 280.8 kg-chlorine/d
5 chlorine/ammonia
= 56.16 kg/ammonia (anhydrous)/d

b) Anhydrous ammonia storage for 45 days

= 56.16 kg/d × 45
= 2 527.2 kg

Provide one 2600 kg (3 ton) bulk storage tank. 56 kg (130 1b) cylinders are also
maintained as a 5 day backup supply under maximum day flow condition, in case

112
 the bulk tank needs to be taken out of service for routine maintenance or
emergency weir.

2. Ammonia withdrawal
a) Maximum ammonia withdrawal per day
= 468 kg/d
5
= 93.66 kg/d

b) Number of ammoniators required.

Select a direct feed ammoniator of 100 kg/d capacity
= 93.6 kg/d
100
= 0.94 ammoniators
Provide 1 ammoniators of 100 kg/d capacity.

3. Ammonia feed
The anhydrous ammonia feed solution from the injectors is applied in the
clearwell influent channel (Figure 8.1). A water softener will be needed to provide
injector water. The quantity of injector water should be selected to deliver
93.6 kg/d of ammonia at the application point. It is assumed that the injector water
flow for ammonia is one0fifth of the flow for chlorine. The feed system design
should include injector, booster pump, solution piping and diffuser.

D) Fluoride Storage and Feed System Design

1. Fluoride storage
a) Maximum fluoride required
= 1.2 mg/L × 93 600 m3/d × 10-6 mg/kg × 103 L/m3
= 112.32 kg/d

b) Fluoride storage for 45 days

= 112.32 kg/d × 45 d

113
 = 5 054.4 kg

Quantity of 98% sodium fluoride (NaF)

= 5 054.4 kg × 42 g/mole NaF
19 g/mole F × 0.98
= 1 1400 kg

The sodium fluoride will be stored in a silo. The volume of the silo for 45 days
supply:
= 1 1400 kg
1041 kg/m3
= 11 m3
Provide 2 silos, each with a 5.5 m3 capacity. Each silo will be 2.5 m in diameter
and 2.6 m deep, with a liberal freeboard allowance. The delivery will be by
hopper truck and blowing into the silo. A dust filter (cartridge type) will be
provided to prevent the fine particles of NaF from escaping during delivery

2. Fluoride olution preparation

a) Maximum NaF required per day.
Maximum quantity of NaF delivered by each feeder
= 112.32 kg/d F × 42 g/mole NaF
19 g/mole F × 0.98
= 253 kg/d

Maximum volume of NaF delivered by each feeder

= 253 kg/d
1 041 kg/m3
= 0.24 m3/d

b) Volume of NaF solution tank for 1 day supply.

3 percent (30 kg/m3) solution is prepared for 1 day supply.
= 253 kg/d × 1 d
30 kg/m3

114
 = 8.4 m3

Provide a 1 day supply tank 2.5 m × 2.5 m × 2 m (deep). This arrangement will
provide the daily need from a single 1 day supply tank, while 1 feeder and silo
will serve as standby units. The storage and feed facility for sodium fluoride is
also shown in Figure 8.3

Figure 8.3 : Chlorine and ammonia storage and feed facilities. (a) Plan (b) section A-A

115
3. Fluoride feed
The fluoride solution will be applied in the influent channel of the clearwell
through diffuser (Figure 8.1). This channel is located downstream of the chlorine
contact channel. Ammonia and sodium carbonate solution are also added in the
same channel.

Maximum daily pumping rate for 3% NaF solution

= 8.4 m3/d × 1000 L/m3
1 440 min/d
= 5.8 L/min

The fluoride solution will be delivered by the variable flow rate positive
displacement progressive cavity feed pumps. Provide 2 pumps, each capable of
meeting the maximum requirement. The fluoride level in the clearwell is
measured. The in use pump is then adjusted for the required fluoride feed rate.

116
CLEARWELLS, PUMP
AND DISTRIBUTION
SYSTEM

117
9.0 DESIGN OF CLEARWELLS

The design criteria and consideration for clear water tank is:
i. The clear water tank can either be a standard circular reservoir or a rectangular
ground tank placed adjacent or underneath the treated water pumping station
ii. It is usually preferred to provide the clear water tank adjacent to the pumping
station. Provision of the clear water tank underneath the pumping station should
be limited to very small plants of capacities less than 1000m³/day
iii. The clear water tank should be sizes to provide at least three hours storage
iv. The inlet and outlet pipes should be located at the opposite sides of the treated
water tank to prevent short circuiting

Design calculation
1) Flow rates
i. Maximum day flow = 93 600 m3/d
ii. Average day flow = 47 755 m3/d

2) Three hours storage

Total volume for 3 hour storage
= maximum day flow × 3 h
= 3 900 m3/h × 3 h
= 11 700 m3

Two clearwells will provide the operational flexibility needed

Volume of each clearwell required = 11 700 m3
2
= 5 850 m3

The dimensions of each clearwell are 35 m × 35 m × 7 m

Volume of each clearwell provided = 8 575m3

118
9.1 DESIGN PUMP AND PIPE

9.1.1 Pump Properties

Brand : WEINMAN
Type of pump : Horizontal Split Case Pumps
Capacities : Up to 7000 GPM ( 442 L/s)
Heads : up to 850 feet ( 259m)
Discharges size : 1- ½ inch through 12 inches ( 38.1- 304.8 mm)
Suction size : 3 inch through 12 inches ( 76.2-304.8 mm)
Motor size : ¾ through 400 hp

Picture 9.1 : The weinman pump horizontal split pump model 1200 series tab

119
9.1.2 Design Pump Calculation

Water Demand is 3900 m3/hr or 93600 m3/day

Used 3 pump and 2 standby for supply water demand. For 1 pump water demand :

3900 m3/hr = 1300m3/hr

3

Size pipe use:

370 mm and velocity is 3.0m/s (refer figure C5.4 at page C196)

The friction loss is:

hf = 6.81 ( V )1.85 ( L )
C D1.167

Where :

hf: total friction head loss in suction

V : velocity in pipe, m/s
C : coefficient of roughness ( Hazen- Williams )

Value of C is 120 for unlined cast iron pipe ( Table C2.7 page C79)

For pipe diameter 0.370m

hf = 6.81 ( 3 )1.85 ( 50 )
120 0.3701.167

hf = 6.81 ( 1.08 x 10-3) ( 159.5)

hf = 1.17 m

For pipe diameter 0.9m

hf = 6.81 ( 0.5 )1.85 ( 5200 )

120 0.9001.167

hf = 6.81 ( 3.93 x 10-5) ( 5880.3)

hf = 1.57 m

120
 Total hf = 1.57 + 1.22

= 2.79 m

The minor losses in pipe :

hm = kv + hv
2g

Where :

hm = minor losses due to entrance, exit change in direction, m

v = velocity of flow, m/s

k = head loss coefficient

hv = velocity head at a given point, m. it is equal to V2/2g. If water is

discharge from pipe into reservoir, the velocity head hv ( V2/2g ) is
loss.

hm = 1.0 x 3.0 + 3.02

2(9.81) 2(9.81)

hm = 0.153 + 0.459

hm = 0.612

The value of Hstat is 15 m where Hstat is total static head ( difference in elevations of free
water surface at discharage and suction reservoirs of the pump.

Total Dynamic Head (TDH) =

TDH = Hstat + hf + hm
TDH = 15 + 2.79 + 0.612
TDH = 18.402 m

121
Power and efficiency :

Pw = K’ Q( TDH) γ
Where :
Pw = power output of the pump( water power), kw
K’ = constant depending on the units expression
(TDH = m, Q = m3/s, γ = 9.81 kn/m3, Pw= kw, K’ = 1kw/kN

Power of water :

Pw = 1.0 x 0.3611 x 18.402 x 9.81

Pw = 65.19 kw @ 85hp

Efficiency of pump :

Ep = Pw
Pp

Where :

Ep = pump efficientcy, usually 70-90 percent

Pp = power input to the pump

Ep = 85 x 100
100

Ep = 85%

122
9.2 DESIGN STORAGE TANK

Water demand by pump = 1300 m3/hr

Detention time = 2 hours

Total volume = 1300 m3/ hr x 2 hr

= 2600m3

Sizing of tank with depth 5m :

Area = 2600m3 = 520m3

5

For diameter of tank d = √ 520 x 4/π

= 25.73 m

The storage tank used is 3 storage tank with 26m diameter and depth 5m

123
Figure C 5.4 Flow rate versus nominal pipe diameter for velocity of 0.5, 1.0, 2.5, 2.0 and
3.0 m/s

Table C2.7 the coefficient C of unlined cast iron pipe.

124