Module 6 Chemistry Notes

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Chemistry Module 6
Acid-Base Reactions
Topic Outline
3. Quantitative
1. Properties of Analysis
Acids & Bases
The titration technique
Acids, bases & indicators
Equipment, solutions, indicators
Acid reactions & applications
Titration calculations
Enthalpy of neutralisation
pH & conductivity graphs of titrations
History of Acid-Base Theory
Dissociation constants & pKa
Buffers... properties & importance
2. Using Bronsted-
Lowry Theory
Proton transfer & hydronium ions Strong & weak acids The pH Scale. Calculations
pH of strong & weak acids Self-ionisation of water Ion product & pOH Scale.
Amphiprotic water Acidic & basic salts Acid-base reactions without H3O+, OH- or H2O
pH change in dilution
What is this topic about?

To keep it as simple as possible, (K.I.S.S. Principle) this topic covers:
1. Properties of Acids & Bases
Introduction to acids, bases & indicators. Acid reactions: neutralisation, acid-metal,
acid-carbonate. Applications of neutralisation. Enthalpy of neutralisation.
A brief history of Acid-Base Theory.
2. Using Bronsted-Lowry Theory

Proton-transfer. Definitions of acid & base. Strong & weak acids. Mathematics of pH Scale.
pH of strong & weak acids. Self-ionisation of water. Kw, pKw & pOH Scale.
Water is amphiprotic. Acidic & basic salts. Acid-base reactions without hydronium,
hydroxide or even water.
3. Quantitative Analysis
The technique of titration. Aliquots & titres. Titration calculations.
pH & conductivity graphs during titration. Dissociation constants & pKa.
Buffers... properties, composition & importance.
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1. Properties of Acids & Bases
Acid, Base or Neutral? Practical Work: A Natural Indicator
The chemical definitions of acid and base will come
later. For now, you are reminded of what you may You may have done practical work to prepare and
have learnt earlier. test a natural indicator.
Acids and bases are chemical opposites; if you add A good example is the
one to the other they “destroy” (neutralise) each common garden plant
other, and the end product is neutral. Acids and Hydrangea.
bases are the opposite ends of a chemical property
called “acidity”, which is measured by a numerical If you collect a flower
scale called “pH”. head and put it through
a blender with a little
ACID NEUTRAL BASE water and ethanol, the
filtered liquid extract will
work as a simple
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 indicator.
pH
The word “acid” comes from the Latin for “sour”, In acid, the Hydrangea flower extract
and refers to the fact that natural, acidic chemicals is a bluish colour.
(e.g. vinegar) are sour-tasting. In a base, it turns pink-ish.
Indicators
Indicators are chemicals which change colour according to the acidity of the solution they are in. The
original indicators were natural extracts from plants or other living things. Some, such as litmus, are still in
use today, as well as newer, synthetically made chemicals.
Modern Laboratory Indicators

In this Module, you will probably become familiar with the common laboratory indicators listed below.
You may do experimental work, adding 2 drops of indicator to test tubes of acid, base and pure water (which
is neutral) and record the colours produced. Your results should agree with the following:
Indicator Acid Water Base
Litmus pink purple blue
Phenolphthalein clear clear red/pink
Methyl Orange red yellow yellow
Bromothymol blue yellow green/blue blue
Choosing an Indicator Why are so many indicators needed?

Litmus is useful for general Everyday Uses of Indicators
indentification of acidic or basic Soil Testing. Some plants grow best in acidic
substances. However, its colour soils; others need slightly alkaline (basic)
change is rather indistinct, and conditions. Farmers and keen gardeners use
can occur over quite a range of pH simple test kits containing an indicator and
values... it is not a “sharp” colour chart, (or an electronic “pH meter”) to
change. test the soil. They can then adjust the soil pH to
get the best results.
In contrast, Phenolphthalein
cannot tell you the difference Water Testing. Swimming pools need regular
between a glass of water and testing for acidity to better maintain their water
sulfuric acid. However, the colour quality and hygiene. Aquariums must be
change is very distinctive, and maintained at very specific pH levels for the health of their
occurs suddenly at a very specific inhabitants.
pH value... it is very sharp. This is Now Complete Worksheet 1
not much use in general Effluent Testing. Acidity is a useful way
identification of substances, but in to assess the levels of certain types of pollution from industries.
certain methods of chemical Industry technicians and Government authorities use indicators to
analysis it is very important. monitor the pH of waste water and natural waterways.
®
Acids & Bases... Properties & Naming
Laboratory Acids & “Alkalis”
You are reminded that the common laboratory acids are:
Typical Properties of Acids
Name Formula Chemical Name Solution of • mostly water soluble
Hydrochloric acid HCl(aq) Hydrogen chloride H+(aq)+ Cl-(aq) • sour taste
• corrosive & chemically reactive
Sulfuric acid H2SO4(aq) Hydrogen sulfate 2H+(aq)+ SO42-(aq) • react with bases to neutralise them
Nitric acid HNO3(aq) Hydrogen nitrate H+(aq)+ NO3-(aq)
The most familiar laboratory bases are soluble hydroxide compounds which are sometimes called “alkalis”.
Typical Properties of Bases
Name Formula Chemical Name Solution of • bitter taste & “slippery” feel
Sodium hydroxide NaOH(aq) Sodium hydroxide Na+(aq)+ OH-(aq) • corrosive & chemically reactive
• react with acids to neutralise
Potassium hydroxide KOH(aq) Potassium hydroxide K+(aq)+ OH-(aq) them
The Acid-Base Reaction: Neutralisation

You should be already familiar with this reaction: Acid-Base Properties
Example: of the Oxide Compounds
The common laboratory acids and alkali-bases are
sulfuric + potassium water + potassium not the whole story. Most of the oxide compounds of
acid hydroxide sulfate the elements show some acid-base behaviour too,
and the periodic table reveals another pattern.
H2SO4(aq) + 2KOH(aq) 2H2O(l) + K2SO4(aq) Non-metal oxides
Oxide of hydrogen (incl. semi-metals)
is water; neutral are usually ACIDIC
ACID + ALKALI WATER + A “SALT”
Inert Gases have no

oxide compounds
s
etal
t h e m ..
Ionic equation: of s.
des ase
2H+(aq)+ SO42-(aq)+ 2K+(aq)+ 2OH-(aq) Oxi ct as b XIDES
a IC O
BAS
2H2O(l)+ 2K+(aq)+ SO42-(aq)
If you study this equation you will see that the

potassium and sulfate ions are spectators. You can Basic Oxides of the Metals
leave them out to form the net ionic equation: Most of the oxides of the metallic elements are
considered basic because they can neutralise acids,
forming water and a “salt”.
2H+(aq)+ 2OH-(aq) 2H2O(l)
ACID + METAL WATER + A “SALT”
or more simply: OXIDE
H+(aq)+ OH-(aq) H2O(l)
All the familiar laboratory acids are solutions Examples:

hydrochloric + magnesium water + magnesium
containing hydrogen ions (H+). The laboratory acid oxide chloride
“alkali” bases are solutions containing hydroxide
ions (OH- ). These will always react to form water, so 2HCl(aq) + MgO(s) H2O(l) + MgCl2(aq)
the acid and base have neutralised each other.
The spectator ions remain in solution. If the solution sulfuric + copper(II) water + copper(II)
is evaporated, a solid ionic compound crystalises. acid oxide sulfate
(potassium sulfate in the example above)
Compounds like this are known collectively as H2SO4(aq+ CuO(s) H2O(l) + CuSO4(aq)
“salts”.
Continued...
®
Acid-Base Reactions (cont.)
Acidic Oxides of the Non-Metals Examples:
carbon dioxide + water carbonic acid
Many of the oxide compounds of the non-metal
elements are acidic because they will: CO2(g) + H2O(l) H2CO3(aq)
• react with water to form an acid

and/or carbon + sodium water + sodium
• react with a base by neutralising it, dioxide hydroxide carbonate
to form water and a “salt”.
CO2(g) + 2NaOH(aq) 2H2O(l) + Na2CO3(aq)
Metals React With Acids

This reaction pattern was covered in Module 3. Here is a quick revision.
The different activity levels of the metals is clearly seen when metals are reacted with dilute
acids. You may do experimental work to observe how vigorously different metals
react with a dilute acid.
Metals like calcium and magnesium react vigorously. Zinc and iron are slower.
Lead is very slow indeed. Copper does not react at all. Bubbles of
gas are
When there is a reaction, the gas produced is hydrogen. (Confirm with a “pop test”) produced.
The metal is “eaten away” and dissolves into the liquid. This is because it forms a soluble A flame test
ionic compound. Exactly what the compound is, depends on which acid is used. gives a
“pop”
Examples explosion
zinc + hydrochloric acid hydrogen + zinc chloride The soluble ionic
Zn + 2HCl H2 + ZnCl2 compounds formed are
collectively known as
magnesium + nitric acid hydrogen + magnesium nitrate “salts”, so the general
Mg + 2HNO3 H2 + Mg(NO3)2
pattern of the
iron + sulfuric acid hydrogen + iron(II) sulfate
reactions is
Fe + H2SO4 H2 + FeSO4
Metal + Acid Hydrogen + a Salt
For all reactions encountered, you need to be able to
write full ionic equations, including states.
Acid-Carbonate Reaction
Acids react with any compounds containing the polyatomic ion carbonate, CO32-.
The products are always carbon dioxide gas, water and “a salt”.
Example
hydrochloric + calcium carbon + water + calcium
acid carbonate dioxide chloride
2HCl(aq) + CaCO3(s) CO2(g) + H2O(l) + CaCl2(aq)
Full ionic equation:

2H+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) + Ca2+(s) + CO32-(s) CO2(g) + H2O(l) + Ca2+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq)
Net ionic equation: (subtract spectators)

2H+(aq) + CO32-(s) CO2(g) + H2O(l) Now Complete Worksheet 2
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Applications of the Neutralisation Reaction
In Agriculture & Industry In Everyday Life
One of the most important industrial processes for Your stomach produces hydrochloric acid to help
our civilisation is the production of chemical digest the food you eat. Sometimes, it may produce
fertilisers. excessive amounts of acid which can cause
discomfort... “indigestion”.
Generally, these are made by the neutralisation of
the base ammonia (NH3) by an acid. The simple solution is to swallow a harmless
chemical which will act as a base and neutralise
One of the most important fertilisers is made by the excess acid.
reacting ammonia with sulfuric acid:
“Antacid” tablets often contain a non-toxic, non-
ammonia + sulfuric acid ammonium sulfate alkaline metal hydroxide, such as Al(OH)3.
NH3 + H2SO4 (NH4)2SO4 3HCl + Al(OH)3 3H2O + AlCl3
You might not yet recognise that this is an acid- You should be able to figure this out as a
base neutralisation, but you will soon. neutralisation reaction.
Enthalpy of Neutralisation
The syllabus requires that you carry out an Reaction
experiment to measure the “enthalpy of The reaction has released heat energy,
neutralisation”. (exothermic) but to find the “Enthalpy of
Neutralisation” you must express this as
This is easily done with a simple laboratory the amount of energy released per mole of
calorimeter, a thermometer and solutions of reactants.
acid & base.
The reaction is:
Typical Method
1. Measure 50mL of 2.0 molL-1 HCl and HCl(aq) + KOH(aq) H2O(l) + KCl(aq)
(separately) 50mL of 2.0 molL-1 KOH
solution. The quantity of each reactant was 50mL of
2.0 molL-1 solution.
2. Measure the temperature of each solution.
If they are NOT the same, let them sit Since C = n/V then n = C.V
together until they equilibrate to the same = 2.0 x 0.05
temp. This is the starting temp. for the = 0.1 mol.
calorimetry calculation.
Enthalpy of Neutralisation
3. When ready, simply pour both solutions into the Therefore, the energy release per mole = 54,380 J
calorimeter. Stir, then record the final temperature.
ΔHneut = -54.4 kJmol-1
Typical Results
Starting temp. = 18oC
Further Discussion
The “accepted” enthalpy for this reaction is about
Final temp. = 31oC
-56 kJmol-1, so a result close to this is outstanding.
Is that the enthalpy just for that exact reaction?
ΔT = 13oC
Mass of liquid in calorimeter ≅ 0.1 kg Well, no.
(measure this for greater precision) If you write the equation in ionic form
H+ + Cl- + K+ + OH- H2O(l) + K+ + Cl-
Specific Heat Capacity = 4,183 Jkg-1K-1
(assumed the same as water) then eliminate the “spectators”:
H+ + OH- H2O(l)
Calculation it is obvious that the “essential” reaction is
between hydrogen & hydroxide ions. With minor
ΔT = 0.1 x 4,183 x 13
Q = m.c.Δ variations, this enthalpy will be the same for all
= 5,438 J of heat released. acid-base neutralisations.
®
History of Acid-Base Theory
The Bronsted-Lowry Theory
Early Ideas About Acids & Bases was developed independently by Johannes
Naturally occurring acids, like ethanoic acid in Bronsted (Danish) and Thomas Lowry (English) in
vinegar, have been known for thousands of years, 1923.
and described by their simple, observable properties
such as their sour taste. The basic concepts of this theory are not obvious.
You will need to read on into the next section, then
Chemistry became a modern Science just over 200 come back here as needed to understand it fully.
years ago, and one of the earliest scientific theories
about acids was put forward by
Acid-Base reactions involve transfer of
Antoine Lavoisier (French, 1780’s) Protons. ( = hydrogen ions, H+)
Lavoisier used simple plant-extract indicators Acids are Proton Donors.
(e.g. litmus) to identify acids and bases. He found by
experiment that all the non-metal oxide compounds
Bases are Proton Acceptors.
he tested produced acid solutions. He concluded
that acids must contain oxygen. Central to the Bronsted-Lowry (B-L) Theory is the
concept of “conjugate” species. For example, when
Humphry Davy (English, 1820’s) ethanoic acid dissolves in water:
Forty years later and armed with more chemical
knowledge, Davy realised that Lavoisier was wrong
CH3COOH(aq)+ H2O(l) H3O+(aq)+ CH3COO-(aq)
about acids. While some acids do NOT contain
oxygen (e.g. HCl), he found that all known acids
ethanoic + water hydronium + ethanoate
contain hydrogen.
acid ion ion
Davy also discovered that metal oxides are basic Acid Base Conjugate Conjugate
and described the patterns in the way acids react Acid Base
with metals to form hydrogen gas.
These early ideas were all empirical descriptions of

properties; they described the properties of acids The CH3COO- ion is the conjugate base of Ethanoic
discovered by experiment, but did not include a acid, because if this reaction was to run in reverse,
general theory to explain or predict chemical the ion could act as a base and accept a proton to
behaviour. form ethanoic acid again.
That had to wait for Svante Arrhenius In the forward reaction, the water molecule is acting
(Swedish, 1880’s) The Arrhenius Theory of acids- as a base, because it accepts a proton to become
base behaviour is still generally used in years 7-10 the H3O+ ion. The H3O+ ion is the conjugate acid
High School Science.
because, if the equilibrium shifts left, it can donate
Acids produce H+ ions in water solution. a proton and become a water molecule again.
Bases produce OH- ions (or oxide ions).
Another Example: Dissolving of HCl in water:
The Arrhenius Theory was very successful in accounting for
simple acid-base behaviour in water solution. It explained HCl(g) H2O(l) Cl-(aq) H3O+(aq)
the neutralisation reaction, and could explain strong and
molecule
+ ion
+ ion
weak acids as being due to complete or partial ionisation. molecule
However, the Arrhenius Theory had some + Cl- +

deficiences:
Acid Base Conjugate Conjugate
• It could not account for acid-base behaviour that Base Acid
was not in water solution.
• It could not explain why some ions (which do NOT

contain any hydrogen, hydroxide or oxide) showed
In this case, the reaction is very unlikely to ever run
acid-base behaviour in water solution.
in reverse, but Cl- is still considered the conjugate
base.
You will soon learn that the main reason for all these
deficiencies was that Arrhenius failed to consider
As before, water has acted as a base, and its
the role of the solvent itself, and in water solutions
conjugate acid is the hydronium ion.
this is critical.

2. Using Bronsted-Lowry Theory
Acids as Proton Donors Formation of Hydronium Ions
More examples:
What defines all acids is their ability to donate a
hydrogen ion (H+) to another species. Since a Nitric acid:
hydrogen ion is really just a “naked” proton from
HNO3(l)+ H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + NO3-(aq)
the nucleus of the hydrogen atom, the formal
definition of an acid is:
Sulfuric acid:
An acid is a chemical species which H2SO4(l)+ 2H2O(l) 2H3O+(aq) + SO42-(aq)
DONATES PROTONS
Phosphoric acid:
H3PO4(l)+ 3H2O(l) 3H3O+(aq) + PO43-(aq)
Acids in Aqeous Solution
When acids dissolve in water, we often just imagine Some useful words:
an ionisation such as this example: MONOPROTIC = donating 1 proton (e.g. HCl)
DIPROTIC = donating 2 protons (e.g. H2SO4)
Hydrochloric acid: HCl(g) H+(aq) + Cl-(aq) TRIPROTIC = donating 3 protons (e.g. H3PO4)
However, this is NOT the full story!

The “Organic” Acids
In a previous module you learnt about how ions are
Many naturally-occurring, biological molecules are
“hydrated” by polar water molecules when in solution.
acids too. These are carbon-compounds, made by
The dissolving of HCl in water could be represented
living things and most contain a special chemical
as:
group you should become familiar with:
δ+ δ− HCl(g) the “-COOH” group.
molecule
Perhaps the most important is ethanoic acid,
CH3COOH:
This bond is polar,

and ionises in water O-H
δ+
C
δ+ δ−
Cl- δ− + δ− O
δ+
δ+ δ− This group is
usually
Separate, hydrated ions abbreviated
Cl-(aq) and H+(aq) as “-COOH”
and is always
acidic.
Although there may be many water molecules These C-H bonds are non-polar, and never ionise.
clinging to a H+ ion, for simplicity we imagine there
is just one, and it forms a special ion, called the
When this molecule is dissolved in water the
“hydronium ion”, H3O+.
O-H bond ionises, and donates a proton to a water
molecule:
HCl(g) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
HCl is an acid because it has “donated” a proton to
ethanoic + water hydronium + ethanoate
a water molecule. The hydronium ion in the solution
acid ion ion
is an acid because it can, in turn, donate a proton to
other species.
Notice that this reaction is reversible and typically
reaches a dynamic equilibrium which “lies to the
In water solution, left”, favouring the reactants.
all acids produce hydronium ions.
Now Complete Worksheet 3
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Strong & Weak Acids
In everyday usage, a “strong” solution might mean In contrast, ethanoic acid is a WEAK acid; when
the same as “concentrated” (i.e. having a lot of added to water, the reaction...
solute) and “weak” can mean the same as “dilute”.
FROM HERE ON, YOU MUST NOT USE THESE
TERMS THAT WAY. “Strong” & “weak” have ...reaches an equilibrium with only about 1% of the
particular meanings with regard to acids. molecules ionised. (i.e. the equilibrium lies well to
the left, favouring the reactant molecules.) If the
For example, HCl is a STRONG acid; when added to concentration of the solution was 1 molL-1, then the
water the reaction goes fully to completion. hydronium ion concentration would be only about
0.01 molL-1.
HCl(g) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
It is quite possible to have a “concentrated solution
100% of the HCl molecules are ionised. of a weak acid” or a “dilute solution of a strong
If the concentration of HCl was (say) 1 molL-1, then acid”... just be careful with these precise meanings!
the concentration of hydronium ions will also be
1 molL-1. STRONG Acid = Total Ionisation in Solution
WEAK Acid = Partial Ionisation in Solution
The pH Scale
You are already familiar with the pH scale in a
descriptive way. Example Calculations: pH and [H3O+]
ACID NEUTRAL BASE 1. If the concentration of hydronium ions is
[H3O+] = 0.500molL-1, what is the pH?
Solution: pH = -log10[H3O+]
1 3 5 7 9 11 13
pH = -log10[0.500]
= -(-0.301)
Where do these numbers come from?
∴ pH = 0.301
pH = -log10[H3O+] 2. If the concentration of hydronium ions is
pH is the negative logarithm of the [H3O+] = 0.00252molL-1, what is the pH?
molar concentration of hydronium ions Solution: pH = -log10[H3O+]
= -log10[0.00252]
Notes:
1. You must know that [square brackets] around any = -(-0.2.60)
∴ pH = 2.60 Now Complete
chemical species means “molar concentration”.
Worksheet 4
2. “log10” means the “logarithm to base 10”. This is a 3. If the pH = 3.75, what is [H3O+]?
mathematical function, best understood by example:
Solution pH = -log10[H3O+]
If 100 = 102, then log10(100) = 2
1,000 = 103, then log10(1,000) = 3 so [H3O+] = Inverse(log(-3.75))
500 = 102.699, then log10(500) = 2.699 ∴ [H3O+] = 0.000178 molL-1.
pH values are therefore, powers of 10.
Example:
3. Different calculators may handle log functions Acid “P”: [H3O+] = 10-5molL-1. pH = 5
differently. You must find out or figure out how to do log
Acid “Q”: [H3O+] = 10-3molL-1. pH = 3
functions on your calculator.
Acid “R”: [H3O+] = 10-2molL-1. pH = 2
In the examples above, acid “Q” has a [H3O+] value

More about pH 100 times larger than “P”, and its pH is 2 units
Since the numbers on the pH scale are powers of lower. Acid “R” has a [H3O+] value 10 times higher
10, it follows that if an acid solution has a pH one than “Q”, and its pH is 1 unit lower.
unit lower than another, it is actually 10 times more
acidic. Two units on the pH scale represents 100 The ph scale is said to be “logarithmic”, because the
times (102) difference in [H3O+]. values are logarithms... powers of 10.
® pH of Strong & Weak Acids

keep it simple science Remember the special meanings of “strong” and “weak” with regard to acids.
You may have used a pH meter to measure the pH of several different acids of
exactly the same concentration.
1.00 molL-1 Hydrochloric Acid

1.00 molL-1 Sulfuric Acid
When HCl(g) dissolves in water:
When H2SO4(l) dissolves in water:
HCl(g)+ H2O(l) H3 O+(aq)+ Cl-(aq)
H2SO4(l)+ 2H2O(l) 2H3O+(aq)+ SO42-(aq)
Since HCl is a STRONG ACID, the
ionisation is 100%. Since H2SO4 is a STRONG ACID, the ionisation
is 100%. It is DIPROTIC, so each mole of
If [HCl] = 1.00 molL-1, H2SO4 produces 2 moles of H3O+.
then [H3O+] = 1.00 molL-1
If [H2SO4] = 1.00 molL-1,
and pH = -log10[H3O+] then [H3O+] = 2.00 molL-1
= -log10[1.00]
∴ pH = 0 and pH = -log10[H3O+]
= -log10[2.00]
Sure enough, by experiment you will
have found that a 1 molL-1 HCl solution = -(0.301)
has a pH = 0. ∴ pH = -0.30
Sure enough, by experiment you will have

1.00 molL-1 Ethanoic Acid found that a 1 molL-1 H2SO4 solution has a pH
= -0.30. (below zero)
When CH3COOH dissolves in water:
CH3COOH(aq)+H2O(l) H3O+(aq)+ CH3COO-(aq)
Since this is a WEAK ACID, the ionisation is incomplete.
If [CH3COOH] = 1.00 molL-1, then [H3O+] << 1.00 molL-1
and the pH can be expected to be well above the values found for HCl or H2SO4.
By experiment you will have found that a 1 molL-1 CH3COOH solution has a pH ≅ 2.
Self-Ionisation of Water
Water itself can be considered as an extremely weak acid, since in pure water a few water molecules ionise
and donate a proton to another molecule.
2 Water Proton transfer In pure water, at 25oC, it turns out that the
Molecules concentration of hydronium ions,
[H3O+] = 1.00 x 10-7 molL-1.
δ- δ+ δ- δ+
So the pH of pure water:
pH = -log10[H3O+]
= -log10[1.00 x 10-7]
- + = -(-7.00)
∴ pH = 7.00
• That’s why pH = 7 is neutral on the pH scale!

• In an acid solution, [H3O+] > 1.00 x 10-7 molL-1,
Hydroxide Hydronium so pH < 7
Ion Ion
• In a basic solution, [H3O+] < 1.00 x 10-7 molL-1,
so pH > 7
2 H2O(l) OH-(aq) + H3O+(aq)

[OH -] & the pOH Scale
Ion-Product of Water pOH
When pure water undergoes self-ionisation... This expression at left contains the item “pOH”.
This refers to the negative logarithm of the
2 H2O(l) OH-(aq) + H3O+(aq) concentration of hydroxide ions, and is entirely
analogous to pH.
...the concentrations of OH- and H3O+ are equal and
both have the value of 1.00x10-7 molL-1 at 25oC. pOH = -log10 [OH-]
A useful way to describe the equilibrium is called Notice that pOH + pH = 14 (at 25oC).
the “Ion-Product” for water.
This means that in a water solution, if the pH is
Kw = [OH-] [H3O+ ] = 1x10-14 at 25oC. (say) 3, then pOH = 14 - 3 = 11
This allows you to calculate the concentration of
hydroxide ions, as well as hydronium ions from pH.
If each part of this expression is manipulated by
taking the negative logarithm (-log), you get
(Mathematical note: In the expression for Kw the
concentrations are multiplied, but this becomes an
pKw = pOH + pH = 14 addition when log functions are applied. This is because
(Note that the lower case “p” in front of an expression logs are index numbers (powers) which must be added
is taken to mean “-log” of that value.) when multiplying expressions.)
Solution (cont.)
Example Calculations: pH and pOH b) pOH + pH = 14, so pH = 14 - pOH
1. In a water solution at 25C, the concentration of = 14 - 4.30
hydroxide ions [OH-] = 5.0 x 10-5 molL-1. = 9.7
c) pH = -log10[H3O ]+
a) What is the pOH? so [H3O+] = Inverse(log(-9.7))

b) What is the pH? ∴ [H3O+] = 2.0 x 10-10 molL-1.
c) What is [H3O+]?
To check that this is correct, you could use the
Solution expression for Kw.
a) pOH = -log[OH-] = -log(5 x 10-5) = 4.30
Kw = [OH-] [H3O+] = 5x10-5 x 2x10-10 = 1.0x10-14
Water is Amphiprotic
Water Can Act as a Base Water Can be an Acid, Too
Previously, we explained the formation of hydronium Water can also act as an acid and donate a proton.
ions in water solution using this example: For example, when ammonia, NH3 dissolves:
HCl(g) H2O(l) Cl-(aq) H3O+(aq) NH3(g) + H2O(l) NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)
molecule
+ ion
+ ion ion
molecule ion
+ Cl- + +
Acid Base Base Acid
Base Acid Acid Base
Conjugate pair Conjugate pair Conjugate pair Conjugate pair

Note that the water molecule acts as a base (in terms In this reaction the water molecule acts as an acid
of B-L Theory) because it accepts a proton from the by donating a proton. Its conjugate base is the
HCl molecule. hydroxide ion, OH-.
Chemical species (like water) which can both This equation explains why ammonia is a base, and
donate and accept protons are called why a solution of ammonia (NH3(aq)) can be
“AMPHIPROTIC”. considered as a solution of ammonium hydroxide,
More Amphiprotic species later. NH4OH(aq). Now Complete Worksheet 5
® Acidic and Basic Salts

One of the weaknesses of the Arrhenius Theory was that it could not explain the
keep it simple science results of simple experiments you may have done:
Practical Work: Testing the pH of Various Salt Solutions

You may have done simple Typical Results
experiments using a pH meter, or
Universal Indicator, to test the pH of Salt pH Conclusion
solutions of various ionic “salts”,
none of which seem to be obviously NaCl 7 Neutral
acids or bases, from their formulas.
Na2CO3 11 Basic
You may have tested many, but they
probably included...
NaHSO4 2 Acidic
sodium chloride, NaCl
The reasons WHY some salts show
sodium carbonate, Na2CO3 acid-base behaviour is explained
below. The Arrhenius Theory failed
to account for the acid-base of the
sodium hydrogen sulfate, NaHSO4
solvent, water.
...all at the same concentration, in Note: Due to CO2 from the air
pure water. dissolving in the solution, the pH of the
NaCl solution may be slightly acidic.
Acidic Salts Basic Salts

As some ions dissolve in water they react as acids, dissolve in water and react as bases, forcing the
forcing the water molecule to be a base. An example water molecule to be the acid. An example is the
is the “hydrogen sulfate ion”, HSO4-. carbonate ion:
hydrogen + water sulfate + hydronium carbonate + water hydrogen + hydroxide

sulfate ion ion ion carbonate ion ion
HSO4-(aq) + H2O(l) SO42-(aq) + H3O+(aq) CO32-(aq) + H2O(l) HCO3-(aq) + OH-(aq)
Once again, if sodium carbonate was used, there

If the salt used was sodium hydrogen sulfate there
would be sodium ion “spectators” in the solution as
would also be some sodium ions in the solution. In
well.
terms of acid-base behaviour, they would be merely
spectators.
A few worth remembering...
Acidic Salts Neutral Salts Basic Salts
NaHSO4 NaCl Na2CO3
NH4Cl KNO3 CH3COONa
NH4NO3 Na2SO4 (sodium
ethanoate)
(There is a pattern to help you remember these... later)
Neutralisation... Again Leaving out the spectators, the net ionic equation
Now that you know about B-L Theory, we can go is...
back to look again at the simple acid-alkali
neutralisation. hydronium + hydroxide water
Example ion ion
hydrochloric + sodium water + sodium
acid hydroxide chloride H3O+(aq) + OH-(aq) 2H2O(l)
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) H2O(l) + NaCl(aq)

The reaction involves a proton transfer
However, now we know that what makes HCl an acid ... and this is the net reaction for ALL the simple
is really the formation of H3O+ ions in water, and the acid-alkali reactions, regardless of which acid or
which alkali are used.
Cl- ions are spectators, as are the Na+ ions from the
NaOH.
®
Salts from Acid-Base Neutralisations
Although we might view all neutralisations as Strong Weak Base
essentially the same reaction and ignore the Base
“spectator ions” which form the “salt”, this prevents e.g. KOH, NaOH e.g. NH3
us noticing a useful pattern which was mentioned
on the previous page.
Strong forms forms
The nature of the “salt” formed depends on whether Acid NEUTRAL salts ACIDIC salts
the acid and base were “strong” or “weak”, as e.g. HCl, e.g. NH4Cl,
shown at right... see the pattern? HNO3, e.g. KCl, NaNO3 NH4NO3
H2SO4 K2SO4 (NH4)2SO4
Why is Ammonia (NH3) a “Weak Base”?
Simple! Weak forms forms

Because when it reacts with water, the reaction Acid BASIC salts NEUTRAL salts
does NOT ionise fully, but reaches an equilibrium e.g. e.g.
CH3COOH CH3COONH4,
with a significant concentration of un-ionised e.g. CH3COONa,
molecules present. H2CO3
Na2CO3 (NH4)2CO3
NH3(aq) + H2O(l) NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)

Now Complete Worksheet 6
Acid-Base Reactions without H3O+, OH- or H2O

For example, if you add together the dry gases
Although most of the simple examples of HCl(g) and NH3(g) they will react
neutralisation involve the reaction
hydrogen + ammonia ammonium
H3O+(aq) + OH-(aq) 2H2O(l) chloride chloride
HCl(g) + NH3(g) NH4Cl(s)
and usually we study reactions taking place in
water, be aware that this is not always the case. Proton transfer
Although there is no water present, and no H3O+ or OH- ions are formed at any time,
this is clearly an acid-base reaction, according to the B-L definition.
Changes in pH When Solutions are Diluted
What happens to the pH of a solution if it is diluted? This is best understood with some worked examples.
Diluting an Acid Solution Diluting a Base Solution

a) What is the pH of a 0.25 molL-1 solution of HCl? a) What is the pH of a 0.50 molL-1 solution of KOH?
b) If 1.0mL of this solution was diluted to 250mL
b) If 5.0mL of this solution was diluted to 100mL with pure water, what is the new pH?
with pure water, what is the new pH?
Solution
Solution a) KOH(g)+ H2O(l) K+(aq)+ OH-(aq)
a) HCl(g)+ H2O(l) H3 O+(aq)+ Cl-(aq) Since KOH is a strong base, then [OH-] = 0.50 molL-1.
Since HCl is a strong acid, then [H3O+] = 0.25 molL-1. pOH = -log10[OH-] = 0.30. Now pOH + pH = 14
pH = -log10[H3O+] ∴ pH = 13.7
= -log10[0.25] b) Can use c1V1 = c2V2, or apply logic:
= -(-0.602) ∴ pH = 0.60 Diluting 1mL to 250mL is a dilution factor of 250.
b) Can use c1V1 = c2V2, or apply logic: ∴ [OH-] will be 250 times lower = 0.5 / 250 = 0.002
Diluting 5mL to 100mL is a dilution factor of 20.
∴ [H3O+] will be 20 times lower = 0.25 / 20 = 0.0125 pOH = -log10[OH-] = 2.70. ∴ pH = 11.3
pH = -log10[H3O+] = -log10[0.0125] (lower pH means less basic)
∴ pH = 1.9 (higher pH means less acidic)

3. Quantitative Analysis
Titration
Titration has been one of the most important techniques in Chemical Analysis for over a century.
Its use has diminished as electronic “probes” have become more widespread,
but it remains a “must-know” part of Chemistry.
The purpose of titration is Chemical Analysis. Titration can be used for any reaction for which you
It allows the concentration of an “unknown” solution can determine the “end-point”. Acid-base
to be determined by calculation, after measuring the neutralisations are ideal because indicators (or pH
volume of a known-concentration “standard solution” probes) can identify the end-point.
which reacts with a sample to reach the
“equivalence-point” (end-point). This is the point
where the reactants have been consumed in exactly
Burette
the molar ratio specified by the balanced equation. measures the volume of
“standard solution” needed
Titration Technique to reach the end-point.
• You must have a “standard solution” (next page)
• The burette should be rinsed with small quantities

Burette tap
of the standard solution, then filled with it. The level
controls the addition of
is then adjusted to the zero mark, ensuring that there
“standard solution” to the
are no air bubbles in the tap and delivery spout. “unknown solution”.
• An exact, measured volume of “unknown” solution

is placed in the reaction flask by pipette. (“Aliquot”)
• 1-2 drops of suitable indicator are added to the

flask. (See “Choosing the Indicator”, next page)
Conical flask
• The reaction proceeds by careful addition, with holds a measured volume of
mixing, of solution from the burette. Add drop-by- “unknown solution”, plus
drop approaching the end-point, until the indicator indicator.
just changes colour.
• Record the volume of solution delivered by burette. Filter Paper

Repeat 3 times, and average the “titres” (= burette under flask allows better
volumes). It is common to discard any values which seeing of indicator colour
are not in close agreement.
The rest is calculation.
Example Titration Calculation Step 1: Balanced equation (ALWAYS!!)

Titration of an “unknown” solution of KOH.
“Aliquot” (volume of samples) = 25.00 mL (by pipette) H2SO4 + 2KOH 2H2O + K2SO4
Standard solution; H2SO4 solution, C = 0.04252 molL-1. Step 2: Titration Formula

Indicator used: Bromothymol Blue (see next page) Ca x Va = Cb x Vb
a b
“Titres” (volumes from burette) Step 3 : Re-arrange and substitute.
measured (in mL): 34.25, 33.90, 33.85, 33.95. We are trying to find the concentration of the “unknown”
The first titre is discarded (not in close agreement with base, so make “Cb” the subject:
the others). Average titre = 33.90 mL
Cb = b x Ca x Va
Titration Formula: Ca x Va = Cb x Vb
a b a x Vb
= 2 x 0.04252 x 33.90
Ca, Cb = concentrations (molL-1) of acid & base solns 1 x 25.00
Va, Vb = volumes (mL) of each solution used.
a, b = molar co-efficients (balancing numbers) from = 0.1153
balanced equation for reaction.
∴ Concentration of KOH solution = 0.1153 molL-1.
®
Titration Technique (cont.)
Preparing a Standard Solution Selecting the Indicator
Choosing the best indicator to use is not just a
The key to titration is to have available a suitable
matter of which colour change you’d prefer looking
“standard solution”.
at.
The problem is to get a substance which is of very
Each indicator changes colour over a range of pH
high purity and stability to use as a “Primary
values, and the trick is to choose an indicator which
Standard” to make the solution from.
will change colour as close to the “end-point” as
possible.
The common acids like H2SO4, and bases like
NaOH, cannot be obtained in the pure state due to Colour in Changes
the way they rapidly absorb water and/or CO2 from Indicator Acid Base at pH
the atmosphere.
Litmus red blue 6-8
Suitable primary standard substances are: Bromothymol blue yellow blue 6.2 - 7.6
Methyl orange red yellow 3.1 - 4.4
• Base: anhydrous sodium carbonate, Na2CO3 Phenolphthalein clear pink 8.3 - 10.0
• Acid: oxalic acid, COOHCOOH (diprotic)
Isn’t the end-point always at neutral, pH = 7 ??
Calculate the mass of pure, (I hear you ask)
dry Primary Standard solute
required for solution, and No, its not! Remember (see p.12) that the “salts”
weigh out accurately formed by different combinations of strong or weak
acids and bases may have acidic or basic
properties. This means that, at the exact end point,
the pH might not be neutrality.
Strong Acid - Strong Base

Dissolve Solute in a small If titrating (say) H2SO4 against KOH,
amount of (pure) water in a you can expect the salt K2SO4 to be neutral.
clean beaker
Volumetric Flask
Therefore, choose Bromothymol blue,
which changes colour near pH = 7.
(Actually, it doesn’t really matter, because the last drop

Carefully transfer solution of chemical at the end point causes a huge pH change.)
into a Volumetric Flask. See graph next page.
Rinse beaker with small
Strong Acid - Weak Base

amounts of water & add
washings to flask
If titrating (say) H2SO4 against NH3, you
can expect the salt (NH4)2SO4 to be acidic.
Therefore, choose Methyl orange,

Add water to flask to fill it to which changes colour around
the mark. pH = 3-4.
(Use a dropper to avoid over-
shooting) Weak Acid - Strong Base
Insert stopper & mix well. If titrating (say) CH3COOH against KOH,
you can expect the salt (potassium
In the example (previous page) the standard ethanoate,CH3COOK) to be basic.
solution was H2SO4. This would not have been a
primary standard solution. Therefore, choose Phenolphthalein,
which changes colour around pH = 8-10.
It may have been “standardised” by titration against
a primary standard Na2CO3 solution, so that its
exact concentration is known. Then it can be used, Weak Acid - Weak Base
in turn, as the titration standard solution. Titrations with this combination are to be avoided,
because the end-point is not very “sharp”.
® Measuring pH During Titration

keep it simple science If a titration is carried out as shown below, with a pH meter or data-logger probe attached
to a computer, the pH changes occurring in the solution can be recorded and graphed.
Near the end-point,
12
pH changes rapidly
with each drop of
base added, so the
end-point can be
10
determined precisely.
Burette adds standard
The “vertical” part of this

base solution
graph extends so far each
pH
7
side of neutral, that the choice
of indicator is really not
Strong Acid critical... all indicators will
To start with,
& adding base has
change colour on the same
4
drop of added base.
Strong Base little effect
on pH
2
Titration
end-point
Volume of Base
0
12
Connection to
10
computer or
pH meter The end-point is at pH>7
because the salt is basic...
pH
Weak Acid
7
must choose indicator

& such as phenolphthalein
Strong Base
4
Flask contains
2
Titration
“unknown” acid end-point
solution Volume of Base Added
0
Strong Acid Now Complete

& Worksheet 7
Weak Base
12
Weak Acid
Magnetic stirrer pH probe &
10
electrode Weak Base

pH
7
The end-point is at
pH<7 because the
salt is acidic...
10
must choose
methyl orange, or
4
similar.
The end-point is
theoretically at pH=7 but
2
7
pH
is hard to find by Titration

indicator because each end-point
drop of base is causing
0
less pH change Volume of Base Added

4
??? In every case, the end-point is the centre of

2
the vertical (or near-vertical) part of the graph.

Volume of Base Added
The graph at left shows why weak acid-weak
base titrations are best avoided.
®
More About Titration Graphs
14
All the titration graphs on the previous page were examples of a
titration where the “unknown” solution (in the flask) was an acid.
It was titrated by adding known “standard” base solution from
12
the burette.
Strong Acid
10
You can tell from the graphs, because the pH starts low (acidic) &
and ends high (basic) as it proceeds beyond the end point. Strong Base
Of course, a titration can be done in the reverse way.
pH
7
Look at the graph at right. It begins high (basic) and ends low
(acidic). This means the “unknown” in the flask was a base and
4
acid was added from the burette to move through the end point.
2
You can also look for clues as to whether the acid & base were Titration
“strong” or “weak”. The precise pH depends on concentrations end-point
of solutions, but generally speaking: Volume of Acid
0
• if the “acid end” of the graph begins or ends near ph = 0, then
14
the acid must be strong.
• if the “acid end” of the graph begins or ends near ph = 3-4,
12
then the acid must be weak. Weak Acid
&
10
• if the “base end” of the graph begins or ends near ph = 14, then Strong Base
the base must be strong.
pH
• if the “base end” of the graph begins or ends near ph = 10-11,

7
then the base must be weak.
Compare the starting and ending pH values of these 2 graphs.

4
Don’t forget that, before electronic pH-measuring devices,

the end point was determined solely by the
2
colour change of an indicator.

Titration
end-point
Conductivity Graphs
0
Volume of Base Added

Measuring the pH is not the only graphical method for finding
the end point of a titration. Another way is to measure the
electrical conductivity of the solution. Titration by
Conductivity Graph
Conductivity of aqueous solutions is mainly dependant upon the
concentration of ions in the solution. This reaches a minimum at
Conductivity of solution
the end-point because:
H3O+(aq) + OH-(aq) 2H2O(l)
...neutralisation consumes these ions and the conductivity of

molecular water is essentially zero. Minimum
value
Of course, the presence of other “spectator ions” guarantees
that there is always some degree of conductivity, but the end-
Titration
point of the titration is marked by a distinct minimum-value point end-point
on a conductivity graph. Volume of
Reagent added
®
Dissociation Constants & pKa
You were previously introduced to the... Perhaps you didn’t realise it then, but this
Ion-Product of Water expression arises from the equilibrium constant for
When pure water undergoes self-ionisation... the dynamic equilibrium.
2 H2O(l) OH-(aq) + H3O+(aq) Equilibrium Constant

When pure water undergoes self-ionisation the
...the concentrations of OH- O+
and H3 are equal and equilibrium constant expression is:
both have the value of 1.00x10-7 molL-1 at 25oC.
Kreact = [OH-] [H3O+ ]
A useful way to describe the equilibrium is called [H2O]2
the “Ion-Product” for water.
However, in any aqueous solution, the
Kw = [OH-] [H3O+ ] = 1x10-14 at 25oC. concentration of water molecules is essentially the
same. ie, it has a constant value.
If each part of this expression is manipulated by
taking the negative logarithm (-log), you get To simplify the expression, this value is “absorbed”
into Kreact to give the useful expression “Kw” shown
pKw = pOH + pH = 14 at left.
(Note that the lower case “p” in front of an expression
is taken to mean “-log” of that value.)
Dissociation Constant for an Acid

Similarly, we can write a general equation for the Ka Values for Strong & Weak Acids
dissociation of any acid as:
Consider a strong acid, such as HCl.
HA + H2O H3O+ + A-
HCl + H2O H3O+ + Cl-
and its equilibrium constant as:
Ka = [H3O+ ] [Cl-]
Ka = [H3 O+ ] [A-] [HCl]
[HA][H2O]
Since dissociation is essentially 100%, you can
Once again, the concentration of water can be taken figure out that the value of Ka is very large... in fact
as a constant value and “absorbed” into “Ka”, the is thought to be about 109, so pKa ≅ -9.
“acid-dissociation constant”.
Now consider a weak acid, such as ethanoic acid.
Ka = [H3 O+ ] [A-]
CH3COOH + H2O H3O+ + CH3COO-
[HA]
And, (we are sure you saw this coming!) it is often Ka = [H3O+ ] [CH3COO-]
convenient to take the negative logarithm of this [CH3COOH]
value and call it “pKa”
Since only about 1% of molecules dissociate, you
can figure out that the value of Ka will be much
pKa = -log10(Ka) smaller and pKa very much larger.
In fact, pKa = 4.76
Values of pKa allow you to calculate the pH of weak acid solutions.

(continued over...)
® Using pKa values

Example Problem 1: pH from pKa Example Problem 2: pKa from pH

Hydrofluoric acid (HF) is a weak acid with A weak acid solution is of concentration
pKa = 3.17 [HA] = 0.350 molL-1. The pH is measured to be 4.50.
a) Write an equation for its B-L dissociation in a) Write expressions for the dissociation equilibrium
water. and for Ka.
b) Identify the conjugate pairs involved.
c) Write an expression for Ka. b) Find the value for Ka and pKa.
d) Calculate the pH of a 0.200 molL-1 HF solution.
Solution Solution
a) HF + H2O H3O+ + F- a) HA + H2O H3O+ + A-
b) HF acts as an acid; conjugate base is F- b) Ka = [H3O+ ] [A-]

H2O acts as base; conjugate acid is H3O+ [HA]
c) Ka = [H3O+ ] [F-] Since pH = 4.50, then [H3O+ ] = antilog (-4.50)

[HF] ∴ [H3O+ ] = 3.16 x 10-5 molL-1.
d) Since pKa = 3.17, then Ka = antilog (-3.17) ∴ Ka = [H3O+ ] [A-] = (3.16x10-5)2 / 0.350
∴ Ka = 6.76 x 10-4 [HA]
let [H3O+ ] = “x” at equilibrium. So [F-] = “x” also. Note:

then Ka = x2 / (0.200-x) = 6.76 x 10-4 [HA] at equilibrium should really be
(that may require some discussion) [HA]= 0.35 - 3.16x10-5, but we have applied the same
approximation as in problem 1. You may verify the
This last expression is a quadratic equation and validity of this yourself.
can be solved using the “quadratic function”, after
some re-arrangement.
Continuing from above:
However, for weak acids the value “x” compared to
the initial concentration (0.200) is generally so Ka = [H3O+ ] [A-] = (3.16x10-5)2 / 0.350
small as to be insignificant. Therefore, the [HA]
expression (0.200-x) can be taken to be ≅ 0.200. = 2.85 x 10-9
So, a good approximation is and pKa = -log (Ka) = 8.54

Ka = x2 / 0.200 = 6.76x10-4
∴x= 0.200 x 6.76x10-4 (Comparing this pKa to other values, it shows that
= 1.35x10-4 molL-1. this (ficticious) acid is a VERY weak acid compared
to most)
pH = - log[H3O+ ] = 3.87
Let’s check on our approximation:

Now Complete
What is 0.200-x? 0.200 - 0.000135 = 0.199865. Worksheet 8
This so close to 0.200 that our approximation is
well within the precision of the question and
therefore is justified.
®
Buffers
A “Buffer”, or “buffered solution”, is a solution A Natural Buffer System
which can absorb significant amounts of acid or The classic example of a natural buffer system is
base with minimal change in pH. the way our blood is maintained at a pH = 7.4,
despite the fact that we keep exchanging CO2
Biology students will be aware that in all living (acidic), excreting wastes, absorbing foods, etc.
things it is vital that the conditions within the
body/cells are kept very constant. Living things The main chemical buffer in our blood is a solution
cannot function properly if their “internal containing both the bicarbonate ion (HCO3- ) and its
environment” undergoes large changes in: conjugate base, the carbonate ion ( CO32- ).
• temperature, • water content,

• salt concentration, (and many other chemicals) HCO3- is Amphiprotic
AND The bicarbonate ion is amphiprotic, which adds a
• pH level. further dimension to its buffering ability.
The fluids inside all living things are buffered, so If the environment is acidic, HCO3- acts as a base:
that pH remains remarkably constant, despite proton transfer
changes in the external environment, eating acidic
food, breathing, excreting, etc, all of which could H3O+(aq) + HCO3-(aq) H2CO3(aq)+ H2O(aq)
alter the body’s pH.
If the environment is basic, HCO3- acts as an acid:
How do Buffers Work?
All buffers are solutions containing a weak acid and its proton transfer
conjugate base.
OH-(aq) + HCO3-(aq) CO32-(aq)+ H2O(aq)
So, the total buffering system can be summarised
weak acid conjugate base
as:
This equilibrium constitutes a buffer solution, so long as - H+ - H+
there are significant amounts of the ethanoate ion H2CO3 HCO3- CO32-
(CH3COO-) present. (e.g. by adding CH3COONa) + H+ + H+
If acid is added (i.e. [H3O+] increases) (pH lower) This system is highly effective at maintaing the pH
then (by Le Chatelier’s Principle) the equilibrium shifts of our blood. Be aware that it is not the only buffer
left, absorbing H3O+ and lowering [H3O+] again. operating.
If base is added (ie [H3O+] decreases) (pH higher) then

(by Le Chatelier’s Principle) the equilibrium shifts right, As you’ll learn below, Amphiprotic substances
making H3O+ and raising [H3O+] again. are useful in emergencies, too.
This way, the pH remains quite constant, despite acid or
base being added.
Using Neutralisation on a So, if someone gets splashed with a strong base,

Chemical Spill neutralise it by throwing a bucket of acid over
Whether its a small vinegar spill at home, or a them, right?
sulfuric acid tanker leaking after a road accident, a
knowledge of neutralisation can help damage Wrong! Unless you can guarantee to apply the
control and safety. exact molar quantity for titration-like precision,
then using an acid on an alkali spill (or vice-versa)
can do more harm than good, and would be
extremely dangerous as a first-aid method.
Worksheets 9 & 10
The best thing to do is use an Amphiprotic

Finish-off by
Completing
substance such as bicarbonate ion (e.g. sodium

bicarbonate, NaHCO3).
As shown by the reactions above, it can react and

Photo by “connman21”
neutralise either an acid or a base, and once the

neutralisation is achieved, it stops working and
poses no further threat in its own right.
It does its job, and then stops automatically...

perfect!

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KISS Resources for NSW Syllabuses & Australian Curriculum.

® KEEP IT SIMPLE SCIENCE

What is this topic about?

2. Using Bronsted-Lowry Theory

keep it simple science

Modern Laboratory Indicators

Indicator Acid Water Base

Litmus pink purple blue

Phenolphthalein clear clear red/pink

Methyl Orange red yellow yellow

Bromothymol blue yellow green/blue blue

Choosing an Indicator Why are so many indicators needed?

Nitric acid HNO3(aq) Hydrogen nitrate H+(aq)+ NO3-(aq)

The Acid-Base Reaction: Neutralisation

Inert Gases have no

If you study this equation you will see that the

All the familiar laboratory acids are solutions Examples:

• react with water to form an acid

Metals React With Acids

2HCl(aq) + CaCO3(s) CO2(g) + H2O(l) + CaCl2(aq)

Full ionic equation:

Net ionic equation: (subtract spectators)

NH3 + H2SO4 (NH4)2SO4 3HCl + Al(OH)3 3H2O + AlCl3

These early ideas were all empirical descriptions of

However, the Arrhenius Theory had some + Cl- +

• It could not explain why some ions (which do NOT

keep it simple science

However, this is NOT the full story!

This bond is polar,

WEAK Acid = Partial Ionisation in Solution

In the examples above, acid “Q” has a [H3O+] value

® pH of Strong & Weak Acids

1.00 molL-1 Hydrochloric Acid

Sure enough, by experiment you will have

CH3COOH(aq)+H2O(l) H3O+(aq)+ CH3COO-(aq)

Since this is a WEAK ACID, the ionisation is incomplete.

If [CH3COOH] = 1.00 molL-1, then [H3O+] << 1.00 molL-1

• That’s why pH = 7 is neutral on the pH scale!

keep it simple science

a) What is the pOH? so [H3O+] = Inverse(log(-9.7))

Conjugate pair Conjugate pair Conjugate pair Conjugate pair

® Acidic and Basic Salts

Practical Work: Testing the pH of Various Salt Solutions

Acidic Salts Basic Salts

hydrogen + water sulfate + hydronium carbonate + water hydrogen + hydroxide

HSO4-(aq) + H2O(l) SO42-(aq) + H3O+(aq) CO32-(aq) + H2O(l) HCO3-(aq) + OH-(aq)

Once again, if sodium carbonate was used, there

HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) H2O(l) + NaCl(aq)

Simple! Weak forms forms

NH3(aq) + H2O(l) NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)

Acid-Base Reactions without H3O+, OH- or H2O

Diluting an Acid Solution Diluting a Base Solution

keep it simple science

• The burette should be rinsed with small quantities

• An exact, measured volume of “unknown” solution

• 1-2 drops of suitable indicator are added to the

• Record the volume of solution delivered by burette. Filter Paper

Example Titration Calculation Step 1: Balanced equation (ALWAYS!!)

Standard solution; H2SO4 solution, C = 0.04252 molL-1. Step 2: Titration Formula

Strong Acid - Strong Base

(Actually, it doesn’t really matter, because the last drop

Strong Acid - Weak Base

Therefore, choose Methyl orange,