World Geography

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GEOGRAPHY: 1
THE UNIVERSE AND SOLAR SYSTEM
Content:
The Universe
Origin of the universe
The Units of Measuring distances in the Universe
GALAXY
Our Own Galaxy: The Milky Way
STARS
Birth and Evolution of a Star
Formation of a Protostar
Formation of a Star from Protostar
Final Stages of a Star̛ s Life
Formation of Supernova Star and Neutron Star
Black Holes
The Solar System
Sun
Planets
Satellites (or Moons)
Asteroids
Comets
Meteors
The Shape of the Earth
Evidence of the earth’s Sphericity
The Earth’s Movement
Day and Night
The Earth’s Revolution
Varying Lengths of Day and Night
The Altitude of the Midday Sun
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Seasonal Changes and their Effects on Temperature

Dawn and Twilight
ECLIPSE
Lunar Eclipse
Solar Eclipse
The Geographical Grid- Latitude and Longitude
Latitude
Longitude
Longitude and Time
Standard Time and Time Zones
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The Universe N
Student Notes:
The vast space surrounding us is called universe. It is mostly empty space. The universe
includes everything that exists: the most distant stars, planets, satellites, as well as our own
earth and all the objects on it. Nobody knows how big the universe is or whether it has any
limits. However, it is estimated that the Universe contains 100 billion galaxies, each of which
comprises 100 billion stars. The sun which sustains all the life on our planet is only one of the
billions and billions of stars that exist in this universe, whereas the planet earth on which we
live is only a tiny speck in this vast space called universe. The earth is one of the eight planets,
all of which revolve around a central star called sun. The billions stars which exists in the
universe are not distributed uniformly in space. These stars occur in the form of clusters (or
groups) of billions of stars called galaxies. Thus, in order to study the constitution of this
universe we have to first discuss the objects like galaxies, stars, planets and satellites, etc.,
which are found in the universe.
Origin of the universe

The most popular argument regarding the origin of the universe is the Big Bang Theory. It is
also called expanding universe hypothesis. Edwin Hubble, in 1920, provided evidence that the
universe is expanding. As time passes, galaxies move further and further apart. The distance
between the galaxies is found to be increasing and thereby, the universe is considered to be
expanding. Here, the expansion of universe means increase in space between the galaxies.
However, Scientists believe that though the space between the galaxies is increasing,
observations do not support the expansion of galaxies in itself.
An alternative to this was Hoyle’s concept of steady state. It considered the universe to be
roughly the same at any point of time. It did not have a beginning and did not have an end.
However, with greater evidence becoming available about the expanding universe, scientific
community at present favours argument of expanding universe.
Stages in Big Bang Theory

(i) In the beginning, all matter forming the universe existed in one place in the form of a “tiny ball”
(singular atom) with an unimaginably small volume, infinite temperature and infinite
density.
(ii) At the Big Bang the “tiny ball” exploded violently. This led to a huge expansion. It is now
generally accepted that the event of big bang took place 13.7 billion years before the present.
The expansion continues even to the present day. As it grew, some energy was converted into
matter. There was particularly rapid expansion within fractions of a second after the bang.
Thereafter, the expansion has slowed down. Within first three minutes from the Big Bang
event, the first atom began to form.
(iii) Within 300,000 years from the Big Bang, temperature dropped to 4,500 K and gave rise
to atomic matter. The universe became transparent.
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Student Notes:
Evidences in support of Big Bang Theory
Evidence Interpretation
The light from other galaxies is The other galaxies are moving away from us.
red-shifted.
The further away the galaxy, the The most likely explanation is that the whole universe is expanding.
more its light is red-shifted. This supports the theory that the start of the universe could have
been from a single explosion.
Cosmic Microwave Background The relatively uniform background radiation is the remains of energy
created just after the Big Bang.
According to Nebular Hypothesis the planets were formed out of a cloud of material associated with
a youthful sun, which was slowly rotating. The theory was give by German Philosopher Immanuel Kant
(Though he did not use word Nebular) and later revised by Mathematician Laplace in 1796. You
will learn about Kant in Moral Thinkers (GS Paper IV).
The Units of Measuring distances in the Universe

GALAXY
 The extremely vast distances between the various heavenly bodies like the stars and
planets can be well expressed in terms Astronomical Unit (A.U), Light year, and Parsec.
Galaxies are building blocks of the universe. Galaxy is a vast system of billions of stars, which
 Astronomical unit is defined as the mean distance from the earth to the sun. One AU is
also contains a large8 number of gas clouds mainly of hydrogen gas (where stars are born), and
equal to 1.5×10 kilometres.
dust, isolated in space from similar system.
 Light year is the distance travelled by light in one year. It is equal to 9.46×10¹²
kilometres.
Classification of galaxies
 Parsec: It represents the distance at which the radius of Earth’s orbit subtends an angle
Galaxies are usually
of one second classified
of arc. onOne
the basis of equals
parsec their shape and3.26
about are of three types
light-years or :30.9 trillion
kilometres.
1) Spiral
2) Elliptical
3) Irregular
Some of the brightest galaxies are elliptical galaxies but spiral galaxies are usually much bigger
than others. We live on the outer edge of a spiral type of galaxy called milky way.
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Our Own Galaxy: The Milky Way N

Student Notes:
 It is a spiral type of galaxy.
 It is about 100000 light years in diameter and has disk-shaped structure.
 The Milky Way galaxy is rotating slowly about its centre in the counter-clockwise
direction.
 All the stars (The sun too along with the solar system) rotate about the centre of the
Milky Way galaxy.
 The disc of stars is quite thick at the centre representing a relatively high concentration
of the stars at the centre of the galaxy.
 The sun is far away(~27000 LY) from the centre of the Milky Way galaxy.
 Since the Milky Way galaxy appears like a river of light in the night sky running from
one corner of the sky to the other, it is called ̒Akash Ganga ̓.
STARS
Stars are the heavenly bodies like the sun that are extremely hot and have light of their own.
Stars are made up of vast clouds of hydrogen gas, some helium and dust. In all the stars
(including the sun), hydrogen atoms are continuously being converted into helium atoms and a
large amount of nuclear energy in the form of heat and light is released during this process. It is
this heat and light which makes a star shine. Thus, a star is a hydrogen nuclear energy furnace,
so big that it holds together by itself. The stars are classified according to their physical
characteristics like size, colour, brightness and temperature.
Stars are of three colours: red, white and blue. The colour of a star is determined by its surface
temperature. The stars which have comparatively low surface temperature are red, the star
having high surface temperature are white whereas those stars which have very high surface
temperature are blue on colour. Some of the important example of the stars are: Pole (or
Polaris), Sirius, Vega, Capella, Alpha centauri, Beta centauri, Proxima centauri, Spica, Regulus,
Pleiades, Aldebaram, Arcturus, Betelgeuse, and of course, the Sun.
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All the stars (except the pole star) appear to move from east to west in the night sky. This can N
be explained as follows: the earth itself rotates on its axis from west to east. So, when the earth Student Notes:
rotates on its axis from west to east, the stars appear to move in the opposite direction, from
east to west. Thus, the apparent motion of the stars in the sky is due to the rotation of the
earth on its axis. Since we are ourselves on the earth, the earth appears to be stationary to us
but the stars appear to be moving in the sky. Thus, it is due to the rotation of earth on its axis
that we see the stars changing their positions in the sky as the night progresses.
Birth and Evolution of a Star

The raw material for the formation of a star is mainly hydrogen gas and some helium gas. The
life cycle of a star begins with the gathering of hydrogen gas and helium gas present in the
galaxies to form dense clouds of these gases. The stars are then formed by the gravitational
collapse of these over-dense clouds of gases in the galaxy. Let us deal the various stages in the
formation of star-
Formation of a Protostar
In the beginning, the gases in the galaxies were mainly hydrogen with some helium. However,
they were at a very low temperature of about, -173°C. Since the gases were very cold, they
formed very dense clouds in the galaxies. In addition, the gas cloud was very large, so the
gravitational pull between the various gas molecules was quite large. Due to large gravitational
force, the gas cloud started contracting as a whole. Ultimately, the gas were compressed so
much that they formed a highly condensed object called a protostar. A protostar looks a like a
huge, dark, ball of gas. The formation of protostar is only a stage in the formation of complete
star. A protostar does not emit light. The next stage consists in the transformation of this
highly condensed object called protostar into a star which emits light.
Formation of a Star from Protostar
The protostar is a highly dense gaseous mass, which continues to contract further due to
tremendous gravitational force. As the protostar begins to contract further, the hydrogen
atoms present in gas cloud collide with one another more frequently. These collisions of
hydrogen atoms raise the temperature of protostar more and more. The process of
contraction of protostar continues for about a million years during which the inner
temperature in the protostar increases from a mere, -173°C in the beginning to about 107°C. At
this extremely high temperature, nuclear fusion reactions of hydrogen start taking place. In this
process, four small hydrogen nuclei fuse to produce a bigger helium nucleus and a tremendous
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amount of energy is produced in the form of heat and light. The energy produced during the N
fusion of hydrogen to form helium makes the protostar glow and it becomes a star. This star Student Notes:
shines steadily for a very, very long time.
Final Stages of a Star̛ s Life

In the first part of the final stage of its life, a star enters the red-giant phase where it becomes
a red-giant star. After that, depending on its mass, the red-giant star can die out by becoming a
white dwarf star, or by exploding as a supernova star, which ultimately ends in the formation
of neutron star and black holes.
(1) Red- Giant Phase. Initially, the stars contain mainly hydrogen. With the passage of
time, hydrogen gets converted into helium from the centre outwards. Now, when
all the hydrogen present in the core of the star gets converted into helium, then
the fusion reactions in the core would stop. Therefore, ultimately, the matter in the
core of the star would consist only of helium. Due to the stoppage of fusion
reactions, the pressure inside the core of the star would diminish, and the core
would begin to shrink under its own gravity. In the outer shell or envelope of the
star, however, some hydrogen still remains, the fusion reactions would continue to
liberate energy but with much reduced intensity. Due to all these changes, the
overall equilibrium in the star is upset and in order to readjust it, the star has to
expand considerably in its exterior region(outer region). Thus the star becomes
very big ( it becomes a giant), and its colour changes to red. At this stage, the star
enters the red-giant phase and it is said to become a red-giant star. Our own star,
the sun, will ultimately turn into a red-giant star after about 5000 million year from
now. The expanding outer shell of the sun will then become so big that it will
engulf the inner planets like mercury and Venus, and even the earth.
When a star reaches the red-giant phase, then its future depends on its initial
mass. Two cases arise:
(a) If the initial mass of the star is comparable to that of the sun, then the red-
giant star loses its expanding outer shell and its core shrinks to form a
white dwarf star which ultimately dies out as a dense lump of matter into
the space.
(b) If the initial mass of the star is much more than of the sun, then the red-
giant star formed from its explodes in the form of a supernova star, and the
core of this exploding supernova star can shrink to form a neutron star or
black hole.
(2) Formation of White Dwarf Star: If the mass of red-giant star is similar to that of the
sun, the red-giant star would lose its expanding outer shell or envelope because
then the comparatively smaller amount of hydrogen fuel present in it will be used
up rapidly, and only the core of the red-giant star will gradually shrink into an
extremely dense ball of matter due to gravitation. Because of this enormous
shrinking of helium core, the temperature of core would rise greatly and start
another set of nuclear fusion reactions in which helium is converted into heavier
elements like carbon, and an extremely large amount of energy will be released.
When the mass of a star is similar to the mass of the sun (which is comparatively a
small mass), then all the helium is converted into carbon in a short time and then
further fusion reactions stop completely. Now, as the energy being produced inside
the star stops, the core of star contracts (shrinks) under its own weight. And it
becomes a white dwarf star.
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A great Indian scientist Chandrasekhar made a detailed study of the stars which end their lives Student Notes:
by becoming white dwarf stars. Chandrasekhar concluded that the start having a mass less than
1.44 times the solar mass (or sun’s mass) would end up as white dwarf stars. The maximum
limit of 1.44 times the solar mass (for a star to end its life as a white dwarf) is known as
‘Chandrasekhar Limit’. If, however, a star has a mass more than 1.44 times the solar mass or
sun’s mass, then it will not die out by becoming a white dwarf star. This is because due to
greater mass, it will have more nuclear fuel in it, which will not get exhausted in a short time.
The stars having mass much more than solar mass (or sun’s mass) led to supernova explosions
and end their lives by becoming neutron stars or black holes. This point will become clearer
from the following discussion:
Formation of Supernova Star and Neutron Star: When a very big star is in the red-giant phase,
then being big, its core contains much more helium. This big core made up of helium continues
to contract (shrink) under the action of gravity producing higher and higher temperature. At
this extremely high temperature, fusion of helium into carbon takes place in the core and lot of
energy is produced. Since the star was very big and contained enormous nuclear fuel helium, so
a tremendous amount of nuclear energy is produced very rapidly which causes the outer shell
(or envelope) of this red-giant star to explode with a brilliant flash like a nuclear bomb. This
type of ‘exploding star is called supernova. The energy released in one second of a supernova
explosion is equal to the energy released by the sun in about 100 years. This tremendous
energy would light up the sky for many days. When a supernova explosion takes place, then
clouds of gases in the envelope of red-giant star are liberated into the space and these gases
act as raw material for the formation of new stars. The heavy core left behind after the
supernova explosion continues to contract and ultimately becomes a neutron star (if mass of
star was 1.44 time to 3 times the Sun) or Black Hole (if the mass of star was more than 3 times
the sun).
A neutron star contains matter in even denser form than found in white dwarf stars. Although
a number of white dwarfs have been detected, but no one has yet observed a neutron star.
This may be because neutron stars are very faint. A spinning neutron star emits radio waves
and is called a pulsar.
Black Holes
A black hole is an object with such a strong gravitational field that even light cannot escape
from its surface. A black hole may be formed when a massive object (very big object)
undergoes uncontrolled contraction (a collapse) because of the inward pull of its own gravity.
We will now describe how the black holes are formed from neutron stars after the supernova
explosions of big stars. When a supernova explosion of a very massive star takes place, then
the gaseous matter present in the outer shell(or envelope) of the star is scattered into space
but the core of the star survives during supernova explosion. This heavy core of the supernova
star continues to contract (shrink) and becomes a neutron star. The fate of this neutron star
depends on its mass. If the neutron star is very heavy, then due to enormous gravitational
attraction, it would continue to contract indefinitely. And the vast amount of matter present in
a neutron star would be ultimately packed into a mere point object. Such an infinitely dense
object is called a black hole. Thus black holes are formed by the indefinite contraction of
heavy neutron stars under the action of their own gravity. The neutron stars shrink so much
and become so dense that the resulting black holes do not allow anything to escape, not even
light, from their surface. This is because the black holes have tremendous gravitational force.
Since even light cannot escape from blackholes, therefore, black holes are invisible, they
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cannot be seen. The presence of a black hole can be felt only by the effect of its gravitational N
field on its neighbouring objects in the sky. For example, if we see a star moving in a circle Student Notes:
with no other visible stars in the centre, then we can conclude that there is a black hole at the
centre. And it is the gravitational pull exerted by this black hole which is making the star goes in
a circle around it.
Dark matter1
Dark matter is a type of matter hypothesized in astronomy and cosmology to account for a
large part of the mass that appears to be missing from the universe. Dark matter cannot be
seen directly with telescopes; evidently it neither emits nor absorbs light or other
electromagnetic radiation at any significant level. Dark Matter is not exactly balck hole. The
composition of the constituents of cold dark matter is currently unknown. It could be group of
black holes, dwarfs or some new particle.
The Solar System

The solar system consists of the sun, the eight planets and their satellites, and thousands of
other smaller heavenly bodies such as asteroids, comets and meteors. The Solar System is at a
distance of about 27,000 light years from the centre of the Milky Way galaxy and is about 5
billion years old. The sun is at the centre of the solar system and all these bodies are revolving
around it. The gravitational pull of the sun keeps all the solar system and all the planets and
other objects revolving round it. Thus, the motion of all members of the solar system is
governed mainly by the gravitational force of the sun.
The solar system is dominated by the sun. The sun accounts for almost 99.9 percent of the
matter in the whole solar system. The sun is also the source of all the energy in the solar
system.
Sun
The sun is the head of solar family or solar system. Compared with the millions of other stars,
the sun is a medium sized star and of average brightness... Though sun is the nearest star to the
earth, even then it is at a distance of 150×106kilometres from the earth and light, travelling at a
great speed of 300,000 kilometres per second, takes about 8 minutes and 20 seconds to reach
us from the sun. However, light takes about 4.3 years to reach us from the next nearest star
called proxima centauri.
Sun is not a solid body. The sun is a sphere of hot gases. It consists mostly of hydrogen gas..
The nuclear fusion reactions taking place in the centre of the sun( in which hydrogen is
converted into helium) produce a tremendous amount of energy in the form of heat and light.
It is this energy, which makes the sun shine From the Earth, we see only the surface of the sun.
The shining surface of the sun is called photosphere. The surface of the sun (photosphere)
appears like a bright disc to us, it is also known as disc of the sun. It is this bright, shining disc of
the sun (or photosphere) which radiates energy and acts as a source of energy for us. The
temperature at the sun (or the temperature of the bright disc of the sun) is about 6000°C. The
temperature at the centre of the sun is about 15 million °C. The outer layer of the sun’s
atmosphere made up of thin, hot gases is called corona. The corona is visible only during a total
eclipse of the sun.
1
Details of dark matter and dark energy will be discussed in Science and Technology notes.
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Student Notes:
Planets
Planets are solid heavenly bodies which revolve round a star (e.g. the sun) in closed elliptical
paths. A planet is made of rock and metal. It has no light of its own. A planet shines because it
reflects the light of the sun. since the planets are much nearer than the stars, they appear to be
big and do not twinkle at night. The planets move round the sun from west to east, so the
relative positions of the planets keep changing day by day. The planets are very small as
compared to the sun or other stars. There are 8 major planets including the earth. These
planets in the order of increasing distances from the sun are given below-
1. Mercury (Budha): it is nearest to the sun.

2. Venus ( Shukra)
3. Earth (Prithvi)
4. Mars (Mangal)
5. Jupiter (Brihaspati): Biggest Planet.
6. Saturn (Shani)
7. Uranus (Arun)
8. Neptune (Varun)
IAU new definition of planet

The definition of planet set in 2006 by the International Astronomical Union (IAU) states
that, in the Solar System, a planet is a celestial body which:
 is in orbit around the Sun,
 has sufficient mass to assume hydrostatic equilibrium (a nearly round shape), and
 Has "cleared the neighbourhood" around its orbit. For this they become the
dominant gravitational body in their orbit in the Solar System. Pluto lacks it.
Any object if meet the first two criteria but doesn’t meet the 3rd criteria is considered a
dwarf planet. Thus Pluto is a dwarf planet.
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Student Notes:
Planets and dwarf planets of our solar system (Milky Way)
The 8 planets have been divided into two groups. All the planets of a particular group have
some common features. The two groups of planets are:
1. Terrestrial Planets
2. Jovian Planets
The four nearest planets to the Sun, Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars, are called terrestrial
planets, because their structure is similar to earth.
The common features of the terrestrial planets are:
1. They have a thin, rocky crust.

2. They have a mantle rich in iron and magnesium.
3. They have a core of heavy metals.
4. They have thin atmosphere.
5. They have very few natural satellites (or moons) or no satellites.
They have varied terrain such as volcanoes, canyons, mountains, and craters. The planets which
are outside the orbit of Mars are called Jovian planets because their structure is similar to that
of Jupiter. The Jovian planets are: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune.
The common features of the Jovian planets are:
1. They are all gaseous bodies (made of gases)

2. They have ring system around them.
3. They have a large number of natural satellites (or moons).
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Solar System Fact Sheet N

(For reference only. Do not try to memorise facts.) Student Notes:
Sun VE
MER NU EAR MO MA JUPIT SATU URA NEPT PLUT
CURY S TH ON RS ER RN NUS UNE O
Mass (1024k 1,988 4.8 5.9 0.0 0.6 0.013
g) ,500 0.33 7 7 73 42 1898 568 86.8 102 1
Diameter (k 1,392 12, 12, 347 67 142,9 120,5 51,11 49,52
m) ,684 4879 104 756 5 92 84 36 8 8 2390
Density (kg/ 1,408 524 551 334 39
m3) 5427 3 4 0 33 1326 687 1271 1638 1830
Gravity (m/
s2) 3.7 8.9 9.8 1.6 3.7 23.1 9 8.7 11 0.6
Escape
Velocity (k 10. 11.
m/s) 4.3 4 2 2.4 5 59.5 35.5 21.3 23.5 1.1
Rotation -
Period (hou 1407. 583 23. 655 24. -
rs) 6 2.5 9 .7 6 9.9 10.7 -17.2 16.1 153.3
Length of 4222. 280 708 24.
Day (hours) 6 2 24 .7 7 9.9 10.7 17.2 16.1 153.3
Distance
from
Sun (106 k 108 149 0.3 22 1433. 2872. 4495.
m) 57.9 .2 .6 84 7.9 778.6 5 5 1 5870
Perihelion ( 107 147 0.3 20 1352. 2741. 4444.
106 km) 46 .5 .1 63 6.6 740.5 6 3 5 4435
Aphelion (1 108 152 0.4 24 1514. 3003. 4545. 7304.
06 km) 69.8 .9 .1 06 9.2 816.6 5 6 7 3
Orbital
Period (day 224 365 27. 68 10,74 30,58 59,80 90,58
s) 88 .7 .2 3 7 4331 7 9 0 8
Orbital
Velocity (k 29. 24.
m/s) 47.9 35 8 1 1 13.1 9.7 6.8 5.4 4.7
Orbital
Inclination (
degrees) 7 3.4 0 5.1 1.9 1.3 2.5 0.8 1.8 17.2
Orbital 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Eccentricity 0.205 07 17 55 94 0.049 0.057 0.046 0.011 0.244
Axial
Tilt (degree 177 23. 25.
s) 0.01 .4 4 6.7 2 3.1 26.7 97.8 28.3 122.5
Mean
Temperatur
e (C) 167 464 15 -20 -65 -110 -140 -195 -200 -225
Surface
Pressure (b 0.0 Unkn Unkn Unkn Unkn
ars) 0 92 1 0 1 own own own own 0
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Number of N
Moons 0 0 1 0 2 67 62 27 14 5 Student Notes:
Ring
System? No No No No No Yes Yes Yes Yes No
Global
Magnetic Unkn
Field? Yes No Yes No No Yes Yes Yes Yes own
(Source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/)
Satellites (or Moons)

A satellite (or moon) is a solid heavenly body that revolves round a planet. The moon revolves
round the earth, so moon is a satellite of the earth.. Except Mercury and Venus all other
planets of solar system have satellites. The satellites have no light of their own. They shine
because they reflect the light of the sun. It should be noted that though we commonly call
earth’s natural satellite as moon, the satellites of all other planets can also be called their
moons.
Earth’s moon key points-

 The moon is a natural satellite of the earth.
 Moon revolves round the earth on a definite, regular path- the moon’s orbit.
 Gravitational attraction of the earth holds the moon in its orbits.
 The moon is about one-fourth the size of the earth in diameter and weight is about
one-eighth that of the earth.
 Moon has no air or water. Its surface is covered with hard and loose dirt, craters and
mountains.
 On the moon, days are extremely hot and nights are very cold.
 Because the moon is nearer to the earth, it appears to be much bigger than the stars.
 The moon has no light of its own, it is light from the sun which is reflected by the
moon’s surface.
Origin of Moon
In 1838, Sir George Darwin suggested that initially, the earth and the moon formed a single
rapidly rotating body. The whole mass became a dumb-bell-shaped body and eventually it
broke. It was also suggested that the material forming the moon was separated from what we
have at present the depression occupied by the Pacific Ocean.
However, the present scientists do not accept either of the explanations. It is now generally
believed that the formation of moon, as a satellite of the earth, is an outcome of ‘giant impact’
or what is described as “the big splat”. A body of the size of one to three times that of mars
collided into the earth sometime shortly after the earth was formed. It blasted a large part of
the earth into space. This portion of blasted material then continued to orbit the earth and
eventually formed into the present moon about 4.44 billion years ago.
Other Objects in the sky: In addition to the stars, planets and satellite, there are three other
objects which we can occasionally see in the sky during night. These are asteroids, comets and
meteors. We will discuss all of them one by one.
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Asteroids N
Student Notes:
Asteroids are very small planets of rock and metal which revolve round the sun mainly between
the orbits of mars and Jupiter. Actually, asteroids are a belt of a kind of debris, which somehow
failed to assemble into a planet and keep revolving between the orbits of mars and Jupiter.
There may be as many as 100,000 asteroids. The biggest asteroid called ‘ceres’ has a diameter
of about 800 kilometres whereas the smallest asteroid is as small as pebble. Some experts
believe that asteroids are the pieces of a planet that went close to Jupiter and was broken up
by its gravitational pull. Others think that they are part of a ring of separate pieces of matter
formed at the same time as the planets.
Sometimes an asteroid can collide with earth. Though the collision of an asteroid with the earth
happens very rarely, even then a careful watch is kept on the motion of asteroids by the
astronomers. This is because the collision of an asteroid with the earth can cause a lot of
damage to life and property on the earth. In fact, the extinction of dinosaurs the earth which
occurred about 65 million years ago, is believed to have been caused by the collisions of some
asteroids with the earth.
When an asteroid collides with the earth, then a huge crater is formed on the surface of the
earth. Many such collisions of the asteroids must have occurred in the past during the entire
history of the earth which may have caused craters of different sizes on its surface. However,
the natural process of soil erosion like wind and rain, tend to fill up these craters in due course
of time. Only a few such craters survived on the surface of the earth so far. The ‘Lonar Lake’ in
Maharashtra is one such crater formed by the collision of an asteroid with the earth.
Comets
According to new definition, Neptune is the outermost planet of the solar system. However, it’s
orbit does not mark the boundary of the solar system. The solar system extends much beyond
at the edge of the solar system, there are billions of very small objects called ‘comets’ these
comets were formed very early from the same gas cloud from which other members of the
collar system were made. These comets are so far off that normally they cannot be seen. They
keep on revolving around the Sun, unknown to the world.
Sometimes, however, the normal path of a comet is disturbed and the comet starts moving
towards the sun. As the comet approaches the sun, it develops a long, glowing tail and
becomes visible only when it approaches the sun because the sun’s rays make its gas glow
which spreads out to form a tail millions of kilometres long. And it presents a spectacular sight.
Thus, a comet is a collection of gas and dust, which appears as a bright ball of light in the sky
with a long glowing tail. The tail of a comet always points away from the sun. Comets revolve
around the sun like planets. The period of revolution of comets around the sun is, however,
very large. For example, Halley’s Comet has a period of about 76 years. Halley's Comet last
appeared in the inner Solar System in 1986 and will next appear in mid-2061.
Just like asteroids, comets are also of great interest to scientists. This is because they are made
of the same material from which the whole solar system was made. The study of the tail of the
comets has shown the existence of molecules of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen such
as CO, CH4 and HCN on it. Since these simple molecules help to form complex molecules
necessary for the origin of life, some scientist have suggested that the seeds of life on the earth
were brought by comets from the outer space. Comets do not last forever. Each time a comet
passes the sun, it loses some of its gas and ultimately only the dust particles are left in space.
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When these particle enter into the earth’s atmosphere, they burn up due to heat produced by N
air resistance and produce a shower of meteors or shooting stars. Student Notes:
Meteors
Many times we see a streak of light in the sky during night which disappears within seconds. It
is called a meteor or shooting star. Meteors are the heavenly bodies from the sky which we see
as a bright streak of light that flashes for a moment across the sky. The meteors are also called
shooting stars. Some meteors are the dust particles left behind by comets and others are the
pieces of asteroid which have collided. When a meteor enters into the atmosphere of earth
with high speed, a lot of heat is produced due to the resistance of air. This heat burns the
meteor and the burning meteor is seen in the form of a streak of light shooting down the sky,
and it falls on the earth in the form of dust.
If a meteor is big, a part of it may reach the earth’s surface without being burned up in air. This
fragment is called a meteorite. Thus, a meteor which does not burn completely on entering
the earth’s atmosphere and lands on earth is known as a meteorite. Meteorites are a sort of
stones from the sky. By studying the composition of meteorites we can get valuable
information about the nature of the material from which the solar system was formed. It
should be noted that the number of meteorites striking the moon’s surface is quite large
whereas very few meteorites reach the earth’s surface. This is due to the fact moon has no
atmosphere to burn the falling meteorites by producing the frictional heat.
The Shape of the Earth

In ancient times, people believed that the shape of the Earth was flat and it had steep edges.
Today we know that the Earth is almost spherical. However, it is not a perfect sphere, rather it
an oblate spheroid, bulging slightly at the equator and flattened slightly at the poles. The
difference between the equatorial diameter and the polar diameter is less than 44 km. The
diameter of the Earth is 12,756 km at the equator, whereas it is 12,712 km between the poles.
This is due to the centrifugal force caused by the Earth’s rotation around its axis. This difference
is insignificant and thus for all practical purposes the Earth is taken as spherical in shape.
The view that the Earth is spherical in shape was first forwarded by the famous Greek
philosopher, Phagoras, in the sixth century BC. But people did not believe him. Later, Aristotle,
Varahamihira, Aryabhata and Copernicus also opined that the Earth is spherical in shape.
Evidence of the earth’s Sphericity

There are many ways to prove that earth is spherical. The following are some of them.
1. The Sun and the other planets in the Solar System are all spherical in shape.
2. If the Earth was flat, then all the places on the Earth would have had sunrise and sunset
exactly at the same time.
3. If we watch a ship approaching the land, first we see the smoke of the ship (as the
entire ship lies below the line of sight) and gradually the entire ship, as it comes up
over the horizon. If the Earth was flat, we would have been able to see the whole ship
at a time.
4. A circular shadow observed during the lunar eclipse can only be cast by a spherical
body.
5. If you look around from any place, whether a mountain, a level plain, or top of a very
tall building, the horizon will always appear circular. This is possible only in case of a
spherical body.
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6. Magellan’s circumnavigation in 1520 proved that the Earth is spherical in shape. N

7. Engineers when driving poles of equal length at regular intervals on the ground have Student Notes:
found that they do not give a perfect horizontal level. The centre pole normally
projects slightly above the poles at either end because of the curvature of the earth.
8. Nowadays, when you can see the Earth in its true perspective from the outer space, the
fact that the shape of the Earth is spherical needs no further proof.
Goldilocks zone
A habitable zone, also called a Goldilocks zone, is the region around a star where orbiting
planets similar to the Earth can support liquid water. It is neither too hot, nor too cold.
Scientists hunting for life in the Solar System and around other stars believe liquid water is an
important ingredient necessary for life.
In September 2010 astronomers using the Keck telescope announced they had found an
exoplanet, Gliese 581g2, about three times the size of Earth in the habitable zone of its star.
The Earth is a unique planet because it sustains life. Here are some more details:
1. The Earth lies between the orbits of Venus and Mars and the average distance from the
Sun is about 148 million km. This gives it the optimum location with reference to the
distance from the Sun. It is neither too hot like Venus nor too cold like Mars and the
outer planets. The average temperature is about 17°C on the side facing the Sun.
2. The Earth has a favourable environment and presents optimum conditions for the
origin, growth and survival of various life forms. If the heat received from the Sun
(insolation) increases or decreases by about 10 per cent, then a very large part of the
Earth would become unsuitable for living organisms.
3. The rotation of the Earth around its axis, helps in keeping the extremes of
temperatures between day and night well within tolerable limits.
4. The presence of adequate quantities of water in the oceans, seas, gulfs, rivers, lakes,
etc., is a unique feature of our planet. Water occupies about 71 per cent of the total
surface area of the Earth. These water bodies provide Ideal conditions for the origin
and evolution of various life forms. The water cycle maintains the continuous flow of
water on Earth.
5. The atmosphere acts as a shield and protects our planet from the harmful ultra-violet
rays coming from the Sun. The atmosphere also absorbs terrestrial radiation from the
Earth’s surface and thus keeps the Earth comparatively warmer during the night time
and also during the winter season.
6. The presence of oxygen in the atmosphere has made life possible on Earth, as it is
essential for respiration and survival of all living organisms.
Origin of Life on Earth

Modern scientists refer to the origin of life as a kind of chemical reaction, which first generated
complex organic molecules and assembled them. This assemblage was such that they could
duplicate themselves converting inanimate matter into living substance. The record of life that
existed on this planet in different periods is found in rocks in the form of fossils. The microscopic
structures closely related to the present form of blue algae have been found in geological
formations that are much older than these were some 3,000 million years ago. It can be assumed
that life began to evolve sometime 3,800 million years ago. The summary of evolution of life from
unicellular bacteria to the modern man is given in the Geological Time Scale on last page.
2
UPSC asked question on Gliese 581g
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The Earth’s Movement N

Student Notes:
In the Solar System, the Earth has a special relationship with the Sun and the Moon. The Earth
revolves around the Sun, and the Moon revolves around the Earth. The Earth also rotates on its
axis.
These motions of the Earth cause days and nights, seasons, tides, eclipses, etc.
Day and Night

When the earth rotates on its own axis, only one portion of the earth’s surface comes into the
rays of the sun and experiences daylight. The other portion which is away from the sun’ rays
will be in darkness. As the earth rotates from west to east, every part of the earth’s surface will
be brought under the sun at some time or other, a part of the earth’s surface that emerges
from darkness into the sun’s rays experiences sunrise. Later, when it is gradually obscures from
the sun is in fact, stationary and it is the earth which rotates. The illusion is exactly the same as
when we travel in a fast- moving train. The trees and houses around us appear to move and we
feel that the train is stationary.
The Earth’s Revolution

When the earth revolves round the sun, it spins on an elliptical orbit and one complete
revolution takes 365⅟4 days or a year. As it is not possible to show a quarter of a day in the
calendar, a normal year is taken to be 365 days, and an extra day is added every four years as a
Leap Year.
The Earth rotates once in about 24 hours with respect to the sun and once every 23 hours 56
minutes and 4 seconds with respect to the stars. This is the reason why the stars rise four
minutes early every next day. Earth's rotation is slowing slightly with time; thus, a day was
shorter in the past. This is due to the tidal effects the Moon has on Earth's rotation. Atomic
clocks show that a modern day is longer by about 1.7 milliseconds than a century ago. Leap
seconds are used to synchronise atomic clock.
Varying Lengths of Day and Night

The axis of the earth is inclined to the plane of the ecliptic (the plane in which the earth orbits
round the sun) at an angle of 66⅟2°, giving rise to diﬀerent seasons and varying lengths of day
and night. If the axis were perpendicular to this plane, all parts of the globe would have equal
days and night at all times of the year, but we know this is not so. In the hemisphere in winter
as we go northwards, the hours of darkness steadily increase. At the Arctic Circle (66⅟2°) the
sun never ‘rise’ and there is darkness for the whole day in mid- winter on 22 December.
Beyond the Arctic Circle the number of days with complete darkness increases, until we reach
the North Pole (90°N) when half the year will have darkness. In the summer (June) conditions
are exactly reversed. Daylight increases as we go polewards. At the Arctic Circle, the sun never
‘sets’ at mid-summer (21 June) and there is a complete 24-hour period of continuous daylight.
In summer, the region north of the Arctic Circle is popularly referred to as “Land of the Mid-
Night Sun’. At the North Pole, there will be six months of continuous daylight.
In the southern hemisphere, the same process takes place, except that the conditions are
reversed. When it is summer in the northern hemisphere, the southern conditions will
experience winter. Mid- summer at the North Pole will be mid-winter at the South Pole.
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N
Student Notes:
REVOLUTION OF EARTH
The Altitude of the Midday Sun

In the course of a year, the earth’s revolution round the sun with its axis inclined at 66⅟2 to the
plane of the ecliptic changes the apparent altitude of the midday sun. The sun is vertically
overhead at the equator on two days each year. These are usually 21 March and 21 September
though the date changes because a year is not exactly 365 days. These two days are termed
equinoxes meaning ‘ equal nights’ because on these two days all parts of the world have equal
days and nights. After the March equinox the sun appears to move north and is vertically
overhead at the Tropic of Cancer (23⅟2°N) on about 21 June. This is known as the June or
summer solstice when the northern hemisphere will have its longest day and shortest night. By
about 22 December, the sun will be overhead at the Tropic of Capricorn (23⅟2°S). This is the
winter solstice when the southern hemisphere will have its longest day and shortest night. The
Tropics thus marks the limits of the overhead sun, for beyond these, the sun is never overhead
at any time of the year. Such regions are marked by distinct seasonal changes- spring, summer,
autumn and winter. Beyond the Arctic Circle(66⅟2°N) and the Antarctic Circle (66⅟2°S)where
darkness lasts for 6 months and daylight is continuous for the remaining half of the year, it is
always cold; for even during the short summer the sun is never high in the sky. Within the
tropics, as the midday sun varies very little from its vertical position at noon daily, the four
seasons are almost equal all the year round.
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Seasonal Changes and their Effects on Temperature N

Student Notes:
Summer is usually associated with much heat and brightness and winter with cold and
darkness. Why should this be so? In summer, the sun is higher in the sky than in winter. When
the sun is overhead its rays fall almost vertically on the earth, concentrating its heat on a small
area; temperature therefore rises and summer are always warm. In winter the oblique rays of
the sun, come through the atmosphere less directly and have much of their heat absorbed by
atmospheric impurities and water vapour. The sun’s rays fall faintly and spread over a great
area. There is thus little heat, and temperatures remain low.
In addition, days are longer than nights in summer and more heat is receives over the longer
daylight duration. Nights are shorter and less heat is lost. There is a net gain in total heat
received and temperature rise in summer. Shorter days and longer nights in winter account for
the reverse effects.
Dawn and Twilight

The brief period between sunrise and full daylight is called dawn and that between sunset and
complete darkness is termed twilight. This is caused by the fact that during the period the
dawn and twilight the earth receives diffused or refracted light from the sun whilst it is still
below the horizon. Since the sun rises and sets in a vertical path at the equator the period
during which refracted light is received is short. But in temperate latitudes, the sun rises and
sets in an oblique path and the period of refracted light is longer. It is much longer still at the
poles, so that the winter darkness is really only twilight most of the time.
ECLIPSE
An eclipse occurs when the Sun, the Earth and the Moon are in a straight line in the plane of
ecliptic. When the Earth obstructs the rays of the Sun from reaching the face of the Moon, the
Moon gets eclipsed. When the Moon hides the face of the Sun, then it is an eclipse of the Sun.
At anytime the Sun is able to light only half of the Earth’s surface which is facing the Sun. The
other half, which is turned away from the Sun is in darkness.
Lunar Eclipse
A lunar eclipse will occur, only when the Sun, the Earth and the Moon are in a straight line, and
the Earth lies between the Sun and the Moon. This is possible on a Full Moon day. But a lunar
eclipse does not occur on every Full Moon day, as these three bodies have to be in the plane of
ecliptic.
a. If the Moon is exactly in the plane of ecliptic, a total lunar eclipse will occur.
b. If the Moon is close to the plane of ecliptic, a partial lunar eclipse will occur.
c. If the Moon is far above or far below the plane of ecliptic, no eclipse will occur.
Solar Eclipse
A solar eclipse will occur only when the Sun, the Earth and the Moon are in a straight line, and
the Moon lies between the Sun and the Earth. This is possible on a New Moon day. But the
solar eclipse does not occur on every New Moon day, as these three bodies have to be in the
plane of ecliptic.
a) If the Moon is exactly in the plane of ecliptic, a total solar eclipse will occur.
b) If the Moon is close to the plane of ecliptic, a partial solar eclipse will occur.
c) If the Moon is far above or far below the plane of ecliptic, no eclipse will occur.
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The Diamond Ring Effect is a visual phenomenon that occurs N

during a total solar eclipse. It is seen from earth when standing Student Notes:
in the umbra of the moon’s shadow, and occurs as a part of
Baily’s Beads. Baily’s Beads are glimmers of the sun’s brilliant
surface (the photosphere) which shine as dots of light around
the disc of the lunar shadow. When only one “bead” remains,
momentarily, the view of the eclipse resembles a diamond ring.
The ring is produced as the sun’s less bright corona layer and
other upper atmospheric structures remain dimly visible as a
solid ring while a dazzling dot of the photosphere shines at the edge.
The Geographical Grid- Latitude and Longitude

The earth’s surface is so vast that unless a mathematical method can be used, it is impossible
to locate any place on it. For this reason, imaginary lines have been drawn on the globe. One
set running east and west, parallel to the equator, are called lines of latitude. The other set
runs north and south passing through the poles and are called lines of longitude. The
intersection of latitude and longitude pin-points any place on the earth’s surface. For example
Delhi is 28°37’N and 77°10’E.
Latitude
Latitude is the angular distance of a point on the earth’s surface, measured in degrees from the
centre of the earth. It is parallel to a line, the equator, which lies midway between the poles.
These lines are therefore called parallels of latitude, and on a globe are actually circles,
becoming smaller polewards. The equator represents 0° and the North and South Poles are
90°N and 90°S. Between these points lines of latitude are drawn at intervals of 1°. For precise
location on a map, each degree is sub-divided into 60 minutes and each minute into 60
seconds. The most important lines of latitude are the equator, the tropic of Cancer (23⅟2°N.),
the tropic of Capricorn (23⅟2°S.), the Arc c Circle (66⅟2°N.) and the Antarc c Circle (66⅟2°S.). As
the earth is slightly flattened at the poles, the linear distance of a degree of latitude at the pole
is a little longer than that at the equator. For example at the equator (0°) it is 68.704 miles, at
45° it is 60.054 miles and at the poles it is 69.407 miles. The average is taken as 69 miles. This is
a useful figure and can be used for calculating distances to any place. Bombay is 18.55°N; it is
therefore 18.55*69 or 1280 miles from the equator.
Latitude and Longitude
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Longitude N
Student Notes:
Longitude is an angular distance, measured in degrees along the equator east or west of the
Prime (or First) Meridian. On the globe longitude is shown as a series of semi-circles that run
from pole to pole passing through the equator. Such lines are also called meridians. Unlike the
equator which is centrally placed between the poles, any meridian could have been taken to
begin the numbering of longitude. It was finally decided in 1884, by international agreement, to
choose as the zero meridian the one which passes through the Royal Astronomical Observatory
at Greenwich, near London. This is the Prime Meridian (0°) from which all other meridians
radiate eastwards and westwards up to 180°. Since the earth is spherical and has a
circumference calculated at 25,000 miles, in liner distance each of the 360 degrees of longitude
is 25,000/360 or 69.1 miles. As the parallels of latitude become shorter polewards, so the
meridians of longitude, which converge at the poles, enclose a narrower space. The degree of
longitude therefore decreases in length. It is longest at the equator where it measures 69.172
miles. At 25° it is 62.73 miles, at 45° it is 49 miles, at 75° 18 miles and at the pole 0 mile. There
is so much difference in the length of degrees of longitude outside the tropics, that they are not
used for calculating distances as in the case of latitude. But they have one very important
function; they determine local time in relation to G.M.T or Greenwich Mean Time, which is
sometimes referred to as World Time.
Longitude and Time

Local time: Since the Earth makes one complete revolution of 360° in one day or 24 hours, it
passes through 15° in one hour or 1° in 4 minutes. The earth rotates from west to east, so every
15° we go eastward, local time is advanced by 1 hour. Conversely, if we go westwards, local
time is retarded by 1 hour. We may thus conclude that places east of Greenwich see the dun
earlier and gain time, whereas places west of Greenwich see the sun later and lose time. If we
know G.M.T., to find local time, we merely have to add or subtract the difference in the
number of hours from the given longitude, as illustrated below. A simple memory aid for this
will be East-Gain-Add (E.G.A.) and West-Lose-Subtract (W.L.S.). You could coin your own
rhymes for the abbreviations. Hence when it is noon, in London (Longitude 0°5W.), the local
time for Chennai (80°E.) will be 5 hours 20 minutes ahead of London or 5.20 p.m. but the local
time for New York (74°W.) will be 4 hours 56 minutes behind London or 7.04 a.m.
Standard Time and Time Zones

If each town were to keep the time of its own meridian, there would be much difference in
local time between one town and the other. 10 a.m. in Georgetown, Penang would be 10.10 in
Kota- Bharu (a difference of 2½° in longitude). In larger countries such as Canada U.S.A., China,
India, and Russia the confusion arising from the differences alone would drive the people mad.
Travellers going from one end of the country to the other would have to keep their
appointments. This is impracticable and very inconvenient.
To avoid all these difficulties, a system of standard time is observed by all countries. Most
countries adopt their standard time from the central meridian of their countries. The Indian
Government has accepted the meridian of 82.5° east for the standard time which is 5hrs. 30
minutes ahead of Greenwich Mean Time. The whole world has in fact been divided into 24
Standard Time Zones, each of which differs from the next by 15° in longitude or one hour in
Time. Most countries adhere to this division but due to the peculiar shapes and locations of
some countries, reasonable deviations from the Standard Time Zones cannot be avoided.
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Larger countries like U.S.A. (9), Canada (6) and Russia (9) which have a great east-west stretch N
have adopted 9, 6 and 9 time zones respectively for practical purposes. Student Notes:
Daylight saving time (DST) is a change in the standard time with the purpose of getting better
use of the daylight. Typically, clocks are adjusted forward one hour near the start of spring and
are adjusted backward in the autumn. Although it has only been used in the past hundred
years, the idea of DST was first conceived many years before.
Geological Time Scale

The earth is believed to be 4.5 billion years old. The 4.5 billion year long history of the earth is
divided into four era - Pre-Cambrian, Palaeozoic, Mesozoic and Calnozoic. Pre-Cambrian has
been the longest era in the earth’s history and it continued from the origin of earth to about
600 million year ago from today. The eras are divided into periods, and the periods are divided
in to epochs. A brief account of the geological history of the earth is given in the following
table.
Eons Era Period Epoch Age/Years Life/ Major Events

Before Present
Quaternary Holocene 0 - 10,000 Modern Man
Pleistocene 10,000 - 2 million Homo Sapiens
Tertiary Pliocene 2 - 5 million Early Human Ancestor
Cainozoic (From 65 Miocene 5 - 24 million Ape: Flowering Plants and
million years to the Oligocene 24 - 37 Ma Trees, Anthropoid Ape
present times) Eocene Rabbits and Hare Small
37 - 58 Million
Palaeocene Mammals : Rats – Mice
57 - 65 Million
Mesozoic Cretaceous 65 - 144 Million Extinction of Dinosaurs
65 - 245 Jurassic 144 - 208 Million Age of Dinosaurs
Million Triassic
Mammals 208 - 245 Million Frogs and turtles
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Palaeozoic
245 - 570
Permian
Carboniferous
245 - 286 Million
286 - 360 Million
Reptile dominate-replace
amphibians
N
Million Devonian 360 - 408 Million
Student Notes:
First Reptiles: Vertebrates:
Silurian 408 - 438 Million Coal beds Amphibians, First
Ordovician 438 - 505 Million trace of life on land: Plants,
Cambrian 505 - 570 Million First Fish
No terrestrial Life: Marine
Invertebrate
Proterozoic Pre- Cambrian 570 - 2,500 Million Soft-bodied arthropods

Archean 570 Million 2,500 - 3,800 Million Blue green Algae:
Hadean - 4,800 3,800 - 4,800 Million Unicellular bacteria Oceans
Million and Continents form –
Ocean and Atmosphere
are rich in
Carbon dioxide
Origin of 5,000 - 5,000 Million Origin of the sun

13,700 12,000 Million Origin of the universe
Stars
Million 13,700 Million
Supernova
Big Bang
Questions
1. Gliese 581g (UPSC 2011/2 Marks)

2. What does the solar system consists of? Discuss the motion of the entire solar system
as a whole and also the motion of most of the bodies forming the solar system. (UPSC
2003/ 15 Marks)
3. What is the difference between a comet and a meteor? (UPSC 1997/3 Marks)
4. Why does a lunar eclipse occur only on a full moon? (UPSC 1996/3 Marks)
5. What is a leap second? (UPSC 1992/3 Marks)
6. What is ‘Chandrashekhar limit’? (UPSC 1985/3 Marks)
7. Astronomers have, of late, been discussing ‘black hole.’ What is a ‘black hole’?(UPSC
1979/3 Marks)
8. What is the ‘diamond ring effect’ observed during a total solar eclipse? How is it
caused?(UPSC 1979/3 Marks)

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GEOGRAPHY: 2
INTERIOR OF EARTH
Introduction
Sources of Information
Direct Sources
Indirect Sources
1) Temperature
2) Density
3) Pressure
4) Gravitation force
5) Magnetic surveys
6) Meteorites
7) The Moon
8) Earthquake Waves
Structure of the Earth’s Interior
The Crust
The Mantle
The Core
Crust and Mantle vs. Lithosphere and Asthenospher


Introduction N
Student Notes:
Human life is largely influenced by the physiography of the region. Therefore, it is necessary
that one gets acquainted with the forces that influence landscape development. Also to
understand why the earth shakes or how a tsunami wave is generated, it is necessary that we
know certain details of the interior of the earth.
Sources of Information
Most of the information about the Earth’s interior is based on inferences drawn from different
sources – both direct and indirect.
Direct Sources
Our knowledge about the structure and interior of the earth from direct observation is very
limited. No instrument has been invented so far which can see through the interior of the earth
directly. The deepest depth of an oil well drilled so far is 8 kilometers. The deepest mine of the
world is Robinson Deep in South Africa. Its depth is less than 4 kilometer.
Besides mining, scientists have taken up a number of projects to penetrate deeper depths to
explore the conditions in the crustal portions. Scientists world over are working on two major
projects such as “Deep Ocean Drilling Project” and “Integrated Ocean Drilling Project”. The
deepest drill at Kola, in Arctic Ocean, has so far reached a depth of 12 km. This and many deep
drilling projects have provided large volume of information through the analysis of materials
collected at different depths.
Volcanoes are yet another major source of direct information – they tell us about the
composition and characteristics of the materials found inside the Earth. However, it is difficult
to ascertain the depth of the source of such material.
Indirect Sources
The centre of the earth downward is 6,371 kilometers away from the surface of the earth. In
comparison to this distance the depth of a deep well or a mine is insignificant. It is therefore,
necessary to take help of indirect scientific evidences to know about the interior of the earth.
These sources include temperature, pressure and density of earth, behaviour of seismic waves
(the waves generated by Earthquakes), Meteors, the Moon etc. These sources may be classified
into three groups
(a) Artificial sources such as temperature, pressure and density.

(b) Evidences from the theories of origin of earth
(c) Natural Sources e.g. volcanic eruption, earthquakes, meteors and seismology.
1) Temperature
Temperature goes on increasing with the increase in depth inside the earth. This is clearly
proved while going down a mine or deep wells. The volcanic eruptions or hot water springs also
confirm this fact that temperature increasing towards the interior of the earth. On an average,
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there is a rise of 1oC temperature for every 32 meters of depth. This rapid increase in N
temperature continues to great depth there after the temperature increases slowly. Student Notes:
Fig 1: Temperature profile of the inner Earth
The main reasons for the increase in heat and temperature in the interior of the earth are the
following:
i. Radioactive disintegration within rocks which liberates heat

ii. Internal and external forces (gravitational pull, weight of overlying rocks etc.)
iii. Chemical reactions
It is tempting to think that under the conditions of this enormous temperature in the interior of
the earth nothing can be found in solid state. Under such conditions all existing rocks should be
either in liquid or gaseous state. But it is not so. Along with the increase in temperature with
depth, pressure too increases in the interior of the earth. This pressure is lacs of times more
than the pressure exercised by atmospheric layers on the surface of the water in oceans. For
this reason due to enormous pressure, liquid state rocks of the core have the properties of
solids. It is possible that these rocks might be in plastic state. It is why these rocks have
elasticity. Due to the pressure of overlying layers on the earth’s interior these rocks do look
solid upto 2900 kilometers’ depth. Sometimes due to lessening of overlying pressure, the rocks
in the interior melt down and the fluid comes to the surface or is in the process of finding its
way to the surface of the earth. A volcanic eruption is one such example.
2) Density
In accordance with the Newton’s laws of gravity the earth’s density has been calculated to be
5.5 (gms per cubic centimeter). However, it is surprising that the rocks near the surface of the
earth have an average density of 2.7 only (gms per cubic centimeter). This density is less than
half the average density of the earth as a whole. From this, it is clear that the density too
increases with the increase in depth. The earth’s internal part is composed of very dense
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rocks; their density must be in the range of 8-10 (gms per cubic centimeter). The density of the N
central part of the core is still more. Student Notes:
Higher density could be due to heavy metals like Nichel and Iron at the centre as well as due to
pressure of overlying layers.
3) Pressure
Just like temperature and density and pressure too increase with increase in depth inside the
earth. Some earth scientists believe that due to the weight of the overlying layers the pressure
goes on increasing with depth and others think that materials of the interior of the earth are
heavier since birth of the earth. The happenings due to change in pressure inside the earth
affect the physical features on the surface of the earth.
4) Gravitation force
The gravitation force (g) is not the same at different latitudes on the surface. It is greater near
the poles and less at the equator. This is because of the distance from the centre at the
equator being greater than that at the poles. The gravity values also differ according to the
mass of material. The uneven distribution of mass of material within the earth influences this
value. The reading of the gravity at different places is influenced by many other factors. These
readings differ from the expected values. Such a difference is called gravity anomaly. Gravity
anomalies give us information about the distribution of mass of the material in the crust of the
earth. Gravity anomalies also inform us about the distribution of molten material in the crust
of the earth.
5) Magnetic surveys
The earth also acts like a huge magnet. The rapid spinning of earth creates electric currents in
its centre (molten outer core) that creates a magnetic field around the earth. The magnetic
field is strongest at the magnetic north and south poles. The magnetic north and south poles
do not coincide with geographic north and south poles. In fact, the earth’s magnetic field keeps
on changing. Magnetic surveys provide information about the distribution of magnetic
materials in the crustal portion, and thus, provide information about the distribution of
materials in this part.
6) Meteorites
The space debris, while entering the atmospheric layers of earth are burnt due to the friction
of air. Only the heavier objects whose outer layers have been burnt fall to the earth. Man has
discovered many such meteorites and after examining them obtained evidences about the
interior of the earth. The meteorites which have been examined are of two types: (i) Rock; and
(ii) Metals.
The metallic meteorites chiefly contain heavy materials like iron and nickel. The meteorites too
have originated during the formation of solar system. It is, therefore, very much in order to
believe that both the meteorites and the earth are made of similar materials.
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7) The Moon N
Student Notes:
The first information about the earth’s interior had been obtained through the study of the
moon. There are several ways of determining the moon’s orbit around earth. Among these one
of the important factors is earth’s mass. Remember, there is close relationship between the
mass and earth’s gravitation. The movements of the moon and its distance from earth provide
the basis for determining the mass of the earth by earth scientists.
8) Evidence from Theories

The earth was mostly in a volatile state during its primordial stage. Due to gradual increase in
density the temperature inside has increased. As a result the material inside started getting
separated depending on their densities. This allowed heavier materials (like iron) to sink
towards the centre of the earth and the lighter ones to move towards the surface. With
passage of time it cooled further and solidified and condensed into a smaller size. This later led
to the development of the outer surface in the form of a crust. During the formation of the
moon, due to the giant impact, the earth was further heated up. It is through the process of
differentiation that the earth forming material got separated into different layers. Starting from
the surface to the central parts, we have layers like the crust, mantle, outer core and inner
core. From the crust to the core, the density of the material increases. We shall discuss in detail
the properties of each of this layer in the next chapter.
9) Earthquake Waves
Earthquakes1 are caused by the movements in the interior of the earth. These movements
cause waves inside the earth just as waves are generated on the surface of water in a lake
when a stone is thrown into it. Incidentally, majority of the earthquakes originate in the upper
mantle.
The earthquake waves are measured on the seismograph. The study of earthquake waves helps
earth-scientists to get a lot of information about the types of rocks and layered composition in
the interior of the earth.
Earthquake waves are basically of two types — body waves and surface waves. Body waves are
generated due to the release of energy at the focus(origin of earthquake) and move in all
directions travelling through the body of the earth. Hence, the name body waves. The body
waves interact with the surface rocks and generate new set of waves called surface waves.
These waves move along the surface. The velocity of waves changes as they travel through
materials with different densities. The denser the material, the higher is the velocity. Their
direction also changes as they reflect or refract when coming across materials with different
densities.
There are two types of body waves: P-waves and S-waves. Important surface waves are
Rayleigh waves and L-waves (named after A. E. H. Love).
1
Note: Earthquakes, Richter scale, epicenter, hypocenter etc. will be discussed in another chapter.
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Body Waves Surface Waves N

‘S’- Waves’ or Secondary Student Notes:
‘P’- Waves’ or Primary waves L-waves
waves
I. These are ‘Longitudinal I. These are transverse I. These are transverse
Waves’. waves. waves.
II. Under their influence II. Under their impact II. Their propagation is
particles are displaced in particles swing side by limited to the surface of
backward-forward side (shear waves). the earth only.
direction. (compression III. Their velocity is lower III. Their velocity through
waves.) than the primary waves. solid particles or rocks is
III. Their velocity is the IV. These waves cannot pass about 3.5 kilometers
fastest. through liquids. They per second.
IV. Their average velocity is travel through solids IV. They cause the greatest
6-15 kilometers per only. damage and destruction
second. of property during the
V. Different densities of earthquake.
rocks have different
velocities.
VI. They can travel through
all mediums – solids,
liquids and gases.
Fig 2: Particle motion in seismic waves Fig 3: Arrival time of seismic waves
Fig4: Shadow Zones Fig 5: Earthquake
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Structure of the Earth’s Interior N

Student Notes:
The earthquake waves undergo changes at definite intervals during their propagation through
the interior of the earth. They also undergo the action of reflection and refraction. Places on
earth where seismic waves are not recorded are called “shadow zones”. S-waves are not
recorded beyond 103o angular distance from focus which indicate that outer core of earth is in
molten or semi-molten in which S-waves cannot propagate. As P-waves are not recorded
between angular distances of 103o to 142o, it indicates that the core has different density, state
and composition.
From the analysis of the behavior of these waves it is clear that the interior of the earth has a
layered structure of different densities.
With the help of earthquake waves, we can get the information about the exact location of the
layers, their depth, thickness and other physical and chemical properties. Based on the passage
of these waves through different types of rocks and their behavior we can conclude that the
earth’s interior has three main layers. These three layers are: (i) Crust, (ii) Mantle and (iii) Core.
This arrangement can be compared to that of a boiled egg.
Fig 6
The Crust:
It is the earth’s uppermost layer. Crust is solid, rigid and very thin compared with the other
two. Like the shell of an egg, the Earth's crust is brittle and can break. The thickness of the crust
is not same everywhere.
Oceanic crust is thinner as compared to the continental crust. The mean thickness of oceanic
crust is 5 km whereas that of the continental is around 30 km. The continental crust is thicker in
the areas of major mountain systems. It is as much as 70 km thick in the Himalayan region.
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Its two main parts are: N

i. The uppermost thin layer– It is composed of such rocks which contain a large Student Notes:
proportion of silica and aluminum. It is called SIAL (SI = Silica, AL = Aluminum). The
continents are mostly composed of sial. It average density is 2.7 and thickness is of
about 28 kilometers.
ii. The lower layer of the crust is made of comparatively heavier rocks. Silica and
magnesium are the major constituents in it. This part is therefore, known as SIMA (SI –
Silicon, MA = Magnesium). The oceanic floor is also made of this rock strata. Its average
thickness is 6-7 kilometers and density of about 3.0.
The thickness of SIAL and SIMA put together does not exceed 70 kilometers. Its volume is 1% of
the total volume of the earth. In comparison to 6378 km radius of the earth, the thickness of 70
kilometers is insignificant. However, this cannot be over looked. This shallow crust is the
ground of the nature’s wonderful activities.
Fig 7: Earth Crust
The Mantle:
Its thickness is about 2900 Km. It volume is 83% of the whole earth. Near the lower limit of the
crust the velocity of P-waves increases from about 6.4 kilometers per second to 8 km per
second. This change in velocity of P-waves indicates the surface discontinuity between the
crust and the mantle. It is popularly known as Moho or the Mohorovicic discontinuity (after the
name of its discoverer).
The mantle is made up of dense and heavy materials such as oxygen, iron and magnesium. The
average density of the materials in the mantle varies between 3.5 g per cubic cm and 5.5 g per
cubic cm. The temperature of this layer ranges between 900°C and 2200° C. The temperature is
quite high and the hot rocks form magma in this layer. The pressure of the overlying layers,
keeps the lower part of the crust and the upper part of the mantle in an almost solid state. If
cracks appear in the crust, the pressure is released and the molten matter from inside the Earth
tries to reach the surface through volcanic eruptions.
The upper portion of the mantle is called asthenosphere. The word astheno means weak. It is
considered to be extending upto 400 km. It is the main source of magma that finds its way to
the surface during volcanic eruptions.
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The mantle plays an important role in all the happenings in the interior of the earth. It also N
gives rise to Convection Currents. These currents supply energy for happenings like continental Student Notes:
drift, earthquake, volcanoes, etc.
Fig 8: The Discontinuities
The Core:
It extends from 2900 Km depth upto the centre of the earth (6378 km). It is the interior most
part of the earth. It begins from Gutenberg Discontinuity. The mantle is demarcated from the
core by Gutenberg Discontinuity. The core is divided into two parts: (i) The Outer Core, (ii) The
Inner Core.
The outer core is possibly in wholly liquid or semi-liquid state. The transverse or S-waves of
earthquakes, seem to disappear at the Gutenberg Discontinuity. The outer core extends from
the depth of 2900 km, upto 5150 km. It has an average density of 10. The inner core is believed
to be solid. It extends from the depth of 5150 km upto the centre of the earth (6378 km). The
velocity of P waves increases at the boundary of outer and inner core. Its density is between
12-13. To volume of the entire core is 16% of earth as a whole. The mass of the core is 32% of
the earth’s mass. The major part of the core is made up of heavy metals like iron and nickel.
This zone is therefore known as Nife (Ni = Nickel, Fe = Ferrous). It is also known as Barysphere
(which means heavy metallic rocks).
Table 3.1
Name of the Layer Chemical Composition Depth Density Physical Property

A. Crust Crustal material 5-70 Km. Solid State
1. Upper SIAL contains lighter elements like Si,
2. Lower SIMA O, Al, Ca, K, Na, etc... Feldspars
(Anorthite, Albite,
2.75 – 2.90
Orthoclase) are common
minerals in the crust
(CaAL2Si2O8, NaALSi3O8,
KALSi3O8).
B. Mantle is made up of Si and O, like the 35-2900 Some properties of
3. upper mantle (From crust, but it contains km. solid, some plastic.
Moho to 410 km) more Fe and Mg. Thus, Olivine 3.4-5.6 Near the melting
4. transition zone (410– (Fe2SiO4-Mg2SiO4) and pyroxene point their
660 km), (MgSiO3-FeSiO3) behavior is like
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5. lower mantle (660–

2891 km)
are abundant in the mantle solids heavy N
Student Notes:
C. Metallic Core of NIFE 2900 – 5.10 – Liquid or in plastic
Barysphere (Nickel + Ferrous or Iron) 5150 km 13.00 state Rigid because
6. Outer Metallic Core Barysphere of tremendous
7. Inner Metallic Core (Heavy Metallic rocks) 5150 – overlying pressure
6378 km
Crust and Mantle vs. Lithosphere and Asthenosphere

Lithosphere, asthenosphere, and mesosphere represent changes in the mechanical properties
of the Earth. Crust, Mantle and Core refer to changes in the chemical composition of the Earth.
The lithosphere (litho: rock; sphere: layer) is the strong, upper 100 km of the Earth. The
lithosphere is the tectonic plate (we talk about it in plate tectonics). The asthenosphere
(asthenos: weak) is the weak and easily deformed layer of the Earth that acts as a “lubricant”
for the tectonic plates to slide over. The asthenosphere extends from 100 km depth to 660 km
beneath the Earth's surface. Beneath the asthenosphere is the mesosphere, another strong
layer.

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VISIONIAS ™
www.visionias.in
GEOGRAPHY: 3
G.S. PAPER I – GEOGRAPHY
CONTINENT DRIFT, SEAFLOOR SPREADING, ENDOGENIC AND EXOGENIC FORCES AND BASICS OF PLATE
TECTONICS, SOME IDEAS ABOUT SUPERCONTINENTS ETC.
1. Supercontinents
a. Supercontinent Cycle
b. Pangaea
2. Continental drift
a. About continent drift
b. Continent drift theory of Alfred Wegener
i. Explaining theory with appropriate diagrams
ii. Evidences in support of the theory
iii. Forces for drifting
iv. Criticism of Wegener’s theory
3. Post-drift studies
a. Convection current theory by Arthur Holmes
b. Mapping of Ocean floor
c. Seafloor spreading by Hess
4. Plate tectonics
a. Major and Minor plates
b. Movement of plates
i. Movement of the Indian plate
c. Types of boundaries
d. Forces for the plate movement
e. Objections to plate tectonic theory
5. Endogenic and Exogenic forces
a. Geomorphic processes and agents
b. Endogenic processes
i. Diastrophism
ii. Volcanism
c. Exogenic processes
i. Weathering
ii. Mass movement
iii. Erosion and deposition


EARTH OF THE DISTANT PAST WAS A VERY DIFFERENT PLANET THAN THE ONE WE KNOW N
TODAY Student Notes:
1. SUPERCONTINENT
If you could travel through time to arrive at the Earth of a billion years ago, you would have a
hard time navigating. A strange giant continent and a single planetary ocean would replace the
familiar continents and oceans of today’s world. A supercontinent is the assembly of most or all
the Earth’s continental blocks to form a single large landmass. There is no unanimity among
tectonicists on a single definition of supercontinent. Hoffman (1999) used the term
“supercontinent” to mean “a clustering of nearly all continents”. According to this definition,
Pangaea is a supercontinent while Gondwana is not. There are other scholars who consider
Gondwanaland a supercontinent of pre-Cambrian period.
In the past, there existed many supercontinents at different time. The positions of continents
have been accurately determined back to the early Jurassic period. However, beyond 200
million years, continental positions are much less certain. Following is the list of
supercontinents.
Supercontinent name Age

Ur (Vaalbara) ~3.6-2.8 Billion years ago
Kenorland ~2.7-2.1 Billion years ago
Proto Pangaea-Paleopangaea ~2.7-0.6 Billion years ago
Columbia ~1.8-1.5 Billion years ago
Rodinia ~1.25-0.75 Billion years ago
Pannotia ~600 Million years ago
Pangaea ~300 Million years ago
Table 1 – Supercontinents through geologic history
1.1. SUPERCONTINENT CYCLE
Supercontinent does not last forever. A supercontinent cycle is the breakup of one
supercontinent and the development of another. Pangaea , last supercontinent, was formed by
the continental fragments dispersed during the breakup of Pannotia during the latter half of
the Paleozoic Era (figure 1).
(a) Pannotia split (b) Assembled Pangaea 200 million years ago
Figure 1 - Supercontinents
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1.2. PANGAEA N
Student Notes:
Like its predecessor Pannotia, the giant continent of Pangaea also became victim to the Earth’s
internal heat. According to Alfred Wegener, Pangaea which was surrounded on all sides by
extensive water mass called Panthalasa, began to split around 200 million years ago. Pangaea
broke into two large continental masses Laurasia and Gondwanaland forming the northern
and southern components respectively. Subsequently, Laurasia and Gondwanaland continued
to break into various smaller continents that exist today.
2. CONTINENTAL DRIFT
Abraham Ortelius, a Dutch map maker, was the first one to propose the possibility of the two
Americas, Europe and Africa to be once joined together as early as 1596. Antonio Snider drew a
map showing the three continents together in 1858, but this was so much opposed to the
scientific view then prevailing that nobody took notice of it. In 1910, F.B. Taylor of America
invoked the hypothesis of horizontal displacement of continents or continental drift with a
view to explaining the distribution of mountain ranges.
2.1. CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY OF ALFRED WEGENER
It was Alfred Wegener – a German meteorologist - who put forth a comprehensive argument in
the form of “the continental drift theory” in 1912. Wegener was a climatologist who wanted to
explain the change of climates in the geological past. There are several geological evidences to
show that there have been important and large scale changes in the climates of the world in
the geological past. He came to the conclusion that either the climatic zones have moved or if
they have not, then there has been movement of the landmasses. The distribution of Climatic
belts of the world is governed primarily by the Sun. It, therefore, appear to be more probable
that the landmasses have changed their position.
According to Wegener, all the continents formed a single continental mass, a mega ocean
surrounded by the same. The super continent was named PANGAEA, a Greek word which
meant all earth. The mega-ocean was called PANTHALASSA, meaning all water as shown in
figure 1a. Wegner also imagined that in the carboniferous period the South pole was near the
South African coast and the north pole lay in the Pacific ocean.
Wegener argued that, around 200 million years ago, the Pangaea began to split. The initial two
blocks – Gondwanaland and Laurasia – started drifting away and in between a shallow sea
emerged by filling up the water from Panthalasa. It was known as Tethys Sea. The present
shape and relative position of the continents is the result of fragmentation of Pangaea by
rifting and the drifting apart of the broken parts (figure 2). He called this drifting away of
continents as Polflucht or the flight from the poles. He took help of theory of Isostasy in which
the continental blocks, made of SIAL, are floating over the ocean floor, made of SIMA.
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N
Student Notes:
Figure 2 – Pangaea
2.1.1.EVIDENCES IN SUPPORT OF THE THEORY
A variety of evidences were offered in support of the continental drift theory. These are
summarized as:-
a. The matching of continents (“jig-Saw-fit”) – The shorelines of Africa and South America
facing each other have a remarkable and unmistakable match. It may be noted that
map produced using a computer programme to find the best fit of the Atlantic margin
was presented by Bullard in 1964. It proved to be quite perfect. The match was tried at
1,000 fathom line instead of the present shoreline.
b. Rocks of Same Age Across the Oceans - The belt of ancient rocks of 2,000 million years
from Brazil coast matches with those from western Africa. The earliest marine deposits
along the coastline of South America and Africa are of the Jurassic age. This suggests
that the ocean did not exist prior to that time. Similarly, Appalachian mountains of
North America which come right up to the coast and then continue their trend across
the North Atlantic Ocean in the old Hercynian fold mountains of South-West Ireland,
Wales and Central Europe.
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c. Tillite - It is the sedimentary rock formed out of deposits of glaciers. The Gondawana N
system of sediments from India is known to have its counter parts in six different Student Notes:
landmasses of the Southern Hemisphere. At the base the system has thick tillite
indicating extensive and prolonged glaciation. Counter parts of this succession are
found in Africa, Falkland Island, Madagascar, Antarctica and Australia besides India. It
clearly demonstrates that these landmasses had remarkably similar histories.
d. Placer Deposits - The occurrence of rich placer deposits of gold in the Ghana coast and
the absolute absence of source rock in the region is an amazing fact. The gold bearing
veins are in Brazil and it is obvious that the gold deposits of the Ghana are derived from
the Brazil plateau when the two continents lay side by side.
e. Distribution of Fossils - The observations that Lemurs occur in India, Madagascar and
Africa led some to consider a contiguous landmass “Lemuria” linking these three
landmasses. Mesosaurus was a small reptile adapted to shallow brackish water. The
skeletons of these are found only in two localities: the Southern Cape province of South
Africa and Iraver formations of Brazil. The two localities presently are 4,800 km apart
with an ocean in between them. Such presence of identical plants and animals is
possible only when they lived on a common landmass.
2.1.2. FORCES FOR DRIFTING
Wegener suggested that the movement responsible for the drifting of the continents was
caused by pole-fleeing force and tidal force. The polar-fleeing force relates to the rotation of
the earth. This was, according to Wegener, the cause for movement of continents towards
equator ward. Tidal force – due to the attraction of the Moon and the Sun – was the main
reason given by Wegener for the westward movement of the Americas. Wegener believed that
these forces would become effective when applied over many million years.
2.1.3. CRITICISM OF WEGENER’S THEORY
It is clear that Wegener had amassed an imposing array of evidences in support of his theory
and some of this evidence was undeniably convincing. But so much of theory was based on
speculation and inadequate evidence that it provoked a lot of criticism and controversy.
a) The greatest criticism has been the force of continental drift proposed by him. Tidal
force need to be ten thousand million times stronger than at present to move the
continents.
b) Wegener proposed that Rockies and Andies mountain chain are formed during the
westward drift of Americas. But if the SIAL (continents) is floating over SIMA (ocean
floor), then the SIMA could not offer so much resistance as to cause folds and build
mountain system.
c) The jig-saw-fit of the opposing coasts of Atlantic Ocean was not so complete.
d) Though there was similarity in the structural and stratigraphical features of the two
coasts of the Atlantic, it would not be quite correct to conclude that one was an
extension of the other and that they were joined together.
3. POST-DRIFT STUDIES
A number of discoveries during the post-war period added new information to geological
literature. Most of the evidences for the continental drift theory of Alfred Wegener were
collected from the continental areas. New literature collected from the ocean floor mapping
provided new dimensions for the study of distribution of oceans and continents.
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3.1. CONVECTION CURRENT THEORY N

Student Notes:
While explaining the processes of mountain building, Arthur Holmes put forward his theory of
convection current in 1928-29. According to Holmes, convection currents exist in the mantle
portion of
Figure 3 – Convection currents in the mantle portion of the Earth
the Earth as shown in figure 3. The cause of the origin of these currents is the presence of
radioactive elements which causes thermal differences in the mantle portion. Holmes argued
that there exists a system of such currents in the entire mantle portion. This was an attempt to
provide an explanation to the issue of force, on the basis of which contemporary scientists
discarded the continental drift theory.
3.2. MAPPING OF OCEAN FLOOR
Post-war period saw surge in the detailed research of the ocean configuration. It revealed that
ocean floor is not just a vast plain but is full of features such as mid-oceanic ridge, trenches,
Abyssal plains etc. The mid-oceanic ridges were found to be most active in terms of volcanic
eruptions. The age of rocks from Oceanic floor is nowhere more than 200 million years as
compared to billions of year sold rocks from continental region and hence, oceanic rocks are
much younger than the continental areas. Another interesting fact was that the rocks located
equi-distant from the crest were found to have remarkable similarities in terms of their
constituents, age, magnetic properties etc.
3.3. SEA FLOOR SPREADING
The hypothesis of sea-floor spreading was first put forward by Harry Hess in 1961. Post-drift
studies had been able to establish the facts which were not available at the time of Wegener.
These may be summarized as:-
a) The ocean crust rocks are much younger than the continental rocks. The age of rocks in
the oceanic crust is nowhere more than 200 million years old compare to continental
rocks out of which some are as old as 3,200 million years.
b) The sediments on the ocean floor are unexpectedly very thin and thickness of the
sediments increases with the distance from the ridge. They were only 6 to 7 km thick,
whereas below the continental surfaces this thickness was 30 to 40 kms.
c) Mid-oceanic ridge was not found only in Atlantic Ocean, but ridges were present in all
the oceans. These ridges contain large scale evidences of faulting and volcanicity and
are bringing huge amounts of lava to the surface.
d) The rocks equidistant on either sides of the crest of mid-oceanic ridges show
remarkable similarities in terms of period of formation, chemical compositions and
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magnetic properties. Rocks closer to the mid-oceanic ridges are of normal polarity and N
are the youngest. The age of the rocks increases as one moves away from the crest. Student Notes:
On the basis of above facts the realization dawned that the ocean floor possibly is the youngest
and most active part of the earth’s surface. In 1961, Harry Hess argued that the ocean floor was
mobile and
Figure 4 – Sea-floor spreading
constant eruption at the crest of oceanic ridges causes the rupture of the oceanic crust and the
new lava wedges into it, pushing the oceanic crust on either side as shown in figure 4. The
ocean floor, thus spreads. But this spreading does not cause the shrinking of the other. Hess
argued about the sinking of the crust which was spread in the trench system and does it gets
consumed. On analysis, it was found that 2 cm/year is adequate for separation of South
America from Africa in about 200 million years.
4. PLATE TECTONICS
Since the advent of the concept of sea floor spreading, the interest in the problem of
distribution of oceans and continents was revived. The hypothesis of plate tectonics is an
extended and more comprehensive version of the theory of sea-floor spreading. This is a great
unifying concept which “draws sea-floor spreading, continental drift, crustal structures and
world pattern of seismic and volcanic activity together as aspects of one coherent picture.”
The term plate was first used by Tuzo Wilson in his definition of transform faults in 1965, but
the hypothesis of plate tectonics was first outlined by W.J. Morgan in 1967. More or less
concurrently but independently D.P. Mackenzie and Parker had arrived at similar conclusions. It
first came to be known by the name of New Global Tectonics but after sometime the term
Plate Tectonics gained currency. Basic assumptions of plate tectonics are as follows:
1. There is spreading of sea floor and new oceanic crust is being continually created at the
active mid-oceanic ridges and destroyed at trenches.
2. The area of the earth’s surface is fixed. It means, the amount of crust consumed almost
equals the amount of new crust created.
3. The new crust that is formed becomes part and parcel of a plate.
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4.1. MAJOR AND MINOR PLATES N

Student Notes:
A tectonic plate (also called lithospheric plate) is a massive, irregularly-shaped slab of solid
rock. Plates are generally composed of both continental and oceanic lithosphere. This is an
important difference between plate tectonics and continental drift theories. The lithosphere
includes the crust and the top mantle with its thickness range varying between 5-100 km in
oceanic parts and about 200 km in the continental areas. The plates are the inert aseismic
regions bounded by narrow mobile belts which are characterized by Seismic and volcanic
activity or by orogenic belts. Plates’ configuration is not related to the distribution of land and
water. Plates can split or get welded with adjoining plate.
The theory of plate tectonics proposes that the earth’s lithosphere is divided into seven major
and some minor plates. The major plates are as follows:
a) Antarctic plate - Antarctica and the surrounding ocean

b) North American plate – North America continent along with Western Atlantic floor
separated from the South American plate along the Caribbean islands
c) South American plate – South America continent along with western Atlantic floor
d) Pacific plate – covers almost entire pacific ocean
e) India-Australia-New Zealand plate – Australian continent along with Indian sub-
continent and Indian Ocean.
f) African plate – Africa continent along with eastern Atlantic floor
g) Eurasian plate – Eurasia along with eastern Atlantic floor
Figure 5 – Major and Minor plates of the world
Minor plates are small in areas. They are also moving in different directions like major plates.
Some important minor plates are listed below:
a) Cocos plate – Between Central America and Pacific plate

b) Nazca plate – Between South America and Pacific plate
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c) Arabian plate – Mostly the Saudi Arabian landmass N

d) Philippine plate – Between the Asiatic and Pacific plate Student Notes:
e) Caroline plate – Between the Philippine and Indian plate (North of New Guinea)
f) Fuji plate– North-east of Australia.
4.2. MOVEMENT OF PLATES
These tectonic plates float on and travel independently over the asthenosphere, which lies over
the mantle. Much of the earth's seismic activities occur at the boundaries of these plates. It is a
relatively slow movement, driven by thermal convection currents and other geological activities
originating deep within the earth's mantle. Plates have moved horizontally over the
asthenosphere as rigid units.
The movement of a plate is defined by the position of its pole of rotation and its angle of
rotation about the rotation axis; its rate of movement varying with distance from the pole of
rotation, being nil at the pole and reaching a maximum at the equator relative to the pole of
rotation. The strips of normal and reverse magnetic field that parallel the mid-oceanic ridges
help scientists determine the rates of plate movement. These rates vary considerably.
The arctic ridge has the slowest rate(less than 2 cm per year), and the East Pacific Rise near
Easter Island in the South Pacific has the fastest rate (more than 15 cm per year). The eastern
part (Australia) is moving northward at the rate of 5.6 cm per year while the western part
(India) is moving only at the rate of 3.7 cm per year due to impediment by Himalayas. This
differential movement is resulting in the compression of the plate near its center at Sumatra
and a potential division into Indian and Australian Plates. The rate of spreading at the Mid-
Atlantic Ridge near Iceland is relatively slow, about 2 cm per year.
4.2.1.MOVEMENT OF THE INDIAN PLATE
The Indian plate includes Peninsular India and the Australian continental portions. India was a
large island situated off the Australian coast, in a vast ocean. The Tethys sea separated it from
the Asian
Figure 6 – Movement of the Indian Plate
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continent. India is believed to have started her northward journey about 200 million years ago. N
India collided with Asia about 40-50 million years ago causing formation of Himalayas. The Student Notes:
subduction zone along the Himalayas forms the northern plate boundary in the form of
continent— continent convergence. Scientists believe that the process is still continuing and
the height of the Himalayas is rising even to this date.
4.3. TYPES OF BOUNDARIES
Plate boundaries are very important and significant structural features. Nearly all seismic,
volcanic and tectonic activities are confined to the plate margins. Boundaries are very distinct
and easy to identify. They are associated with newly formed mountain systems, oceanic ridges
and trenches. Plates are moving continuously and have relative direction of movement. Based
on the direction of movement three types of plate boundaries can, easily, be identified
(figure 7).
Figure 7 – Types of plate boundaries
4.3.1. DIVERGENT BOUNDARIES
Where new crust is generated as the plates pull away from each other. The sites where the
plates move away from each other are called spreading sites. The best-known example of
divergent boundaries is the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. At this, the American Plate(s) is/are separated
from the Eurasian and African Plates at rate of around 2 cm per year.
4.3.2.CONVERGENT BOUNDARIES
Where the crust is destroyed as one plate dived under another at an angle of approximately
450. The location, where sinking of a plate occurs, is called a subduction zone. There are three
ways in which convergence can occur. These are: (i) between an oceanic and continental plate;
(ii) between two oceanic plates; and (iii) between two continental plates.
4.3.3.TRANSFORM BOUNDARIES
Where the crust is neither produced nor destroyed as the plates slide horizontally past each
other. Transform faults are the planes of separation generally perpendicular to the mid-oceanic
ridges. As the eruptions do not take all along the entire crest at the same time, there is a
differential movement of a portion of the plate away from the axis of the earth. Also, the
rotation of the earth has its effect on the separated blocks of the plate portions.
4.4. FORCES FOR THE PLATE MOVEMENT
At the time of Wegener, it was believed that the earth was a solid, motionless body. However,
sea floor spreading and tectonic plate theories emphasized that both the surface of the earth
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and the interior are dynamic. Generally, it is accepted that tectonic plates are able to move N
because of the relative density of oceanic lithosphere and the relative weakness of the Student Notes:
asthenosphere. The convection currents (proposed by Arthur Holmes) get diverted or
converged on approaching the crust layer. Heat within the earth comes from two main sources:
radioactive decay and residual heat.
4.5. OBJECTIONS TO PLATE TECTONICS THEORY
Although plate tectonics has been a powerful principle to explain distribution of continents and
oceans, there are several problems to which it has not been able to offer a satisfactory
solution.
(i) The length of the spreading ridge is far greater than the subduction zone.
(ii) Plate tectonics is unable to explain why subduction is limited to the Pacific coasts
while spreading is found in all the Oceans.
(iii) It has failed to provide a satisfactory explanation for mountain building. Mountain
ranges such as eastern highlands of Australia etc which cannot be related to plate
tectonics.
(iv) It is not definite that each plate behaves like a unit, and some people have
proposed an increase in the number of plates.
5. ENDOGENIC AND EXOGENIC FORCES
The earth’s crust is dynamic which has moved and moves vertically and horizontally. It is being
continuously subjected to external forces induced basically by sunlight as well as by internal
forces caused by events occurring inside the earth. The external forces are known as exogenic
forces and the internal forces are known as endogenic forces. The variations in the relief over
the earth surface remain as long as the opposing actions of exogenic and endogenic forces
continue. The net resultant of these forces shape the landforms across the earth’s surface. We
can divide landforms into two basic categories – initial landforms and sequential. The initial
landforms are produced by endogenic forces. These initial landforms are modified and shaped
by the exogenic forces with simultaneous application of endogenic forces.
5.1. GEOMORPHIC PROCESSES AND AGENTS
Geomorphology is the study of nature and origin of landforms. One of the approaches for such
study is deductive reasoning which depended largely on the geomorphic processes. The
endogenic and exogenic forces causing physical stresses and chemical actions on earth
materials and bringing about changes in the configuration of the surface of the earth are
known as geomorphic processes. The action of exogenic forces result in wearing down
(degradation) of relief and filling up (aggradation) of basins, on the surface of the earth. On the
other hand, the endogenic forces continuously elevate or build up parts of the earth’s surface.
On the other hand, geomorphic agent is any exogenic element of nature like wind, waves,
water, ice, ocean currents, etc. capable of acquiring and transporting earth material. When
these elements of nature become mobile due to gradients, they remove the materials and
transport them over slopes and deposit them at lower level.
A process is a force applied on the earth material affecting the same. An agent is a mobile
medium which removes, transports and deposits earth materials. Unless stated separately,
geomorphic processes especially exogenic and geomorphic agents are one and the same.
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5.2. ENDOGENIC PROCESSES N

Student Notes:
The energy emanating from within the earth is the main force behind endogenic geomorphic
processes. This energy is mostly generated by radioactivity, rotational and tidal friction and
primordial heat from the origin of the earth. This energy due to geothermal gradients and heat
flow from within induces diastrophism and volcanism in the lithosphere. Due to variations in
geothermal gradients and heat flow from within, crustal thickness and strength, the action of
endogenic forces are not uniform and hence the tectonically controlled original crustal surface
is uneven. Diastrophism and Volcanism are included in endogenic geomorphic processes. These
may be summarized as:-
5.2.1. DIASTROPHISM
All processes that move, elevate or build up portions of the earth’s crust come under
diastrophism. These forces operate slowly and their effects are visible only after thousands of
years. The diastrophic forces include both the vertical and horizontal movements. They include:
a. Orogenic processes involve mountain building through severe folding, faulting,

thrusting, often as a result of plate tectonics. It includes forces of compression and
tension which are tangential to the earth’s surface in contrast to radial forces under
epeirogenesis. Under compression forces, sediments within geosynclines are buckled
and deformed into long, linear mountain chains (Himalayas). Under the operation of
intense tensional forces, the rock strata are fractured. The line along which
displacement of the fractured rock strata takes place is called the fault line (Narmada
rift valley).
b. Epeirogenic processes involve upliftment or depression of the Earth’s crust at a
continental scale which moves the crustal rocks enmasse in a vertical or radial
direction. It is a continental building process. Epeirogenic movement can be permanent
or transient. The movement is caused by a set of forces acting along the Earth radius,
such as those contributing to isostasy and faulting. For ex - Epeirogenic movement has
caused the southern Rocky Mountain region to be uplifted from 1300 to 2000m in the
past.
c. Earthquake1 involves a shock or series of shocks due to sudden movement of crustal
rocks within the crust or mantle. Earthquakes are generally associated with boundaries
of tectonic plates. There are instances where earthquakes have occurred well inside
the tectonic plate. The release of energy occurs along the fault. A fault is a sharp break
in the crustal rocks. Tendency of rocks to move apart at some point of time overcomes
the friction. This causes release of energy and the energy waves in all directions.
d. Plate tectonics involves horizontal movements of crustal plates.
5.2.2. VOLCANISM
Volcanism includes the movement of molten rock (magma) onto or toward the earth’s surface
and also formation of many intrusive and extrusive volcanic forms. The layer below the solid
crust is mantle which contains a weaker zone called asthenosphere. It is from this that the
molten rock material finds their way to the surface. The material in the upper mantle portion is
called magma. The magma is conveyed to the surface essentially along tube-like conduits and
the extrusion of lava builds distinctive conical or dome shaped landforms.
1
earthquakes involving local relatively minor movements.
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N
Student Notes:
5.3. EXOGENIC PROCESSES
The exogenic processes derive their energy from atmosphere determined by the ultimate
energy from the sun and also the gradients created by tectonic factors. They are essentially
processes of land destruction.
Figure 8 – Denudational process and their driving forces
The basic reason of these processes is development of stresses in the body of the earth
materials. It is this stress that breaks rocks and other earth materials. The shear stresses result
in angular displacement or slippage. Stress can be produced by gravitation pull, climatic factors
– thermal gradients, pressure gradients, amount and intensity of precipitation, humidity etc.
The density, type and distribution of vegetation also exert influence on exogenic processes. The
exogenic geomorphic processes vary from one climatic region to another. These vary within a
climatic region also due to location variation in climatic elements.
All the exogenic geomorphic processes are covered under a general term, called denudation
which means to strip off. Denudation consists of two kinds of processes – static and mobile.
Weathering is a static process while mass movement, erosion and transportation are mobile
processes (figure 8).
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5.3.1.WEATHERING N
Student Notes:
Weathering may be described as the mechanical disintegration or chemical decomposition of
rocks in situ by different geomorphic agents at or near the surface of the earth. It changes hard
massive rock into finer material. It is the first phase in the denudation process which prepares
rock materials for transportation by the agents of erosion and mass movement.
The main factors responsible for weathering are geological – rock structure, climatic,
topographic and vegetative. These factors result into activities such as thermal expansion,
exfoliation, rock solutions, salt and ice crystallization etc. There are three types of weathering
which are described below in detail.
I. CHEMICAL WEATHERING PROCESS
No rock-forming mineral is absolutely chemically inert; some are more readily altered than
others. A variety of chemical actions such as carbonation, hydration, oxidation and reduction
act on the rocks to decompose and dissolve them. Water, air (Oxygen and carbon dioxide)
along with heat must be present to speed up all chemical reactions. Biological activities such as
decomposition of plants and animals increase acidity and other elements in the crust which
enhances chemical weathering.
 Hydration – is a process by which certain types of mineral expand as they take up water
and expand, causing additional stresses in the rock due to increase in the volume of
mineral itself. For instance, calcium sulphate absorbs water and turns to gypsum.
Decomposed products of rock-forming minerals are also subjected to hydration,
thereby accelerating the disintegration of the rock. This process of hydration is
reversible and continued repetition causes fatigue in the rock which eventually may
lead to cracking of overlaying materials and finally disintegration.
 Oxidation and reduction – oxidation is the addition of oxygen to form oxides or
hydroxides while reduction is the reverse of oxidation. Oxidation occurs when mineral
has access to atmosphere or oxygenated water. To put it simply, they rust. Red color of
iron turns to brown upon oxidation.
 Solution – few minerals such as rock salt are significantly soluble in water. Such rock-
forming minerals are easily leached out without leaving any residue in rainy climates
and accumulate in dry regions. Minerals like calcium carbonate present in limestones
are soluble in water containing carbonic acid. Carbon dioxide produced by decaying
organic matter along with soil water greatly aids in this reaction.
 Carbonation – many minerals are soluble in rainwater, which contains carbon dioxide
and acts as a weak carbonic acid. This is particularly important in the decomposition of
limestones; the rain water converts the calcium carbonate into calcium bicarbonate,
which is soluble and can be taken away in the groundwater.
These weathering process are inter-related. Hydration, oxidation, carbonation etc. go hand-in-
hand and hasten the weathering process.
II. PHYSICAL WEATHERING PROCESS
Physical weathering is the mechanical disintegration of rock-forming minerals by different

geomorphic agents. The main factors responsible for it are (i) temperature change, (ii) the
crystallization of water or other crystal growth, (iii) pressure-release mechanism, (iv)
mechanical action of plants and animals. These factors act slow but can cause great damage to
the rocks because of continued stress or fatigue developed in the rock.
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 Expansion by unloading – pressure release (unloading) mechanism causes N

disintegration of rock. It is because of continued erosion by various geomorphic Student Notes:
agents. Fractures develop roughly parallel to the surface. This process has been termed
exfoliation. Exfoliated sheets may measure thousands of meters.
 Temperature change and expansion – thermal expansion of rock is the cause of rock
cracking and disintegration. If you travel to arid-tropics, it is possible that you may hear
sounds like rifle shots which are actually cracking of the rock as they contract. The
theory is that rocks are poor conductors of heat. Due to strong diurnal heating, the
outer layers of the rock warm up considerably, but do not transmit heat to the inner
layers. During night when temperature falls, same layer gets contracted. This should
lead to the setting up of stresses in the rock, causing fracturing parallel to the surface
 Salt weathering – a number of salts such as Sodium Chloride, Calcium sulphate may
enter rocks in dissolved form. On drying and crystallization they expand and set up a
disruptive effect. Expansion of these salts depends on temperature and their own
thermal properties. Force exerted by crystallization is sometimes more than the tensile
strength off rocks, thus causes splitting. Areas with alternating wetting and drying
conditions favour salt weathering.
 Frost action and crystal growth – frost action is one of the most important weathering
processes in cold climates. When water fills the pores, cracks and crevices in rocks and
then freezes, it expands and exerts a bursting pressure. The rocks are fractured,
cracked. In this process, rate of freezing is important. Freezing also penetrates to a
greater depth when the ground is bare rather than forest covered.
These processes – chemical and mechanical – are not stand alone activities. Different processes
acted upon same rock and produced net resultant weathered material together. For instance,
both chemical and mechanical weathering processes further weaken the joints, the layers
thereby peeling off in sheets. It is probably best to conclude that chemical weathering and
pressure release ally with temperature changes to produce rock disintegration. It is likely that
hydration process may also be involved when crystallization takes place. Another instance is of
hydration where hydration itself is a mechanical effect, but it occurs intimately with hydrolysis
in such a manner that it is difficult to draw any hard and fast line here between mechanical and
chemical weathering. Actions of plants, human and animal affect both chemical and
mechanical weathering.
III. BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITY
It includes the role of plants and animal in promotion of both physical and chemical
weathering. Burrowing and wedging by organisms like earthworms, termites, rodents etc., help
in exposing the new surfaces to chemical attack and assist in the penetration of moisture and
air. Human beings by disturbing vegetation, ploughing and cultivating soils, also help in mixing
and creating new contacts between air, water and minerals in the earth materials. Tree roots
can occasionally be shown to have forced apart adjacent blocks of rock. Decaying plant and
animal matter help in the production of humic, carbonic and other acids which enhance decay
and solubility of some elements.
5.3.2.MASS MOVEMENT
Mass movement or mass wasting is the term used for the movement of material down a slope
under the influence of gravity. Thus it excludes those in which material is carried directly by a
transporting medium such as running water, wind or ice. That means mass movement does not
come under erosion though there is a shift of materials from one place to another. The
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movement of mass may range from slow to rapid, affecting shallow to deep columns of N
materials and include creep, flow, slide and fall. Weathering is not a pre-requisite for mass Student Notes:
movement though it aids mass movement.
Mass wasting is viewed as a transitional phenomenon between weathering which is defined as

occurring in situ and erosion which requires as one element transport by some agent. Mass
wasting combines elements of both weathering and erosion.
Factors favouring mass movement are: (i) weathering; (ii) rock composition; (iii) texture and
structure of material; (iv) slope gradient; (v) extent of lubrication. Several activities precede
mass movements. They are : (i) removal of support from below to materials above through
natural or artificial means; (ii) increase in gradient and height of slopes; (iii) overloading
through addition of materials naturally or by artificial filling; (iv) overloading due to heavy
rainfall, saturation and lubrication of slope materials; (v) removal of material or load from over
the original slope surfaces; (vi) occurrence of earthquakes, explosions or machinery; (vii)
excessive natural seepage; (viii) heavy drawdown of water from lakes, reservoirs and rivers
leading to slow outflow of water from under the slopes or river banks; (ix) indiscriminate
removal of natural vegetation.
Figure 9 - Relationships among different types of mass movements
Heave (heaving up of soils due to frost growth and other causes), flow and slide are the three
types of mass movements (figure 9). Mass movements can be grouped under three major
classes:
 Slow movements – the slow downhill movement of debris and soil on moderate slope
is described as creep. Depending upon the type of material involved, several types of
creep viz., soil creep, talus creep, rock creep, rock-glacier creep etc., can be identified.
Leaning fence post, accumulation of earth on the upslope side of stone walls, etc. are
example of creep. Also included in this group is solifluction which involves slow
downslope flowing soil mass or fine grained rock debris saturated or lubricated with
water. This process is quite common in moist temperate areas where surface melting
of deeply frozen ground and long continued rain respectively, occur frequently. The
permanently frozen ground prevents the downward percolation of water in summer,
producing a highly saturated and mobile soil layer. Also, there is absence of deep-
rooted vegetation to bind the soil. Solifluction can occur on slopes of 30 or less.
 Rapid movement – these depend on there being sufficient water to saturate
comprehensively the soil mass. These movements are mostly prevalent in humid
climatic regions and occur over gentle to steep slopes. Earthflow is movement of
water-saturated clayey or silty earth materials down hillsides. When slopes are steeper,
even the bedrock especially of soft sedimentary rocks like shale or deeply weathered
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igneous rock may slide downslope. Another type in this category is mudflow. In the N
absence of vegetation cover and with heavy rainfall, thick layers of weathered Student Notes:
materials get saturated with water and either slowly or rapidly flows down along
definite channels. It looks like a stream of mud within a valley. Mudflows occur
frequently on the slopes of erupting or recently erupted volcanoes. A third type is the
debris avalanche, which is more characteristic of humid regions. Avalanche can be
much faster than the mudflow.
 Landslides – In these, as the velocity does not continually decrease downwards, there
must be one or more shear surfaces on which movement takes place. Where the shear
surface is approximately planar, the strict meaning of the term slide is appropriate.
However, another common type of landslide takes place on arcuate shear planes, and
these are called rotational slips. It results into slumping of debris with backward
rotation. Most landslides usually occur fairly rapidly, often after excess groundwater
following heavy rain has reduced soil strength. Over steep slopes, rock sliding is very
fast and destructive.
5.3.3.EROSION AND DEPOSITION
The erosion can be defined as “application of the kinetic energy associated with the agent to
the surface of the land along which it moves”. Erosion is a term referring to those processes of
Denudation which wear away the land surface by the mechanical action of the debris which is
being acquired and transported by various agents of erosion. The agents by themselves are also
capable of erosion. Abrasion by rock debris carried by these geomorphic agents also aid greatly
in erosion. For erosion to occur the agent must be capable of exerting a force on the surface
greater than its shear strength.
When massive rocks break into smaller fragments through weathering and any other process,
erosional geomorphic agents like running water, groundwater, glaciers, wind and waves
remove and transport it to other places depending upon the dynamics of each of these agents.
Weathering aids erosion but it is not a pre-condition for erosion to take place.
Deposition is a consequence of erosion. The erosional agents loose their velocity and hence
energy on gentler slopes and the materials carried by them start to settle themselves. The
coarser materials get deposited first and finer ones later. Alluvial fans at the foothills, alluvial
plains, delta etc. are few examples of deposition landforms.
UPSC Questions
1. What do you understand by the theory of continental drift? Discuss the prominent
evidences in its support.(UPSC 2013/5 Marks)
2. Sea-floor spreading. (UPSC 2010/5 Marks)

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GEOGRAPHY: 4 VISIONIAS ™
www.visionias.in
EARTHQUAKE TSUNAMI AND VOLCANIC ACTIVITY AND ASSOCIATED

LANDFORMS
Contents:
1. EARTHQUAKES
1.1. TYPES OF EARTHQUAKES
1.2. SEISMIC WAVES
1.3. DEPTH OF EARTHQUAKES
1.4. MEASUREMENT OF EARTHQUAKES
1.4.1.Magnitude Scale
1.4.2.Intensity Scale
1.4.3.Classification of Earthquakes
1.5. DISTRIBUTION OF EARTHQUAKES
1.5.1.Seismic Belts of the world
1.5.2.Seismic Zones of India
1.6. EFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKES
2. TSUNAMI
2.1. CAUSES
2.2. PROPAGATION
2.3. CONSEQUENCES
2.4. EARLY WARNING AND MITIGATION
3. VOLCANOES
3.1. VULCANICITY
3.1.1.Causes of Vulcanism
3.2. COMPONENTS OF A VOLCANO
3.2.1.Types of lavas
3.3. TYPES OF VOLCANOES
3.4. VOLCANIC LANDFORMS
3.4.1.Extrusive Landforms
3.4.2.Intrusive Landforms
3.5. DISTRIBUTION OF VOLCANOES
3.6. EFFECTS OF VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS
3.7. GEYSERS
3.8. HOT SPRINGS
3.9. FUMAROLES

Earthquakes N
Student Notes:
An earthquake in simple words is shaking of the earth. It is caused due to release of energy,
which generates waves that travel in all directions.
The release of energy occurs along a fault. A fault is a sharp break in the crustal rocks. Rocks
along a fault tend to move in opposite directions. As the overlying rock strata press them, the
friction locks them together. However, their tendency to move apart at some point of time
overcomes the friction. As a result, the blocks get deformed and eventually, they slide past one
another abruptly. This causes dissipation of energy, and the energy waves travel in all
directions.
The point where the energy is released is called the focus of an earthquake, alternatively, it is
called the hypocentre. The energy waves travelling in different directions reach the surface.
The point on the surface, nearest to the focus, is called epicentre. It is the first one to
experience the waves. It is a point directly above the focus.
Figure 1: Hypocentre and Epicentre
Types of Earthquakes
1. Tectonic Earthquakes: These are generated due to sliding of rocks along a fault plane.
This movement causes imbalance in the crustal rocks which results in earthquakes of
varying magnitude, depending upon the nature of dislocation in the rock strata.
2. Volcanic Earthquakes: Volcanic activity is considered to be one of the main causes of
earthquakes. In fact, volcanic activity and seismic events are so intimately related to
each other that they become cause and effect for each other. Each volcanic eruption is
followed by an earthquake and many of the severe earthquakes can cause volcanic
eruptions.
The explosive violent gases during the process of volcanic activity try to escape upward
and hence they push the crustal surface from below with great force. This leads to
severe tremors of high magnitude, which depend upon the intensity of volcanic
eruptions.
3. Collapse Earthquakes: In areas of intense mining activity, sometimes the roofs of
underground mines collapse causing minor tremors.
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4. Explosion Earthquakes: Ground shaking may also occur due to the explosion of N
chemical or nuclear devices. Student Notes:
5. The earthquakes that occur in the areas of large reservoirs are referred to as reservoir
induced earthquakes.
Above may also be referred as various causes of earthquakes with one and two being
the natural causes of earthquakes while three, four and five represent anthropogenic
or man-made causes of earthquakes.
Seismic waves
The waves generated by an earthquake are called the 'seismic waves' or ‘earthquake waves’.
These are recorded by an instrument called the seismograph or the seismometer. For further
understanding of earthquake waves, refer to the portion of the notes on ‘Interior of Earth’.
Depth of Earthquakes
Earthquake focus depth is an important factor in shaping the characteristics of the waves and
the damage they inflict. The focal depth can be deep (from 300 to 700 km), intermediate (60 to
300 km) or shallow (less than 60 km). Deep focus earthquakes are rarely destructive because
the wave amplitude is greatly attenuated by the time it reaches the surface. Shallow focus
earthquakes are more common and are extremely damaging because of their close proximity
to the surface
Measurement of Earthquakes
The earthquake events are scaled either according to the magnitude or intensity of the shock.
Magnitude Scale
Magnitude is the amount of energy released and is based on the direct measurement of the
size of seismic waves. The magnitude scale is known as the Richter Scale.
The Richter magnitude scale was developed in 1935 by Charles F. Richter as a mathematical
device to compare the size of earthquakes. The magnitude of an earthquake is determined
from the logarithm of the amplitude of waves recorded by seismographs. Because of the
logarithmic basis of the scale, each whole number increase in magnitude represents a ten fold
increase in measured amplitude; as an estimate of energy, each whole number step in the
magnitude scale corresponds to the release of about 31 times more energy than the amount
associated with the preceding whole number value.
Intensity Scale
Intensity of an earthquake is measured in terms of its effects on human life. The intensity of an
earthquake at a specific location depends on a number of factors. Some of them are:
 the total amount of energy released,
 the distance from the epicentre,
 the types of rocks and the degree of consolidation.
The Mercalli intensity scale is a scale used for measuring the intensity of an earthquake. The
scale quantifies the effects of an earthquake on the Earth's surface, humans, objects of nature,
and man-made structures on a scale of I through XII, with I denoting ‘not felt’, and XII ‘total
destruction’. Data is gathered from individuals who have experienced the quake, and an
intensity value will be given to their location.
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Characteristic Mercalli Scale Richter Scale N

The effects caused by The energy released by the earthquake Student Notes:
Measures
earthquake
Measuring Observation Seismograph
Tool
Quantified from Base-10 logarithmic scale obtained by calculating
observation of effect logarithm of the amplitude of waves.
Calculation on earth’s surface,
human, objects and
man-made structures
I (not felt) to XII (total From 2.0 to 10.0+ (never recorded). A 3.0
destruction) earthquake is 10 times stronger than a 2.0
Scale
earthquake.
Varies depending on Varies at different distances from the epicentre,

distance from but one value is given for the earthquake as a
Consistency
epicentre. whole.
Table 1: Comparison between Richter and Mercalli Scale
Classification of Earthquakes
Category Magnitude on Richter Scale
Slight Upto 4.9
Moderate 5.0 to 6.9
Great 7.0 to 7.9
Very Great 8.0 and more
Table 2: classification of earthquakes based on magnitude
Distribution of Earthquakes
Most earthquakes in the world are associated with the following:
 the zones of young fold mountains,

 the zones of faulting and fracturing,
 the zones representing the junctions of continental and oceanic margins,
 the zones of active volcanoes, and
 along the different plate boundaries.
Seismic Belts of the world

The main seismic belts are as under:
1. Circum-Pacific Belt: The Belt includes the coastal margins of North America, South
America and East Asia. These are as represent the eastern and western margins of the
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Pacific Ocean respectively, and account for about 65 per cent of the total earthquakes N
of the world. Student Notes:
The western marginal zones are represented by the Rockies and the Andes mountain
chains. These are also the zones of convergent plate boundaries where the Pacific
oceanic plate is subducted below the American plates.
The eastern marginal zones are represented by the island arcs of Kamchatka, Sakhalin,
Japan and Philippines. The earthquakes are caused due to collision of the Pacific and
the Asiatic plates and the consequent volcanic activity. Japan records about 1500
seismic shocks every year.
2. Mid-Continental Belt: The Mid-Continental Belt includes the Alpine mountains and
their off shoots in Europe, Mediterranean Sea, northern Africa, eastern Africa and the
Himalayas.
The Mid-Continental Belt extends through Sulaiman and Kirthar zones in the west, the
Himalayas in the north and Myanmar in the east. This belt represents the weaker zone
of Fold Mountains. About 21 per cent of the total seismic events are recorded in this
belt.
3. Mid-Atlantic Ridge Belt: The Mid-Atlantic Ridge Belt includes the Mid-Atlantic ridge
and several islands near the ridge. It records moderate earthquakes which are caused
due to the moving of plates in the opposite directions. Thus the seafloor spreading and
the fissure type of volcanic eruptions cause earthquakes of moderate intensity in this
region.
Figure 2: Distribution of Earthquake belts
Seismic Zones of India

The Indian sub-continent is highly prone to multiple natural disasters including earthquakes,
which is one of the most destructive natural hazards with the potentiality of inflicting huge loss
to lives and property. Earthquakes pose a real threat to India with 59% of its geographical area
vulnerable to seismic disturbance of varying intensities including the capital city of the country.
The varying geology at different locations in the country implies that the likelihood of damaging
earthquakes taking place at different locations is different. Thus, a seismic zone map is required
so that buildings and other structures located in different regions can be designed to withstand
different level of ground shaking. The current zone map divides India into four zones – II, III, IV
and V.
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N
Student Notes:
Figure 3: Seismic Zones of India
The following table gives the distribution of various regions of the country into various seismic
zones:
Zone Damage risk Region

The entire North-east, including the seven sister
states, the Kutch district, parts of Himachal and
Zone V Very high damage risk zone
Jammu & Kashmir, and the Andaman and Nicobar
islands.
Parts of the Northern belt starting from Jammu and
Kashmir to Himachal Pradesh. Also including Delhi
Zone IV High damage risk zone and parts of Haryana. The Koyna region of
Maharashtra is also in this zone.
A large part of the country stretching from the North
including some parts of Rajasthan to the South
Zone III Moderate damage risk zone
through the Konkan coast, and also the Eastern parts
of the country.
These two zones are contiguous, covering parts of
Zone II Low damage risk zone Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh,
and Rajasthan, known as low risk earthquake zones.
Table 4: Region falling in various zones of the country
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Effects of Earthquakes N
Student Notes:
The direct and indirect effects of an earthquake includes:
1. Deformed Ground Surface: The earthquake tremors and the resultant vibrations, result
in the deformation of the ground surface, due to the rise and subsidence of the ground
surface and faulting activity. The alluvium filled areas of the flood plains may get
fractured at several places.
2. Damage to man-made structures: Man-made structures such as buildings, roads, rails,
factories, dams, bridges, etc., get severely damaged.
3. Damage to towns and cities: The towns and cities are the worst affected due to a high
density of buildings and population. Under the impact of tremors, large buildings
collapse and men and women get buried under the debris. Ground water pipes are
damaged and thus water supply is totally disrupted.
4. Loss of human and animal life: The destructive power of an earthquake depends upon
the loss it can cause in terms of loss of life arid property. The Bhuj earthquake of India
in 2001 (8.1 on the Richter Scale) caused over one lakh human casualties.
5. Devastating fires: The strong vibrations caused by an earthquake can cause fire in
houses, mines and factories due to the bursting of gas cylinders, contact with live
electric wires, churning of blast furnaces, displacement of other electric and fire related
appliances.
6. Landslides: The tremors in hilly and mountainous areas can cause instability of
unconsolidated rock materials. This ultimately leads to landslides, which damage
settlements and transport systems.
7. Flash floods: Very strong seismic events result in the collapse of dams and cause severe
flash floods. Floods are also caused when the debris produced by tremors blocks the
flow of water in the rivers. Sometimes the main course of the river is changed due to
the blockage.
8. Tsunamis: When the seismic waves travel through sea water, high sea waves are
generated, which can cause great loss to life and property, especially in the coastal
areas.
Tsunami
Tsunami is a Japanese word which means ‘harbour wave’. It is a series of traveling ocean waves
of extremely long length generated by disturbances associated primarily with earthquakes
occurring below or near the ocean floor. Underwater volcanic eruptions and landslides can also
generate tsunamis. Tsunamis are a threat to life and property to anyone living near the
ocean. Large tsunamis have been known to rise over 100 feet, while tsunamis 10 to 20 feet
high can be very destructive and cause many deaths and injuries.
Causes
Tsunamis generally are caused by earthquakes. Not all earthquakes generate tsunamis. To
generate tsunamis, earthquakes must occur underneath or near the ocean, be large and create
movements in the sea floor. All oceanic regions of the world can experience tsunamis, but in
the Pacific Ocean there is a much more frequent occurrence of large, destructive tsunamis
because of the many large earthquakes along the margins of the Pacific Ocean.
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N
Student Notes:
Figure 4: Generation of Tsunami
Other less common causes of earthquakes are submarine landslides, submarine volcanic
eruptions and very rarely a large meteorite impact in the ocean.
Propagation
In the open ocean a tsunami is less than a few feet high at the surface, but its wave height
increases rapidly in shallow water. Tsunamis wave energy extends from the surface to the
bottom in the deepest waters. As the tsunami attacks the coastline, the wave energy is
compressed into a much shorter distance creating destructive, life-threatening waves.
Where the ocean is over 20,000 feet deep, unnoticed tsunami waves can travel at the speed of
a commercial jet plane, nearly 600 miles per hour. They can move from one side of the Pacific
Ocean to the other in less than a day. This great speed makes it important to be aware of the
tsunami as soon as it is generated. Scientists can predict when a tsunami will arrive since the
speed of the waves varies with the square root of the water depth. Tsunamis travel much
slower in shallower coastal waters where their wave heights begin to increase dramatically.
Figure 5: Rise in Tsunami amplitude near the coast
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Offshore and coastal features can determine the size and impact of tsunami waves. Reefs, bays, N
entrances to rivers, under sea features and the slop of the beach all help to modify the tsunami Student Notes:
as it attacks the coastline. When the tsunami reaches the coast and moves inland, the water
level can rise many feet. In extreme cases, water level has risen to more than 50 feet for
tsunamis of distant origin and over 100 feet for tsunami waves generated near the
earthquake's epicentre.
Consequences
The consequences vary from loss of livelihood for fishermen to unknown damages to coral
reefs and flora and fauna. It may take years for the coral reefs to get back the balance and
mangrove stands and coastal tree plantations get destroyed or severely affected.
With so much sea water coming inland, salination is another effect that not only makes the soil
less fertile to support vegetation but also increases vulnerability to erosion, the impacts of
climate change and food insecurity. For humans, on the other hand, fisheries, housing and
infrastructure are the worst affected.
Early Warning and Mitigation

Major tsunami warning centres are:
1. Pacific Tsunami Warning Center (PTWC): The Tsunami Warning System (TWS) in the
Pacific, comprised of 26 participating international Member States, has the functions of
monitoring seismological and tidal stations throughout the Pacific Basin to evaluate
potentially tsunami genic earthquakes and disseminating tsunami warning information. The
Pacific Tsunami Warning Center is the operational center of the Pacific TWS. Located near
Honolulu, Hawaii, PTWC provides tsunami warning information to national authorities in
the Pacific Basin.
2. The Alaska Tsunami Warning Center (ATWC): in Palmer, Alaska, serves as the regional
Tsunami Warning Center for Alaska, British Columbia, Washington, Oregon, and California.
3. Indian Tsunami Early Warning System (ITEWS): The Indian Tsunami Early Warning System
has the responsibility to provide tsunami advisories to Indian Mainland and the Island
regions. Acting as one of the Regional Tsunami Advisory service Providers (RTSPs) for the
Indian Ocean Region, ITEWS also provide tsunami advisories to the Indian Ocean Rim
countries along with Australia and Indonesia.
In order to confirm whether the earthquake has actually triggered a tsunami, it is essential to
measure the change in water level as near to the fault zone with high accuracy. There are two
basic types of sea level gages: coastal tide gages and open ocean buoys.
Tide gages are generally located at the land-sea interface, usually in locations somewhat
protected from the heavy seas that are occasionally created by storm systems. Tide gages that
initially detect tsunami waves provide little advance warning at the actual location of the gage,
but can provide coastal residents where the waves have not yet reached an indication that a
tsunami does exist, its speed, and its approximate strength.
Open ocean tsunami buoy systems equipped with bottom pressure sensors are now a reliable
technology that can provide advance warning to coastal areas that will be first impacted by a
tsunami, before the waves reach them and near by tide gages. Open Ocean buoys often
provide a better forecast of the tsunami strength than tide gages at distant locations.
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Apart from technology, we can also use natural barriers to mitigate the effect of tsunamis. N
Coral reefs act as natural breakwaters, providing a physical barrier that reduces the force of a Student Notes:
wave before it reaches the shore, while mangrove forests act as natural shock absorbers, also
soaking up destructive wave energy and buffering against coastal erosion.
Volcanoes
The word volcano is derived from the name of ‘Vulcano’, a volcanic island in the Aeolian
Islands of Italy whose name in turn originates from ‘Vulcan’, the name of a god of fire in Roman
mythology.
Volcano is a vent or an opening through which heated materials consisting of water, gases,
liquid lava and rock fragments are erupted from the highly heated interior to the surface of the
Earth. The layer below the solid crust of earth is mantle. It has higher density than that of the
crust. The mantle contains a weaker zone called asthenosphere. It is from this that the molten
rock materials find their way to the surface. The material in the upper mantle portion is called
magma. Once it starts moving towards the crust or it reaches the surface, it is referred to as
lava.
‘Volcanology’ or ‘vulcanology’ is the term given to the study of volcanoes, and the scientists
who study them are called the ‘volcanologists’ or ‘vulcanologists’.
Vulcanicity
Vulcanicity includes all those processes in which molten rock material or magma rises to the
crust to solidify as crystalline or semi-crystalline rocks. Some scientists use ‘vulcanism’ as a
synonym for vulcanicity.
Vulcanicity has two components; one of them operates below the crustal surface and the other
above the crust, i.e. the endogenetic mechanism and the exogenous mechanism. The
endogenetic mechanism includes the creation of hot and liquid magma and gases in the
mantle and the crust, their expansion and upward ascent, their intrusion and cooling and
solidification in various forms below the crustal surface. The exogenous mechanism includes
the process of the appearance of lava, volcanic dust and ashes, fragmental materials, mud,
smoke, etc., in different forms on the earth’s surface.
Causes of Vulcanism
The mechanism of vulcanism and the volcanic activity are associated with several processes,
such as:
1. A gradual increase of temperature with increasing depth at the rate of 1 degree Celsius
for every 32 m.
2. Magma is formed due to the lowering of melting point, which in turn is caused by the
reduction in pressure of the overlying material.
3. Gases and vapour are formed due to heating of water, which reaches underground
through percolation.
4. The ascent of magma forced by vast volume of gases and water vapour.
5. The occurrence of volcanic eruption.
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Components of a Volcano N
Student Notes:
The volcanoes of explosive type have a volcanic cone, which is formed when the erupted
material accumulates around the vent. The vent is an opening of circular or nearly circular
shape at the centre of the cone. The vent is connected to the interior of the earth by a narrow
pipe. The volcanic materials erupt through this pipe. A funnel-shaped hollow at the top of the
cone is called the crater.
Figure 6: Components of a volcano
Types of lavas
There are two main types of lavas:
1. Basic Lavas: These are the hottest lavas and are highly fluid. They are dark coloured like
basalt, rich in iron and magnesium but poor in silica. They flow quietly and are not very
explosive. They affect extensive areas, spreading out as thin sheets over great
distances before they solidify. The resultant volcano is gently sloping with a wide
diameter and forms a flattened shield or dome.
2. Acid Lavas: These lavas are highly viscous with a high melting point. They are light
coloured, of low density and have a high percentage of silica. They flow slowly and
seldom travel far before solidifying. The resultant volcano is therefore steep-sided. The
rapid cooling of lava in the vent obstructs the flow of the outpouring lava, resulting in
loud explosions throwing out many volcanic bombs or pyroclasts.
Note: Pyroclasts are any volcanic fragment that was hurled through the air by volcanic activity.
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Types of volcanoes N
Student Notes:
There is a wide variation in the mode of volcanic eruption and their periodicity. Accordingly the
volcanoes can be classified on the basis of the mode of eruption and their periodicity of
eruption.
Classification on the basis of mode of eruption: The volcanoes are classified into two groups
on the basis of their mode of eruption:
1. Violent or Explosive type: The eruption of violent or explosive type is so rapid that
huge quantities of volcanic materials are ejected thousands of metres in the sky. On
falling, these materials accumulate around the volcanic vent and form volcanic cones.
Such volcanoes are very destructive. They are generally associated with acidic lavas.
2. Effusive or Fissure type: The eruption of the fissure type of volcanoes-occurs along a
long fracture, fault or fissure. Magma ejects slowly and the resultant lava spreads on
the surface. The speed of the lava flow depends on the nature and volume of magma,
slope of the ground and the temperature conditions.
Classification on the basis of periodicity of eruption: The volcanoes are divided into three
types on the basis of the periodicity of their eruption:
1. Active Volcanoes: Volcanoes are said to be active when they frequently erupt or at
least when they have erupted within recent time. Etna and Stromboli are typical
examples.
2. Dormant Volcanoes: Volcanoes that have been known to erupt and show signs of
possible eruption in future are described as dormant. Mt. Vesuvius is the best example.
3. Extinct Volcanoes: Volcanoes that have not erupted at all in historic times but retain
the features of volcanoes are termed extinct. Ship rock in Netherlands is one such
example.
All volcanoes pass through active, dormant and extinct stages but it is impossible to be
thoroughly sure when a volcano has become extinct.
Volcanic Landforms
Various landforms are created due to the cooling and solidification of magma (below the
Earth's surface) and lava (on the Earth's surface). Some relief features are formed due to the
accumulation of volcanic materials. The volcanic landforms are grouped into two broad
categories: Extrusive landforms and Intrusive landforms.
Extrusive Landforms
Extrusive landforms are determined by the nature and composition of the lava. Major extrusive
landforms are as under:
1. Cinder or ash cones are formed due to the accumulation of loose particles around
the vent. Its size increases due to the continuous accumulation of volcanic material
minus lava. The larger particles are arranged near the crater and the finer particles
are deposited at the outer margins of the cone. The lava flows are so viscous that
they solidify after a short distance.
2. Composite cones are the highest and are formed by the accumulation of various
layers of volcanic material. They have alternate layers of lava and fragmented
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material, wherein lava acts as the cementing material. These are mainly associated N
with cooler and more viscous lava and the volcanoes associated with them are called Student Notes:
composite volcanoes.
3. Shield Volcanoes are built almost entirely of fluid lava flows. They are named for
their large size and low profile, resembling a warrior's shield lying on the ground.
Barring the basalt flows, the shield volcanoes are the largest of all the volcanoes on
the earth. These volcanoes are mostly made up of basalt, a type of lava that is very
fluid when erupted. For this reason, these volcanoes are not steep.
4. Craters are depressions formed at the mouth of the volcanic vent, which is usually
funnel-shaped. Some volcanoes may have greatly enlarged depressions called
calderas. These are the result of violent eruptions accompanied by the subsidence of
much of the volcano into the magma beneath. Water may collect in the crater or the
caldera forming crater or caldera lakes.
5. Flood Basalt Provinces are formed when volcanoes outpour highly fluid lava that
flows for long distances. Some parts of the world are covered by thousands of sq. km
of thick basalt lava flows. There can be a series of flows with some flows attaining
thickness of more than 50 m. Individual flows may extend for hundreds of km. The
Deccan Traps from India, presently covering most of the Maharashtra plateau, are a
much larger flood basalt province.
Figure 7: Volcanoes based on extrusive landforms
Intrusive Landforms
The lava that cools within the crustal portion assumes different forms called intrusive forms.
Some of these forms are:
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N
Student Notes:
Figure 8: Various intrusive landforms formed in volcanic regions
1. Batholiths are long, irregular, undulating and dome-shaped features. They are a large
body of magmatic material that cools in the deeper depth of the crust and develops in
the form of large domes. They appear on the surface only after the denudational
processes remove the overlying materials. They cover large areas, and at times, assume
depth that may be several km. These are granitic bodies. Batholiths are the cooled
portion of magma chambers.
2. Laccoliths are formed due to the intrusion of magma along the bedding planes of
horizontal sedimentary rocks. They are usually mushroom or dome shaped.
3. Phacoliths are formed due to the intrusion of acidic magma along the anticlines and
synclines in the region of fold mountains.
4. Lapoliths are formed when magma solidifies in shallow basins into a saucer shape.
5. Sills and Sheets are intrusive igneous rocks usually parallel to the bedding planes of
sedimentary rocks. Depending on the thickness of deposits, thinner ones are called
sheets while thick horizontal deposits are called sills.
6. Dykes are wall-like formation of solidified magma. These are vertical to the bed of
sedimentary rocks. The thickness ranges from a few centimetres to several hundred
metres, but the length can be several kilometres.
Distribution of Volcanoes
The volcanoes are mostly associated with the weaker zones of the Earth's crust which are also
zones of seismic activities like the earthquakes. The weaker zones are mostly found in the areas
of fold mountains. They are also associated with the meeting zones of oceans and continents,
or with the mountain building activity.
Most of the world's active volcanoes are associated with the plate boundaries. About 15 per
cent of the volcanoes are associated with the divergent plate boundaries and about 80 per cent
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with the convergent plate boundaries. Some volcanoes are also found in the intra-plate N
regions. Student Notes:
The main volcanic belts are as under:

1. Circum-Pacific Belt: It includes the volcanoes of the eastern and western coastal areas
of the Pacific Ocean. This belt is also known as the Ring of Fire of the Pacific Ocean.
It begins from Erebus mountains of Antarctica and runs northwards through Andes of
South America and Rockies of North America to reach Alaska. From there, it turns
eastwards along the coast of Asia to include the volcanoes of Sakhalin and Kamchatka,
Japan and Philippines respectively. This belt finally merges with the Mid-continental
Belt in Indonesia.
Most of the high volcanic cones and volcanic mountains are found in the Circum-Pacific
Belt. Cotopaxi in Andes (5896 m) is the highest volcanic mountain in the world. The
other famous volcanoes are Fujiyama (Japan), Shasta, Rainier, Mt St Helena (USA).
2. Mid-Continental Belt: It includes the volcanoes of the Alpine mountains and the
Mediterranean Sea. The volcanic eruptions are caused due to the convergence and
collision of the Eurasian Plates and the African and Indian Plates. Some of the famous
volcanoes of the Mediterranean Sea such as the Stromboli, Vesuvius, Etna, etc., are in
this belt. This belt is not continuous and has several volcanic free zones such as the
Alps and the Himalayas. The important volcanoes in the fault zone of eastern Africa are
Kilimanjaro, Meru, Elgon, Rungwe, etc.
3. Mid-Atlantic Belt: It includes the volcanoes along the mid-Atlantic ridge which is the
divergent plate zone. They are mainly of the fissure eruption type. Iceland, is the most
active volcanic area.
Figure 9: Distribution of volcanoes
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Effects of volcanic eruptions N

Student Notes:
Volcanic eruption causes heavy damage to human life and property. Some of them are as
under:
 Large volumes of hot lava moving at a fast speed can bury man-made buildings, kill
people and animals, destroy agricultural farms and pastures, burn and destroy forests.
 The fall out of large quantities of fragmented materials, dust, ash, smoke, etc., creates
health hazards due to poisonous gases emitted during eruption. It also causes acid rain.
 If the explosive eruption has occurred suddenly, the human beings get no time to
escape to safer places. Heavy rains mixed with volcanic dust and ash cause enormous
mud-flow on the steep slopes of the cones.
 Earthquakes caused due to explosive eruptions can generate destructive tsunamis,
seismic waves, etc. These can cause loss of life and property in the affected coastal
regions.
 The volcanic eruptions can change the heat balance of the Earth and the atmosphere,
causing climatic changes.
But there are many positive effects also. Some of them are:
 Lava can give rise to fertile soils. Most of the precious stones are formed due to
volcanic activity.
 Geysers and springs are tourist attraction and are also important from the medical
point of view due to the chemicals dissolved in them.
 Some crater lakes are source of rivers and often offer scenic attraction for tourists.
 Most of the volcanic rocks when exposed on the surface are a storehouse of metals
and minerals.
Geysers
Geysers are fountains of hot water and superheated steam that may spout up to a height of
150 feet from the earth beneath. The phenomena are associated with a thermal or volcanic
region in which the water below is being heated beyond boiling point. The jet of water is
usually emitted with an explosion, and is often triggered by gases seeping out of the heated
rocks.
Almost all the world’s geysers are confined to three major areas: Iceland, New Zealand and
Yellowstone park of U.S.A.
Hot Springs
Hot springs or thermal springs are more common, and may be found in any part of the earth
where water sinks deep enough beneath the surface to be heated by the interior forces. The
water rises to the surface without any explosion. Such springs contain dissolved minerals which
have medical value.
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Iceland has thousands of hot springs. Hot springs are common in many parts of India, especially N
in the hilly and mountainous parts. Some of them are in Manikaran (Kulu), Tattapani (Shimla), Student Notes:
Jwalamukhi (Kangra), Rajgir (Patna), Sitakund (Munger) and in Yamunotri and Gangotri.
Fumaroles
A fumarole is a vent in the Earth's surface which emits gases and water vapour. Sometimes the
emission is continuous, but in majority of cases emission occurs after intervals. It is widely
believed that gases and water vapour are generated due to cooling and contraction of magma
after the eruption. Fumaroles are the last signs of the activeness of a volcano.

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VISIONIAS ™
www.visionias.in
GEOGRAPHY: 5
MOUNTAIN BUILDING ISLAND FORMATIONS AND HOTSPOTS
Contents:
1. Mountains
Types of Mountains
Fold Mountains
Block Mountains
Volcanic Mountains
Residual Mountains
2. Islands
Continental Islands
Oceanic Islands
3. Hotspots

www.visionias.in ©Vision IAS

Mountains N
Student Notes:
Since the dawn of geological time, no less than nine orogenic or mountain building movements
have taken place, folding and fracturing the earth's crust. Some of them occurred in Pre-
Cambrian times about 600-3,500 million years ago. The three more recent orogenies are the
Caledonian, Hercynian and Alpine. The Caledonian about 320million years ago raised the
mountains of Scandinavia and Scotland, and is represented in North America. These ancient
mountains have been worn down and no longer exhibit the striking forms that they must once
have had.
In a later period, during the Hercynian earth movements, about 240 million years ago, were
formed such ranges as the Ural Mountains, the Pennines and Welsh Highlands in Britain, the
Harz Mountains in Germany and the Appalachians in America. These mountains have also been
reduced in size by the various sculpturing forces.
The last of the major orogenic movements of the earth, the Alpine, occurred about 30 million
years ago. Young fold mountain ranges were formed on a gigantic scale. Being the most
recently formed, these ranges, such as the Alps, Himalayas, Andes and Rockies are the loftiest
and the most imposing. Their peaks are sometimes several miles high.
Types of Mountains
Based on their mode of formation, four main types of mountains can be distinguished:
Fold Mountains
These mountains are the most widespread and also the most important. They are caused by
large-scale earth movements, when stresses are set up in the earth's crust. Such stresses may
be due to:
 the increased load of the overlying rocks,

 flow movements in the mantle,
 magmatic intrusions into the crust, or
 the expansion or contraction of some part of the earth.
When such stresses are initiated, the rocks are subjected to compressive forces that produce
wrinkling or folding along the lines of weakness. As illustrated in Fig.1 and 2, folding effectively
shortens the earth's crust, creating from the original level surface a series of 'waves'.
Fig.1 Earth’s crust before folding Fig.2 Earth’s crust after folding
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The upfolded waves are called anticlines and the troughs or downfolds are called synclines. N
Due to the complexity of the compressional forces, thefolds may develop much more Student Notes:
complicated forms. When the crest of a fold is pushed too far, an overfold is formed (Fig.3). If it
is pushed still further, it becomes a recumbent fold. In extreme cases, fractures may occur in
the crust, so that the upper part of the recumbent fold slides forward over the lower part along
a thrust plane forming an over thrust fold. The over-riding portion of the thrust fold is termed a
nappe.
Fig. 3 Types of Folding
Since the rock strata have been elevated to great heights, sometimes measurable in miles, fold
mountains maybe called mountains of elevation. The fold mountains are also closely associated
with volcanic activity. They contain many active volcanoes, especially in the Circum-Pacific fold
mountain system. They also contain rich mineral resources such as tin, copper, gold and
petroleum.
Characteristics
 Fold mountains are the youngest mountains on the surface of the Earth.
 Young folded mountains represent the highest mountains on the earth. They also have
the highest mountain summits. Mt. Everest is the most typical example (8848m).
 Fold mountains have been formed due to the folding of sedimentary rocks formed due
to the deposition and consolidation of sediments in water bodies mainly in the oceanic
environment.
 The sedimentary rocks of the fold mountains were deposited in shallow seas. The
greater thickness of sediments is possible due to the continuous sedimentation and
subsidence.
 The length of the fold mountains is much more than their width. The east-west extent
of the Himalayas is about 2400 km, but their north-south width is only 400 km. Thus
the fold mountains must have been formed in long, narrow and shallow seas.
 Fold mountains are generally arc-shaped, having a concave slope on one side and
convex on the other.
 Fold mountains are found along the margins of the continents facing ocean such as the
Andes and the Rockies. If we consider the former Tethys Sea, then the Himalayas are
also located along the margins of the continent.
 Fold mountains are mostly located in two directions. In the north-south direction lie
the Rockies and the Andes, while in the west-east direction lie the Himalayas and the
Alps.
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Human activity surrounding fold mountains N

 Winter sports such as skiing in resorts. Student Notes:
 Climbing and hiking in the summer months.
 Agriculture - takes place mainly on south facing slopes and includes cereals, sugar beet,
vines and fruits.
 Forestry - coniferous forests for fuel and building.
 Communications - roads and railways follow valleys.
 Hydroelectric power (HEP) - steep slopes and glacial melt water are ideal for generating
HEP. Hydroelectric accounts for 60 per cent of Switzerland's electricity production.
Block Mountains
When the earth's crust bends, folding occurs, but when it cracks, faulting takes place. Faulting
may be caused by tension or compression, forces which lengthen or shorten the earth's crust,
causing a section of it to subside or to rise above the surrounding level.
Earth movements generate tensional forces that tend to pull the crust apart (fig. 4), and faults
are developed. If the block enclosed by the faults remains as it is or rises, and the land on
either side subsides, the upstanding block becomes the horst or block mountain. The faulted
edges are very steep, with scarp slopes and the summit is almost level, e.g. the Hunsruck
Mountains, the Vosges and Black Forest of the Rhineland.
Tension may also cause the central portion to be let down between two adjacent fault blocks
forming a graben or rift valley, which will have steep walls. The East African Rift Valley system is
3,000 miles long, stretching from East Africa through the Red Sea to Syria.
Compressional forces set up by earth movements may produce a thrust or reverse fault and
shorten the crust. A block may be raised or lowered in relation to surrounding areas. Fig.5
illustrates a rift valley formed in this way. In general large-scale block mountains and rift valleys
are due to tension rather than compression.
Fig. 4 Block Mountains formed by tensional forces
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N
Student Notes:
Fig.5 Rift Valley formed by compressive forces
Volcanic Mountains
These are built up from material ejected from fissures in the earth's crust. The materials
include molten lava, volcanic bombs, cinders, ashes, dust and liquid mud. They fall around the
vent in successive layers, building up a characteristic volcanic cone (Fig. 6). Volcanic mountains
are often called mountains of accumulation. They are common in the Circum-Pacific belt and
include such volcanic peaks as Mt. Fuji (Japan), Mt. Mayon (Philippines), Mt. Merapi (Sumatra),
Mt. Agung (Bali) and Mt. Catopaxi (Ecuador).
Fig. 6 Volcanic Mountains
Residual Mountains
These are mountains evolved by denudation. Where the general level of the land has been
lowered by the agents of denudation some very resistant areas may remain and these form
residual mountains, e.g. Mt. Manodnock in U.S.A. Residual mountains may also evolve from
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plateaux which have been dissected by rivers into hills and valleys like. In these type of N
mountains, the ridges and peaks are all very similar in height. Student Notes:
Fig. 7 Residual Mountains
Islands
An island is a piece of land surrounded on all sides by water. It may occur individually or in a
group, in open oceans or seas. Smaller ones of only local significance are found even in lakes
and rivers. Generally speaking all islands may be grouped, based on their mode of formation,
under the following two broad types.
Continental Islands
These islands were formerly part of the mainland and are now detached from the continent.
They may be separated by a shallow lagoon or a deep channel. Their separation could be due
to subsidence of some part of the land or to arise in sea level, so that the lowland links are
submerged by the sea.
Their former connection with the neighbouring mainland can be traced from the similar
physical structure, flora and fauna that exist on both sides of the channel. In the course of time,
modification by men and other natural forces may give rise to different surface features.
Continental islands can be further classified as under:
1. Individual Islands: These lie just outside the continent, very much associated with the
characteristic features of the mainland of which they were once part. Some of the
outstanding examples are New foundland, separated from the mainland by the Strait of
Belle Isle; Madagascar, by the Mozambique Channel.
2. Archipelagoes or island groups: These comprise groups of islands of varying sizes and
shapes, e.g. the British Isles, the Balearic Islands of the Mediterranean and also those
of the Aegean Sea.
3. Festoons or island arcs: The islands form an archipelago in the shape of a loop around
the edge or the mainland, marking the continuation of mountain ranges which can be
traced on the continent. Most of these island arcs are formed as one oceanic tectonic
plate subducts another one and, in most cases, produces magma at a depth below the
overriding plate, e.g. Andaman and Nicobar Islands, the East Indies, the Aleutian
Islands, RyukyuIs lands, Kurile Islands and other island arcs of the Pacific coasts.
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Oceanic Islands N
Student Notes:
These islands are normally small and are located in the midst of oceans. They have no
connection with the mainland which may be hundreds or thousands of miles away. They have a
flora and fauna unrelated to those of the continents. Due to their remoteness from the major
trading centres of the world, most of the oceanic islands are very sparsely populated. Some of
them provide useful stops for aeroplanes and ocean steamers that ply between continents
across vast stretches of water.
Oceanic Islands can be further classified as under:

1. Volcanic islands: Many of the islands in the oceans are in fact the topmost parts of the
cones of volcanoes that rise from the ocean bed. Most of them are extinct, but there
are also some active ones. The best known volcanic peak of the Pacific Ocean is Mauna
Loa in Hawaii Other volcanic islands have emerged from the submarine ridges of the
oceans.
The volcanic islands are scattered in most of the earth's oceans.
 In the Pacific Ocean, they occur in several groups such as Hawaii, the
Galapagos Islands (Ecuador) and the South Sea islands.
 In the Atlantic are the Azores (Portugal), Ascension, St. Helena1, Madeira
(Portugal) and the Canary Islands (Spain).
 In the Indian Ocean, there are Mauritius and Reunion (French Island in Indian
Ocean).
 In the Antarctic Ocean are the South Sandwich Islands and Bouvet Island.
2. Coral islands: Unlike the volcanic islands, the coral islands are very much lower and
emerge just above the water surface. These islands, built up by coral animals of
various species, are found both near the shores of the mainland and in the midst of
oceans. Coral islands include:
 Marshall Islands, Gilbert (Kiribati) and Tuvalu (formerly Ellice Islands) of the
Pacific.
 Bermuda(British Overseas Territory) in the Atlantic.
Laccadives and Maldives of the Indian Ocean.
Artificial Island
An artificial island is a man-made island, created by expanding existing islets, building on
existing reefs or making them from scratch, off the coastline. Man has been building such
islands for hundreds of years. The Flevopolder in the Netherlands is the largest artificial island
in the world.
In News (The Hindu June 2012): Israeli politicians are floating an idea to expand their seaside
country — artificial islands.
Palm Islands
The Palm Islands are two artificial islands in Dubai, United Arab Emirates in the shape of palm
trees. The islands are the Palm Jumeirah and the Palm Jebel Ali.
1
Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha is a British Overseas Territory in the southern Atlantic
Ocean consisting of the island of Saint Helena, Ascension Island and the island group called Tristan da
Cunha.
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Climate change has hit islands hard with some in danger of disappearing completely as sea Student Notes:
levels rise. The world’s first underwater cabinet meeting organised by the Maldivian president
on 17 October 2009 was a symbolic cry for help over rising sea levels that threaten the tropical
archipelago’s existence
Fig: Palm Islands
Importance of Islands
 Earth’s 175,000 islands are home to more than 600 million inhabitants
 Islands and their oceans represent one-sixth of earth’s total area
 Islands support many of the most unique and isolated natural systems including:
• more than half the world’s marine biodiversity
• 7 of the world’s 10 coral reef hotspots
• 10 of the 34 richest areas of biodiversity in the world
 64% of recorded extinctions are on islands
 Over two-thirds of the world’s countries include islands.
 Island ecosystems provide food, fresh water, wood, fibre, medicines, fuel, tools and
other important raw materials, in addition to aesthetic, spiritual, educational and
recreational values. In fact, the livelihood and economic stability of the islands depend
on its biodiversity.
Hotspots2
A hot spot is a very hot region deep within the Earth. It is usually responsible
for volcanic activity. They may be unanimously hot, and provide a great deal of molten magma.
Hot spots do not always create volcanoes that spew rivers of lava. Sometimes, the magma
2
Biodiversity hotspot, a region of significant biodiversity is different thing.
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heats up groundwater under the Earth’s surface, which causes water and steam to erupt like a N
volcano. These eruptions are called geysers. Student Notes:
There are 40 to 50 hot spots around the world, including near the Galapagos Islands (Ecuador)
and Iceland. Hot spots can create entire chains of islands, like the U.S. state of Hawaii. Hawaii is
on the Pacific plate, an enormous section of the Earth in the Pacific Ocean that is constantly
moving, but very, very slowly. Although the plate is always moving, the hot spot underneath it
stays still. The hot spot spewed magma that eventually became a chain of islands that rose over
the surface of the water. These islands were created one right after the other as the plate
moved, almost like an island factory.
Scientists use hot spots to track the movement of the Earth’s plates.

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GEOGRAPHY: 6
ROCKS AND MINERALS
Introduction
Rocks
Minerals
Some Major Minerals and Their Characteristics
Major Types of Rocks
Igneous Rocks
Characteristics of igneous rocks
Economic Importance of Igneous Rocks
Sedimentary Rocks
Characteristics of sedimentary rocks
Economic Importance of Sedimentary Rocks
Metamorphic Rocks
Characteristics of metamorphic rocks
Parent Rock and its Metamorphic Changed Form
Economic Importance of Metamorphic Rocks
Rock Cycle


Introduction N
Student Notes:
Rocks and minerals make up the Earth’s crust. Crust or the lithosphere is the thin outermost
layer of the Earth.
The hard resistant materials of the crust are called rocks. But in scientific terms, rocks include
not only the hard materials such as granite, sandstone and marble, but also soft and loose
materials such as chalk, clay, sand, salt and coal.
Minerals
Minerals are those substances which occur naturally in rocks. These are non-living solid
substances which have a definite chemical composition.
Minerals are often classified as metallic and non metallic. The surface of the metallic minerals is
generally slippe and glossy. Gold, copper and lead are metallic minerals. They are melted to
obtain metals. The surface of the non metallic minerals is dull. They cannot reflect the sun-rays.
Gypsum, quartz and mica are non-metallic minerals. Metals cannot be obtained from these
minerals.
Rocks and minerals account for about 99 per cent of the materials found in the outer layer of
the lithosphere. Some rocks have useful minerals, which provide us with metals and chemicals.
Out of about 2000 different minerals, only 12 are known as the rock-forming minerals. Oxygen
and silicon account for about 75 per cent of the Earth’s crust by weight. These elements are
essential for plant and animal life on the Earth.
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MINERALS -Minerals have distinct physical properties that

can be used to correctly identify a mineral. These are
 Crystal structure: arrangement of atoms inside mineral
 Hardness: on the Mohs scale, a ten-point scale running from the softest, talc to the
hardest, diamond.
 Lustre: appearance in light
 Colour
 Streak: colour of a mineral when it has been ground to a fine powder. Often tested
by rubbing the specimen on an unglazed plate.
 Cleavage: how mineral splits along various planes
 Fracture: how it breaks against its natural cleavage planes
 Specific gravity: density compared with water
Some Major Minerals and Their Characteristics
Minerals Composition Importance Other facts

Feldspar Common fieldspar Used in ceramics and Half of the
silicon and oxygen. glass making earth’s crust is
Specific fieldspar composed of
sodium, potassium, feldspar
calcium, aluminium .
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Quartz Consists of silica. Prominent Hard mineral N

components of Sand virtually insoluble Student Notes:
and Granite and used in water.
in Radio and Radar
Pyroxene Pyroxene consists of commonly found in Pyroxene forms
calcium, aluminum, meteorites 10 per cent of
magnesium, iron and silica. the earth’s crust.
Amphibole Aluminum, calcium, silica, used in asbestos They form 7 per

iron, magnesium are the industry Hornblende cent of the
major elements of is another form of earth’s crust
amphiboles. amphiboles
Mica It comprises of potassium, used in electrical It forms 4 percent of
aluminium, magnesium, instruments the earth's crust.
iron, silica etc It is commonly found
igneous and
metamorphic rocks.
Olivine Magnesium, iron and silica Used in jewellery Found in basaltic
are major elements of rocks.
olivine.
Rocks
Rocks are generally a mixture of two or more minerals and do not possess a definite chemical
composition.
Major Types of Rocks

On the basis of their mode of formation, rocks can be classified into the following three types:
1. Igneous rocks
2. Sedimentary rocks
3. Metamorphic rocks
Igneous Rocks
The word igneous is derived from the Latin word ‘ignis’ meaning fire. These rocks are of
thermal origin and are associated with volcanic eruptions. These rocks have been formed due
to solidification of hot and molten material called magma.
It is believed that at the time of its birth the Earth was in a molten state. The igneous rocks
were the first to be formed as a result of the solidification of the outer layer of the Earth. Thus,
igneous rocks are also known as the primary rocks. They can be divided into two types—
intrusive1 igneous rocks and extrusive igneous rocks.
Igneous rocks that cool below the surface of the Earth are called intrusive igneous rocks. The
rate of cooling is slow inside the Earth. Thus the crystals formed on cooling are large. Two
common examples of intrusive rocks are dolerite and granite.
1
Igneous rock bodies will be discussed in chapter on volcanoes.
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Igneous rocks that cool on the surface of the Earth are called extrusive igneous rocks. These N
rocks are also known as volcanic rocks. Due to rapid cooling, the crystals are fine grained such Student Notes:
as in basalt.
On the basis of their composition the igneous rocks are also classified as acidic Igneous Rocks
and Basic igneous rocks. In Acidic Igneous rocks silica content in rocks is more than 65 per
cent. These rocks are light colored and have less density. These are also known as ‘Silicic rocks’.
Granite and rhyolite are examples of these rocks. In Basic Igneous rocks the silica content is
less than 65 per cent. They are composed predominantly of ferromagnesian minerals (rich in
iron and magnesium). They are dark coloured and dense. Gabbro and basalt are basic rocks.
Characteristics of igneous rocks

 They are compact and massive and do not possess rounded particles.
 They do not occur in distinct beds or stratas.
 They are generally granular and crystalline.
 They are hard and impermeable.
 They are less affected by chemical weathering.
 They do not contain any fossils or traces of animals or plants.
 Most of the igneous rocks consist of silicate minerals.
 The valuable minerals such as iron, gold, silver, aluminium, etc., are found in them.
Economic Importance of Igneous Rocks

I. They are a reservoir of minerals.
II. Majority of metallic minerals are found in igneous rocks.
III. Economically important minerals are found in these rocks-Magnetic iron, nickel,
copper, lead, zinc, chromite, manganese, tin.
IV. Rare minerals like gold, diamonds, platinum are also found in these rocks.
V. Basalt and granite are used for construction of buildings and roads.
VI. The formation of black soils is probably the result of erosion of these rocks. These soils
are very much suited to cultivation of cotton and some other crops.
Sedimentary Rocks
The word sedimentary has been derived from the Latin word ‘sedimentum’, meaning settling
down.
Rain, wind, ice, running water, plants and animals constantly break the rocks into fragments of
all sizes. These broken rock materials are carried away by wind, ice and running water, and
deposited in the depressions. The deposited materials are called sediments, and they give rise
to sedimentary rocks.
The sediments are generally deposited in horizontal layers or stratas. Thus these rocks are also
referred to as stratified rocks. The loose materials are converted into hard and compact rocks
such as shale and sandstone. This is due to the pressure exerted from the top or because of
cementation.
The sedimentary rocks can be formed mechanically (sandstone), chemically (gypsum or salt) or
organically (coal, limestone). The sedimentary rocks are most widespread and cover about 75
per cent of the total land area on the earth.
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Characteristics of sedimentary rocks N

Student Notes:
 They are comparatively softer than the igneous rocks.
 They are made up of minute particles of various shapes and sizes.
 They have layers horizontally arranged one above the other.
 They have been mostly formed under water.
 They have mud cracks and marks of ripples and waves.
 They have fossils between the layers.
 Most of them are permeable and porous.
 Of all the sedimentary deposits, coal and petroleum are the most important ones.
 Modern industries depend on the products from the sedimentary rocks.
Economic Importance of Sedimentary Rocks

 It is true that they contain lesser minerals than in the igneous rocks. But iron ore,
phosphates, building stones, coal, raw materials for cement and bauxite are obtained
from these.
 Mineral oil and Natural Gas is also obtained from sedimentary rocks. In India there is a
possibility of finding oil fields in the sedimentary rock strata of the sub-Himalayan zone,
in the delta regions of Ganga, Kaveri, Godavari and Krishna rivers, Rann of Kutch and
the Gulf of Khambhat. The mineral oil commonly known as petroleum is formed by the
decay of tiny marine organisms (in contrast Coal is formed from dead plant) between
to impermeable rocks.
 Sandstone, limestone are used in construction of buildings. The forts of Agra, Delhi and
Fatehpur Sikri are built of red sandstone
 Fertile Soils: The Indus and Ganga basins are also made of sedimentary rocks. Their
alluvial soils are highly fertile.
Metamorphic Rocks
The word metamorphic means ‘changed form’. The rocks, originating at or near the surface of
the Earth are sometimes subjected to tremendous heat and pressure. This can change the
original properties of rocks such as their colour, hardness, texture and mineral composition.
Such changed rocks are called metamorphic rocks. Both igneous and sedimentary rocks can
change into metamorphic rocks. The special feature about the origin and formation of
metamorphic rocks is that they remain in their original position and change under the impact
of internal and external forces. Metamorphism can be of thermal and dynamic origin.
1. In the case of thermal metamorphism, the original rocks are changed under the
influence of high temperature inside the Earth’s crust. For example, limestone is
converted into marble, sandstone into quartzite, shale into slate and coal into graphite.
2. In the case of dynamic metamorphism, the original rocks are changed under the
influence of pressure at great depths inside the Earth’s crust. For example, granite is
converted into gneiss and shale into schist.
Characteristics of metamorphic rocks

• They are usually hard.
• They have a high specific gravity.
 They may be banded.
• They do not have void spaces in them.
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Parent Rock and its Metamorphic Changed Form N

Student Notes:
NAME OF THE ROCK TYPE OF ROCK NAME OF THE METAMORPHIC ROCK
Limestone Sedimentary Rock Marble
Dolomite Sedimentary Rock Marble
Sandstone Sedimentary Rock Quartzite
Shale Sedimentary Rock Slate
Slate Metamorphic Rock Phylite/Schist
Coal Sedimentary Rock Graphite/Diamond
Granite Igneous Rock Gneiss
Phyllite Metamorphic Rock Schist
Economic Importance of Metamorphic Rocks

1) Building Construction Materials: Gneiss, quartzite, slate, marble are used as building
materials. In India marble is found in Alwar, Ajmer, Jodhpur and Jaipur districts of
Rajasthan. The thick sheet of slate is used for laying the surface of billiards table. Slate
is found in parts of Riwari (Haryana), Karigra (H.P) and Bihar.
2) Industrial Uses: Graphite is used for making pencils. Its melting point is 3500°C.
Therefore pots for melting of metals are made of graphite. Graphite is indispensible for
atomic energy power house Quartzite, one of the hardest rocks, used in glass making.
3) Beauty Aids: Steatite is used for making talcum powder and other such beauty aids.
4) Asbestos is fire resistant.
5) Garnet: It is a precious stone. It is used for making abrasives.
Rock Cycle
Rock cycle is the intimate relationship and mutual interdependence between the three types of
rocks—igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic. The change of one type of rock into another
type under different conditions is known as the rock cycle.
In the cycle of rock change, the materials of the lithosphere are constantly being formed and
transformed in both their physical and mineral composition. The rock cycle has neither a
beginning nor an end.
There are two environments for the working of a rock cycle, such as:
a) a surface environment of low temperature and pressure

b) a deep environment of high temperature and pressure.
At the surface of the Earth, the igneous rocks are exposed to the agents of weathering and
erosion. They are then broken and deposited in basins or depressions. Here the sediments are
compressed and cemented into sedimentary rocks.
The leftover igneous rocks and the newly created sedimentary rocks are likely to change into
metamorphic rocks due to heat and pressure in course of time.
The formation of sedimentary rock on the Earth’s surface and its conversion into metamorphic
rock takes place within the crust of the Earth.
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The sedimentary rocks may be buried again and may melt to form the igneous rocks. N
Student Notes:
In the rock cycle, the matter of the Earth’s crust is not lost. The cycle of rock change has been
active since our planet became a solid.
The loops in the cycle of rock change are powered by two main sources of energy such as:
 the heat inside the Earth, which can melt the existing rocks; and
 the solar energy responsible for weathering and erosion, and finally converting them
into sedimentary rocks.
Throughout the geological period of millions of years, the mineral matter of the Earth has been
changing due to the working of the rock cycle.

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GEOGRAPHY: 7
LANDFORMS AND THEIR EVOLUTION
Contents:
1. Introduction
2. Landform and Landscape
3. Causes:
4. Landforms and Scale: Crustal Orders of Relief
5. Evolution of Landform
6. Landform classification
7. Fluvial Landforms (Latin: Fluvius=River)
Action of a river/ stream
(1) Erosion
(2) Transportation
(3) Deposition
(i) The Upper Course
Waterfalls , Rapids and cataracts
Pot Holes
(ii) The Middle Course
(iii) The Lower Course
River Rejuvenation
Knick point
River Terrace
Incised or entrenched meanders
Significance of work of River
Features Overview
Erosional Landforms
Depositional Landforms
Erosional and Depositional Landforms
8. Coastal landforms
Coastal processes: Tides, Current and Waves
Sea Waves mechanism
Coastal erosion
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Erosional Features
Cliffs and wave-cut-platforms
Capes and bays
Cave, Arch and Stack
Blow holes and Geos
Depositional Features
Wave-Built Platform or Terrace
Beaches
Bars , Spits and Tombolo
Types of Coasts
Coastlines of submergence
Coastlines of Emergence
9. Glacial Landforms
Action of Glacier
The landforms created by glacial erosion
Cirque (or Corrie): This is an arm chair shaped hollow found in the side of a mountain
Arete
Pyramidal Peaks
Tarn
Bergschrund
‘U’ - shaped Valley
Hanging Valley
Truncated spurs
Paternoster lakes
Roche Moutonnee
Glacial landforms resulting from deposition
Boulder clay or glacial till
Outwash deposits
Erratics
Moraines
Outwash plain and Kettles
Kames
Eskers
Drumlins
10. Landform by the Action of Wind
Mechanism of wind Action in deserts
Erosional Landforms-Wind
Ventifacts or Dreikanter
Ventifact
Rock Pedestals or Mushroom Rocks
Yardangs
Zeugens
Mesas and Buttes
Inselbergs
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Depositional Landforms-wind
Loess
Fluvial Desert Landforms
Wadis
Pediments
Bahada (Bajada):
Playas
11. Karst topography
Erosional landform
(i) Sink Holes , Swallow Holes, Dolines and Uvalas / valley sink
(ii) Lapies
(vi) Caves
Depositional Landforms
Stalactites and Stalagmites
12. Economic significance of karst regions

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1. Introduction N
Student Notes:
The surface of the earth is very uneven and never perfectly flat. It has highlands and lowlands;
slopes of varying types -steep, gentle, long and gradual and some very abrupt features. There
are depressions and cracks of different shapes and sizes. There are also large areas of almost
flat land. Some are rocky, some sandy while the others are covered with soil and vegetation.
These different land features that form a part of the larger landscapes (large tracts of the
earth’s surface) are known as landforms. Each landform has a typical physical shape, size and
material make up.
2. Landform and Landscape

A landscape is the general shape of the land surface. Each landscape has its own geologic
structure and topographic relief. Topographic relief is the change of elevation between the
highest and the lowest places. Landscapes include a variety of topographic features related to
the processes that shaped the land surface. A landform is a single feature of a landscape such
as mountain, valley or a river system. Hence, several related landforms together make up
landscapes.
Topography refers to the elevation and relief of the Earth’s surface.

Landforms are the topographic features on the Earth’s surface.
Geomorphology is the study of earth surface processes and landforms.
3. Causes:
The landforms on the Earth’s surface have been created and developed by two types of
forces—the tectonic forces and the gradational forces(weathering etc.). The tectonic forces
originate from within the Earth and create irregularities on the surface of the Earth. The
gradational forces originate from outside the Earth and work to modify and smoothen the
irregularities created by the tectonic forces. The work of these two types of forces develops the
relief features or landforms on the surface of the Earth. (Read more from Geomorphic
Processes Notes).
4. Landforms and Scale: Crustal Orders of Relief

To make a systematic study of the landforms, the geographers have divided the landscape into
three orders of relief.
1) The first order of relief includes the continental platforms and the ocean basins. The
continental platform is the land above the sea level and the ocean basins are the land
below the sea level.
2) The second order of relief includes the mountains, plateaus and plains. In the ocean
basins, it includes the continental shelves, continental slopes, abyssal plains, mid-
oceanic ridges, submarine canyons and trenches.
3) The third order of relief includes the mountain peaks, cliffs, hills, spurs, sand dunes,
valleys, gorges, caves, beaches, etc.
5. Evolution of Landform
Every landform has a beginning. Landforms once formed may change in their shape, size and
nature slowly or fast due to continued action of geomorphic processes and agents.
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Due to changes in climatic conditions and vertical or horizontal movements of landmasses, N
either the intensity of processes or the processes themselves might change leading to new Student Notes:
modifications in the landforms. Evolution here implies stages of transformation of either a part
of the earth’s surface from one landform into another or transformation of individual
landforms after they are once formed. That means, each and every landform has a history of
development and changes through time. A landmass passes through stages of development
somewhat comparable to the stages of life — youth, mature and old age.
The evolutionary history of the continually changing surface of the earth is essential to be
understood in order to use it effectively without disturbing its balance and diminishing its
potential for the future. Geomorphology deals with the reconstruction of the history of the
surface of the earth through a study of its forms, the materials of which it is made up of and
the processes that shape it.
6. Landform classification1
The genetic landform classification system groups landforms by the dominant set of
geomorphic processes responsible for their formation. This includes the following processes
and associated landforms:
1. Tectonic Landforms
2. Extrusive Igneous Landforms
3. Intrusive Igneous Landforms
4. Fluvial Landforms
5. Karst Landforms
6. Aeolian Landforms
7. Coastal Landforms
8. Ocean Floor Topography
Within each of these, the resulting landforms are a product of either constructive and
destructive processes or a combination of both. Landforms are also influenced by other agents
or processes including time, climate, and human activity.
7. Fluvial Landforms (Latin: Fluvius=River)

In humid regions, which receive heavy rainfall running water is considered the most important
of the geomorphic agents in bringing about the degradation of the land. The landforms either
carved out (due to erosion) or built up (due to deposition) by running water are called Fluvial
Landforms (both erosional and depositional) and the running waters which shape them are
called fluvial process.
Fluvial processes involve both the overland flow of water down the slope, and stream flow in
which water moves in a channel along a valley bottom.
1
Notes 1: We will discuss only important Landforms here. 2. Too many new terms are introduced in this chapter so do not try to
memorise all landforms in first go. 3. Observe the diagram before reading the description. 4. Some landforms are discussed in other
notes. 5. Landform are generally not asked in mains but could be asked due to changed syllabus. Moreover, understanding of
landforms is needed to understand Indian phyiography correctly. Understanding of Landform also assist us in International
relations (Geostrategy, Culture), Economic, Science and Tech. etc. 6. Notes are little bigger due to inclusion of more diagrams)
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Action of a river/ stream N

Student Notes:
The work of a stream includes erosion, transportation and deposition. These activities go on
simultaneously in all stream channels.
(1) Erosion
It is the removal of rock or soil. Stream erosion takes place through four processes – hydraulic
action, abrasion, attrition and solution
 Solution or Corrosion- This is the chemical action of river water. The acids in the water
slowly dissolve the bed and the banks. This occurs in streams running through rocks
such as chalk and limestone.
 Abrasion or Corrasion- As the rock particles bounce, scrape and drag along the bottom
and sides of the river, they break off additional rock fragments. This form of erosion is
called corrasion. This is the mechanical grinding of the rivers against the banks and bed
of the river. The erosional mechanism of abrasion operation in two ways
(i) Lateral Corrasion: This is sideways erosion which widens the river valley.
(ii) Vertical Corrasion: This is the downward erosion which deepens the river valley.
 Attrition- is the mechanical tear and wear of the erosional tools in themselves. The
boulders, cobbles, pebbles etc. while moving with water collide against each other and
thus are fragmented into smaller and finer pieces in the transit.
 Hydraulic Action- involves the breakdown of the rocks of valley sides due to the impact
of water currents of channel. In fact, hydraulic action is the mechanical loosening and
removal of materials of rock by water alone. No load or material is involved in this
process.
(2) Transportation
River carries rock particles from one place to another. This activity is known as transportation
of load by a river. The load is transported in four ways.
 Traction -The heavier and larger rock fragments like gravel, pebbles etc. are forced by
the flow of river to roll along its bed. These fragments can be seen rolling, slipping,
bumping and being dragged. This process is known as traction and the load is called
traction load.
 Saltation-Some of the fragments of the rocks move along the bed of a stream by
jumping or bouncing continuously. This process is called saltation.
 Suspension-The holding-up of small particles like sand, silt and mud by the water as
the stream flows is called suspension.
 Solution-Some parts of rock fragments are dissolved in the river water and are thus
transported.
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Student Notes:
(3) Deposition
When the stream comes down from hills to plain area, its slope becomes gentle. This reduces
the energy of the stream. The decrease in energy hampers transportation; as a result part of its
load starts settling down. This activity is known as deposition. The larger particles, such as
boulders and pebbles, are deposited first and the finest particles of silt are the last to be
deposited. Deposition takes place usually in plains and low lying areas. When the river joins a
lake or sea, the whole of its load is deposited.
3 (b) Development of a River Valley
The erosional and depositional land features produced and modified by the action of running
water may be better understood if we note the stages through which a stream passes from its
source to its mouth. The source of a river may lie in a mountainous region and the mouth may
meet the sea or lake. The whole path followed by a river is called its course or its valley.
The course of a river is divided into three sections:

i. The upper course or the stage of youth
ii. The middle course or the stage of maturity
iii. The lower course or the stage of old age.
The Upper, Middle and Lower Courses of River
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(i) The Upper Course N

Student Notes:
The upper course begins from source of the river in hilly or mountainous areas. The river
tumbles down the steep slopes and as a result, its velocity and eroding power are at their
maximum. Consequently, valley deepening assumes its greatest importance at this stage.
Normally, weathering also plays its part on the new surfaces exposed along the banks of the
stream. The weathered rock material is carried into the stream partly through the action of
gravity and partly by rain water flowing into the river. Weathering helps in widening a valley at
the top giving it a typical ‘V’ shaped cross section. Such valleys are known as ‘V’ shaped valleys.
 If the bed rock is hard and resistant, the widening of the valley at its top may not take
place and the down cutting process of a vigorous river may lead to the formation of a
gorge i.e. a river valley with almost vertical sides. George generally develops between
pairs of escarpments or cliffs. In India, deep gorges have been cut by the Brahmaputra
and the Indus in the Himalayas. Deep gorges also develop in limestone regions and in
rocks lying in dry climates.
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Grand N
Canyon Student Notes:
of the
river
Colorado
in U.S.A.
The Valley of Kaveri river near Hogenekal,

Dharmapuri district, Tamilnadu in the form
of gorge
interlocking spurs
 The narrow and very deep gorge with vertical walls is known as ‘I’ shaped valley or
canyon. A canyon is very deep gorge with steep sides running for hundreds of
kilometers, e.g. Grand Canyon of the river Colorado in U.S.A.
 As the river flows through the valley it is forced to swing from side to side around
more resistant rock outcrops (spurs). As there is little energy for lateral erosion, the
river continues to cut down vertically flowing between spurs of higher land creating
interlocking spurs.
Some of the others features that are developed in the upper course of a river include rapids,
cataracts, cascades, waterfalls, potholes and plunge-pool.
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Waterfalls, Rapids and cataracts N

Waterfalls develop when a layer of erosion-resistant rock lies across a streams course. The less Student Notes:
resistant rock on the downstream side is more easily eroded than the resistant rock. The river
bed is thus steepened where the two rocks meet and a waterfall develops. The great force of
falling water in a waterfall makes hydraulic action effective at its base. The blocks of rocks are
broken into smaller boulders by attrition as they collide against each other. The base is further
eroded by abrasion to create deep plunge pools beneath.
Rapids are formed due to unequal resistance of hard and soft rocks traversed by a river, the
outcrop of a band of hard rock may cause a river to 'jump' or 'fall' downstream. Similar falls of
greater dimensions are also referred to as cataracts. These interrupt smooth navigation.
Pot Holes
River potholes can be created when larger pieces of load that the river cannot remove by
traction are swirled around by eddy currents. An eddy current is where the water turns round
on itself. The river is not strong enough here to pull the large boulder (as in the diagram,) the
obstruction creates a swirling motion in the water. Eventually, the boulder creates a pothole,
by abrasion on the river bed.
(ii) The Middle Course

In the middle course, lateral corrasion tends to replace vertical corrasion. Active erosion of the
banks widens the ‘V’ shaped valley and result in formation of 'U' shaped valley.
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In middle valley course river often develops a winding course. Even a minor obstacles force a N
river to swing in loops to go round the obstacles. These loops are called meanders. Meander is Student Notes:
not a landform but is only a type of channel pattern. The formation of meanders is due to
both deposition and erosion and meanders gradually migrate downstream. The force of the
water erodes and undercuts the river bank on the outside of the bend where water flow has
most energy due to decreased friction. On the inside of the bend, where the river flow is
slower, material is deposited, as there is more friction. Thus river Meanders refer to the bends
of longitudinal courses of the rivers.
Fig: Development of a meander.
In the middle course the volume of water increases with the confluence of many tributaries
and this increases the river’s load. Thus work of the river is predominantly transportation with
some deposition. Rivers which sweep down from steep mountain valleys to a comparatively
level land drop their-loads of coarse sand and gravels as there is sudden decrease in velocity.
The load deposited generally assumes a fan like shape, hence it is called an alluvial fan.
Sometimes several fans made by neighbouring streams often unite to form a continuous plain
known as a piedmont alluvial plain, so called because it lies at the foot of the mountain.
Figure 7.4 : An alluvial fan deposited by a hill stream

on the way to Amarnath, Jammu and Kashmir
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(iii) The Lower Course N

Student Notes:
In the lower course, the river moving downstream across a broad, level plain is heavy with
debris brought down from the upper and middle courses. Vertical corrasion has almost ceased,
the lateral corrasion still goes on to erode its banks further. The work of the river is mainly
deposition in the lower course.
Many tributaries join the river and the volume of water increases, coarse materials are
dropped and the fine silt is carried down towards the mouth of the river. Large sheets of
material are deposited on the level bed and the river splits into a maze of channels. Such a
stream is called a braided stream.
Diagram showing Braided stream
In lower course large quantity of sediment is carried by river. During annual floods, these
sediments are spread over the low lying adjacent areas. A layer of sediments is thus deposited
during each flood gradually building up a fertile flood plain.
A raised ridge of coarse material is also formed along each bank of the river due to deposition.
Such ridges are called levees. They are high nearer the banks and slope gently away from the
river. When rivers shift laterally, a series of natural levees can form.
Point bars are also known as meander bars. They are found on the convex side of meanders of
large rivers and are sediments deposited in a linear fashion by flowing waters along the bank.
They are almost uniform in profile and in width and contain mixed sizes of sediments. Rivers
build a series of them depending upon the water flow and supply of sediment. As the rivers
build the point bars on the convex side, the bank on the concave side will erode actively and
these zones are referred as cut bank.
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In the lower course of the river, meanders become much more pronounced. The outer bank or N
concave bank is so rapidly eroded that the meander becomes almost a complete circle. A time Student Notes:
comes when the river cuts through the narrow neck of the loop. The meander, now cut off
from the main stream, takes the form of an oxbow lake. When the curvature of the meander
loops is so accentuated due to lateral erosion, the meander loop become almost circular and
the two ends of meander loops come closer, consequently, the streams straightness their
coarses and meander loops are abandoned to form ox-bow lakes. This lake gradually, turning
into swamps disappears in course of time. Numerous such partially or fully filled oxbow lakes
are marked at short distance from the present course of river like the Ganga.
Upon entering a lake or a sea, the river deposits all the load at its mouth giving rise to the
formation of a delta .Delta is a triangular relief features with its apex pointing up stream and is
marked as a fan-shaped area of fine alluvium. Some deltas are extremely large. The Ganga-
Brahmaputra Delta is the largest delta in the world. The following conditions favour the
formation of deltas:
1. active vertical and lateral erosion in the upper course of the river to supply large
amount of sediments,
2. tideless, sheltered coast;
3. shallow sea, adjoining the delta and
4. no strong current at the river mouth which may wash away the sediments.
Due to the obstruction caused by the deposited alluvium, the river discharge its water through
several channels which are called distributaries. Some rivers emptying into sea have no deltas
but instead they have the shape of a gradually widening mouth cutting deep inland. Such a
mouth is called estuary.
The formation of estuaries is due to the scouring action of tides and currents. But in most of
the cases the original cause is the subsidence of the earth’s crust in the area of the outlet. The
two west flowing rivers of India, the Narmada and the Tapi do not form deltas. They form
estuaries when they join the Arabian Sea.
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River rejuvenation N
Student Notes:
Rejuvenation occurs when there is either a fall in sea level relative to the level of the land or a
rise of the land relative to the sea. This enables a river to renew its capacity to erode as its
potential energy is increased. The river adjusts to its new base level, at first in its lower reaches
and then progressively inland. In doing so, a number of landforms may be created: knick points,
waterfalls and rapids, river terraces and incised meanders.
Knick point
A knick point is a sudden break or irregularity in the gradient along the long profile of a river.
Some knick points are sharply defined, for example waterfalls, whereas others are barely
noticeable. Although a number of factors can cause such features to occur, they are most
commonly attributed to rejuvenation.
When a river is rejuvenated, adjustment to the new base level starts at the sea and gradually
works its way up the river's course. The river gains renewed cutting power (in the form of
vertical erosion), which encourages it to adjust its long profile. In this sense the knick point is
where the old long profile joins the new.
River Terrace
A river terrace is remnant of a former floodplain which has been left at a higher level after
rejuvenation of the river. Where a river renews its down cutting, it sinks its new channel into
the former flood plain leaving the old floodplain above the level of the present river. There
terraces are cut back as the new valley is widened by lateral erosion. If renewed rejuvenation
takes place, the process is repeated and a new pair of terraces is formed beneath the original
ones. The River Thames has created terraces in its lower course by several stages of
rejuvenation. Terraces provide useful shelter from floods in a lower-course river valley, and
natural route ways for roads and railways. The built-up areas of Oxford and London are mainly
located along the terraces of the River Thames.
When a terrace is present only on one side of the stream and with none on the other side or
one at quite a different elevation on the other side, the terraces are called non-paired terraces.
Unpaired terraces are typical in areas of slow uplift of land or where the water column changes
are not uniform along both the banks.
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Student Notes:
Incised or entrenched meanders

If a rejuvenated river occupies a valley with well-developed meanders, renewed energy results
in them becoming incised or deepened. The nature of the landforms created is largely a result
of the rate at which vertical erosion has taken place. When incision is slow and lateral erosion is
occurring, an ingrown meander may be produced. The valley becomes asymmetrical, with
steep cliffs on the outer bends and more gentle slip-off slopes on the inner bends. With rapid
incision, where down cutting or vertical erosion dominates, the valley is more symmetrical,
with steep sides and a gorge-like appearance, These are described as entrenched meanders.
Diagram showing incised meander
Significance of work of River

All rivers undertake three closely interrelated activities erosion, transportation and deposition.
Their work has therefore both advantages and disadvantages from a human point of view.
 Rapids and waterfalls interrupt the navigability of a river.

 By depositing large quantities of sediments in the lower course, the river silts up ports
preventing large streamers from anchoring close to shores. Thus deltas are not suitable
site for large ports.
 Many rivers flood, bursting leeves and causing damage to life and agricultural activities.
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 Rivers with steep gorges and waterfalls provide natural sites for the generation of N
hydro electric power which further support industries through supply of energy. Student Notes:
 In the regions of insufficient rainfall irrigational canals support livelihood of people like
Indira Gandhi canal in Rajasthan.
 The flood plains of large rivers with their thick mantles of fine silt are some of the
richest agricultural areas of the world. Like delta of Ganga accounts for almost all the
jute production of world.
 Fresh water fishing is important along many rivers. The organic matter brought down
by the river waters provide valuable food for fishes.
Features of Overview
Youthful Stage – Upper Mature Stage – Old Stage –Lower Course
course Middle Course
Characteristics  Vertical and  Vertical and  Deposition
headward erosion Lateral erosion  Lateral erosion
 Rough channel bed  Wider and  High discharge & velocity
 High competence, deeper channel  High capacity, low competence
low capacity  Competence  Meandering course
 Large gradient / slope decreases,  Wide flood plain
 High turbulence capacity  Channel depth & width at
 Narrow channel increases maximum
 Straight course  Low gradient/slope
Features v-shaped valley, Meanders, river Levees, deltas, point bars, sand
waterfalls, rapids, cliffs, slip off slopes, bars, oxbow lakes, meanders,
potholes, gorges, flood plains, larger flood plain, raised banks
braided streams,
Interlocking spurs
EROSIONAL DEPOSITIONAL EROSIONAL AND DEPOSITIONAL

LANDFORMS LANDFORMS LANDFORMS
 Waterfalls  Deltas  Meanders

 Gorges  Levees  Oxbow lakes
 Rapids  Braided Rivers  Floodplains
 Potholes
 V-shaped valleys
 Interlocking spurs
8. Coastal landforms
Coastal processes: Tides, Current and Waves
Coastal processes are the most dynamic and hence most destructive. The coastline of any place
is always affected by the dynamic processes operating on the coasts, such as tides, waves and
current.
Tides and currents when come in contact with the shore have very little direct impact on the
coastline. Instead, Waves are the prime agents of erosion in coastal regions. Waves are the
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result of transfer of energy from atmosphere to water by the wind moving over the water N
surface. The size of a wave is dependent upon wind velocity, wind duration and the area or Student Notes:
distance over which the wind is traveling.
Anatomy of a wave
Sea Waves mechanism

Waves are most destructive during storm conditions. They exhibit a chaotic pattern at that
time, with smaller waves being superimposed over larger waves. The destruction caused by
combined effect of those waves is very huge. When these waves approach shallow areas near
the coast, they experience rapid reduction in speed. The result is curling of the crest and
eventual breaking of the wave. The zone of breaking of waves is called the surf zone. When a
wave breaks, the water from it runs up the beach. This is called the swash. The movement of
water back down the beach to the sea is called the backwash.
Surf Zone: Swash and Backwash

Coastal landforms are of two types erosional landform and depositional landform.
Coastal erosion
Coastal erosion is the wearing away and breaking up of rock along the coast. Sea waves play a
prominent role in coastal erosion. The rate of marine erosion depends on the nature of rock,
the extent of rock exposure to the sea, the effect of tides and currents, and human
interference.
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Erosional Features N
Student Notes:
Cliffs and wave-cut-platforms
A rock rising vertically above sea water with steep slope is called cliff. It is formed because
maximum impact of the sea waves is observed on the lower part of the coastal rocks and
consequently the lower part of the rocks is eroded more rapidly than the upper part. In India a
number of sea cliffs are found along the Konkan Coast of India.
Figure No. 3- Cliff
As the cliff retreats, a new landform is formed. This is a wave-cut-platform. It is a gentle

sloping rock cut flat surface. It is created at the bottom of the cliff face. It is not a smooth
platform of rock, rather it consists of ridges and grooves. The basic reason for the formation of
a wave-cut-platform is the recession of the cliff.
Capes and bays

Capes and bays are features of irregular coastline. They are formed where hard rocks like
granite and limestone occur in alternating bands with softer rocks like sand and clay.
 The softer rocks are eroded and converted into inlets, coves and bays.
 The harder rocks resist erosion and persist as headlands or capes.
Figure No. 4- Formation of Headlands and Bays
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Cave, Arch and Stack N

The processes of erosion by waves particularly hydraulic power and corrosion, convert any Student Notes:
vertical line of weakness in rocks into caves. However, the rock needs to be relatively hard or
resistant otherwise it will collapse before the cave is formed.
If the headland is subjected to erosion from two sides, the caves developing on either sides of
the headland join to form a natural arch or sea arch. With time, continued erosion causes the
arch to collapse, leaving an isolated vertical column of the rock, known as a stack, in front of
the cliff. In due course of time, the stack also gets eroded by the action of waves and it ends up
in the form of a stump.
Continual erosion by waves in caves led to-
arch stack stump
Figure No. 5-Coastal Erosional Features
Blow holes and Geos

Hole on the roof of the cave is known as blow hole. When the lines of weakness occur on the
roof of a cave, hydraulic action of waves leads to the collapse of joint blocks from the roof and
leads to the development of a hole on the roof.
The enlargement of blow holes and continued action of waves weakens the cave roof. When
the roof collapses, a long narrow inlet, or creek, develops. Such deep and long creeks are called
geos
.
Figure No. 6- blow holes
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Depositional Features N
Student Notes:
The sea waves also transport the eroded materials and deposit these at other places.
Landforms resulting from deposition include platforms, beaches, bars & tombolos .
Wave-Built Platform or Terrace

It is a terrace formed by the deposition of sediments derived from the erosion of cliffs or from
the continued abrasion of a cliff by the action of waves.
Beaches
Beaches are the most familiar of all the coastal landforms. They are the main feature of
deposition found along the coast. They consist of all the material (sand etc.) built up between
the high and low tide mark (High tide is highest level of tide while low tide is lowest level of
tide). There are a number of different sources of beach material. Rivers are the main source as
fine mud and gravel are deposited at the mouth of a river. Other sources of beach material
include constructive waves (bringing material up the beach from the sea) and cliff erosion.
Beaches are temporary features. Beaches called shingle beaches contain excessively small
pebbles and even cobbles. Marina Beach of Chennai and Kovalam Beach of
Thiruvananthapuram are the famous beaches of India.
Beach and related features
Bars, Spits and Tombolo- These are ridges of sand, pebbles or mud.
 Bar is such ridge which has joined two headlands cutting across a bay. (see figure)
.Sand bars that obtain a length of hundreds of kilometres are called offshore bars or
longshore bars.
 Offshore bars may enclose a water body to form a lagoon, such as the Chilka Lake and
Pulicat Lake in India. (Laggons are referred as Kayals in Kerala).
 If bars are formed in such a way that one end is linked to land and the other end
projects into the sea, they are called spits.
 A connecting bar that joins two landmasses (mainland to island) is known as a
tombolo. (see figure 8)
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Student Notes:
Depositional Features along the Coast
Types of Coasts
Coastlines are divided into two basic types (1) Coastline of Submergence (2) Coastline of
Emergence
Coastlines of submergence
Coastlines of submergence are formed in Coastal areas which have become lowered below
current sea level. The cause is rise in sea level in consequence of ice melting since the last ice
age. This group includes Ria, fiord, estuarine, and Dalmatian or Longitudinal coasts.
a) Ria Coasts: A ria coast is formed when a non-glaciated highland coast becomes
submerged and the valleys filled with sea water. These submerged valleys are often
V-shaped. This type of coast is found in north-western Spain and south-western
Ireland.
b) Fiord (Fjord) Coasts: A fjord is a narrow, high-walled, and very long submerged glacial
valley. Fjords are formed when a descending glacier carves a U-shaped valley into the
bedrock. When these fjord are submerged fjord coast is formed.
c) Dalmatian or Longitudinal Coasts: These coasts are formed when a mountain ridge
running parallel to the sea coast is submerged. In this mountain ranges become chains
of islands resembling patches on body of Dalmatian dog.
d) Estuarine Coast: Estuary/estuarine coasts are coasts where lowland coasts are
submerged, flooding river. Their entrances are sand and silt free, Thames of Britain are
the example of such type of coasts.
Coastlines of Emergence
Uplifted or emergent coasts are coasts where the coast has been raised(due to fall in sea level
or a rising of the crust) and the ocean waves now erode a lower level.
a) Emerged Upland Coasts: An emerged highland coast is formed when coastal plateau
lands are raised above sea level. The chief feature of an emerged upland coast is a
raised beach or cliff-line which now found above the present zone of wave action. The
Northern part of west coast of India is an example of an emerged upland coast.
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Student Notes:
Emergent upland coast
b) Emerged Lowland Coasts: An emerged lowland coast is produced by the uplift of part
of the neighbouring continental shelf. The chief feature of an emerged lowland coast is
spits lagoons, bars, marshes and beaches. The coasts of Kerala and Tamil Nadu are
example of an emerged lowland coast.
Emergent lowland coast
A moving mass of ice and snow is called a glacier. Glaciers are formed when there is net year to
year accumulation of snow, that is, when the amount of snow that falls in winter is greater
than the amount that melts away in summer. Snow keeps on accumulating in layers one above
the other. Its overlying pressure is applied to the underlying snow. It is so great that snow in
lower layers becomes granular, hard and compact. The pressure also quickens the melting of
some of the snow, which on refreezing starts turning into a granular ice. Again it is the pressure
of the overlying layers which makes this solid mass of ice mobile. Thus glacier is formed
through the processes of accumulation, compaction and recrystallisation of snow.
The movement of glacier is very slow and it moves from a few centimetres to a few metres in a
day.
Action of Glacier
There are three main types of glacial erosion - plucking, abrasion and freeze thaw.
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Plucking is when melt water from a glacier freezes around lumps of cracked and broken rock. N
When the ice moves downhill, rock is plucked from the back wall. Abrasion is when rock frozen Student Notes:
to the base and the back of the glacier scrapes the bed rock. Freeze-thaw is when melt water or
rain gets into cracks in the bed rock, usually the back wall. At night the water freezes, expands
and causes the crack to get larger. Eventually the rock will break away.
Erosional work of glacier
Erosion by glaciers is tremendous because of friction caused by sheer weight of the ice. As a
glacier moves over the land, it drags rock fragments, gravel and sand along with it. These rock
fragments become efficient erosive tools. With their help glacier scrapes and scours the surface
rocks with which it comes in contact. This action of glacier leaves behind scratches and grooves
on rocks. Glaciers can cause significant damage to even un-weathered rocks and can reduce
high mountains into low hills and plains.
The landforms created by glacial erosion
Cirque (or Corrie): This is an arm chair shaped hollow found in the side of a mountain
Arete - This is a narrow, knife edge ridge separating two corries
Pyramidal Peaks - These are formed when three or more corries form in the side of one
mountain.
Tarn - This is a lake found in a corrie
Cirque, arete and pyramidal peak
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Bergschrund N
These form when a crevasse or wide crack opens along the headwall of a glacier; most visible in Student Notes:
the summer when covering snow is gone.
Figure no.2- Bergschrund
‘U’ - shaped Valley

The glacier does not carve a new valley like a river but deepens. Glacier movement widens a
preexisting valley by smoothening away the irregularities. In this process the glacier broadens
the sides of the valley and form a ‘U’ - shaped valley. Such a valley is relatively straight, has a
flat floor and nearly vertical sides.
Hanging Valley
Just like tributary streams of river, there are tributary glaciers also which join the main glacier
after moving over their mountainous path. These tributary glaciers like the main glaciers carve
U - shaped valleys. However, they have less volume of ice than the main glaciers and thus their
rate of erosion is less rapid. As a result their valleys are smaller and not as deep as that of the
main glacier. Due to this difference in deepening; the valley of the tributary glacier is left at a
higher level than that of the main glacier. The valley of the tributary glacier just looks like
hanging downwards at the point of its confluence with the main valley. This type of a
topographical feature is called a hanging valley. This feature is visible when ice has melted in
both the valleys. When the ice in the hanging valley melts, a waterfall is formed at the point of
confluence of this stream with the main river.
Glacial Erosional Landforms
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Truncated spurs N
In the process of carving the sides of its valley, a glacier erodes or truncates the lower ends of Student Notes:
ridges that extended into the valley. These ridges that have triangular facets produced by
glacial erosion at their lower ends are termed as truncated spurs.
Paternoster lakes
A series of Tarns lakes, resembling a string of prayer beads, are known as paternoster lakes.
Roche Moutonnee
A roche moutonnée is a rock hill shaped by the passage of ice to give a smooth up-ice side
(stoss side) and a rough, plucked surface on the down-ice side(lee side).
Roche Moutonnee
Glacial landforms resulting from deposition

Glaciers carry along their bases the rock fragments they have scraped and plucked from the
underlying bedrock. These forms the feature of glaciated lowland.
The landforms created by glacial erosion are:
Boulder clay or glacial till

The unassorted coarse and fine debris dropped by the melting glaciers is called glacial till.
Outwash deposits
Some amount of rock debris small enough to be carried by such melt-water streams is washed
down and deposited. Such glacio- fluvial deposits are called outwash deposits. Unlike till
deposits, the outwash deposits are roughly stratified and assorted.
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Erratics N
When boulders of considerable size are deposited far from their origin, they are known as Student Notes:
erratics. They have been transported and deposited by a glacier.
Moraines
When glacial ice melts, different types of rock are laid down that have been carried along by
the glacier. Piles of these deposits are called moraines.
Different types of moraine
Terminal moraines are found at the terminus or the furthest (end) point reached by a glacier.
Lateral moraines are found deposited along the sides of the glacier.
Medial moraines are found at the junction between two glaciers.
Ground moraines are disorganised piles of rocks of various shapes, sizes and of differing rock
types.
Outwash plain and Kettles-As the moraines are deposited, melting water emerges from the
glaciers rapidly in the form of streams. These streams carry loads of suspended materials. As
the water moves, it soon loses its velocity and load carrying capacity, and it drops most of its
bed load. As a result, a broad surface of stratified drift is formed, which is called an outwash
plain. The basins or depressions found between the outwash plains are called Kettles.
Kames-Rounded mounds/hills of fluvioglacial deposits are known as Kames.
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Eskers-In glaciated areas sinuous ridges of sand and gravel are known as eskers. They marks N
the former sites of sub glacial melt water streams. Student Notes:
Drumlins
Drumlins are elongated hills of glacial deposits. They can be 1 km long and 500 metres wide,
often occurring in groups. A group of drumlins is called a drumlin swarm or a basket of eggs.
These would have been part of the debris that was carried along and then accumulated under
the ancient glacier. The long axis of the drumlin indicates the direction in which the glacier was
moving. The drumlin would have been deposited when the glacier became overloaded with
sediment. However glaciologists still disagree as to exactly how they were formed.
Glacio-Fluvial Deposits
10. Landform by the Action of Wind

(Also called Aeolian=Wind )
Wind is also an important agent of denudation. Wind action is mostly limited to arid and semi-
arid areas of the world, where the absence of vegetation cover and the presence of extensive
desolate rocks, help in erosional, transportation and depositional processes.
There is a definite pattern to the location of world deserts. Almost all the deserts are
confined within the 15° to 30° north and south latitudinal belts, also known as the trade
wind belts.
 Aridity is the result of lack of water, which is dependent on the mean annual rainfall.
 These areas are affected by cold currents. These cold currents ensure that there is
little moisture available to condense and form clouds. The coasts of western North
and South America and Africa display such conditions.
 Continetiality is also a major reason for the development of arid and semi-arid
conditions. Air descending from mountainous areas warms and dries by
compression, little rainfall forms and it results in aridity. Central areas of continents
are also dry because air moving over landmasses does not absorb large amounts of
water vapour.
About one-third of the land surface of the world can be classified as arid, semi- arid or dry.
The major deserts regions of the world include the Sahara desert, Arabian Desert, Kalahari,
Namib, Atacama deserts, Great Australian desert, desert of the south-west U.S.A and Mexico.
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The combined effect of the erosional activity of wind and water in the arid and semi-arid N
regions give rise to the following types of surfaces. Student Notes:
 Erg (Sandy or True Desert): The erg in the Sahara and Saudi Arabia, and koum in
Turkmenistan are the true sandy deserts. They consist of vast, almost horizontal,
sand sheets or of regular dune lines, or of an undulating sand sea.
 Stony Desert: In a stony desert, horizontal sheets of smoothly angular gravel cover
the surface. This is known as the reg in Algeria and serir in Libya and Egypt.
 Badland: Badland is any landscape characterised by deep dissection, ravines, gullies,
and sharp- edged ridges. The name has been given after the arid area in South
Dakota, U.SA.
 Hamada or Rocky Desert: It consists of large areas of sand and dust, with patches of
bare rock. These bare rocks are perfectly smoothened and polished. This type of
deserts in Sahara is known as Hamada.
 Mountain Desert: Some deserts are found in the highlands, mountain ranges and the
plateau areas. The Ahaggar Mountain and Tibesti mountain of Sahara are examples
of these deserts.
Mechanism of wind Action in deserts

Attrition: When wind borne particles roll against one another in collision they wear each other
so that their sizes are greatly reduced and converted into finer materials.
Deflation: The complete blowing away of fine dust, leaving coarse and heavier materials, is
known as deflation. As a result of deflation, larger hollows known as blow-outs are formed.
Deflation also exposes bedrock to wind abrasion (corrasion). There are numerous blow-outs
(deflation hollows) in the valley of the Nile.
Abrasion or Corrosion: In the process of abrasion, winds pick up dust and sand and drive them
with tremendous force against the rocks. In fact, in the desert and semi-desert areas, winds
carry with them enormous quantities of sand, dust and small angular fragments which act as
tools of erosion as they strike against the rock surfaces. By this process, the less resistant rocks
are eroded and in time completely worn away, while the hard and very resistant rocks are
polished and smoothed to a remarkable degree.
Erosional Landforms-Wind
Ventifacts or Dreikanter: These are stone that has received one or more highly polished,
flattened facets as a result of erosion by windblown sand. The facets are cut in sequence and
correlate with the dominant wind direction. As one surface is cut, the stone may become out of
balance and may turn to expose another surface to the wind. A ventifact that has been eroded
to three curved facets is called a dreikanter.
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Student Notes:
Ventifact
Rock Pedestals or Mushroom Rocks: Due to the presence of alternate layers of soft and hard
rock and the effect of sand-blasting by winds on these, features with irregular edges are
formed. Grooves and hollows are cut into the rock surfaces, carving them into fantastic pillars
called rock pedestals.
Formation of yardangs Formation of zeugen
Yardangs: A yardang is a streamlined hill carved from bedrock or any consolidated or semi-
consolidated material by the dual action of wind abrasion, dust and sand, and deflation.
Zeugens: Zeugens are also formed by wind abrasion where a surface layer of hard rock is
underlain by a layer of soft rock into a ridge and furrow landscape. The ridges are called
zeugens which may be as high as 100 feet. Ultimately the are undercut and gradually worn
away.
Mesas and Buttes: Mesa is a Spanish word meaning table. It is a flat, table-like landmass with a
very resistant horizontal top layer and very steep sides. With continued denudation through
the ages, mesas are reduced to flat-topped hills called buttes.
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Student Notes:
Inselbergs: Inselberg is a German word for Island Mountain, has been widely adopted to
describe a steep-sided hill of solid rock, rising abruptly from a plain (level ground). They are
made of granite. Inselbergs in arid regions are also called bomhardts.
Depositional Landforms-wind
The main depositional landforms of wind are sand dunes and loess.
Ripple Marks: Ripple marks are small scale depositional features of sand. This pattern is
produced in unconsolidated sediments by the agents of erosion-like wind. Ripples may be
either longitudinal or transverse.
Sand Dunes: These are mounds or ridges of wind-blown sand. The dunes are generally mobile.
There is wide variation in their shape, size and structure. On an average, their height ranges
between a few metres to 20 metres, but there are some sand dunes which are more than
several hundred metres in height and 5 to 6 km in length. Dunes are most well represented in
the erg desert(a broad, flat area of desert).
There are many types of sand dunes. The two most important dunes are Barchans and
Longitudinal dunes, which are described in detail.
Barchans: They are crescent-shaped sand dune produced by the action of wind predominately
from one direction. This type of dune possesses two "horns" that face downwind, with the
steeper slope known as the slip face, facing away from the wind. They gradually migrate with
the wind as a result of erosion on the windward side and deposition on the leeward side.
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Student Notes:
Longitudinal Dunes (Seif): Seif is an Arabic word, meaning sword dune. These are long, straight
dunes and are parallel to the wind direction. Formed in regions where wind blows from more
than one direction in a region with an abundant supply of sand.
Loess: Loess is fine-grained material that has been transported and deposited by the wind. The
sediments come from glacial outwash plains, where glaciers deposit fine particles of silt and
clay, or from desert areas that have little vegetation to anchor small particles. Prevailing wind
patterns blowing across these environments can produce thick deposits of loess downwind of
the area. In China such yellowish wind borne dust from the Gobi desert is called Hwangtu-the
yellow earth
Fluvial Desert Landforms

Despite being a dry climate arid and semi-arid regions are also influenced by the action of
water. Running water is also an important external agent for landform development in deserts.
Though rare, the rainfall is intense in its effect on the lightly vegetated cover region of desert
and produce abrupt runoff. This occasional rainfall in the deserts results in flash-floods. Loose
gravels, sand and fine dust are swept down the hill sides. They cut deep gullies and ravines
forming badland topography. The Chambal present a typical example of badland.
Some of the important landforms resulting from fluvial action in deserts are pediments, bajada,
and playas.
Wadis- In Deserts the water flow during flash flood is so strong that it cuts the ground
and carries away the soil material. This results in creation of wide channels called
wadis. These remain dry for most of the times.
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Pediments: It is an erosional plain formed at the base of the surrounding mountains scraps. N
Student Notes:
Bahada (Bajada): It is a depositional feature made up of alluvial material laid down by the
seasonal streams. These are also known as depositional plains of desert.
Playas: A (shallow) playa lake may form in the central basin of a desert from abundant rainfall
on rare occasions Due to evaporation and infiltration the water in these lakes are present for
only a few days or weeks--the dry flat lake bed that remains is called a playa. These lakes are
temporary in nature.
Desert Fluvial Landforms
11. Karst topography

In rocks like limestones or dolomites rich in calcium carbonate the surface water as well as
groundwater through the chemical process of solution and precipitation develop varieties of
landforms. These two processes of solution and precipitation are active in limestones or
dolomites occurring either exclusively or interbedded with other rocks. Any limestone or
dolomitic region showing typical landforms produced by the action of groundwater through the
processes of solution and deposition is called Karst topography .‘Karst’ word comes from the
Karst region of Adriatic Sea coast in Croatia (Yugosalvia) where such formations are noticeable.
This region is made up of limestone rocks, where underground water is the most active agent
of gradation.
Erosional landform
(i) Sink Holes , Swallow Holes, Dolines and Uvalas / valley sink
A sinkhole is a surface depression or hole in a region of limestone terrain. Sinkholes can range
in size from a few feet or meters to over 100 meters (300 feet) deep. A sinkhole can even
collapse through the roof of an underground cavern and form what's known as a collapse
sinkhole
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Student Notes:
Gradual enlargement of sink holes due to continuous dissolution of limestones result in the
coalescence of closely spaced sink holes into one large hole which is called Swallow hole.
Further enlargement of swallow holes due to continuous solution result into a larger
depression which are called dolines in karst erosion.
Uvalas are extensive depression. Larger uvalas have been seen to cover several square
kilometers, with a depth of up to 200 metres. They are formed due to coalescence of several
dolines due to continuous solution and enlargement of dolines, or due to collapse of upper roof
of large cavities formed underground or due to coalescence of various sink holes.
(ii) Lapies
It is weathered limestone surface found in karst regions and consisting of etched, fluted, and
pitted rock pinnacles separated by deep grooves. This rugged surface is formed by the solution
of rock along joints and areas of greater solubility by water containing carbonic and humic
acids.
(vi) Caves
In areas where there are alternating beds of rocks (shales, sandstones, quartzites) with
limestones or dolomites in between or in areas where limestones are dense, massive and
occurring as thick beds, cave formation is prominent. Water percolates down either through
the materials or through cracks and joints and moves horizontally along bedding planes. It is
along these bedding planes that the limestone dissolves and long and narrow to wide gaps
called caves result. There can be a maze of caves at different elevations depending upon the
limestone beds and intervening rocks. Caves normally have an opening through which cave
streams are discharged. Caves having openings at both the ends are called tunnels.
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Depositional Landforms N
Student Notes:
Stalactites and Stalagmites
They are the major depositional features formed in the caverns in limestone regions. The
water containing limestone in solution, seeps through the roofs of the caverns in the form of
a continuous chain of drops. A portion of the water dropping from the ceiling gets
evaporated and a small deposit of limestone is left behind on the roof. This process continues
and deposit of limestone grows downwards like pillars. These forms are called stalactites.
When the remaining portion of the water dropping from the roof of the cavern falls on the
floor, a part of it is again evaporated and a small deposit of limestone is left behind. This
deposit grows upward from the floor of the cavern. These type of depositional features are
called stalagmites. As the process grows, both stalactite and stalagmite often join together to
form vertical columns and pillars in the caverns.
12. Economic significance of karst regions

 Karst regions are often barren. The porosity of the rocks and the absence of surface
drainage makes vegetation growth difficult. Therefore, these regions support short turf
and poor grasses.
 However, limestone vegetation in tropical regions is luxuriant because of all the year
round rainfall.
 Lead is the only mineral of importance in karst region. Lead occurs in veins in
associations with limestone.
 In addition to this, Limestone is used as building materials or quarried for the cement
industry.

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VISIONIAS ™
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GEOGRAPHY: 8
INDIA: PHYSICAL FORMATION, PHYSIOGRAPHY, DRAINAGE, STRUCTURE

AND RELIEF AND BASICS OF SOILS
Contents:
1. INDIA LOCATION
1.1 Indian Standard Time (IST)
1.2 Size
1.3 India’s Administrative Division
1.4 India and the World
2. PHYSICAL FORMATION OF INDIA

2.1 The Peninsular Block
2.2 The Himalayas
2.2.1 Syntaxial Bends of the Himalayas
2.3 Indo-Ganga-Brahmaputra Plain
3. PHYSIOGRAPHY
3.1 Himalayan Mountains
3.1.1 Kashmir or Northwestern Himalayas
3.1.2 Himachal and Uttarakhand Himalayas
3.1.3 Darjiling and Sikkim Himalayas
3.1.4 Arunachal Himalayas
3.1.5 Eastern Hills and Mountains or Purvanchal
3.2 The Northern Plains
3.2.1 The Bhabar Plain
3.2.2 The Tarai Tract
3.2.3 Bhangar Plains
3.2.4 Khadar Plains
3.2.5 The Delta Plains
3.2.6 The Plains of Rajasthan
3.2.7 The Punjab Haryana Plains
3.2.8 The Ganga Plains
3.2.9 The Brahmaputra Plain
3.3 The Peninsular Plateau
3.3.1 The Deccan Plateau
3.3.2 The Central Highlands
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3.3.3 The North-Eastern Plateau

3.4 The Indian Desert
3.5 The Coastal Plains
3.5.1 Western Coastal Plains
3.5.2 Eastern Coastal Plains
3.6 The Islands
3.6.1 Andaman and Nicobar Islands
3.6.2 Lakshadweep Islands
4. DRAINAGE
4.1 Drainage Pattern
4.2 Drainage System of India
4.3 The Himalayan Drainage System
4.3.1 Landforms of Himalayan Rivers
4.3.2 The Indus System
4.3.3 The Ganga System
4.3.4 The Brahmaputra System
4.4 The Peninsular Drainage System
4.4.1 Evolution of Peninsular Drainage System
4.4.2 River Systems
4.4.3 Easy Floring Rivers
4.4.4 West Flowing Rivers
4.5 Comparison between Himalayan and Peninsular Rivers
4.6 National River Linking Project
4.7 National Waterways
5. SOIL
5.1 Soil Properties
5.2 Soil Horizons
5.3 Soil Forming Factors
5.4 Soil Classification
5.4.1 Soil Classification in India
5.5 Soil Degradation
5.6 Soil Erosion
5.7 Soil Management

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©Vision IAS
INDIA LOCATION N
India is a vast country lying entirely in the Northern hemisphere. The main land extends Student Notes:
between latitudes 8°4'N and 37°6'N and longitudes 68°7'E and 97°25'E (figure 1). The Tropic of
Cancer (23° 30'N) divides the country into almost two equal parts (figure 2). The southern part
of the country lies within the tropics and the northern part lies in the sub-tropical zone or the
warm temperate zone. This location is responsible for large variations in land forms, climate,
soil types and natural vegetation in the country. To the south east and south west of the
mainland, lie the Andaman and Nicobar islands and the
Figure 1 – India in the world
Lakshadweep islands in Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea respectively. Andaman and Nicobar
islands make southern boundary of India Union at 6°45'E in Bay of Bengal. The southernmost
point of the India Union “Indira Point” got submerged under the sea water in 2004 during the
Tsunami.
If you work out the latitudinal and longitudinal extent of India, they are roughly about 30
degrees, whereas the actual distance measured from north to south extremity is 3,214 km, and
that from east to west is only 2,933 km (figure 2). Why is it so? This is because the east-west
distance between two successive meridians of longitude along the equator is at its maximum -
111 km. This, however, goes on decreasing as one moves from the equator to the poles, where
it is zero. This is because all the meridians of longitude merge in a single point at the poles -
both North and South. On the other hand, the north-south distance between any two
successive parallels of latitude along any meridian of longitude remains almost uniform, i.e.,
111 km.
Indian Standard Time (IST)

While the sun rises in the northeastern states about two hours earlier as compared to
Jaisalmer, the watches in Dibrugarh, Imphal in the east and Jaisalmer, Bhopal or Chennai in the
other parts of India show the same time. Why does this happen? What is Indian Standard Time
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(IST)? What is the use of standard meridian (figure 2)? Variation of nearly 30degree in N
longitude causes a time difference of Student Notes:
Figure 2 – India: Extent and Standard Meridian
nearly two hours between the easternmost and the westernmost parts of our country.
Standard meridian is an imaginary line used for reckoning standard time. For the convenience
of all, each country chooses its standard meridian in a multiple of 7°30'. India’s standard
meridian passes through 82° 30'E.Time along this Standard Meridian of India passing through
Mirzapur (in Uttar Pradesh) is taken as the standard time for the whole country and known as
IST with a time offset of UTC + 5:30.
There is a continuous demand from northeastern states to have separate time zone. Currently,
the single time zone causes problems for them, especially in summers when daybreak comes as
early as 4:30am around the summer solstice. A farmer in Assam can start work one hour before
her or his counterpart in a state like Gujarat. Tea gardens in Assam have for years set their
clocks an hour ahead of the rest of the country.
SIZE
The land mass of India has an area of 3.28 million square km. India’s total area accounts for
about 2.4 per cent of the total geographical area of the world; whereas it sustains17.5per cent
of the world population. India is the seventh largest country of the world. India has a land
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boundary of about 15,200 km and the total length of the coast line of the mainland including N
Andaman and Nicobar and Lakshadweep is 7,516.6 km. Student Notes:
Figure 3 – India: Administrative Division
India is bounded by the young fold mountains in the northwest, north and north east. South of
about 22° north latitude, Indian Landmass begins to taper, and extends towards the Indian
Ocean, dividing it into two seas, the Arabian Sea on the west and the Bay of Bengal on its east.
The Peninsular shape of India makes climate of southern India differ from that of Northern
India. Vast sandy expanse of Marusthal in Rajasthan and marshy great Rann of Kachchh make
western boundary of the India.
INDIA’S ADMINISTRATIVE DIVISON

India, that is Bharat, is a union of states. India has total twenty-eight1 states and seven Union
Territories (Figure 3). New Delhi is the capital of India. Rajasthan is the largest state while Goa
is the smallest state in terms of geographical area. The Tropic of Cancer (23° 30'N) passes
through Mizoram, Tripura, West Bengal, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan
and Gujarat (8 states). Jammu and Kashmir makes northern border while Tamil Nadu makes
1
As of Jan 2013 Telangana is in process.
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southern border. Similarly, Gujarat and Arunachal Pradesh are the western most and eastern N
most states respectively. Except Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Haryana, all states Student Notes:
share international or marine boundary.
INDIA AND THE WORLD

The Indian landmass has a central location between the East and the West Asia. India is a
southward extension of the Asian Continent. The Trans Indian Ocean routes provide a strategic
central location to India. It is India’s eminent position in the Indian Ocean which justifies the
naming of an Ocean after it.
India is part of Indian sub-continent and shares boundary with every country of this region.
Land neighbours of India include Pakistan, Afghanistan, China, Nepal, Bhutan, Myanmar and
Bangladesh. Most of our boundary with Pakistan and Bangladesh is almost man-made while
boundary with other countries largely form a natural boundary. Sri Lanka and Maldives are the
two island countries located in the Indian Ocean, which are our neighbours. Sri Lanka is
separated from India by the Gulf of Mannar and Palk Strait.
PHYSICAL FORMATION OF INDIA

Earth of the distant past was a very different planet than the one we know today. Over these
long years, it has undergone many changes brought about primarily by the endogenic and
exogenic forces. We have already studied about the movement of Indian plate which started its
northward journey about 200 million years ago. This northward movement of the Indian plate
is still continuing and it has significant consequences on the physical environment of the Indian
subcontinent. Here, we will study about geological structure of India. The geological regions of
India are broadly divided into three parts - (i) The Peninsular Block; (ii) The Himalayas; and (iii)
Indo-Ganga-Brahmaputra Plain.
THE PENINSULAR BLOCK

The plateau of Peninsular India exhibits a complex system of geological structures. It has some
of the oldest rocks of the world from the Precambrian period and the youngest rocks of the
Quaternary period. The features of this block have developed over period of time. Since the
Cambrian period, the Peninsula has been standing like a rigid block with the exception of some
of its western coast which is submerged beneath the sea and some other parts changed due to
tectonic activity without affecting the original basement. It has been subject to various vertical
movements and block faulting. The rift valleys of the Narmada, relict and residual mountains
like the Aravali hills, and block fault like Malda fault in the Eastern India are example of it.
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Student Notes:
Figure 4 – Peninsular block
This region contains all types of rocks - igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rocks. For
instance, limestone, sandstone sedimentary rocks are found in river valleys. Coal belts of
Peninsular India were developed during the Gondwana period. The black soil of Deccan is due
to outpouring of huge quantity of lava during Cretaceous period.
The northern boundary of the Peninsular Block may be taken as an irregular line running from
Kutch along the western flank of the Aravali Range near Delhi and then roughly parallel to the
Yamuna and the Ganga as far as the Rajmahal Hills and the Ganga delta (figure 4). Apart from
these, Rajasthan in the west and the Karbi Anglong and the Meghalaya Plateau in the northeast
are also extensions of this block. The northeastern parts are separated by the Malda fault in
West Bengal from the Chotanagpur plateau. In Rajasthan, the desert and other desert–like
features overlay this block.
THE HIMALAYAS
The Himalayas are geologically young, weak and flexible and structurally fold mountains unlike
the rigid and stable Peninsular Block. The disintegration of Pangaea, about 200 million years
ago, led to the formation of a long Tethys sea between the Lauretian Shield and
Gondwanaland. This sea was occupying the region of Himalayas called geosyncline. About 65-
30 million years ago, the Indian plate came very close to the Eurasian plate and started
subducting under it (figure 5). This caused lateral compression due to which the sediments of
the Tethys were squeezed and folded into three parallel ranges of the Himalayas. Since the
northward movement of the Indian plate is still continuing, these mountains are still subjected
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to endogenic forces apart from exogenic forces. It is said that the height of the Himalayan N
peaks is still increasing. Student Notes:
Figure 5 – Plate tectonics and evolution of Himalayas
The Himalayas consist of four litho tectonic mountain ranges, namely (i) the Trans-Himalaya; (ii)
the Greater Himalaya; (iii) the Lesser Himalaya; and (iv) the Shiwalik. The first phase of uplift
produced the ranges of Trans Himalayas around 65 million years ago. Subsequent uplift led to
formation of Greater Himalayas, Lesser Himalayas and Shiwalik mountain ranges.
SYNTAXIAL BENDS OF THE HIMALAYAS

The structures and trends of the Himalaya change sharply at both ends of the range, defining
bends called "syntaxes." It develops along the edges of two colliding plates near the zone of
active collision. The western syntaxial bend is near Nanga Parbat where the Indus has cut deep
gorge. The geological formations here take sharp hair-pin bends as if they were bent around
pivotal points obstructing them. There is a similar hair-pin bend in Arunachal Pradesh where
the mountains take a sharp bend from the eastern to southern direction after crossing the
Brahmaputra river.
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Student Notes:
Figure 6 – Himalaya’s syntaxes at NP (Nanga Parbat) and NB (Namcha Barwa)
INDO-GANGA-BRAHMAPUTRA PLAIN
The third geological division of India comprises the plains which lie to the south of Shiwalik
formed by the river system Indus, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra. Originally, it was a geo-
synclinal depression which attained its maximum development during the third phase of the
Himalayan mountain formation approximately about 64 million years ago. It is an aggradational
plain formed by the alluvial deposits of rivers originating in Himalayas in north and the
Peninsular plateau in South. Since then, it has been gradually filled by the sediments brought
by the Himalayan and Peninsular rivers. Average depth of alluvial deposits in these plains
ranges from 1,000-2,000 m. Some geologists are of the opinion that Great plains are a remnant
of the Tethys Sea. After the upheaval of Shiwalik, the remaining part of the Tethys was left as a
large trough. Because the Himalayas were rising during that period, rivers experienced
rejuvenation and greater quantity of eroded material which increased the thickness of alluvium
in this trough (figure 7).
Figure 7 – The great plains of India
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Student Notes:
Table 1 – Geological Time Scale of India
PHYSIOGRAPHY
‘Physiography’ deals with the study of the surface features and landforms of the earth. It is the
outcome of structure, process and the stage of development. There are significant variations
among the different regions of India in terms of their geological structure. The relief and
physiography of India has been greatly influenced by the geological and geomorphological
processes active in the Indian subcontinent. The land of India is characterized by great diversity
in its physical features. The north has a vast expanse of rugged topography consisting of a
series of mountain ranges with varied peaks, beautiful valleys and deep gorges. The south
consists of stable table land with highly dissected plateaus, denuded rocks and developed
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series of scarps. In between these two lies the vast north Indian plain. Based on these macro N
variations, India can be divided into the six physiographic divisions as shown in figure 8. Student Notes:
Figure 8 – Physiographic division of India
HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS
The North and Northeastern Mountains consist of the Himalayas and the Northeastern Hills.
The Himalayas represent the loftiest and one of the most rugged mountain barriers of the
world. The altitudinal variations are greater in the eastern half than those in the western half.
They are steeper at their southern side as compared to northern side. They are separated from
the plains by the Himalayan Front Fault (HFF).Himalayas are not only the physical barrier, they
are also a climatic, drainage and cultural divide.
The general orientation of these ranges is from northwest to the southeast direction in the
northwestern part of India. Himalayas in the Darjiling and Sikkim regions lie in an east west
direction, while in Arunachal Pradesh they are from southwest to the northwest direction. In
Nagaland, Manipur and Mizoram, they are in the north south direction. They form an arc,
which covers a distance of about 2,400 Km. Its width varies from 400 Km in Kashmir to 150 Km
in Arunachal Pradesh.
Longitudinal division of Himalayas include – Trans-Himalayas, the Greater Himalayas, the Lesser
Himalayas and the Shiwaliks (Figure 9). The trans-Himalayas are about 40km wide and contain
Tethys sediments which are underlain by ‘Tertiary granite’. Trans-Himalayas in clue Karakoram,
Ladakh and Zaskar Mountain ranges in India. The Greater Himalayas rise abruptly like a wall.
They are 25 km wide with an average height above 6100m. Almost all the lofty peaks of the
Himalayas Mt. Everest, Kanchenjunga, Nanga-Parbat lies in this zone. This mountain range has
very few gaps mainly provided by the antecedent rivers, otherwise it is the most continuous
range in the Himalayan system. The width of lesser Himalayas is about 80 km with an average
height of 1300 – 4600 m. This region is subjected to extensive erosion due to heavy rainfall,
deforestation and urbanization. The Shiwalik extend over a width of 10-50 Km and have an
altitude varying between 900 and 1100 metres. These ranges are composed of unconsolidated
sediments brought down by rivers from the main Himalayan ranges
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Student Notes:
Figure 9 – Himalayas and Northeastern Hills
located farther north. Shiwalik are absent beyond Nepal. Landforms like gorges, V-shaped
valleys, rapids, waterfalls etc. are indicative of youthful stage of Himalayas. Cross sectional view
of Himalayan system is given below (figure 10).
Figure 10 - Cross sectional view of Himalayan system
Besides the longitudinal divisions, the Himalayas have been divided on the basis of regions
from west to east. These divisions have been generally demarcated by river valleys. On the
basis of relief, alignment of ranges and other geomorphologic features, the Himalayas can be
divided into the five sub-divisions as shown in figure 11.
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Student Notes:
Figure 11 – Himalayan – Longitudinal Divisions
KASHMIR OR NORTHWESTERN HIMALAYAS

Sprawling over an area of about 350,000 sq km, the range stretches about 700km in length and
500 km in width. This division is lying between Indus and Ravi rivers. With an average height of
3000m, it has the largest number of glaciers in India such as Baltoro, Siachen glaciers. Kashmir
Himalayas comprise a series of ranges such as the Karakoram, Ladakh, Zaskar and Pir Panjal.
The northeastern part of the Kashmir Himalayas, Ladakh, is a cold desert, which lies between
the Greater Himalayas and the Karakoram ranges. It is one of the loftiest inhabited regions of
the world. Between the Great Himalayas and the Pir Panjal range, lies the world famous valley
of Kashmir and the famous Dal Lake.
A special feature of Kashmir valley is Karewas formation which is thick deposits of glacial clay
and other materials embedded with moraines and useful for saffron cultivation. The
southernmost part of this region consists of longitudinal valleys known as ‘duns’ such as
Jammu duns and Pathankot duns etc. Some of the important passes of the region are Zoji La on
the Great Himalayas, Banihal on the Pir Panjal, Photu La on the Zaskar and Khardung La on the
Ladakh range. Important fresh lakes such as Dal and Wular and salt water lakes such as
Pangong Tso and Tso Moriri are also in this region. Some famous places of pilgrimage such as
Vaishno Devi, Amarnath Cave, Charar -e-Sharif, etc. are also located here. Srinagar, capital city
of the state of Jammu and Kashmir is located on the banks of Jhelum river.
HIMACHAL AND UTTRAKHAND HIMALAYAS

Stretching over Himachal Pradesh, it occupies an area of about 83,000 sqkm. All the three
ranges – the Greater, the Lesser (which is locally known as Dhaoladhar in Himachal Pradesh and
Nagtibha in Uttaranchal) and the Shiwalik Himalayas – are well represented in this region. This
division lies between Ravi and Kali rivers. It is drained by two major river systems of India, i.e.
the Indus and the Ganga. Tributaries of the Indus include the river Ravi, the Beas and the Satluj,
and the tributaries of Ganga flowing through this region include the Yamuna and the Ghaghara.
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The northernmost part of the Himachal Himalayas is an extension of the Ladakh cold desert. N
Gangotri, Milam and Pindar are the main glaciers of Uttarakhand. Student Notes:
The northern slopes of this region are clothed with thick forests and show plains and lakes,
while the southern slopes are rugged and forest clad. The famous Valley of flowers is also
situated in this region of Himalayas. The two distinguishing features of this region from the
point of view of physiography are the ‘Shiwalik’ and ‘Dun formations’ such as Chandigarh-Kalka
dun, Nalagarh dun. Dehra Duns the largest of all the duns with an approximate length of 35-45
km and a width of 22-25 km.
In the Great Himalayan range, the valleys are mostly inhabited by the Bhotias. These are
nomadic groups who migrate to ‘Bugyals’ (the summer grasslands in the higher reaches) during
summer months and return to the valleys during winters. The places of pilgrimage such as the
Gangotri, Yamunotri, Kedarnath, Badrinath and Hemkund Sahib are also situated in this part.
The region is also known to have five famous Prayags - Vishnu Prayag, Nand Prayag, Karn
prayag, Rudra Prayag and Dev Prayag, in the descending flow sequence of their occurrence. In
this section of Lesser Himalayas, the altitude between 1,000-2,000 m especially attracted to the
British colonial administration, and subsequently, some of the important hill stations such as
Dharamshala, Mussoorie, Shimla, and the cantonment towns and health resorts such as Shimla,
Kasauli etc. were developed in this region.
DARJILING AND SIKKIM HIMALAYAS

The Darjiling and Sikkim Himalayas are flanked by Nepal Himalayas in the west and Bhutan
Himalayas in the east. It is relatively small but is a most significant part of the Himalayas. As
compared to the other sections of the Himalayas, these along with the Arunachal Himalayas
are conspicuous by the absence of the Shiwalik formations. In place of the Shiwaliks here, the
‘duar formations’ are important, which have also been used for the development of tea
gardens. Known for its fast-flowing rivers such as Tista, it is a region of high mountain peaks
and deep valleys. Kanchenjunga (8598 m), 3rd highest peak of the world, is situated on the
border of India and Nepal. This region has very few passes. The passes of Nathu-La and Jelep-La
connect Gangtok (Sikkim) with Lhasa, Tibet (China).
The higher reaches of this region are inhabited by Lepcha tribes while the southern part,
particularly the Darjiling Himalayas, has a mixed population of Nepalis, Bengalis and tribals
from Central India. The British, taking advantage of the physical conditions such as moderate
slope, thick soil cover with high organic content, well distributed rainfall throughout the year
and mild winters, introduced tea plantations in this region. Sikkim and Darjiling Himalayas are
also known for their scenic beauty and rich flora and fauna, particularly various types of
orchids.
ARUNACHAL HIMALAYAS
Arunachal Himalayas extend from the east of the Bhutan Himalayas up to the Diphu pass in the
east. The general direction of the mountain range is from southwest to northeast. In this part,
the Himalayas rise very rapidly from the plains of Assam. Some of the important mountain
peaks of the region are Kangtu and Namcha Barwa. These ranges are dissected by fast-flowing
rivers from the north to the south, forming deep gorges. Brahmaputra flows through a deep
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gorge after crossing Namcha Barwa. Some of the important rivers are the Kameng, the N
Subansiri, the Dihang, the Dibang and the Lohit. These are perennial with the high rate of fall, Student Notes:
thus, having the highest hydro-electric power potential in the country. Due to heavy rainfall,
fluvial erosion is quite pronounced here. Few important passes of this region are Bomdi La,
Diphu , Pangsau La etc.
An important aspect of the Arunachal Himalayas is the numerous ethnic tribal communities
inhabiting in these areas. Some of the prominent ones from west to east are the Monpa, Daffla,
Abor, Mishmi, Nishi and the Nagas. Most of these communities practise Jhumming (shifting
cultivation). This region is rich in biodiversity which has been preserved by the indigenous
communities. Due to rugged topography, the inter-valley transportation linkages are nominal.
Hence, most of the interactions are carried through the duar region along the Arunachal-Assam
border.
EASTERN HILLS AND MOUNTAINS OR PURVANCHAL

Eastern hills or Purvanchal are part of the Himalayan mountain system. On the southern border
of Arunachal Pradesh, the Himalayas take a southerly turn and the ranges are arranged in a
north-south direction. They are known by different local names. In the north, they are known
as Patkai Bum (Arunachal Pradesh), Naga hills (Nagaland), the Manipur hills (Manipur) and in
the south as Mizo or Lushai hills (Mizoram).
Most of these ranges are separated from each other by numerous small rivers. The Barak is an
important river in Manipur and Mizoram. The physiography of Manipur is unique by the
presence of a large lake known as ‘Loktak’ lake at the centre, surrounded by mountains from all
sides. Mizoram which is also known as the ‘Molassis basin’ is made up of soft unconsolidated
deposits. Most of the rivers in Nagaland form the tributary of the Brahmaputra. These are low
hills, inhabited by numerous tribal groups practicing Jhum cultivation.
THE NORTHERN PLAINS

The northern plains of India are remarkably homogeneous surface with an imperceptible slope.
In fact, they are a featureless alluvial fertile plains formed by the alluvial deposits brought by
the rivers – the Indus, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra along with their tributaries and
Vindhyan rivers flowing towards north. The plain extends from the arid and semi-arid areas of
Rajasthan in the west to Brahmaputra valley in the east. The average width of these plains
varies between 150-300 km. The maximum depth of alluvium deposits varies between 1,000-
2,000 m. Its average height is 200 metres above the mean se level. Due to a very gentle slope
towards the sea, the rivers in this plain flow very leisurely and at times even sluggishly. The
slope from Varanasi upto the mouth of Ganga is only 10 cm. per km. The land around Ambala is
a bit more elevated.
Due to almost flat land, changing river courses in the areas of frequent floods is a unique
geomorphic process in the plains. The Kosi (The Sorrow of Bihar) is one of two major tributaries
of Ganga, the other river being Gandak, draining the plains of north Bihar, the most flood-
prone area of India. Over the last 250 years, the Kosi River has shifted its course over 120
kilometres and the unstable nature of the river is attributed to the heavy silt which it carries
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during the monsoon season (figure 12).From north to south, northern plains can be divided N
into three major zones: the Bhabar, the Tarai and the alluvial plains. The alluvial plains can be Student Notes:
further divided into the khaddar and the Bhangar.
Figure 12 – Shifting course of river Kosi in last 250 years
THE BHABAR PLAIN

Bhabar is a narrow belt ranging between 8-10 km parallel to the Shiwalik foothills at the break-
up of the slope. Its width is, however, more in the western plains than in the eastern plains of
Assam. The streams and rivers coming from the mountains deposit heavy materials of rocks
and boulders, and at times, disappear in this zone due to high porosity. These rivers carry very
coarse load with them. This load becomes too heavy for the streams to be carried over gentler
gradients and gets dumped and spread as a broad low to high cone shaped deposit called
alluvial fan ath the foothills of Shiwalik. Usually, the streams which flow over fans are not
confined to their original channels for long and shift their position across the fan forming many
channels called distributaries. The Bhabar tract is not suitable for cultivation of crops. Only big
trees with large roots thrive in this region. The inhabitants are largely the cattle keeping
Gujjars.
THE TARAI TRACT

South of the Bhabar is the Tarai belt, with an approximate width of 10-20 km where most of
the streams and rivers re-emerge without having any properly demarcated channel, thereby,
creating marshy and swampy conditions known as the Tarai. Unlike Bhabar tracts, Tarai is wider
in the eastern parts of the Great plains, especially in Brahmaputra valley due to heavy rainfall.
This has a luxurious growth of natural vegetation and houses a varied wild life. Many parts of
the Tarai, especially in Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Punjab and Jammu, have been
reclaimed, for agricultural crops such as sugarcane, rice, wheat, maize etc. This marshy tract is
infested with mosquitoes and infamous for Japanese Encephalitis (JE) disease.
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BHANGAR PLAINS N
The south of Tarai is a belt consisting of old and new alluvial deposits known as the Bhangar Student Notes:
and Khadar respectively. The Bhangar represents the upland alluvial tracts formed by the older
alluviums. The largest part of the northern plains is formed of this older alluvium. The Bhangar
formations were deposited during the middle Pleistocene period. The Bhangar land lies above
the flood limits of the rivers. The soil is dark in colour, rich in humus content and productive. It
contains concentration and nodules of impure calcium carbonate or kankar.
KHADAR PLAINS
New alluvial deposits along the courses of the rivers are known as the khadar lands. Himalayan
rivers have more flood area in the eastern India and thus, Khadar plains are wider here as
compared to western area. The khadar tracts are enriched by fresh deposits of silt every year
during the rainy season. The khadar land consists of sand silt, clay and mud. Most of the Khadar
land has been brough under the cultivation and devoted to sugarcane, rice, wheat, maize,
oilseeds.
Together alluvial plains (Khadar and Bhangar) are stretched over 100kms from north to south
direction. These plains have characteristic features of mature stage of fluvial erosional and
depositional landforms such as sand bars, meanders, oxbow lakes and braided channels. The
Brahmaputra plains are known for their riverine islands and sand bars. It is also home to first
green revolution that took place in 1960s-70s in India.
THE DELTA PLAINS

The mouths of these mighty rivers also form some of the largest deltas of the world, for
example, the famous Sunderbans delta. Otherwise, this is a featureless plain with a general
elevation of 50-150 m above the mean sea level. The deltaic plains are extension of the Khadar
land. It covers 1.9 lakh sqkm of area in lower reaches of the Ganga River. In fact, it is an area of
deposition as the river flows in this tract sluggishly. The deltaic plain consists of old mud, new
mud and marsh.
Figure 13 – Different section of northern plains of India
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On the basis of geo-climatic and topographical characteristics, the northern plains of India may N
be divided into the following four meso-regions, namely (i) the plains of Rajasthan; (ii) the Student Notes:
Punjab-Haryana plains; (iii) the Ganga plains; and (iv) the Brahmaputra Plains (figure 13).
THE PLAINS OF RAJASTHAN

They lie to the west of Aravallis. These plains cover a total area of about 175,000 sqkm. A
substantial part of this plain has been formed by the recession of the sea as is evidenced by the
presence of salt water lakes such as Sambhar lake near Jaipur city. During the Permo-
carboniferous period, the greater part of the Rajasthan plain was under the sea. It has several
dry beds of rivers like Saraswati which indicate that the area earlier was fertile. At present, the
greater part of these plains is a desert covered with sand dunes and barchans. The Indira
Gandhi canal has led to intensive agriculture in north-western Rajasthan.
THE PUNJAB HARYANA PLAINS

Stretching over an area of about 650km from northeast to southwest and 300km from west to
east, the Punjab-Haryana plain is an aggradational plain, deposited by Satluj, Ravi and Beas
rivers. Delhi ridge divides plains from the Gangetic plain. The height of the plains varies from
300 m in the north to 200 m in south east. The general direction of slope is from northeast to
southwest and south. A plain between two rivers is called doab such as Bist doab between the
Beas and Satluj.
THE GANGA PLAINS

The Ganga plains lie between the Yamuna catchment in the west to the Bangladesh border in
the east. It is about 1400km in length and has an average width of 300km. the general gradient
of the plain is about 15cm per km. The ganga plains can be subdivided into the following sub-
regions
 The upper Ganga plain – includes the Ganga-Yamuna Doab, Rohilakhand division and
parts of the Agra division. The catchment area of the Yamuna river makes its western
boundary, Shiwalik in the north. Its height varies from 100m to 300m. Kali, Sharda are
other rivers feeding these plains. It is one of the most productive plains of India in
which the Green revolution is a big success. Main crops grown here are sugarcane,
wheat, rice, maize, mustard, vegetables etc.
 The middle Ganga plain – sprawling over an area of 150, 000 sqkm, it includes central
and eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar up to Muzaffarpur and patna. It has thick alluvial
deposits with less kankar. Being a low gradient plain, the rivers often change their
courses in this region as described above about Kosi river. Son, Gandak are major
tributaries of Ganga.
 The lower ganga plain – extends from Patna to the Bay of Bengal. It is bordered by
Assam, Bangladesh in the east and Chotanagpur plateau in the west and Sundarban
delta in the south. It is drained also by Tista, Sankosh, Mahananda, Damodar,
Subarnarekha rivers. These plains have filled faults with sediment created during
movement of Indian plate. Ganga is divided into several distributaries in the delta
region. Hooghly is the best example of a distributary of Ganga.
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THE BRAHMAPUTRA PLAIN N

Stretching over an area of around 56,000sqkm, it is the eastern most part of plains. It is about Student Notes:
720 km long, 80 km wide and altitude varies from 30 m to 130 m. The region is surrounded by
high mountains except in western side. Assam valley is characterized by a steep slope along
northern margin. Majuli with area of around 930sqkm is the largest river island of India and
the second largest of world. But this island is undergoing severe erosion and needs special
protection. The tributaries descending from Himalayas form a series of alluvial fans. The fertile
valley is conducive to grow rice and jute. It is also famous for its tea and two national parks –
Kaziranga and Manas.
THE PENINSULAR PLATEAU

The Great Peninsular plateau is a tableland composed of the old crystalline, igneous and
metamorphic rocks. It lies to the South of the Great Northern Plains. It covers an area of about
16 lakh square km, i.e., about half of the total area of the country. It is an irregular triangle
rising from the height of 150 m above the river plains up to an elevation of 600-900 m. Delhi
ridge in the northwest, (extension of Aravalis), the Rajmahal hills in the east, Gir range in the
west and the Cardamom hills in the south constitute the outer extent of the peninsular plateau.
However, an extension of this is also seen in the northeast, in the form of Shillong and Karbi-
Anglong plateau separated from Peninsular by Malda fault. One of the distinct features of the
peninsular plateau is the black soil area known as Decean Trap. This is of volcanic origin hence
the rocks are igneous. When Indian plate was moving over Reunion hotspot, basalt lava spread
to form these igneous rocks. Actually these rocks have denuded over time and are responsible
for the formation of black soil.
The Peninsular India is made up of a series of patland plateaus such as the Hazaribagh plateau,
the Palamu plateau, the Ranchi plateau, the Malwa plateau, the Coimbatore plateau and the
Karnataka plateau, etc. This is one of the oldest and the most stable landmass of India. The
general elevation of the plateau is from the west to the east, which is also proved by the
pattern of the flow of rivers. Rivers such as Krishna, Kaveri, Godavari, all rise from Western
Ghats, makes delta in the Bay of Bengal side. Plateau has been subjected to large scale
denudation. Its mountains are generally of relic type. Because of their old age, all the rivers
have almost attained their base level and have built up broad and shallow valleys. Some of the
important physiographic features of this region are tors, block mountains, rift valleys, spurs,
bare rocky structures, series of hummocky hills and wall-like quartzite dykes offering natural
sites for water storage.
This Peninsular plateau has undergone recurrent phases of upliftment and submergence
accompanied by crustal faulting and fractures. These spatial variations have brought in
elements of diversity in the relief of the peninsular plateau. The northwestern part of the
plateau has a complex relief of ravines and gorges. The ravines of Chambal, Bhind and Morena
are some of the well-known examples. On the basis of the prominent relief features, the
peninsular plateau can be divided into three broad groups: (i) The Deccan Plateau; (ii) The
Central Highlands; and (iii) The Northeastern Plateau.
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Student Notes:
Figure 14 – Peninsular India: Relief
THE DECCAN PLATEAU

This physiographic division is the largest region (about 7 lakh square km) of the Great Indian
Plateau. The shape of this plateau is triangular and lies to the south of the river Narmada. This
is bordered by the Western Ghats in the west, Eastern Ghats in the east and the Satpura,
Maikal range and Mahadeo hills in the north.The Satpura range is formed by a series of scarped
plateaus on the south, generally at an elevation varying between 600-900 m. It is a classic
example of the relict mountains which are highly denuded and form discontinuous ranges. The
Deccan Plateau is higher in the west and slopes gently eastwards.
Western Ghats are locally known by different names such as Sahyadri in Maharashtra, Nilgiri
hills in Karnataka and Tamil Nadu and Anaimalai hills and Cardamom hills in Kerala. These are
block mountains formed due to the downwarping of a part into the Arabian Sea. Western ghats
lie parallel to the western coast from mouth of Tapi rover to Kanyakumari. The western slope
is steeper as compared to gentle eastern slope. Thal, Bhor and pal Ghats are major passes of
Western Ghats. The Eastern Ghats stretch from the Mahanadi Valley to the Nigiris in the south.
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The Eastern Ghats are discontinuous and irregular and dissected by rivers such as Mahanadi, N
the Godavari, the Krishna, the Kaveri draining into the Bay of Bengal. Shevroy Hills and the Student Notes:
Javadi Hills are located to the southeast of the Eastern Ghats.
Western Ghats are comparatively higher (900-1600m) in elevation and more continuous than
the Eastern Ghats (600m). Their average elevation is about 1,500 m with the height increasing
from north to south. ‘Anaimudi’ (2,695 m), the highest peak of Peninsular plateau is located on
the Anaimalai hills of the Western Ghats followed by Dodabetta (2,637 m) on the Nilgiri hills.
Mahendragiri (1,501 metres) is the highest peak in the Eastern Ghats. The Eastern and the
Western Ghats meet each other at the Nilgiri hills.
THE CENTRAL HIGHLANDS

It extends between Vindhayalchal range in South and Great Northern Plains in nroth. The
Aravallis form the west-northwestern edge of the Central Highlands. An eastern extension of
the Central Highland is formed by the Rajmahal hills. Malwa plateau forms the dominant part
of the Central Highlands. The part of the Central Highlands which extends to the east of Malwa
Plateau is known as Bundelkhand and is further followed by Baghelkhand and the well known
Chhotanagpur Plateau with large mineral reserves. Chhotanagpur is drained by Damodar river.
The Mahadeo Hills, Kaimur Hills and Maikal Range lie towards further east. The valley of
Narmada has been formed due to the subsidence of the land mass between the Vindhyas and
the Satpuras.
The general elevation of the Central Highlands ranges between 700-1,000 m and it slopes
towards the north and northeastern directions. Most of the tributaries (Chambal, Sind, Betwa,
Ken) of the river Yamuna have their origin in the Vindhyan and Kaimur ranges. Banas, tributary
of the river Chambal, originates from the Aravalli in the west.
The extension of the Peninsular plateau can be seen as far as Jaisalmer in the West, where it
has been covered by the longitudinal sand ridges and crescent-shaped sand dunes called
barchans. Aravallis hills extend from Gujarat, through Rajasthan to Delhi in the northeasterly
direction for a distance of about 700 km till Delhi. The highest peak of the Aravalli hills is
Gurushikhar (1722 m) near Mt. Abu, hill station.
THE NORTH-EASTERN PLATEAU

It is an extension of the main Peninsular plateau in the northeast– locally known as the
Meghalaya and Karbi-Anglong Plateau. It is separated by Malda fault from the Chotanagpur
Plateau. Later, this depression got filled up by the deposition activity of the numerous rivers.
The Meghalaya plateau is further sub-divided into three: (i) The Garo Hills; (ii) The Khasi Hills;
(iii) The Jaintia Hills, named after the tribal groups inhabiting this region. An extension of this is
also seen in the Karbi Anglong hills of Assam. Shillong is the highest peak in this plateau.
Similar to the Chotanagpur plateau, the Meghalaya plateau is also rich in mineral resources like
coal, iron ore, sillimanite, limestone and uranium. This area receives maximum rainfall from the
south west monsoon. As a result, the Meghalaya plateau has a highly eroded surface
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THE INDIAN DESERT N

The Indian desert lies towards the western margins of the Aravali Hills. It is a land of undulating Student Notes:
topography dotted with longitudinal dunes and barchans. This region receives low rainfall
below 150 mm per year; hence, it has arid climate with low vegetation cover. Low precipitation
and high evaporation makes it a water deficit region. Streams appear during the rainy season.
Luni is the only large river in this region. It is believed that during the Mesozoic era, this region
was under the sea. This can be corroborated by the evidence available at wood fossils park at
Aakal and marine deposits around Brahmsar, near Jaisalmer. Land features present here are
mushroom rocks, shifting dunes and oasis. the desert can be divided into two parts: the
northern part is sloping towards Sindh and the southern towards the Rann of Kachchh.
THE COASTAL PLAINS

The Peninsular plateau is flanked by stretch of narrow coastal strips, running along the Arabian
Season the west and the Bay of Bengal on the east.
WESTERN COASTAL PLAINS

West Coastal Plain extends along the Arabian Sea from the Rann of Kutchch in the north to
Kanyakumari in the south. These plains are an example of submerged coastal plain. Because of
this submergence it is a narrow belt and provides natural conditions for the development of
ports and harbours. Kandla, Mazagaon, JLN port Navha Sheva, Marmagao, Mangalore, Cochin,
etc. are important natural ports.
Extending from the Gujarat coast in the north to the Kerala coast in the south, the western
coast may be divided into following divisions – the Kutch and Kathiawar coast in Gujarat,
Konkan coast in Maharashtra, Goan coast and Malabar coast in Karnataka and Kerala
respectively. The plains of Gujarat are made up of black soil. There are a number of long and
narrow lagoons on Malabar Coast. Kochi port is situated on one of the lagoons. These plains are
narrow in the middle and get broader towards north and south. The rivers flowing through this
coastal plain do not form any delta. The Malabar coast has got certain distinguishing features in
the form of ‘Kayals’(backwaters), used for fishing, inland navigation, tourism.
EASTERN COASTAL PLAINS

The eastern coastal plain is broader, leveled and is an example of an emergent coast. These
plains are formed by the alluvial fillings. The monotony of plains is broken by the numerous
hills. In the northern part, it is referred to as the Northern Circar, while the southern part is
known as the Coromandal Coast. There are well developed deltas here, formed by rivers
Mahanadi, Krishna, Godavari, Kaveri etc.Lakes such as Chilika, Pulicat, and Kolluru are the
famous lagoons of this plain. Because of its emergent nature, it has less number of ports and
harbours. The continental shelf extends up to 500 km into the sea, which makes it difficult for
the development of good ports and harbours. Paradip, Visakhapatnam, Ennor, Chennai,
Tuticorin are important ports along eastern coast. Rice is the intensively grown here.
THE ISLANDS
There are two major island groups in India – one in the Bay of Bengal and the other in the
Arabian Sea.
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ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS N

The Bay of Bengal island groups consist of about 572 islands/islets. These are situated roughly Student Notes:
between 6°N-14°N and 92°E -94°E (Figure 15a). The entire group of island is divided into two
broad categories – the Andaman in the north and the Nicobar in the south. They are separated
by a water body which is called the Ten degree channel. It is believed that island group is an
extension of submarine mountains. However, some smaller islands are volcanic in origin.
Barren island, the only active volcano in India is also situated here. The coastal line has some
coral deposits, and beautiful beaches. These islands lie close to equator and thus, experience
equatorial climate. The islands have thick forest cover due to heavy convectional rainfall.
(a) – Andaman and Nicobar Islands (b) Lakshadweep Islands
Figure 15 – Island groups of India
LAKSHADWEEP ISLANDS
Lakshadweep Islands are situated in the Arabian Sea, at a distance of 280-480km off the coast
of Kerala. These are scattered between 8°N-12°N and 71°E -74°E (Figure 15b). All these islands
are of coral origin. They have been built up by corals. Only 11 out of 36 islands are inhabited.
The largest island among these, the Minicoy, has an area of 4.5 square km only. The entire
group of islands is broadly divided by the Eleventh degree channel, north of which is the Amini
Island and to the south of the Canannore Island. Landform features are storm beaches
consisting of unconsolidated pebbles, shingles, cobbles and boulders.
In overall, it would be clear that each region complements the other and makes the country
richer in its natural resources. The northern mountains are the major sources of water and
forest wealth. The northern plains are the granaries of the country. They provide the base for
early civilisations. The plateau is a storehouse of minerals, which has played a crucial role in the
industrialisation of the country. The coastal region and island groups provide sites for fishing
and port activities.
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DRAINAGE N
Student Notes:
Rivers have always been of supreme importance to man, providing focal points for habitation,
water for cultivation and avenues to travel, water power and recreation. A river or stream is a
body of water flowing in a channel. The term ‘drainage’ describes the river system of an area. It
is an integrated system of a river and its tributaries which collect and funnel surface water to
the sea. The area drained by a single river system is called a drainage basin. The boundary line
separating one drainage basin from the other is known as the watershed. A river drains the
water collected from a specific area, which is called its ‘catchment area’. The catchments of
large rivers are called river basins while those of small rivulets and rills are often referred to as
watersheds. Watersheds are small in area while the basins cover larger areas.
DRAINAGE PATTERN
A geometric arrangement of streams in a region; determined by slope, differing rock resistance
to weathering and erosion, climate, hydrologic variability, and structural controls of the
landscape is known as drainage pattern. The rivers that existed before the upheaval of the
Himalayas and cut their courses by making gorges in the mountains are knows as the
antecedent rivers. Indus, Satluj, Ganga are some important antecedent rivers. The rivers which
follow general direction of slope are known as the consequent rivers. Godavari and Krishna etc.
rivers descending from the Western Ghats are some consequent rivers.
The drainage pattern resembling the branches of a tree is known as “dendritic” the examples
of which are the rivers of northern plain. It develops where the river channel follows the slope
of the terrain. When the rivers originate from a hill and flow in all directions, the drainage
pattern is known as ‘radial’. The rivers originating from the Amarkantak range present a good
example of it. When the primary tributaries of rivers flow parallel to each other and secondary
tributaries join them at right angles, the pattern is known as ‘trellis’. It develops where hard
and soft rocks exist parallel to each other. Right bank tributaries of Brahmaputra rivers make
trellis pattern while the left bank tributaries exhibit the
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Figure 16–Drainage patterns N

Student Notes:
dendritic pattern. When the rivers discharge their waters from all directions in a lake or
depression, the pattern is known as ‘centripetal’. It is reverse of radial and occurs in the areas
of karst topography. A combination of several patterns may be found in the same drainage
basin.
DRAINAGE SYSTEM OF INDIA

The drainage systems of India are mainly controlled by the broad relief features of the
subcontinent. Indian drainage system may be divided on various bases. On the basis of
discharge of water (orientations to the sea), it may be grouped into: (i) the Arabian Sea
drainage; and (ii) the Bay of Bengal drainage. They are separated from each other through the
Delhi ridge, the Aravalis and the Sahyadris (water divide is shown by a line in Figure 17).Many
rivers have their sources in the Himalayas and discharge their waters in the Bay of Bengal
except Indus river system which discharge into Arabian Sea. Ganga, Yamuna, Gandak, Tista and
Brahmaputra rivers are major example of it.
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N
Student Notes:
Figure 17 – Water divide between east flowing and west flowing rivers
Large rivers flowing on the Peninsular plateau have their origin in the Western Ghats and
discharge their waters in the Bay of Bengal. Krishna, Godavari, Kaveri, Tungabhadra are some
example of it. The Narmada and Tapi are two large rivers which are exceptions. They along with
many small rivers discharge their waters in the Arabian Sea. These small rivers have origin in
Western Ghats such as Mandavi, Netravati, Sharavati, and Periyar rivers.
Nearly 77 per cent of the drainage area consisting of the Ganga, the Brahmaputra, the
Mahanadi, the Krishna, etc. is oriented towards the Bay of Bengal while 23 per cent comprising
the Indus, the Narmada, the Tapi, the Mahi and the Periyar systems discharge their waters in
the Arabian Sea.
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N
Student Notes:
Figure 18 – Major river Basins of India
On the basis of mode of origin, the drainage of India may be divided into (i) Himalayan
Drainage; and (ii) Peninsular drainage. However, many of the Peninsular rivers like the
Chambal, Betwa, Ken, Son are tributaries of Ganga river system which originate in Himalayas
(figure 17).
On the basis of the size of the watershed, the drainage basins of India are grouped into three
categories: (i) Major river basins with more than 20,000 sq. km of catchment area (figure 18). It
includes 14 drainage basins such as the Ganga, the Indus, the Godavari, the Krishna, the
Brahmaputra, the Mahanadi, the Narmada, the kaveri, the Tapi, the Pennar, the Brahmani, the
Mahi, the Sabarmati, the Barak, the Suvarnarekha; (ii) Medium river basins with catchment
area between 2,000-20,000 sq. km incorporating 44 river basins such as the Kalindi, the Periyar,
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the Meghna, etc.; and (iii) Minor river basins with catchment area of less than 2,000 sq. km N
include fairly good number of rivers flowing in the area of low rainfall. Student Notes:
THE HIMALAYAN DRAINAGE SYSTEM

The Himalayan drainage system has evolved through a long geological history. There is no
unanimity among geologists about the origin of the Himalayan rivers. However, it is believed
that a mighty river, namely Shiwalik or Indo-Brahma was flowing west from Assam to Sind and
finally discharged into Gulf of Sind during Miocene period. The remarkable continuity of the
Shiwalik and its lacustrine origin and alluvial deposits consisting of sands, silt, clay, boulders
and conglomerates support this viewpoint.
This mighty Shiwalik river was dismembered into three main systems which are now called as
Indus, Ganga and Brahmaputra systems (figure 19).The dismemberment is attributed to
upheaval in the Western Himalayas including uplift of the Potwar Plateau (or Delhi Ridge). This
ridge act as a water divide between Indus and Ganga river systems. Similarly, the down
thrusting of the Malda fault (area between Rajmahal Hills and the Meghalaya Plateau) caused
the Ganga and the Brahamputra systems to flow towards Bay of Bengal. The giant gorges,
sudden bends towards South and other such features are evidence in support that these rivers
are older than the Himalayas.
Figure 19 – evolution of Himalayan Drainage
Currently, Indus, Ganga and Brahamputra with their respective tributaries make major drainage
systems of Himalayas. Since these are fed both by melting of snow and precipitation, rivers of
this system are perennial.
LANDFORMS OF HIMALAYAN RIVERS

The Himalayan rivers are in their youthful stage carving out a number of erosional landforms.
These rivers pass through the giant gorges carved out by the erosional activity carried on
simultaneously with the uplift of the Himalayas. Satluj, Indus forms great gorges near Gilgit and
Sukkur respectively. Besides deep gorges, these rivers also form V-shaped valleys, rapids and
waterfalls in their mountainous course. While entering the plains, they form depositional
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features like flat valleys, ox-bow lakes, flood plains, braided channels, and deltas near the river N
mouth. In the Himalayan reaches, the course of these rivers is highly tortuous, but over the Student Notes:
plains they display a strong meandering tendency and shift their courses frequently.
THE INDUS SYSTEM

The Indus (Sindhu) is one of the most important drainage systems of the Indian subcontinent
and one of the largest in the world. It covers an area of 11, 65,000 sq. km and length of 2,880
km, out of which 321, 289 sqkm area and 1,114 km length is in India. The Indus is the
westernmost of the Himalayan rivers in India. Indus has origin from a glacier near Bokar Chu in
the Kailash Mountain range in the Tibet province of China. In Tibet, it is known as ‘Singi
Khamban; or Lion’s mouth. After flowing in a constricted valley in Tibet, it follows a long, nearly
straight course between the Ladakh and Zaskar ranges in the northwest direction where it
receives Zaskar below Leh town. It cuts across the Ladakh range, forming a spectacular gorge
near Gilgit which is 5200m in height. In this region, transverse glaciers and landslides
periodically dam the river. River passes Nanga Parbat and turns south-west to enter Pakistan
near Chillar in the Dardistan region. In the Jammu and Kashmir, Indus receives a number of
Himalayan tributaries such as the Shyok, the Gilgit, the Hunza, the Nubra, the Shigar, the
Gasting and the Dras. Right bank tributaries such as the Khurram, the Tochi, etc. originate in
Sulaiman ranges. Down in the Punjab province of Pakistan, Indus receives ‘Panjnad’, five rivers
of Punjab, namely the Satluj, the Beas, the Ravi, the Chenab and the Jhelum. River finally drains
into the Arabian Sea, east of Karachi city. These rivers do not meet Indus separately but as a
single river.
The Jhelum (Vitasta) rises from a spring at Verinag Spring situated at the foot of the Pir Panjal.
It flows through Srinagar and the Wular lake before entering Pakistan through a deep narrow
gorge. It joins the Chenab in Pakistan. It is the most important river of Kashmir.
The Chenab (Asikni) flows in India for about 1180km draining around 26,755 sqkm area. It is the
largest tributary of the Indus. It is formed by two streams, the Chandra and the Bhaga, which
join at Tandi near Keylong in Himachal Pradesh. Hence, it is also known as Chandrabhaga.
Major hydro power plants installed in Chenab are Salal, Baghliar, and Dulhasti.
The Ravi (Parushni) river flows for about 725 km and drains 6000 sqkm area in India. It rises
near the Rohtang Pass in Kullu hills in Himachal Pradesh, very close to the source of the Beas
river. It flows through the famous Chamba valley. It drains an area lying between Pir Panjal and
Dhauladhar ranges. It also cuts a gorge in Dhaula Dhar range. In plains of Punjab, it runs along
the Indo-Pak border and joins Chenab near Sarai Sidhu in Pakistan.
The Beas (Vipasa) river originates from the Beas Kund near the Rohtang Pass at an elevation of
4,000 m. The river flows through the Kullu valley and forms gorges at Kati and Largi in the
Dhaula Dhar range. Further down, it flows through the Kangra valley. It enters the Punjab plains
where it meets the Satluj near Harike in India’s Punjab. Indira Gandhi Canal that feeds western
Rajasthan has origin at Harike, confluence of Beas and Satluj.
The Satluj (Satadru) river rises from the Rakas Lake near Mansarovar (4,555m) in Tibet. This is
an antecedent river. It flows almost parallel to the Indus for about 400 km before entering
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India, and comes out of a gorge across the Great Himalayas. It passes through the Shipki La N
(4300 m) on the Himalayan ranges at India-China border. It cuts the Zaskar ranges, Dhaula Dhar Student Notes:
range, Shiwalik and finally enters the Punjab plains. It feeds the canal system of the Bhakra
Nangal project.
The Ghaggar (Saraswati) is an inland drainage which rises in the talus fan of the Shiwalik near
Ambala, Haryana. After entering the plains, it disappears but reappears at Karnal. Further on,
the stream disappears near Hanumargarh in Bikaner. It is believed that it is an old tributary of
the Indus.
THE GANGA SYSTEM

The Ganga is the most important river of India both from the point of view of its basin and
cultural significance. The river has a length of 2,525 km. It is the largest river basin in India with
about one-fourth area of the country under it. It rises in the Gangotri glacier near Gaumukh
(3,900 m) in the Uttarakhand where it is known as the Bhagirathi. At Devprayag, the Bhagirathi
meets the Alaknanda and both makes Ganga. The Alaknanda consists of the Dhauli and the
Vishnu Ganga which meet at Vishnuprayag. Pindar joins Alaknanda at Karnaprayag while
Mandakini meets it at Rudraprayag. At Haridwar, Ganga enters into plains. Further on, it moves
in west-east direction and split into two distributaries, namely the Bhagirathi and the Hugli in
Bengal. Along with Brahmaputra, it makes largest delta of the world. The Ganga river is having
a number of perennial and non-perennial rivers originating in the Himalayas in the north and
the Peninsula in the south, respectively. It flows through major cities of India – Kanpur,
Allahabad, Patna, and Kolkata.
The Yamuna river, the western most and the longest tributary of the Ganga, has its source in
the Yamunotri glacier on the western slopes of Banderpunch range (6,316 km). It flows parallel
to Ganga and finally meets the same at Allahabad (Prayag). The right bank tributaries involves
the Chambal, the Sind, the Betwa and the Ken which originates in the Peninsular plateau while
the Hindan, the Rind, the Sengar, the Varuna, etc. join it on its left bank. It is a major source to
feed the canals of Haryana and Uttar Pradesh. It flows through cities such as Karnal, Delhi, and
Agra.
The Gandak river comprises two streams, namely Kaligandak and Trishulganga. It rises in the
Nepal Himalayas between Dhaluagiri and Mt. Everest. It enters the Ganga Plains of India in
Champaran, Bihar and joins Ganga at Sonpur near Patna. This river changes its course
frequently.
The Ghaghara originates in the glaciers of Mapchachungo. It comes out of the mountain,
cutting a deep gorge at Shishapani. The river Sarda joins it in the plain before it finally meets
the Ganga at Chhapra. It flows through famous Ayodhya town.
The Ramganga is the first major tributary to join the Ganga from its left near Kannauj. It rises in
the Garhwal hills near Gairsain. A large dam has been built on this river near Kalagarh.
The Damodar drains the eastern parts of the Chotanagpur Plateau where it flows through a rift
valley and finally joins the Hugli at Falta. The Barakar is its main tributary. Once known as the
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‘sorrow of Bengal’, the Damodar has been now tamed by the Damodar Valley Corporation, a N
multipurpose project. Student Notes:
The Chambal rises near Mhow in the Malwa plateau from Vindhyan range and flows
northwards through a gorge up wards of Kota in Rajasthan. From Kota, it traverses down to
Bundi, Sawai Madhopur and Dholpur, and finally joins the Yamuna at Etawah. The Chambal is
famous for its badland topography called the Chambal ravines. Ravines are being reclaimed for
agricultural and pastoral activities. Banas river is its main tributary. The main dams across the
river are Gandhi Sagar (Kota), Rana Pratap Sagar and Jawahar Sagar.
The Son originates from the Amarkantak plateau. It has length of 780km and drains areas of
around 54,000 sqkm. After forming a series of waterfall at the edge of plateau, it reaches
Arrah, west of Patna to join the Ganga.
The Sarda or Saryu river rises in the Milan glacier in the Nepal Himalayas where it is known as
the Goriganga. Along the Indo-Nepal border, it is called Kali or Chauk, where it joins the
Ghaghara. The Mahananda is another important tributary of the Ganga rising in the Darjiling
hills. It joins the Ganga as its last left bank tributary in West Bengal.
THE BRAHMAPUTRA SYSTEM

The Brahmaputra is one of the largest river of not only India but the world. Its total length is
2900km and basin area is 5,80,000 sqkm (916 km and 1,87,00 sqkm in India). Its origin is in the
Chemayungdung glacier of the Kailash range near the Mansarovar lake. From here, it flows
parallel to the Greater Himalayas in the dry and flat Tibetan region where it is known as
Tsangpo. It emerges as a turbulent and dynamic river after carving out a deep gorge in the
Central Himalayas near Namcha Barwa (7,755 m). The river emerges from the foothills under
the name of Siang or Dihang. It enters India west of Sadiya town in Arunachal Pradesh. It
receives its main left bank tributaries, viz., Dibang or Sikang and Lohit; thereafter, it is known as
the Brahmaputra.
In the Assam valley, its major left bank tributaries are the Burhi Dihing, Dhansari (South) and
Kalang whereas the important right bank tributaries are the Subansiri, Kameng, Manas and
Sankosh. The Brahmaputra enters into Bangladesh near Dhubri and flows southward. In
Bangladesh, the Tista joins it on its right bank from where the river is known as the Yamuna.
The Brahmaputra is well-known for floods, channel shifting and bank erosion. This is due to the
fact that most of its tributaries are large, and bring large quantity of sediments owing to heavy
rainfall in the region
THE PENINSULAR DRAINAGE SYSTEM

The Peninsular drainage system is older than the Himalayan one. This is evident from the
broad, largely-graded shallow valleys, and the maturity of the rivers. Rivers follow the relief
pattern of the plateau. Except for the rivers flowing through fault valleys, the slope of all rivers
is very gentle.
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EVOLUTION OF PENINSULAR DRAINAGE SYSTEM N

Three major geological events in the distant past have shaped the present drainage systems of Student Notes:
Peninsular India: (i) Subsidence of the western flank of the Peninsula leading to its
submergence below the sea during the early tertiary period. Generally, it has disturbed the
symmetrical plan of the river on either side of the original watershed. Earlier the area to the
west of the Western ghats was also a landmass in ancient times. At that time, rivers flowed in
both directions from the water divide formed by the Ghats and there was a symmetrical
distribution of rivers. (ii) Upheaval of the Himalayas when the northern flank of the Peninsular
block was subjected to subsidence and the consequent trough faulting. The Narmada and The
Tapi flow in trough faults and fill the original cracks with their detritus materials. Hence, there
is a lack of alluvial and deltaic deposits in these rivers. (iii) Slight tilting of the Peninsular block
from northwest to the southeastern direction gave orientation to the entire drainage system
towards the Bay of Bengal during the same period.
RIVER SYSTEMS
The Western Ghats situated near the western coast form the major water divide between the
major Peninsular rivers, discharging their water in the Bay of Bengal and as small rivulets
joining the Arabian Sea. Except Narmada and Tapi, all major rivers flow in east direction. The
other major river systems of the Peninsular drainage are – the Mahanadi the Godavari, the
Krishna and the Kaveri. Peninsular rivers are characterised by fixed course, absence of
meanders and ephemeral flow of water. The Narmada and the Tapi which flow through the rift
valley are, however, exceptions. Peninsular rivers receive water from Southwest monsoon and
Tamil Nadu rivers gets water from retreating or northeast monsoon also.
EAST FLOWING RIVERS

The Mahanadi rises near Sihawa, Amarkantak hills in the highlands of Chhattisgarh and runs
through Orissa to discharge its water into the Bay of Bengal. It is 851 km long and its catchment
area spreads over 1.42 lakh sq. km. Some navigation is carried on in the lower course of this
river. Deltaic stretch of this river is part of National Waterways 5(NW5).
The Godavari is the largest Peninsular river. It rises from the slopes of the Western Ghats in the
Nasik district of Maharashtra. It is also called Dakshinganga. It is 1,465 km long with a
catchment area spreading over 3.13 lakh sq. km 49 per cent of this, lies in Maharashtra. The
Penganga, the Indravati, the Pranhita, and the Manjra are its principal tributaries. It forms a
picturesque gorge in Eastern Ghats. The Godavari is subjected to heavy floods in its lower
reaches. It is navigable only in the deltaic stretch. The river after Rajamundri splits into several
branches forming a large delta.
The Krishna is the second largest east-flowing Peninsular river which rises from a spring near
Mahabaleshwar. Its total length is 1,401 km. The Koyna, the Tungbhadra and the Bhima are its
major tributaries. Its drainage basin is shared by Maharashtra, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.
The Kaveri rises in Brahmagiri hills (1,341m) of Kogadu district in Karnataka. Its length is 800 km
and it drains an area of 81,155 sq. km. Since the upper catchment area receives rainfall during
the southwest monsoon season (summer) and the lower part during the northeast monsoon
season (winter), the river carries water throughout the year. It flows into the Bay of Bengal at
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Kaveripatnam. It drains parts of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Kerala. Its important tributaries are N
the Kabini, the Bhavani and the Amravati. Student Notes:
The Brahmani and the Subernarekha rivers drain a part of area between the Ganga and the
Mahanadi into the Bay of Bengal. Their drainage area extends over parts of Bihar, Odisha, West
Bengal and Madhya Pradesh. It supplies water to the Tata steel plant at Jamshedpur.
WEST FLOWING RIVERS

The Narmada originates on the western flank of the Amarkantak plateau at a height of about
1,057 m. Flowing in a rift valley between the Satpura in the south and the Vindhyan range in
the north, it forms a picturesque gorge in marble rocks and Dhuandhar waterfall near Jabalpur.
It meets the Arabian Sea south of Bharuch, forming a broad 27 km long estuary. Its length is
1312 km and catchment area of 98,796 sqkm. All the tributaries are very short and make trellis
pattern. The Sardar Sarovar Project has been constructed on this river. Narmada has been
joined with other Gujarat rivers to shift its water.
The Tapi is the other important westward flowing river. It originates from Multai in the Betul
district of Madhya Pradesh and discharge in Surat district, Gujarat. It is 724 km long and drains
an area of 65,145 sq. km. The Purna, Girna and Panjhra are its important tributaries.
Luni is the largest river system of Rajasthan, west of Aravali. It originates near Pushkar in two
branches, i.e. the Saraswati and the Sabarmati, which join with each other at Govindgarh. It
flows towards the west till Telwara and then takes a southwest direction to join the Rann of
Kutch.
The Mahi river rises in the Satmala hills of the Vindhyan mountains. After flowing for 533km, it
drains into the Gulf of Khambhat. The Sabarmati riverrises in the Aravalli hills and flows into
Arabian Sea after flowing over a distance of 300km.
Small west flowing rivers are numerous which rises in the Western Ghats and have short
runoff. The Shetruniji is one such river which rises near Dalkahwa in Amreli district. The Bhadra
originates near Aniali village in Rajkot district. The Dhadhar rises near Ghantar village in
Panchmahal district. The Vaitarna rises from the Trimbak hills in Nasik district at an elevation of
670 m. The Kalinadi rises from Belgaum district and falls in the Karwar Bay. The Sharavati is
another important river in Karnataka flowing towards the west. The Sharavati originates in
Shimoga district of Karnataka. Goa has two important rivers which can be mentioned here. One
is Mandovi and the other is Juari. The longest river of Kerala, Bharathapuzha rises near
Annamalai hills. It is also known as Ponnani. It drains an area of 5,397 sq. km. The Periyar is the
second largest river of Kerala. Its catchment area is 5,243 sq. km.
COMPARISON BETWEEN HIMALAYAN AND PENINSULAR RIVERS

Difference between the rivers rising in the Himalayas and those rising in the Peninsular plateau
are primarily a result of the differences between the two areas in terms of relief and climate.
Following table shows major differences between these two groups.
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S. No. Aspects Himalayan River Peninsular River N

1 Place of Himalayan mountain covered with Peninsular plateau and central Student Notes:
Origin glaciers highland
2 Nature of Perennial Ephemeral
flow
3 Type of Antecedent and Consequent Super imposed, rejuvenated
drainage leading to dendritic pattern resulting in trellis, radial and
rectangular
Patterns
4 Nature of Long course, flowing through the Smaller, fixed course with well-
river rugged mountains experiencing adjusted valleys;
headward erosion and river
capturing;
In plains meandering and shifting
of
Course;
5 Catchment Very large basins Relatively smaller basin
area
6 Age of the Young, active and deepening of Old rivers with graded profile and
river valley lateral erosion
7 Irrigation Flows through plains and canal Flows over uneven plateau; canals
system only in deltaic region
8 Hydro- Eastern region has very high Natural waterfalls for generating
electricity potential and large dams are electricity
building up
NATIONAL RIVER LINKING PROJECT

The idea of linking water surplus Himalayan rivers with water scarce parts of western and
peninsular India has been doing the rounds for the past 150 years. The rivers of India carry
huge volumes of water per year but it is unevenly distributed both in time and space. There are
perennial rivers carrying water throughout the year while the non-perennial rivers have very
little water during the dry season. During the rainy season, much of the water is wasted in
floods and flows down to the sea. Similarly, when there is a flood in one part of the country,
the other area suffers from drought. Such linkage is said to provide major benefits such as
irrigation, assured drinking water, flood and draught prevention, generation of electricity, and
inland navigation. Nevertheless, project is facing several challenges in its implementation.
Project involves hundreds of billions of dollars that India could not afford. Water shortage
Peninsular plateau has higher altitude compare to water surplus Ganges plains. Carrying water
to higher level required either electricity to pump water or create chain of deep channels which
seems very difficult in rocky Peninsular. Project will have to acquire lakhs of hectares of land. It
will affect the ecosystem(submergence of forest land, deforestation, flora and fauna) and
rehabilitation issue of lakhs of displaced persons.
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N
Student Notes:
Figure 20 – Inter-linking of rivers
Ironically, rivers of northern plains have water surplus during or just after monsoon. This time
Peninsular rivers also have sufficient water. While the water availability in the southern rivers
may be increased, the main reason why such project is not being put to implementation is the
apprehension of future water shortage in the Northern plains as a result of Climate change,
whose effects are now not known. Shifting huge quantity of water would have affect on heat
balance of Indian subcontinent which may affect monsoon pattern and intensity also. It will
also affect the temperature and salinity of Bay of Bengal water near Bengal region.
NDA government's proposal of river interlinking met with stiff opposition from several
quarters. The Supreme Court cleared the river-linking project. A group of citizens has filed
review petition in the Supreme Court. Recent report of planning commission also does not
support the project due to environmental and monsoon issues. Rivers linkage crosses political
boundaries of states. Consensus among states is another challenge.
Linkage at small scale is feasible and few links of this river projects are under analysis or under
construction. For instance, many links in Gujarat are connected. Five Peninsular links namely (i)
Ken – Betwa, (ii) Parbati – Kalisindh – Chambal, (iii) Damanganga – Pinjal, (iv) Par – Tapi –
Narmada & (v) Godavari (Polavaram) - Krishna (Vijayawada) have been identified as priority
links for taking up their Detailed Project Reports (DPRs) by ministry of water resources in 2012.
DPR of one priority link namely Ken-Betwa has been completed and was communicated to the
party states. Solution envisaged in the 12thfive year plan is the water management. Locally
available water needs to be managed with proper conservation techniques and by use of best
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available technologies in agriculture, industry with full incentive to be given for recycling of N
water. Student Notes:
NATIONAL WATERWAYS
An efficient transport sector is vital for development of the economy of any country. Compare
to European countries, China etc., India has poor performance in using Inland river navigation
for goods
Figure 21 – NATIONAL WATERWAYS (NWS) OF INDIA
transportation. Inland Water Transport (IWT) is a fuel efficient, environment friendly and cost
effective mode of transport. Currently, there are five national waterways(NW) and sixth is
being under consideration(figure 21). Following is the details of NWs:
NW1 is from Allahabad to Haldia with total length of 1620 kms. It is being used by tourism
vessels, ODC carriers, IWAI vessels. Many coal based plants are located along Ganga and thus,
are potential revenue source for inland navigation sector. NW2 waterways is from Sadiya town
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in Assam to Dhubri at Bangladesh border with total length of 891 km. it is used by tourism N
vessels, Border security forces, Assam government, and private vessels. NW3 waterway Student Notes:
involves multiple canals on the western coast. It involves West coast canal(168km),
Udyogmandal canal(23km), and Champakara canal (14km). It is one of the most navigable and
tourism potential area in India. Raw material for fertilizer plants is major part of movement.
Similarly, NW4 waterway involves Kakinada-Puducherry canala (767km), Godavari river (171
km), and Krishna river (157 km). Coal on Godavari river, Cement on Krishna river and rice on
both rivers, and other such food commodities are major transport on this waterway. NW5
waterway consists of stretches such as Mahanadi Delta(101km), Brahmani and others (265km),
Matai river(40km) and Geonkhali-Charbatia(217km). Coal is the major commodity on
transportation here. Declaration of Barak river from Bhanga to Lakhipur (121 km) in the State
of Assam as National Waterway is under consideration of Govt. Budget 2013 stressed on
waterways connectivity for northeast India. Poor maintenance of NW is a major challenge for
the government. Inland water navigation is cheaper as compared to other transport modes but
does not get same level of subsidy by the government for transporting various commodities
such as PDS food etc.
SOIL
Soil constitutes a major element in the natural environment, linking climate and vegetation,
and they have a profound effect on man’s activities through their relative fertility. It is a
valuable resource and the most important layer of the earth’s crust. Soils are very much
dynamic entities in which physical, chemical and biological activities are continually taking
place.
SOIL PROPERTIES
Soil is the mixture of rock debris and organic materials which develop on the earth’s surface. It
contains matter in all three states: solid, liquid and gaseous. The solid portion is partly organic
and partly inorganic. The inorganic part is made up of particles derived from the parent
material, the rocks which weather to form the soil. The organic portion consists of living and
decayed plant and animal materials such as roots and worms. Soil water is a dilute but complex
chemical solution derived from direct precipitation and from run-off, and groundwater. The soil
atmosphere fills the pore spaces of the soil when these are not occupied by water. Soil
atmosphere and water are present in inverse proportion to each other. The actual amounts of
each of these components depend upon the type of soil.
The Texture of a soil refers to the sizes of the solid particles composing the soil. The sizes range
from clay (less than 0.002mm) to gravel (more than 2mm). The proportions of the different
sizes present vary from soil to soil and from layer to layer. Texture largely determines the
water-retention properties of soil. Loam texture is best for plant growth (figure 22(i)).
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Student Notes:
(i) Soil textural classes (ii) Four basic soil

structures
Figure 22 – soil texture and structure
The soil structure is the way the soil particles are arranged. Because of cementing action of
ions in the soil, individual particles in a soil tend to aggregate together in lumps. According to
the shape of the lumps, soils can be described as having a platy, prismatic, crumby and
Granular structure (figure 22(ii)). The presence of humus helps the formation of a crump
structure. The soil structure has an important bearing on its east of cultivation. Soils with a
crumb structure are best for seed germination. Forking, raking, ploughing and harrowing are
few techniques to improve the soil structure.
Soil colloids - tiny particles with unusual chemical properties – may be organic (very finely
divided humus) or mineral (minute thin flakes called clay mineral). Together, the two types
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make up a clay-humus complex. Clay minerals have a vast surface area in relation to their N
weight and are net negatively charged. This is invariably neturalised by the attraction to their Student Notes:
surface of positively charged ions (cations) of calcium, magnesium, potassium and sodium
(bases). They are only held loosely in an exchangeable position by the clay minerals and may be
given up in the process of exchange to plants in forms of nutrients which require them for
growth. These cations are generally replaced by hydrogen ions. Over a period of time, this
process makes soil more acid, unless the bases are replenished in some way. It is possible
naturally with decomposition of animals and plants or artificially in form of fertilizer.
Soil acidity is a property related to the proportion of exchangeable hydrogen in the soil in
relation to other elements. A pH value of about 6.5 is normally regarded as the most favourable
for the growth of cereal crops.
Colour varies considerably in soil and can tell us much about how a soil is formed and what it is
made of. In recently formed soils, the colour will largely reflect that of the parent material, but
in many other cases, the colour is different from the underlying rocks. Soils can range from
white to black, usually depending on the amount of humus. In cool humid areas, most soils
contain relatively high humus content and are generally black or dark brown, wheras in desert
or semi-desert areas, little humus is present and soils are light brown or grey. Reddish colours
in soills are associated with the presence of ferric compounds and usually soil is well drained. In
humid climates, grayish colours relect poor drainage conditions.
SOIL HORIZONS
A vertical section of soil from the surface down to the bedrock consisting of many layers is
collectively known as soil profile. These different sections are called soil horizons. We can
easily observe different horizons in a mine or roads dug under the ground. The recognition of
different soil horizons is based on the physical and chemical characteristics of soils. Scientists
have divided the soil into three main horizons (figure 23). ‘Horizon A’ is the topmost zone,
where organic materials have got incorporated with the mineral matter, nutrients and water,
which are necessary for the growth of plants. ‘Horizon B’ is a transition zone between the
‘Horizon A’ and ‘Horizon C’, and contains matter derived from below as well as from above. It
has some organic matter in it, although the mineral matter is noticeably weathered. ‘Horizon C’
is composed of the loose parent material. This layer is the first stage in the soil formation
process and eventually forms the above two layers. Underneath these three horizons is the
rock which is also known as the parent rock or the bedrock.
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Student Notes:
Figure 23 – cross section of Soil profile along a tree
SOIL FORMING FACTORS

There are five main factors which controls the operation of soil processes, namely (i) parent
material; (ii) topography; (iii) climate; (iv)biological activity; and (v) time. Climate and biological
activity active control factors while Time, Topography and Parent Material are passive control
factors. Active factors are those which supply energy that acts on the mass for the purpose of
soil formation.
Parent Material
Parent material can be any in-situ or on-site weathered rock debris or transported deposits.
Soil formation depends upon the texture, structure as well as the mineral and chemical
composition of the rock debris. Nature, rate and depth of weathering are important
considerations under parent materials. There may be differences in soil over similar bedrock
and dissimilar soils above them. Generally young soils or the lowermost horizon shows
similarity with the parent material. Ultimately, parent material’s effect is seen through the
texture and fertility. For instance, soils of limestone area show clear relation with the parent
rock.
Topography
The influence of topography is felt through the amount of exposure of a surface to sunlight,
drainage condition, and slope angle etc. In middle latitudes pole-facing slopes may have slightly
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different soil conditions from equator-facing slopes due to poor exposure to sunlight. Soils on N
hillsides tend to be much better drained than those in valleys, where gleying may take place. Student Notes:
The susceptibility of soil to erosion increases with gradient, and soils on steep slopes are
normally thinner than those on flat sites.
Climate
This factor has a major influence in governing the rate and type of soil formation, particularly
through precipitation in terms of its intensity, frequency, duration; and temperature in terms of
seasonal and diurnal variations. The effect of temperature is to influence the rate of chemical
and biological reactions. In cool climates, bacterial action is relatively slow while in tropics,
bacteria thrive. Soil of hot tropical region show deeper profiles as compared to soils of cold
tundra region. Although the leaf fall in tropical forest is great, much of this is consumed and
translocated down the soil profile. This is the reason why soil in tropical forests is poor in
nutrients. It is the net precipitation (after subtracting evapo transpiration) that works on the
soil.
Biological Activity
The vegetative cover and organism that occupy the parent materials from the start to later
stages help in adding organic matter, moisture retention, nitrogen (nitrogen fixation by
bacterias such as Rhizobium) etc. Dead plants provide humus. Some organic acids which form
during humification aid in decomposing the minerals of the soil parent materials. Humus
accumulates in cold climate as bacterial growth is low and thus layers of peat develop in sub-
arctic and tundra climates.
The organisms affecting soil development range from microscopic bacteria to large mammals,
including man. Besides providing much of the humus, vegetation influences the soil in several
other ways. By intercepting direct rainfall and binding the soil with roots, plants check soil
erosion. They counteract percolation by transpiration, reducing the effectiveness of the rainfall.
They also help in maintaining the fertility of soil by brining bases (calcium, Magnesium) from
the lower parts of the soil into stems and leaves, and then releasing them into the upper soil
horizons. A change in vegetation may cause a change in soil.
The influence of animals on soils is both mechanical and chemical. For example, earthworms
rework the soil by burrowing and also change its texture and chemical composition by passing
it through their digestive systems. Equally, soil characteristics closely determine the type of
animal present in the soil.
Time
Generally, the length of time the soil forming processes operate, determines maturation of
soils and profile development. However, it is difficult to be precise about the role of time in soil
formation, since soils vary greatly in their rates of development. On porous materials such as
sandstones, soil formation is much more rapid than on impermeable materials, at least initially.
On glacial hills, a few hundred years may be enough to form a soil; on dense basalt very much
longer is likely to be required. Renewed evolution takes place in soils when climate or other
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factors change, causing the soil to adjust. In practice, many soils in mid-latitude regions are N
polycyclic. Student Notes:
SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Soil is not found same everywhere. A soil of one place is different from that of the other. Early
classifications followed biological principles to group soils. One of the most important
classifications of soils has been the zonal system. This was proposed by Russian pedologists
who recognized the strong relationship between climate, vegetation and soil zones throughout
the world. Three main classes of soil are recognized.
Zonal soils are those that are well developed and reflect the influence of climate as the major
soil-forming factor. They can be subdivided into podzol soils, Tundra soils, brown earth,
Ferralsol, Chernozem, Chestnut and Prairie soils. Sierozem of desertic and semi-desertic areas
is extreme form of chestnut.
Intrazonal types are well-developed soils formed where some local factor such as parent
material, terrain or age is dominant. They can be subdivided into Calcimorphic soil(on
calcareous parent material), Halomorphic soils(saline), and Hydromorphic soil (marshes,
swamps or poorly drained upland).
Azonal soils are those that are immature or poorly developed. It lacks a B-horizon. Thus, A-
horizon likes immediately above the C-horizon of weathered parent material. This may
happened because of characteristics of parent material or nature of terrain or simply the lack
of time for development. It is commonplace on active flood plains, volcanic soils, newly
deposited glacial drift, windblown sand, marine mud-flats. Azonal soils are subdivided into
Lithosol (erosion removes soil almost as fast as it is formed on steep slopes), Regosol (dry and
loose dune sands) and alluvial soils(regular supply of sediments).
SOIL CLASSIFICATION IN INDIA

In ancient times, soils used to be classified into two main groups – Urvara and Usara, which
were fertile and sterile, respectively. The National Bureau of Soil Survey and the Land Use
Planning an Institute under the control of the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) did
a lot of studies on Indian soils. ICAR has classified Indian soils into eight types on the basis of
their formation, colour, composition and location. These are described shortly below.
 Alluvial Soil – it is formed by rivers by depositing sediments brought from the

mountains. The new alluvium is called Khadar while older deposited one is called
Bangar. Khadar is renewed annually with fresh floods. Alluvial soils are most
widespread in the northern plains and the covers about 40 per cent of the total area of
the country. Through a narrow corridor in Rajasthan, they extend into the plains of
Gujarat. In the Peninsular region, they are found in deltas of the east coast and in the
river valleys. These soils are more loamy and clayey in the lower and middle Ganga
plain and the Brahamaputra valley. The sand content decreases from the west to east.
They are generally rich in potash but poor in phosphorous. Alluvial soils are intensively
cultivated.
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 Black Soil – it is formed from the volcanic lava. On account of high iron content and N
humus it is of black colour. It is also known as the Regur soil or black cotton soil. It Student Notes:
covers most of the Deccan Plateau. In the upper reaches of the Godavari and the
Krishna, and the north western part of the Deccan Plateau, the black soil is very deep.
Black soil is spread over 5.18 lakh sqkm area of the country. These soils are known for
their ‘self ploughing’ nature. The black soils are generally clayey, deep and
impermeable. They swell and become sticky when wet and shrink when dried. So,
during the dry season, these soils develop wide cracks. the black soil retains the
moisture for a very long time, which helps the crops, especially, the rain fed ones, to
sustain even during the dry season.
 Red and Yellow Soil – it is formed from weathering of crystalline granite (igneous
rocks) and gneiss (metamorphic rocks) in areas of low rainfall in the eastern and
southern part of the Deccan plateau. Along the piedmont zone of the Western Ghat,
long stretch of area is occupied by red loamy soil. The soil develops a reddish colour
due to a wide diffusion of iron in crystalline and metamorphic rocks. It looks yellow
when it occurs in a hydrated form. They are generally rich in minerals like Iron, lime
and potash but poor in nitrogen, phosphorous and humus.
 Laterite Soil – it is formed under specific monsoon conditions of climate. The dry
season after rainfall is one of the speciality of monsoon climate. Under such conditions,
leaching of soils is accelerated. This process reduces the silica content of rocks in soils
leaving the soil rich in iron and aluminum content. Humus content of the soil is
removed fast by bacteria that thrive well in high temperature. These soils are poor in
organic matter, nitrogen, phosphate and calcium, while iron oxide and potash are in
excess. Hence, laterites are not suitable for cultivation; however, application of
manures and fertilizers are required for making the soils fertile for cultivation. Red
laterite soils in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Kerala are more suitable for tree crops
like cashewnut. Laterite soils are widely cut as bricks for use in house construction.
 Arid Soil – in the deserts, accelerated weathering of rocks take place on account of
heating during day and cooling during night. In this type of soil mainly sand grains are
found with little or no humus. In some areas, the salt content is so high that common
salt is obtained by evaporating the saline water. It has also less capacity to hold
moisture. Its colour varies from red to brown. Nitrogen is insufficient and the
phosphate content is normal. Arid soils are characteristically developed in western
Rajasthan and semi-arid type in southern Punjab and Haryana.
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Student Notes:
Figure 24 – Major Soil types of India
 Forest Soil – it is formed in the mountain ranges of Himalayas, Purvanchal, Sahaydri

etc. where sufficient rainfall is available. Soil is loamy and silty on valley sides and
coarse-grained in the upper slopes. The lower valleys soil is fertile. On steep slopes, soil
is very thin and less productive. This soil is spread over approximately 3 lakh sqkm area
of the country.
 Saline Soil or Usara Soil – it contain a larger proportion of sodium, potassium and
magnesium, and thus, they are infertile, and do not support any vegetative growth.
They have more salts, largely because of dry climate and poor drainage. Their structure
ranges from sandy to loamy. They lack in nitrogen and calcium. They are found in arid
and semi-arid regions, western Gujarat, deltas of the eastern coast and in Sunderban
areas of West Bengal. Seawater intrusions in the deltas promote the occurrence of
saline soils. In the areas of intensive cultivation with excessive use of irrigation,
especially in areas of green revolution, the fertile alluvial soils are becoming saline. In
such areas, especially in Punjab and Haryana, farmers are advised to add gypsum to
solve the problem of salinity in the soil.
 Peaty and Marshy Soil – it is found in areas of heavy rainfall and high humidity such as
Kerala, Odisha, Bengal, Coastal areas of Tamil Nadu. Large quantity of dead organic
matter accumulates in these areas, and this gives a rich humus and organic content to
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the soil. Organic matter in these soils may go even up to 40-50 per cent. The vegetation N
grows very dense in these areas. At many places, they are alkaline also due to presence Student Notes:
of salt.
SOIL DEGRADATION
In simple terms, soil degradation is defined as the decline in the soil quality or the soil fertility.
It can happen either by declining share of nutrients or low population of micro-organism in the
soil such as earthworms or change in soil structure or change in pH (alkinity) or addition of toxic
elements and pollutants etc. For instance, animals walking on the land or human removing
upper layers of soil may results into soil degradation. Soil degradation is the main factor leading
to the depleting soil resource base in India. The degree of soil degradation varies from region to
region according to the topography, wind, precipitation and anthropogenic factors. Soil
degradation includes soil erosion, physical deterioration, chemical deterioration and biological
deterioration.
SOIL EROSION
It is the removal of soil at a greater rate than its replacement by natural agencies. Soil forming
and erosional processes go on simultaneously. When the balance between these two different
processes is disturbed by natural or human factors, result into net removal of soil. Some soil
erosion occurs without the intervention of human activities but the latter often accelerates the
natural processes, e.g. vegetation clearance, over-grazing, some land-drainage schemes.
Problem of soil erosion increases with pressure of increasing population on the land. Natural
vegetation is cleared for agricultural, pastoral and construction activities.
Topography, rainfall, wind, lack of vegetation cover, land use practices etc. are the causes of
soil erosion. The rugged topography and steep slopes affect soil erosion rate through its
morphological characteristics. Two of these, namely gradient and slope length, are essential
components in quantitative relationships for estimating soil loss. Erosion increases dramatically
because the increased angle facilitates water flow and soil movement.
Two main elements of climate – wind and rainfall – are powerful agents of soil erosion. Erosive
processes are set in motion by the energy transmitted from either rainfall or wind or a
combination of these forces. Wind erosion is significant in arid and semi-arid regions. Regions
with heavy rainfall have dominance of water in erosional processes. Removal may be in the
form of splash erosion, Sheet wash, Rill erosion, gullying erosion (figure 25). Splash erosion is
the first stage in soil erosion and it occurs when raindrop hit bare soil. Sheet erosion, takes
place on level of lands after a heavy shower, removes finer and fertile top soil. Gullies cut the
agricultural lands into small fragments and make them unfit for cultivation. Chambal region of
central India is infamous for its ravines (large number of deep gullies).
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Student Notes:
Figure 25 – Gully erosion
The lowest soil erosion rate is found in undisturbed forests. However, once forest land is
converted to agriculture, erosion rates increase because of vegetation removal, over-grazing,
and tilling. Vegetation cover reduces erosion. Living and dead plant biomass reduces soil
erosion by intercepting and dissipating raindrops and wind energy. Plant roots physically bind
particles, thus stabilising the soil and increasing its resistance to erosion. The uptake of water
by plant roots also depletes the soil water content and thereby further increases infiltration
rates.
Land use practices such as agricultural and pastoral activities are causes of soil erosion.
Croplands are vulnerable because the soil is repeatedly tilled and left without a protective
cover of vegetation. Excessive grazing by animals lead to poor vegetation cover and thus,
enhances wind and water-led soil erosion processes. Over-irrigation results into removal of top
nutrient soil with excess water. It also brings salts to the surface and destroys fertility. Without
proper humus, addition of chemical fertilizer hardens the soil.
SOIL MANAGEMENT
Soil management is not a single and straight process. It concerns all operations, practices that
are used to maintain the quality of soil. If soil erosion and exhaustion are caused by humans; by
corollary, they can also be prevented by humans. Soil erosion is essentially aggravated by faulty
practices. For instance, recommended ratio of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium (NPK)
fertilizer in India is 4:2:1 but actual usage is in the ration of 10:4:1. Lands with a slope gradient
of 15 - 25 per cent should not be used for cultivation. If at all the land is to be used for
agriculture, terraces should carefully be made.
Over-grazing and shifting cultivation are other major faulty practices. It should be regulated
and controlled by villagers collectively. Contour bunding, Contour terracing, check dams,
regulated forestry, cover cropping, mixed farming and crop rotation are some other sustainable
methods to manage soil quality. In arid and semi-arid areas, shelter belts or green belts should
be constructed around the cultivable land to protect them from progressive sand dunes.
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Student Notes:
Figure 26 – soil management techniques
The Central Soil Conservation Board, set up by the Government of India, has prepared a
number of plans for soil conservation in different parts of the country. These plans are based
on the climatic conditions, configuration of land and the social behaviour of people.
Centrally sponsored scheme entitled “National project on management of soil health and
fertility (NPMSF)” has been formulated by the centre in 2008-09. It aims to facilitate and
promote Integrated Nutrient Management (INM) through judicious use of chemical fertilizers in
conjunction with organic fertilizers. It also aims to strengthen soil testing facilities by installing
more soil testing laboratories. One of the components is to build up capacity through training
of farmers and field demonstration etc. Project also envisages preparing database for balanced
use of fertilizer, which is site specific. Other project/missions such as National Mission on
Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA), National project on promotion of organic farming, Mahatma
Gandhi national rural employment guarantee act (MGNREGA), soil and land use survey projects
of centre etc. have bearing on managing the quality of soil.

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VISIONIAS ™
www.visionias.in
GEOGRAPHY: 9
COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE
Contents:
1. Composition of the Atmosphere
1.1 Gases
1.2 Water Vapour
1.3 Dust Particles
1.4 Changes in the Atmosphere
1.4.1 Air Pollution
1.4.2 Global Warming
1.4.3 Ozone Depletion
1.4.4 Ozone Pollution
2. Structure of the Atmosphere
2.1 Troposphere
2.2 Stratosphere
2.3 Mesosphere
2.4 Thermosphere
2.5 Exosphere


Composition of the Atmosphere N

Student Notes:
In general, atmosphere is a layer of gases and dust surrounding a planet that is held in place by
the gravity of the planet body. An atmosphere is more likely to be retained if the gravity is high
and the atmosphere's temperature is low. In fact, earth’s atmosphere makes earth unique in
the solar system. Planet Earth’s atmosphere is best suitable for life and thus, it is important to
understand the composition as well as structure of it. In this context, man has started studying
the atmosphere thousands of years before. The Rig Vedic verses have mention of Monsoon,
seasons etc.
Earth’s atmosphere is composed of gases, water vapours and dust particles. Although other
important properties of the atmosphere such as temperature and pressure, can vary
considerably in both time and space, its composition in terms of the relative proportions of the
gases present in any unit volume, tends to remain remarkably constant. Thus, the atmosphere
generally tends to act very much as a single gas, which we commonly known as ‘air’. The
horizontal variation in the per cent share of these components of atmosphere has less variation
as compare to vertical variation.
Gases
The main component gases of dry air are listed in Table 1. It should be noticed that nitrogen
and oxygen together make up about 99 per cent of the volume, and that the other one per cent
is chiefly Argon. Other gases such as Methane, Ozone are found in traces.
Constituent gas Percentage volume
Nitrogen 78.08
Oxygen 20.95
Argon 0.93
Carbon dioxide 0.036
Neon 0.002
Helium 0.0005
Krypton 0.001
Xenon 0.00009
Hydrogen 0.00005
Table 1 – Average composition of dry air
Nitrogen does not easily enter into chemical union with other substances, but it is an important
constituent of many organic compounds. Atmospheric nitrogen acts as a reservoir pool for
nitrogen cycle. Nitrogen fixing organisms such as Rhizobium use free nitrogen of the
atmosphere to convert it to usable form such as nitrates.
Oxygen is an important part of the atmosphere and is necessary to sustain terrestrial life as it is
used in respiration. It is also used in combustion. It is believed that first oceans got saturated
with oxygen and after that it started flowing into the atmosphere. Source of oxygen is plants
with photosynthesis. Mountain climbers sometime require oxygen cylinders due to low
concentration of oxygen at greater heights.
Argon is an inert gas. Argon extracted from the atmosphere is used for industrial purposes such
as bulb manufacturing, welding equipments etc.
Carbon dioxide is released from the earth’s interior, respiration, soil processes, deforestation,
and combustion. Carbon dioxide is meteorologically a very important gas as it is transparent to
the incoming solar radiation but opaque to outgoing terrestrial radiations. It absorbs a part of
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terrestrial radiation and reflects back some part of it towards the earth’s surface. It is largely N
responsible for the greenhouse effect. Student Notes:
Ozone is another important constituent of atmosphere. Ozone is made up of three atoms of
oxygen when three molecules of oxygen gas convert into two molecules of Ozone using sun’s
high energy radiations. It is found in very small quantity (0.00005 per cent by volume) in the
upper atmosphere, 15-50km above the earth’s surface. Maximum concentration is found at the
height of 15-35km. It protects the life on earth by absorbing ultra-violet rays radiating from the
sun and prevents them from reaching the surface of the earth. In the absence of the ozone
layer, high energy ultra-violet rays would have made earth unfit for habitation.
Water Vapour
Table 1 refers to the average constituents of dry air. The lower parts of the atmosphere, up to
10-15 km, contain in addition water vapour, which is largely derived by evaporation from water
bodies on the earth and by transpiration from plants. It is one of the ‘most variable’
components of the atmosphere. It decreases with altitude and not found at great heights
because mixing and turbulence is not sufficiently strong to carry it up very far. In the warm and
wet tropics, it may account for 4% of the air by volume, while in the dry and cold areas of
desert and polar regions, it may be less than 1% of the air. Water vapour also decreases from
the equator towards the poles.
Water vapour, too, is capable of absorbing heat and acts like a blanket allowing the earth
neither to become too cold nor too hot. Water vapour is fundamental to many essential
meteorological processes, such as rain-making. It is source of all clouds and precipitation. In the
condensation process, vast amount of energy is released in form latent heat of condensation,
ultimate driving force for most of the storms.
The actual amount of the water vapour present in the atmosphere is known as the absolute
humidity. It is the weight of water vapour per unit volume of air. The absolute humidity differs
from place to place on the surface of the earth. The percentage of moisture present in the
atmosphere as compared to its full capacity at a given temperature is known as the relative
humidity. It is greater over the oceans and least over the continents. The air containing
moisture to its full capacity at a given temperature is said to be saturated. Moisture holding
capacity of the air is directly proportional to its temperature.
Dust Particles
The atmosphere also carries in suspension variable amounts of solid material in the lower
layers of atmosphere. Convectional air currents may transport them to great heights. The
higher concentration of dust particles is found in subtropical and temperate regions due to dry
winds in comparison to equatorial and polar regions. The term ‘dust particles’ includes all the
solid particles present in the air except the gases and water vapour. It includes sea salts, fine
soil, smoke-soot, ash, pollen, dust and disintegrated particles of meteors and originates from
different sources.
Dust particles provide the necessary nuclei on which water vapour can condense to form
clouds and eventually precipitation. Condensation on these fine particles near the surface
causes formation of fog. Large amount of dust tend to make the atmosphere hazy, and in
extreme cases, where pollution is involved, dust particles can be positively harmful to health.
By the process of scattering, dust particles contribute to the varied colours of red and orange
at sunrise and sunset. The blue colour of the sky is also due to selective scattering by dust
particles. The duration of twilight is also affected by the presence of these dust particles in the
air.
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Changes in the Atmosphere N

Student Notes:
Since industrial revolution, human activities have caused various changes into earth’s
atmosphere. We look at four very different atmospheric changes here.
Air Pollution
Air pollution is the introduction of chemicals, particulates, biological materials or other harmful
materials into the earth’s atmosphere. These pollutants can be solid particles, liquid, and gases.
Major pollutants are carbon oxides (COx), Nitrous Oxides (NOx), Volatile organic compounds,
particulates, sulphur dioxide, Toxic metals such as lead and mercury etc. Many of these are
new compounds in the atmosphere which have changed the composition to negligible level but
their presence throws challenges for humans. It causes damage, disease and death of humans
and other living organisms or infrastructure. Air pollution causes respiratory infections, heart
disease, and lung cancer etc. Major sources of these pollutants involves vehicular emission,
power plants, industries, waste incinerators, agricultural practices, fumes, waste deposition
etc.
Acid rain is the result of increased pollutants in the atmosphere. Rain water is naturally acidic
due to atmospheric carbon dioxide which makes weak acid with rain water. Acid rain is caused
by other gases released when fossil fuels are burnt. Two gases are the main culprits: Sulphur
dioxide (forms sulphuric acid) and Nitrogen oxides (forms nitric acid). These increase the
acidity of rainwater. The dilute acid falls to ground as acid rain which causes the following
problems:
 Lakes become acidic and plants and fishes die as a result
 Tree growth is damaged, whole forests can die as a result
 Acid rain attacks metal structures and also buildings made of limestone
Global Warming
In very cold regions, glass houses are constructed for growing vegetables. These are known as
Greenhouses. In these houses, glass covering allows short wavelength sunrays to enter but
does not allow it to be radiated back to atmosphere. At atmospheric level, the greenhouse
gases do not allow thermal radiation from a planetary surface (long waves) to pass and re-
radiate them in all directions. Since part of this re-radiation is back towards the surface and the
lower atmosphere, it results in an elevation of the average surface temperature above what it
would be in the absence of the gases. Major greenhouse gases are: carbon dioxide, methane,
nitrous oxide, water vapour and Ozone.
With increase in the percentage of greenhouse gases, it is believed that temperature of earth is
increasing dramatically. This is termed as global warming. Main contributor for this rise in
temperature is carbon dioxide (CO2). The scientists have observed that CO2 is largely
contributed from burning of fossil fuels. The burning of fossil fuels and extensive clearing of
native forests has contributed to a 40% increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon
dioxide, from 280 to 392 parts per million (ppm) in 2012.
Other gases such as Methane, water vapour, Nitrous oxide, Hydroflurocarbons (HFCs),
Perflurocarbons (PFCs), Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) are playing considerable role in global
warming. SF6, PFCs etc. are present only in traces but their life span and greenhouse potency is
very high. For instance, SF6 is the most potent greenhouse gas in existence. With a global
warming potential 23,900 times greater than carbon dioxide, one pound of SF6 has the same
global warming impact of 11 tons of carbon dioxide. It is also very persistent in the atmosphere
with a lifetime of 3,200 years. SF6 is widely used in circuit breakers, gas-insulated substations,
and other switchgear to manage the high voltages.
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Global warming would adversely affect the ecosystem on the Earth and the weather patterns N
around the world in the following ways: Student Notes:
 Melting of ice at polar regions and glaciers on high mountains. It would increase the
sea level.
 Many climatic and weather events are expected to change drastically. Recent examples
of extreme temperature, precipitation are associated with the global warming.
 Global warming would change the habitats of organism. Those unable to adjust to
these rapid changes may not be able to survive.
Ozone Depletion
The release of chemical compounds such as Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) from earth into the
atmosphere poses a serious threat to ozone layer. CFCs are synthetic industrial chemical
compounds containing chlorine, fluorine, and carbon atoms. CFCs are widely used as cooling
fluids in the refrigerating systems. CFCs when released in air are transported by the vertical
atmospheric circulation and reach the ozone layer in the stratosphere. The CFCs absorb the
ultra-violet radiation and decompose to chlorine oxide molecules and can convert the ozone
into ordinary oxygen molecules. A study of the ozone layer based on data provided by the
satellites, showed a substantial decline in the total ozone gas. The scientists have discovered a
hole in the ozone layer over the continent of Antarctica. CFCs are transported to Antarctica
region by atmospheric wind systems. Here, CFCs get trapped in the Antarctica cold air by polar
vortex1 and deplete ozone layer.
Ozone Pollution
Ozone occurs at ground-level naturally in low concentrations. The two major sources of natural
ground-level ozone are hydrocarbons, which are released by plants and soil, and small amounts
of stratospheric ozone, which occasionally migrate down to the earth's surface. Neither of
these sources contributes enough ozone to be considered a threat to the health of humans or
the environment. But the ozone that is a byproduct of certain human activities does become a
problem at ground level. With more automobiles, and more industry, there's more ozone in the
lower atmosphere. Tropospheric ozone is formed by the interaction of sunlight, particularly
ultraviolet light, with hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides, which are emitted by automobiles,
gasoline vapors, fossil fuel power plants, refineries, and certain other industries.
High ozone levels usually occur during the warm, sunny summer months (from May through
September). Typically, ozone levels reach their peak in mid to late afternoon. A hot, sunny, still
day is the perfect environment for ozone pollution production.
Near the earth’s surface, ozone molecules damages forests and crops; destroys nylon, rubber,
and other materials; and injures or destroys living tissue. It is a particular threat to people who
already have respiratory problems.
Structure of the Atmosphere

It is the lower part of the atmosphere which has interested man from times immemorial. But
from the beginning of the 20th century, when aeroplanes and radio waves were invented, the
knowledge of the upper part of the atmosphere became rather essential. The earth’s
atmosphere consists of zones or layers arranged like spherical shells according to altitude
above earth’s surface. Each zone has a unique set of characteristics. For the most part the
layers are not at all sharply defined, and their boundaries are arbitrarily established. The
1
The stratospheric polar vortex is a large-scale region of air that is contained by a strong west-to-east jet
stream that circles the polar region.
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density, temperature and composition of the atmosphere varies with altitude. Density is N
highest near the surface of the earth and decreases with increasing altitude. The temperature Student Notes:
changes differently in different layers. Heavy gases such as Oxygen exist near the surface. At
greater heights, the lightest gases do in fact separate out, forming several concentric gas
envelopes around the Earth.
The atmosphere is divided into the five different layers depending upon the temperature
condition. They are: troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere and exosphere.
Troposphere
Troposphere is the lowermost layer of the atmosphere. Its average height is 13 km and extends
roughly to a height of 8 km near the poles and about 18 km at the equator. It is thickest at the
equator because strong convection currents transport heat to such great heights. It contains 75
per cent of the total gaseous mass of the atmosphere. This layer contains dust particles and
water vapour also. The temperature in this layer decreases at the rate of 1°C for every 165m of
height (or at a mean rate of 6.5 degree C /km).The decrease occurs because air is compressible
and its density decreases with height allowing rising air to expand and thereby cool. It is
interesting to note that the lowest temperature in the entire troposphere is found over the
equator and not at the poles. The air temperature at the top of troposphere is about minus
800C over the equator and about minus 450C over the poles.
Word ‘troposphere’ is derived from the Greek word ‘tropos’ meaning ‘mixing’. Troposphere is
marked by turbulence and eddies. It is also called the convective region, for all the convective
cease at the upper limit of the troposphere. All changes in climate and weather take place in
this layer. Clouds formation, thunderstorms etc. occur in this layer. Wind velocity increase with
height and attain the maximum at the top.
At the top of the troposphere there is a shallow layer separating it from the next thermal layer
of the atmosphere. This shallow layer is known as the tropopause. Tropopause has its greatest
height near the equator. In the middle and high latitudes, the height of the tropopause varies
according to seasons. For example, at latitudes 45N&S the average height of the tropopause in
January is about 12.5 km while in July it becomes 15 km.
Figure 1 – Structure of atmosphere on the basis of temperature
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Stratosphere N
Student Notes:
The stratosphere is found above the tropopause and extends up to a height of 50 km. The
lower stratosphere is isothermal in character. This temperature region is found to be present
up to about 20 km and after this temperature rises. In summers, the increase in the
stratospheric temperature with latitudes continues upto the poles. But during the winter
season the stratosphere is warmest between latitudes 500 – 600. Onwards, temperature
decreases again. The thickness of the stratosphere is highest at the poles.
This layer is free of any clouds of weather changes. It is an ideal place for flying of big planes. At
about 50 km, temperature begins to fall. This is end of stratosphere, and is called the
stratopause.
The portion of the stratosphere having maximum concentration of ozone is called
ozonosphere. The rise in temperature with height in stratosphere is because of the absorption
of ultra-violet by the ozone gas. Details of ozone gas are already discussed above.
Mesosphere
The mesosphere lies above the stratopause, and extends up to a height of 80 km from 50km. In
this layer, once again, temperature starts decreasing with the increase in altitude and reaches
up to minus 100° C at the height of 80 km. It is the coldest layer in the atmosphere. The exact
upper and lower boundaries of the mesosphere vary with latitude and with season, but the
lower boundary of the mesosphere is usually located at heights of about 50 km above the
Earth's surface and the mesopause is usually at heights near 100 km. In summers, the height of
mesosphere descends down to 85km at middle and high latitudes. The upper limit of
mesosphere is known as the mesopause.
Thermosphere
The thermosphere is located between 80 and 400 km above the mesopause. In this layer the
temperature increases rapidly with increase in height. It is estimated that the temperature
reaches 1500 degree C. The air is so thin that a small increase in energy can cause a large
increase in temperature. Because of the thin air in the thermosphere, scientists can't measure
the temperature directly. They measure the density of the air by how much drag it puts on
satellites and then use the density to find the temperature.
The Earth's thermosphere also includes the region called the ionosphere. It contains electrically
charged particles known as ions, and hence, it is known as ionosphere. Ionization of molecules
and atoms occurs mainly as a result of ultra-violet, x-rays and gamma radiations. The high
temperatures in the thermosphere also cause molecules to ionize. This is why an ionosphere
and thermosphere can overlap.
Radio waves transmitted from the earth are reflected back to the earth by this layer. This layer
also protects the earth from meteorites and remains of abandoned satellites. They are burned
and reduced to ashes due to high temperature as they enter this layer.
Ionosphere also includes some parts of mesosphere and exosphere. Ionosphere is further
divided into different layers, namely D-layer (upto 99km), E-layer (90-130km), Sporadic E-Layer,
F1 & F2 layer (150-380km) and G-layer (>400km). Layers such as D-layer, E-layer, exist only
during day time and vanishes as soon as sun sets.
Exosphere
The uppermost layer of the atmosphere above the thermosphere is known as the exosphere.
This is the highest layer but very little is known about it. It lies beyond 400km to 1000s of kms
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where it merges with outer space. At such great height the density of atoms is extremely low. It N
is largely home to Helium and Hydrogen. Temperature increases with height and may cross Student Notes:
50000C.
Stratification of atmosphere can also be done on the basis of chemical composition. According
to International Space Symposium 1962, atmosphere can be divided into two broad layers,
namely Homosphere and Heterosphere. Former is the lower layer and extends up to 88km
from the earth’s surface. The proportions of the component gases are uniform at different
levels. The three main-sub divisions of Homosphere are troposphere, stratosphere and
mesosphere. Heterosphere extends beyond 88 km to more than 3500 km. Here, atmosphere is
not uniform in its composition. It is also referred to as thermosphere as temperature rises with
height. In this sphere, gases are arranged in roughly spherical shells. The innermost of these is a
Nitrogen layer, found at heights between 100 and 200km; this is succeeded in turn by layers of
Oxygen (200-1100km) and Helium (1100-3500km); and finally beyond 3500km only Hydrogen
exists.

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VISIONIAS ™
www.visionias.in
GEOGRAPHY: 10
INSOLATION, EARTH’S HEAT BALANCE, DIFFERENT ATMOSPHERIC

CIRCULATIONS – GLOBAL WINDS, CYCLONES
Contents:
1. Insolation
1.1 Factors influencing Insolation

1.2 Heating and Colling of the Atmosphere
2. Heat Budget
2.1 Latitudinal Heat Balance
3. Temperature
3.1 Distribution of Temperature

3.2 Temperature Anomaly
3.3 Temperature Inversion
3.4 Temperature Ranges
4. Atmospheric Circulation
4.1 Atmospheric Pressure

4.2 Pressure Variations
4.3 Forces Governing Air Movement
4.3.1 Pressure Gradient
4.3.2 Coriolis Force
4.3.3 Centripetal Force
4.3.4 Frictional Force
4.4 Geostrophic Wind
4.5 Distribution of Pressure Belts
4.6 Shifting of Belts
4.7 General Circulation of the Atmosphere
4.7.1 Planetary Winds
4.8 Local Winds
4.8.1 The Land and sea Breeze
4.8.2 The Mountain and Valley Breezes
4.8.3 Hot Local Winds
4.8.4 Cold Local Winds
4.9 Upper Air Circulation
4.9.1 Jet Streams

4.9.2 Index Cycle of the Jet Streams

4.9.3 Jet Streams and Surface Weather
5. Air Mass
6. Fronts
6.1 Warm Front

6.2 Cold Front
6.3 Stationary Front
6.4 Occluded Front
7. Cyclones
7.1 Extra-Tropical Cyclones

7.2 Tropical Cyclones
7.3 Thunderstorms and Tornadoes


N
Student Notes:
Insolation
The earth’s atmosphere is very much a dynamic entity. Large volumes of air are continually
being moved both up and down and across the face of the Earth. As a proof, we feel air when it
is in motion. There must be some energy involved here. It needs to be understood that the
atmosphere is not a closed system. It is in contact with both the earth and with space, and
receives energy from both directions. However, Earth itself directly contributes only a
negligible amount of energy to the atmosphere, and its main role is to reflect energy from
elsewhere. The ultimate sole source of atmospheric energy is in fact heat and light received
through space from the Sun. This energy is known as solar insolation.
The Earth receives only a tiny fraction of the total amount of Sun’s radiations. Only two
billionths or two units of energy out of 1,00,00,00,000 units of energy radiated by the sun
reaches the earth’s surface due to its small size and great distance from the Sun. The unit of
measurements of this energy is Langley (Ly). On an average the earth receives 1.94 calories per
sq. cm per minute (2 Langley) at the top of its atmosphere.
Factors Influencing Insolation

The insolation received on earth is not same everywhere. The amount and the intensity of
insolation vary from place to place, during a day, in a season and in a year. The factors that
cause these variations in insolation are:
1. Revolution of earth around sun – earth revolves in an elliptical orbit around the sun.
Thus, distance between the Sun and the earth vary. The earth is farthest from the sun
on 4th July. This position of the earth is called aphelion. On 3rd January, the earth is
the nearest to the sun. This position is called perihelion. Therefore, the annual
insolation received by the earth at perihelion is slightly more than the amount received
at aphelion. However, the effect of this variation in the solar output is masked by other
factors like the distribution of land and sea and the atmospheric circulation. Hence, this
variation in the insolation does not have great effect on daily weather changes on the
surface of the earth.
2. The rotation of earth on its axis – earth rotates around its axis and makes an angle of
66½ with the plane of its orbit round the sun. This particular characteristic of earth has
great amount of influence on the amount of insolation received at different latitudes.
The seasons in each hemisphere are dictated not by the closeness to the sun but by the
axial tilt of the earth.
3. The angle of inclination of the sun’s rays – Since the earth is round, the sun’s rays strike
the surface at different angles at different places. The angle formed by the sun’s ray
with the tangent of the earth’s circle at a point is called angle of incidence. It influences
the insolation in two ways as follows:
 When the sun is almost overhead, the rays of the sun are vertical. The angle of
incidence is large. Hence, they are concentrated in a smaller area, giving more
amount of insolation at that place. If the sun’s rays are oblique, angle of incidence
is small and sun’s rays have to heat up a greater area, resulting in less amount of
insolation received there.
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N
Student Notes:
Figure 1 – effect of angle of inclination on Insolation

 The sun’s rays with small angle traverse more of the atmosphere than rays striking
at a large angle. Longer the path of sun’s rays, greater is the amount of reflection
and absorption of heat by atmosphere. As a result the intensity of insolation at a
place is less (figure 1). Angle of inclination of solar radiation depends on latitude of
a place. The higher the latitude the less is the angle they make with the surface of
the earth resulting in slant sun rays. Figure 1 show the winter Solstices in the
Northern Hemisphere where angle of inclination is zero at 66 ½ N latitude.
Latitude 0° 20° 40° 60° 90°
December 22 (winter 12h 00m 10h 48m 9h 8m 5h 33m 0m
solstice)
June 21(summer Solstice) 12h 13h 12m 14h 52m 18h 27m 6 months
Table 1 – Length of Day on winter and summer Solstices in the Northern Hemisphere
4. The length of the day – the duration of day is controlled partly by latitude and partly by
the season of the year. The amount of insolation has close relationship with the length
of the day. It is because insolation is received only during the day. Other conditions
remaining the same, the longer the days the greater is the amount of insolation. In
summers, the days being longer the amount of insolation received is also more. As
against this in winter the days are shorter the insolation received is also less. On
account of the inclination of the earth on its axis at an angle of 23 ½ 0, rotation and
revolution, the duration of the day is not same everywhere on the earth. At the
equator there is 12 hours day and night each throughout the year. As one moves
towards poles duration of the days keeps on increasing or decreasing. It is why the
maximum insolation is received in equatorial areas. Table 1 show the duration of day
(in hours & minutes) on winter and summer solstices in the Northern hemisphere.
5. The transparency of the atmosphere – The earth’s atmosphere is more or less

transparent to short wave solar radiation which has to pass through the atmosphere
before striking the earth’s surface. The transparency depends upon cloud cover, its
thickness, water vapour and solid particles, as they reflect, absorb or transmit
insolation. High energy ultra-violet rays are absorbed by the Ozone layer. Thick clouds
hinder the insolation to reach the earth while clear sky helps it to reach the surface.
Water vapour absorbs insolation, resulting in less amount of insolation reaching the
surface. Very small-suspended particles in the troposphere scatter visible spectrum
both to the space and towards the earth surface.
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N
6. Solar variation – It is the change in the amount of radiation emitted by the Sun. These Student Notes:
variations have periodic components, the main one being the approximately 11-
year sunspot cycle. Sunspots are temporary phenomena on the photosphere of
the Sun that appear visibly as dark spots compared to surrounding regions. When there
is an increase in sun spots it leads to increase1 in the amount of solar radiation. But this
change is almost negligible.
Figure 2 – average annual insolation on the surface of the earth

7. Topographical variations – Earth does not have a featureless surface. The topographical
variations are the major factors modifying the distribution of insolation. Variability in
elevation, surface orientation (slope and aspect), and obstruction by surrounding
topographic features creates strong local gradients of insolation. Similarly, in the
northern hemisphere a south-facing slope (more open to sunlight and warm winds) will
therefore generally be warmer and dryer due to higher levels of evapotranspiration
than a north-facing slope.[1] This can be seen in the Swiss Alps, where farming is much
more extensive on south-facing than on north-facing slopes. In the Himalayas, this
effect can be seen to an extreme degree, with south-facing slopes being warm, wet and
forested, and north-facing slopes cold, dry but much more heavily glaciated.
Vegetation, human activities are more visible on the slopes where insolation is more
relatively.
Under combined effect of the above discussed factors, the amount of total annual insolation
received by different regions is different. The insolation received at the surface varies from
about 320 Watt/m2 in the tropics to about 70 Watt/m2 in the poles. Maximum insolation is
received over the subtropical deserts. Equator receives comparatively less insolation than the
tropics due to presence of clouds. Generally, at the same latitude the insolation is more over
the continent than over the oceans because more clouds over the oceans reflect sun rays back
into space. Isohels are lines connecting points on the earth surface that receive equal amounts
of sunshine. Isohels are more or less parallel to latitudes, especially in southern hemisphere
(figure 2).
Heating and Cooling of the Atmosphere

Sun is the ultimate source of the atmospheric heat and energy, but its effect is not direct. For
example, as we climb a mountain or ascend in the atmosphere, temperature become
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steadily lower, rather than higher, as we might expect. This is because the mechanism of N
heating the atmosphere in not simple. Four common types of energy transport are involved Student Notes:
in heating of the atmosphere (figure 3). They are:
i. Radiation – it is the process where transference of heat is directly from space to
atmosphere through electromagnetic radiations2. Photon3 particles in the radiations
collide with the air molecules in the atmosphere and transfer energy in this process. All
objects whether hot or cold emit radiation continuously. The wavelength at which a
body radiates depends on its surface temperature. The shorter the wavelength, higher
the energy carried by the radiations The sun, having an extremely hot surface
temperature, radiates fairly short wavelengths, part of which is felt as warmth, part of
which are visible as light. The Earth, on the other hand, having a cool surface, re-
radiates heat at much longer wavelengths. The re-radiate heat from the earth is called
Terrestrial radiation. Atmosphere is transparent to short waves and opaque to long
waves. The long wave radiation is absorbed by the atmospheric gases particularly by
carbon dioxide and the other green house gases. Hence energy leaving the earth’s
surface heats up the atmosphere more than the incoming solar radiation.
ii. Conduction - When two objects of unequal temperature come in contact with each
other, heat energy flow from the warmer object to the cooler object and this process
of heat transfer is known as conduction. The flow continues till temperature of both
the objects becomes equal or the contact is broken. The conduction in the atmosphere
occurs at zone of contact between the atmosphere and the earth’s surface by
terrestrial radiations. However, this is a minor method of heat transfer in terms of
warming the atmosphere since it only affects the air close to the earth’s surface. This is
because of the fact that the air is poor conductor of heat4.
iii. Convection – In this process, energy is transferred through motion of molecules itself.
The air in contact with the earth rises vertically on heating in the form of currents and
further transmits the heat of the atmosphere. The heating of the air leads to its
expansion. Its density decreases and it moves upwards. Continuous ascent of heated
air creates vacuum in the lower layers of the atmosphere. As a consequence, cooler
air comes down to fill the vacuum. This process of vertical heating of the
atmosphere is known as convection. The convective transfer of energy is confined only
to the troposphere.
Figure 3 – (a) processes of heating and cooling of atmosphere and (b) per cent share of
processes in heating up of atmosphere
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iv. Advection - The transfer of heat through horizontal movement of air is called N
advection. These winds take the characteristics of their source of origin with them. The Student Notes:
temperature of a place will rise if it lies on the path of winds coming from warmer
regions. The temperature will fall if the place lies on the path of the winds blowing
from cold regions. Horizontal movement of the air is relatively more important than
the vertical movement. In summer seasons, ‘Loo’ of north India is a hot wind and
‘Sirocco’ is also a hot wind carries heat of Sahara desert to Mediterranean regions. In
middle latitudes, most of diurnal (day and night) variation in daily weather is caused by
advection alone.
Heat Budget
The average temperature of the earth overall does not change in spite of continuous supply of
sun rays. This is possible only when an equal amount of energy is sent back to space by the
earth’s system. In the way there is balance between incoming solar radiation and outgoing
terrestrial radiations. This balance is known as the heat budget of the earth. Figure 4 depicts
the heat budget of the planet earth. Consider that the insolation received at the top of the
atmosphere is 100 per cent. While passing through the atmosphere some amount of energy is
reflected, scattered and absorbed. Only the remaining part reaches the earth surface.
Roughly 35 units are reflected back to space even before reaching the earth’s surface. The
details of this reflected radiation are as under:
 Reflected from the top of clouds - 27 units
 Reflected by ice-fields on earth - 02 units
 Reflected by the atmosphere - 06 units
Total - 35 units
The reflected amount of radiation is called the albedo of the earth. The above given radiation
does neither heat the atmosphere nor the earth’s surface.
The remaining 65 units are absorbed as:
 Absorbed by the atmosphere - 14 units
 Absorbed by the earth - 51 units (Scattered + direct radiation)
Total - 65 units
Figure 4 – Heat Budget of the Earth
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Scattering takes place by gas molecules and dust particles. This takes place in all directions, N
some of it earthwards and some towards space. In overall, earth receives 51 units of radiation Student Notes:
which in turn radiates back in the form of terrestrial radiation. The details of this reflected
radiation are as under:
 Radiated to space directly - 17 units
 Radiated to atmosphere - 34 units
The details of 34 units radiation absorbed by atmosphere from terrestrial radiations are as
under
 Absorbed directly - 06 units
 Absorbed through convection and turbulence - 09 units
 Absorbed through Latent heat of condensation5 - 19 units
Total - 34 units
Total units absorbed by the atmosphere are 48 (14 units insolation + 34 units Terrestrial
radiation). These are radiated back into space. Thus, the total radiation returning from the
earth and the atmosphere respectively is:
 Radiated back by earth - 17 units
 Radiated back by atmosphere - 48 units
Total - 65 units
These returning 65 units balance the total of 65 units received from the sun. This account of
incoming and outgoing radiation always maintains the balance of heat on the surface of the
earth. This is termed the heat budget or heat balance of the earth.
Figure 5 – heat energy budget by latitudes
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Latitudinal Heat Balance N

Student Notes:
Although the earth as a whole maintains balance between incoming solar radiation and
outgoing terrestrial radiation. But this is not true when we observe at different latitudes. Heat
budget at latitudinal level is non-zero. As previously discussed, the amount of insolation
received is directly related to latitudes. Some part of the earth has surplus radiation balance
while the other part has deficit.
Figure 5 depicts the latitudinal variation in the net radiation balance of the earth — the
atmosphere system. The figure shows that there is a surplus of net radiation balance between
400 N & S degrees and the regions near the poles have a deficit. This in theory should mean
that tropical areas should get steadily warmers, and the Arctic and Antarctic even colder. But
such is not the case. The surplus heat energy from the tropics is redistributed pole wards and
as a result the tropics do not get progressively heated up due to the accumulation of excess
heat or the high latitudes get permanently frozen due to excess deficit. This transfer of surplus
heat from tropics to polar region is being performed by atmospheric and oceanic circulations
such as winds and ocean currents. According to one estimate, about 75 per cent of heat
transfer is carried out by atmospheric circulation and the remaining 25 per cent by the ocean
currents. In fact, winds and ocean currents are produced due to imbalance of heat.
Temperature
The temperature is the measurement in degrees of how hot (or cold) a thing (or a place) is.
The temperature of the atmosphere is not same across the Earth. It varies in spatial and
temporal dimensions. The temperature of a place depends largely on the insolation received by
that place. The interaction of insolation with the atmosphere and the earth’s surface creates
heat which is measured in terms of temperature. It is important to know about the
temperature distribution over the surface of the earth to understand the weather, climate,
vegetation zones, animal and human life etc. following factors determine the temperature of
air at any place.
1. The latitude of the place – Intensity of insolation depends on the latitude. The amount
of insolation depends on the inclination of sun rays, which is further depends upon the
latitude of the place. At the equator sun’s rays fall directly overhead throughout the
year. Away from the equator towards poles, the inclination of the Sun’s rays increases.
In conclusion, if other things remain the same, the temperature of air goes on
decreasing from the equator towards poles.
2. The altitude of the place – the atmosphere is largely heated indirectly by re-radiated
terrestrial radiation from the earth’s surface. Therefore, the lower layers of the
atmosphere are comparatively warmer than the upper layers, even in the same
latitudes. For example, Ambala (30 21’ N) and Shimla (31 6’) are almost at the same
latitude. But the average temperature of shimla is much lower than the Ambala. It is
because Ambala is located in plain at an altitude of 272 m above sea level whereas
Shimla is located at an altitude of 2202 m above sea level. In other words, the
temperature generally decreases with increasing height (figure 6(a)). The rate of
decrease of temperature with height is termed as the normal lapse rate. It is 6.5°C per
1,000 m. That’s why, the mountains, even in the equatorial region, have snow covered
peaks, like Mt. Kilimanjaro, Africa.
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3. Distance from the Sea – the land surface is heated at a faster rate than the water N
surface. Thus the temperature of the air over land and water surfaces is not the same Student Notes:
at a given time. In summers, the sea water is cooler than the land and in winters, land
is much colder than the sea water. The coastal areas experience the sea breezes during
the daytime and the land breezes during the night time. This has a moderating
influence on the temperature of the coastal areas. Against this the places in the
interior, far away from the sea, have extreme climate. The daily range of temperature
is less near the coastal area and it increases with increase in distance from the sea
coast (figure 6(b)). The low daily range of temperature is the characteristic of marine
climate. That’s why, the people of Mumbai have hardly any idea of extremes of
temperature.
(a) – effect of altitude (b) – maritime influence

Figure 6 – effect of altitude & distance from sea on temperature
Figure 7 – (a) effect of ocean currents & (b) effect of slope on temperature
4. Ocean Currents – the effect of warm ocean currents and the cold ocean currents is
limited to the adjoining coastal areas. The warm ocean currents flow along the eastern
coast of tropical and sub-tropical regions and western coast of higher latitudes. On the
other hand, cold ocean currents flow along the eastern coast of higher latitude and
along the western coast of tropical and sub-tropical areas. The North Atlantic drift, an
extension of Gulf Stream, warm the coastal districts of Western Europe (such as
Norway) and British Isles keeping their ports ice-free (figure 7(a)).
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5. Air-mass circulation – air masses in form of winds helps in the redistribution of N

temperature. The places, which come under the influence of warm air-masses Student Notes:
experience higher temperature and the places that come under the influence of cold
air masses experience low temperature. The effect of these winds is, however, limited
to the period during which they blow. Local winds like cold Mistral of France
considerably lower the temperature and Sirocco, a hot wind that blows from Sahara
desert raises the temperature of Italy, Malta etc.
The temperature rises at the time of arrival of temperate cyclones, while it falls sharply
after their passage. Sometimes, local winds can cause sudden change in temperature.
In northern India, ‘Loo’, a local hot wind, raise the temperature to such an extent that
heat waves prolong for several days in continuation and many people die of sunstroke.
6. Slope, Shelter and aspect – slopes of a mountain facing the Sun experiences high
temperature than the slopes on the leeward side due to more insolation (figure 7(b)). A
steep slope experiences a more rapid change in temperature than a gentle one.
Mountain ranges that have an east-west alignment like the Alps show a higher
temperature on the south-facing ‘sunny slope’ than the north facing ‘sheltered slope’.
Consequently, there are more settlements in southern side and it is better utilized for
agricultural and other purposes.
The mountain ranges at certain places stop the cold winds and prevent the
temperature from going down. This is found in areas where mountains lie in the
direction facing the winds as in the case of Himalayas. In the absence of Himalayas,
winters of India would have been very different.
7. Nature of ground surface – the nature of surface in terms of colour, vegetation, soil,
land use, snow cover etc. affects the temperature of a place. In the tropical and
subtropical deserts, the sandy surface record high temperature because they absorb
most of the solar radiations. Snow has very high albedo6 and thus, reflects much of the
insolation without absorption. Thick vegetation (such as Amazon forest) cuts off much
of the in-coming insolation and in many places sunlight never reaches the ground. It is
cool in the jungle and its shade temperature is a few degrees lower than that of open
spaces in corresponding latitudes. Light soils reflect more heat than darker soils. Dry
soils like sands are very sensitive to temperature changes, whereas wet soils, like clay
retain much moisture and warm up more slowly. Urban areas have relatively higher
temperature than the surrounding.
Distribution of Temperature
The global distribution of temperature can well be understood by studying the isotherms. The
Isotherms are lines joining places having equal temperature. As already discussed, latitudes
have pronounced effect on the temperature, the isotherms are generally parallel to the
latitude. The deviation from this general trend is more pronounced in January than in July,
especially in the northern hemisphere. Figure 8 and 9 show the distribution of surface air
temperature in the month of January and July. In the northern hemisphere the land surface
area is much larger than in the southern hemisphere. Hence, the effects of land mass and the
ocean currents are well pronounced. Following are the chief features of isotherms:
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N
Student Notes:
Figure 8 – isotherms in the month of January

 The isotherms are generally parallel to equator. They show successive temperature
decrease towards the poles.
 The rate of change of temperature is indicated by the spacing between isotherms.
Closely drawn isotherms indicate rapid change in temperature and vice-versa.
 The isotherms deviate to the north over the ocean and to the south over the continent
in January. It is for two reasons – warm and cold ocean currents and difference
between the temperature of land and water. For example, the presence of warm ocean
currents, Gulf Stream and North Atlantic drift, make the Northern Atlantic Ocean
warmer and the isotherms bend towards the north. Over the land the temperature
decreases sharply and the isotherms bend towards south in Europe. The mean January
temperature along 60° E longitude is minus 20° C both at 80° N and 50° N latitudes.
 In the southern hemisphere, the isotherms are more or less parallel to the latitudes
due to less landmass and the variation in temperature is more gradual than in the
northern hemisphere. The isotherm of 20° C, 10° C, and 0° C runs parallel to 35° S, 45° S
and 60° S latitudes respectively.
 In July the isotherms generally run parallel to the latitude.
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N
Student Notes:
Figure 9 – isotherms in the month of July
Temperature Anomaly
The difference between the mean temperature of any place and the mean temperature of its
parallels is known as temperature anomaly. On the map the lines joining the places of equal
temperature anomaly are known as Isothermal anomaly lines.
Temperature anomaly could be positive or negative. Due to uneven distribution of land and
water the maximum temperature anomalies are found in the Northern Hemisphere and
minimum in the Southern Hemisphere.
Temperature Inversion
As already discussed, temperature decreases with increase in altitude. In normal conditions, as
we go up, temperature decreases with normal lapse rate. It is 6.5°C per 1,000 m. Against this
normal rule sometimes, instead of decreasing, temperature may rise with the height gained.
The cooler air is nearer the earth and the warmer air is aloft. This rise of temperature with
height is known as Temperature inversion. Temperature inversion takes place under certain
specific conditions. These are discussed below:
 Long winter nights – if in winters the sky is clear during long nights, the terrestrial
radiation is accelerated. The reason is that the land surface gets cooled fairly quickly.
The bottom layer of atmosphere in contact with the ground is also cooled and the
upper layer remains relatively warm.
 Cloudless clear sky – The clouds obstruct the terrestrial radiation. But this radiation
does not face any obstacles for being reflected into space when the sky is clear.
Therefore the ground is cooled quickly and so is the air in contact with it cooled.
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N
Student Notes:
Figure 10 – temperature inversion

 Dry air – humid air absorbs the terrestrial radiation but dry air is no obstruction to
terrestrial radiation and allows the radiation to escape into space.
 Calm atmosphere – the blowing of winds bring warm and cold air into contact. Under
conditions of calm atmosphere the cold air stays put near the ground.
 Ice covered surface – in ice covered areas due to high albedo less insolation is received.
During night due to terrestrial radiation most of the heat is lost to atmosphere and the
surface is cooled. The air in contact with it is also cooled but the upper layer remains
warm.
The stability of the night time temperature inversion is usually destroyed soon after sunrise as
the sun's energy warms the ground, which warms the air in the inversion layer. The warmer,
less dense air then rises, destroying the stability that characterizes the nightly inversion. The
phenomenon of inversion of temperature is especially observed in valleys. During winters the
mountain slopes cool very rapidly due to the quick radiation of heat. The air resting above
them also becomes cold and its density increases. Hence, it moves down the slopes and settles
down in the valleys. This air pushes the comparatively warmer air of valleys upwards and leads
to the phenomenon of inversion of temperature. That is why, apple orchids in Himalayan
region, tea garden of Darjeeling are found in upper slopes of the valleys.
Effect on Humans:
 In cities, impurities present in the atmosphere such as smoke, dust particles and other
pollutants do not go up in the air due to temperature inversion. They form dense fog
near the earth’s surface, especially in winters. It causes problems in breathing. Frost
formed may be harmful for crops in fields.
 At some places, people lit fire or use big blowers to mix hot and cold air in order to
drain off the area of the adverse conditions created by temperature inversion.
 In valleys people make terraced fields in the upper slopes and also settle down there.
Temperature Ranges
Temperature of a place varies within a day and also differs in different seasons. Range of
temperature is the difference between maximum and minimum temperatures. There are two
terms which are used to consider temperature ranges.
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1. Diurnal range of temperature – the daily pattern of temperature change that we N

normally experience illustrates energy changes on a small time scale. On a calm day Student Notes:
with little cloud, air temperatures usually reach their minimum just before sunrise,
because the ground has been giving off long-wave radiation all through the night,
gradually becoming colder and cooling the air above by conduction. With sunrise,
temperature of the ground begins to rise. Maximum insolation receives at midday. But
the peak of air temperature is usually about 2:00 PM. After sun-set, the air initially
remains fairly warm as it is still being heated by long-wave radiation from the ground,
but this gradually expires. Desert areas typically have the greatest diurnal temperature
variations while Low lying, humid areas typically have the least range.
2. Annual average range of temperature – it is the monthly range of temperature or the

difference between the average temperature of hottest month and average
temperature of the coldest month of the year. The annual range is lower in low
latitudes and higher in high latitudes. In the same latitudes, it is higher over the
continents and lower over the oceans and coastal regions. The highest annual range of
temperature is more than 60° C over the north-eastern part of Eurasian continent. This
is due to continentality. The least range of temperature, 3°C, is found between 20° S
and 15° N.
Atmospheric Circulation
Varying amount of insolation received by the earth causes differential heating of the earth and
its atmosphere. Temperature difference thus produced account for the density differences in
the air. Air expands when heated and gets compressed when cooled. This results in variations
in the atmospheric pressure. The result is that it causes the movement of air from high
pressure to low pressure, setting the air in three-dimensional motion on global scale. Air in
horizontal motion is wind. Atmospheric pressure also determines when the air will rise or sink.
The wind redistributes the heat and moisture across the planet, thereby, maintaining a
constant temperature for the planet as a whole. The vertical rising of moist air cools it down to
form the clouds and bring precipitation. There is, in fact, an intimate relationship between
winds and pressure, and knowledge of pressure variations is a prerequisite to understanding air
motion.
Atmospheric Pressure
The atmosphere is held on the earth by the gravitational pull of the earth. A column of air
exerts weight in terms of pressure on the surface of the earth. The weight of a column of air
contained in a unit area from the mean sea level to the top of the atmosphere is called the
atmospheric pressure. Pressure is normally measured in millibars or pascals and spatial
variations of pressure are depicted on maps by means of isobars, which are lines connecting
places having the same barometric pressure. The actual pressure at a given place and at a
given time fluctuates and it generally ranges between 950 and 1050 millibars. Air pressure is
measured with the help of a mercury barometer or the aneroid barometer.
The gradual change of pressure between different areas is known as the barometric slope or
pressure gradient. The closer the isobars are together, the greater the pressure gradient; for
example, widely spaced isobars indicate a weak pressure gradient.
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Pressure Variations N
Student Notes:
In the lower atmosphere the pressure decreases rapidly with height with decrease in density of
air. It does not always decrease at the same rate. But to make calculations simple, a decrease
of about 1 mb for each 10 m increase in elevation is taken into consideration (figure 11). In
spite of high vertical pressure gradient, we do not experience strong vertical air currents. This is
possible because of equal and opposite gravitation force acting upon air.
Figure 11 - vertical pressure variation Figure 12 - Isobars, High pressure and Low
pressure system
The effects of low pressure are more clearly experienced by the people living in the hilly areas
as compared to those who live in plains. In high mountainous areas rice takes more time to
cook because low pressure reduces the boiling point of water. Breathing problem such as
faintness and nose bleedings are also faced by many trekkers from outside in such areas
because of low pressure conditions in which the air is thin and it has low amount of oxygen
content.
Unlike vertical high pressure gradient, small horizontal pressure gradients are highly significant
in terms of the wind direction and velocity. In order to eliminate the effect of altitude on
pressure, it is measured at any station after being reduced to sea level for purposes of
comparison. Figure 12 shows the patterns of isobars corresponding to pressure systems. Low
pressure system is enclosed by one or more isobars with the lowest pressure in the centre.
High-pressure system is also enclosed by one or more isobars with the highest pressure in the
centre. The terms ‘high pressure’ and ‘low pressure’ do not usually signify any particular
absolute values, but are used relatively.
Sea-level pressure conditions over the globe for both January (figure 13) and July (figure 14)
show some marked differences between the two hemispheres. The northern hemisphere tends
to have the greater seasonal contrasts in its pressure distributions and the southern
hemisphere exhibits much simpler average pressure patterns overall. These differences are
largely related to the unequal distribution of land and sea between the two hemispheres.
Ocean areas, which dominate the southern hemisphere, tend to be much more equable than
continents in both temperature and pressure variations.
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N
Student Notes:
Figure 13 – Distribution of pressure (in mb) for January month
Figure 14 – Distribution of pressure (in mb) for July month
Forces Governing Air Movement

We know that the air pressure is unevenly distributed in the atmosphere and air attempts to
balance this unevenness. Hence, it moves from high pressure areas to low pressure areas.
Horizontal movement of air in response to difference in pressure is termed as wind while
vertical or nearly vertical moving air is called air current. Both winds and air currents form the
system of circulation in the atmosphere.
Pressure Gradient
The existence of pressure differentials in the atmosphere is the immediate primary force
causing air movement. The rate of change of pressure with respect to distance is the pressure
gradient. The pressure gradient force always acts down the pressure gradient, attempting to
cause the general movement of air away from high-pressure towards low pressure areas. The
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force exerted is proportional to the steepness of the gradient (figure 15(a)). The gentler the N
pressure gradient slower is the speed of the wind and vice-versa. Student Notes:
If alone this force is exerted to the air, wind would have direction perpendicular to the isobars.
However, there are other forces also which, in fact, make wind to flow more nearly parallel to
the isobars.
Coriolis Force
Winds do not cross the isobars at right angles as the pressure gradient directs them. They get
deflected from their original paths. One of the most potent influences on wind direction is the
deflection caused by the earth’s rotation on its axis. This deflection is always to the right of the
direction of motion in the northern hemisphere and to the left in the southern hemisphere
(figure 15(b)). This influence is known as Coriolis force.
(a) Relationship between pressure (b) Coriolis force under

action gradient and speed of winds
Figure 15 – forces governing air movement
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The degree of the deflecting force varies with the speed of the moving air and with latitude. N
The faster the wind, the greater the effect of rotation can be. Similarly, the rate of deflection Student Notes:
increases with the increasing distance from the Equator because the Coriolis force is zero at the
Equator and maximum at Poles. It must be noted that it is an apparent or relative deflection. If
viewed from outer space, objects moving across the face of the earth would not in fact appear
to be deflected. In relation to star positions, they would travel in a straight line, while the earth
rotates beneath them. The phenomenon affects all freely moving objects – air, ocean currents,
rockets and projectiles etc. Thus, it is not actually any force. But it is simplest to accept that
deflection is caused by a force.
Centripetal Force
This force applies when the isobars are curved, as within cyclones. The fact that air is following
a curved path means that in addition to the pressure gradient and the Coriolis force, a third
force is acting centripetally, pulling air inwards. Wind which is in balance with these three
forces is known as the gradient wind.
Frictional Force
It lessens the speed of the wind. It is greatest at the surface and its influence generally extends
upto an elevation of 1 - 3 km. Over the sea surface the friction is minimal. By reducing speed of
wind, it weakens the Coriolis force. This allows the pressure gradient to assert its greater
strength by causing the air to flow more towards low pressure. Thus, the usual situation is that
surface winds flow at a slight angle to the isobars (figure 16(b)).
Geostrophic Wind
The velocity and direction of the wind are the net result of the wind generating forces. The
winds in the upper atmosphere, 2 - 3 km above the surface, are free from frictional effect of
the surface and are controlled by the pressure gradient and the Coriolis force. At such height in
the free atmosphere, winds generally blow at right angles to the pressure gradient: this
indicate that the pressure gradient force is exactly balanced by the Coriolis force acting in a
diametrically opposite direction. This sort of air motion is known as the geostrophic wind
(figure 16(a)).
Figure 16 – forces governing air movement: (a) geostrophic balance between pressure
gradient and Coriolis force; (b) the additional effect of frictional force on surface wind
Not all winds are exactly geostrophic. As pressure pattern change, the balance is upset, but the
wind always strives to readjust itself until it obtains the new geostrophic speed.
Distribution of Pressure Belts

The horizontal distribution of air pressure across the latitudes is characterized by high or low
pressure belts (figure 17(a)). These pressure belts are:
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 Equatorial low pressure belt –This belt extends from equator to 100N and 100S N
latitudes. This belt is thermally produced due to heating by Sun.. Due to excessive Student Notes:
heating horizontal movement of air is absent here and only vertical currents are
experienced in this belt. Therefore, this belt is called doldrums (the zone of calm). .
This belt is also known as-Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) because the trade
winds flowing from sub tropical high pressure belts converge here.
 Sub-tropical high pressure belt – these extend roughly between 250 and 350 latitudes in
both the Hemispheres. The existence of these pressure belts is due to the fact that the
up rising air of the equatorial region is deflected towards poles due to the earth’s
rotation. After becoming cold and heavy, it descends in these regions and get piled up.
This results in high pressure. Calm conditions with feeble and variable winds are found
here.. In southern hemisphere, this belt is broken by small low-pressure areas in
summer over Australia and South Africa. In northern hemisphere, the belt is more
discontinuous by the presence of land masses, and high pressure occurs only over the
ocean areas as discrete cells; these are termed the Azores and Hawaiian cells in the
Atlantic and Pacific areas respectively.
These belts are also called Horse latitudes. In older days, vessels with cargo of horses
passing through these belts found difficult in sailing under these calm conditions. They
used to throw the horses in the sea in order to make the vessels lighter. In the upper
atmosphere over this belt the upper level westerlies and anti-trade winds converge and
set up descending currents in the atmosphere.
 Sub-polar low pressure belt – it extends along 600 latitudes (550-650) in both the
hemisphere. These belts are not thermally induced instead the winds coming from the
sub-tropics and the polar regions converge in this belt and rise upward. The great
temperature contrast between the subtropical and the polar regions, gives rise to
cyclonic storms in this belt. In Southern hemisphere, this low pressure belt is more
pronounced due to vast presence of ocean and also referred as the sub-antarctic low.
But in the northern hemisphere, there are large land masses along 600 latitudes which
are very cold. Therefore, the pressures over these landmasses are increased. Thus, the
continuity of the belt is broken.
 Polar high pressure belt - Because of low temperature, air compresses and its density
increases. Hence, high pressure is found here throughout the year. This is more marked
over the land area of the Antarctic continent than over the ocean of the North Pole. In
northern hemisphere, high pressure is not centered at the pole, but it extends from
Greenland to Islands situated in the northern part of Canada.
Figure 17 – (a) global pressure belts and (b) shifting of pressure belts
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Shifting of Belts N
Student Notes:
Pressure belts are not fixed. The main cause of their formation is the uneven distribution of
temperature on the surface of earth. Consequently, the pressure belts swing either to the
north (in July) or the south (in December) of the equator by following the apparent annual
migration of the sun (figure 17(b)). Sun’s movement is recorded between tropic of Cancer and
tropic of Capricorn. During the month of July, low pressure equatorial belt extends upto the
tropic of Cancer in Asian region. While in January, it extends to latitudes 100-150 S. Most
profound effect of shifting of belts is seen in the temperate region. Winds blowing from the
Horse latitudes in the form of westerlies create unique climatic conditions in the temperate
parts of the world, especially in the Mediterranean region.
General Circulation of the Atmosphere

As discussed earlier that wind is the result of pressure gradient which is largely caused by
differential heating of the earth. Winds in the atmosphere are neither unidirectional nor have a
same pattern as we go up in the atmosphere. In fact, winds may change their direction and
intensity multiple times within same day. Largely, wind movement in the atmosphere may be
classified into three broad categories:
 Primary circulation – it includes planetary wind systems which are related to the
general arrangement of pressure belts on the earth’s surface. The pattern of the
movement of the planetary winds is called the general circulation of the atmosphere.
In fact, it is the primary circulation patterns which prepare the broad framework for the
other circulation patterns.
 Secondary circulation – it consists of cyclones and anti-cyclones, monsoon
 Tertiary circulation – it includes all the local winds which are produced by local causes
such as topographical features, sea influences etc. Their impact is visible only in a
particular area.
Planetary Winds
Primary or planetary winds blow from high pressure belts to low pressure belts in the same
direction throughout the year. They blow over vast area of continents and oceans. Trade winds,
Westerlies and polar easterlies together form the planetary wind circulation (figure 18). These
are described below:
 The air at the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) rises because of convection
caused by high insolation and a low pressure is created. The winds from the tropics
converge at this low pressure zone. The converged air rises along up. It reaches the top
of the troposphere up to an altitude of 14 km. and moves towards the poles. This
causes accumulation of air at about 300 N and S. Part of the accumulated air sinks to
the ground and forms a subtropical high. Another reason for sinking is the cooling of air
when it reaches 300 N and S latitudes. Down below near the land surface the air flows
towards the equator as the easterlies1 or tropical easterlies or trade winds. Because
of Coriolis force, their direction becomes north-east and south-east in northern and
southern hemisphere respectively. The easterlies from either side of the equator
converge in the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). Thus, winds originated at ITCZ
come back in a circular fashion. Such a cell in the tropics is called Hadley Cell.
1
Wind direction is reported by the direction from which it originates. For example, a easterly wind blows
from the east to the west.
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 In the middle latitudes (300-600) the circulation is that of sinking cold air that comes N
from the poles and the rising warm air that blows from the subtropical high pressure Student Notes:
belt. These winds are deflected due to coriolis force and become westerly in both the
hemisphere. Deflected wind is called westerlies. These winds meet along the sub-polar
low pressure belt to raise high in the troposphere. From here, air moves away in both
directions – towards pole and equator. These winds start descending down above the
sup-tropical high pressure belt and polar high pressure belt to form cells. These cells
are called Ferrel cell and Polar cell respectively.
Figure 18 – Planetary winds
 The prevailing westerlies are relatively more variable than the trade winds both in
direction and intensity. There are more frequent invasions of polar air masses along
with the travelling cyclones and anti-cyclones. These moving cells of low and high
pressures largely affect the movement of westerlies. The westerlies are stronger in the
cold. In the southern hemisphere, westerlies are so powerful and persistent due to
absence of land between 400-600 S that these are called ‘roaring forties’, ‘furious
fifties’ and ‘screaming sixties’ along 400 S, 500 S and 600 S latitudes.
 Winds move away from polar high pressure to sub-polar low pressure along the surface
of the earth in Polar cell. Their direction becomes easterlies due to coriolis force. These
are called polar easterlies.
 Winds coming from the sub-tropical and the polar high belts converge to produce
cyclonic storms or low pressure conditions. This zone of convergence is also known as
polar front (see fronts and cyclones).
Local Winds
Besides major wind systems of the earth’s surface, there are certain types of winds which are
produced by purely local factors and therefore, are called local winds. These local winds play a
significant role in the weather and climate of a particular locality. Following is a brief account of
some of the well-known local winds which are found in different parts of the world.
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The Land and sea Breezes N

These winds are defined as the complete cycle of diurnal local winds occurring on sea coasts Student Notes:
due to differences in the surface temperature of sea and adjacent land (figure 19). There is
complete reversal of wind direction of these coastal winds. The land and sea breeze system is
very shallow with average depth of 1-2km. Over lakes, the height of circulation is much less.
Warm tropical areas, where intense solar heating persists throughout the year, experience
stronger and regular breezes compare to higher latitudes. Details of land and sea breezes are
given in table 2.
Figure 19 – Sea and Land Breezes

Sea Breeze Land Breeze
During the day the land heats up faster and In the night, the land cools up faster than the
becomes warmer than the sea. The heated air surrounding sea. This creates relatively high
rises giving rise to a low pressure area, pressure on land.
whereas the sea is relatively cool and the
pressure over sea is relatively high.
Pressure gradient is created from sea to land. Pressure gradient is created from land to sea.
the wind blows from the sea to the land as the wind blows from the land to the sea as the
the sea breeze land breeze
Reaches at maximum intensity in mid- Reaches at peak shortly before the sunrise
afternoon
Helpful for fishermen in returning from sea In morning, fishermen enter into sea with the
after a good catch. help of land breeze and stays there till mid-
afternoon.
Table 2 – land and sea breezes
The Mountain and Valley Breezes

Another combination of local winds that undergoes a daily reversal consists of the mountain
and valley breezes (figure 20). During the day the slopes get heated up more than the valleys.
Hence, the pressure is low over the slopes while it is comparatively high in the valleys below.
Air moves up from slope and to fill the resulting gap the air from the valley blows up the valley.
This wind is known as the valley breeze or anabatic wind. The valley breeze is sometimes
accompanied by the formation of cumulus cloud near mountain peaks to cause orographic
rainfall.
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During the night the slopes get cooled and the dense air descends into the valley as the N
mountain wind. The cool air, of the high plateaus and ice fields draining into the valley is called Student Notes:
mountain breeze or katabatic wind.
Figure 20 – mountain and valley breezes
Hot Local Winds

Local winds that are hot are caused by the advection of hot air from a warm source region.
They may also be produced by dynamic heating of air as it descends from an elevated area to
lowland. Few famous hot winds are:
 ‘Loo’ is a hot and dry wind, which blows very strongly over the northern plains of India
and Pakistan in the months of May and June. Their direction is from west to east and
they are usually experienced in the afternoons. Their temperature varies between
45°C to 50°C.
 ‘Foehn’ is strong, dusty, dry and warm local wind which develops on the leeward
side of the Alps mountain ranges. Regional pressure gradient forces the air to ascend
and cross the barrier. Ascending air sometimes causes precipitation on the
windward side of the mountains. After crossing the mountain crest, the Foehn winds
starts descending on the leeward side or northern slopes of the mountain as warm and
dry wind. The temperature of the winds varies from 15°C to 20°C which help in melting
snow. Thus making pasture land ready for animal grazing and help the grapes to ripe
early.
 ‘Chinook’ is the name of hot and dry local wind, which moves down the eastern slopes
of the Rockies in U.S.A. and Canada. The literal meaning of chinook is ‘snow eater’ as
they help in melting the snow earlier. They keep the grasslands clear of snow. Hence,
they are very helpful to ranchers.
 ‘Sirocco’ is a hot, dry dusty wind, which originates in the Sahara desert. It is most
frequent in spring and normally lasts for only a few days. After crossing the
Mediterranean sea, the Sirocco is slightly cooled by the moisture from the sea. Still it is
harmful for vegetation, crops in that region. Its other local names are Leveche in Spain,
Khamsin in Egypt, Gharbi in Aegean Sea area.
 Harmattan is a strong dry wind that blows over northwest Africa from the northeast.
Blowing directly from the Sahara desert, it is a hot, dry and dusty wind. It provides a
welcome relief from the moist heat and is beneficial to health of people hence also
known as ‘the doctor’. It is full of fine desert dust which makes the atmosphere hazy
and causes problems to the caravan traders. It may cause severe damage to the crops.
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Cold Local Winds N

There are certain local winds which originate in the snow-capped mountains during winter and Student Notes:
move down the slopes towards the valleys. Few of important these are:
 ‘Mistral’ originates on the Alps and move over France towards the Mediterranean Sea
through the Rhone valley. They are very cold, dry and high velocity winds. They bring
down temperature below freezing point in areas of their influence. As a protective
measure, many of the houses and orchards of the Rhone valley have thick rows of trees
and hedges planted to shield them from the Minstral.
 ‘Bora’ is a cold, dry north-easterly wind blowing down from the mountains in the
Adriatic Sea region. It is also caused by pressure difference between continental
Europe and the Mediterranean Sea. This is usually occurs in winter. It sometimes attain
speeds of over 150 kmph.
 ‘Blizzard’ is a violent and extremely cold wind laden with dry snow. Such blizzards are
of common occurrence in the Antarctic. Wind velocity sometimes reaches 160 kmph
and temperature is as low as -70C.
Upper Air Circulation

It is now realized that the causes of weather on the ground are intricately bound up with what
happens at higher levels in the atmosphere. This applies especially to the development of anti-
cyclones and depressions and to the general circulation of winds around the globe. Such
phenomena can only be appreciated by understanding air circulation in the upper layers.
Broadly speaking, wind speed tend to increase with altitude because of lower air density, lower
frictional force etc. Direction of wind also is not same. For instance, during the month of July,
surface wind(monsoonal) blow from south-west direction in India while at the height of 10km
there are swift winds blowing from east to west.
On a global scale, pressure patterns higher up tend to be much simpler than those at the
surface level, largely because of the diminished thermal and mechanical effects of land masses.
There is a falling pressure gradient from the sub-tropical areas towards the poles. The gradient
is strongest in winter, when the temperature contrasts between the respective polar areas and
the equator are most marked.
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Student Notes:
Figure 21 – different vertical temperature gradients in the two columns create an increasing
pressure gradient.
Jet Streams
Changes in pressure distribution with height are largely related to changes of temperatures.
We can see how this can be so with references to two adjacent columns of air in the
troposphere depicted in figure 21. At ground level the pressure exerted by the two is the same,
but important changes ensue if we assume that column A is warmer, and therefore less dense
throughout than column B. This means that for any level higher up in the two columns, for
instance at 2km, there is a greater pressure of air still above this level of column A than in
column B. Therefore, a pressure gradient from A to B gradually develops and intensifies with
height, where none existed at the surface. Now, it can be visualized that a gradual change of
velocity of the wind with height, the wind at the top of the air layers being very much stronger
than that lower down.
Figure 22 – jet streams: (a) maximum speed at centre; (b) Polar and subtropical jetstreams in
both hemispheres; (c) cross-sectional view of jet streams
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Applying this on a global scale by associating poles with cold air column and equator with warm N
air column, the gradual poleward decrease of temperature in the atmosphere from the equator Student Notes:
should result in a large westerly component in the upper winds. It was found in 1940s during
Second World War that high-flying aircraft encountered upper winds of very great velocity.
These are known to be concentrated bands of rapid air movement, which are termed jet
streams. Few of the features of jet streams are:
 These are narrow belts at the high altitude near the top of the troposphere.
 Their speed varies from about 110 km per hour (kmph) in the summer season to more
than 180 kmph in the winter season.
 Their shape is circular. Speed in the jet streams decreases radially outwards (figure
22(a)). One way of visualizing this is to consider a river. The river's current is generally
the strongest in the center with decreasing strength as one approaches the river's
bank. It can be said that jet streams are "rivers of air".
 They are several hundred kilometers wide and about 2 km to 5km deep.
 The flow of jet streams is not in form of straight line. Their circulation path is wavy and
meandering. These meandering winds are called Rossby waves
 They dip and rise in altitude/latitude, splitting at times and forming eddies, and even
disappearing altogether to appear somewhere else.
 Jet streams also "follow the sun" in that as the sun's elevation increases each day in the
spring, the average latitude of the jet stream shifts poleward. (By Summer in the
Northern Hemisphere, it is typically found near the U.S. Canadian border.) As autumn
approaches and the sun's elevation decreases, the jet stream's average latitude moves
toward the equator.
 On occasions the jet stream breaks through the tropopause and enters into the lower
stratosphere. Certain amount of water vapour manages to reach in lower stratosphere
with jet streams and this layer exhibits occasional cirus clouds. At times, the jet stream
effect extends down to an altitude of about 3 km from the earth’s surface.
 There is a well marked longitudinal variation in the strength of the jet stream. In
winter, the highest wind velocities of the jet stream are found near the east coast of
Asia and weakest over the eastern Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. In summer, strongest jet
is positioned along the Canadian border and Mediterranean region.
Two permanent jet stream zones occur in each hemisphere. One is sub-tropical jet stream and
another is polar front jet stream. There is another jet stream which moves seasonally near
equator. Description of these three streams is give below:
The polar front jet stream
 It is originated because of temperature difference.
 It is associated with the polar front zone7 in each hemisphere (figure 23).
 It runs at a more meandering path than the Sub Tropical Jet Stream
 It extends between 40 and 60 latitudes in both Hemispheres.
 It is found at a height between 6km and 9km in the atmosphere.
 It swings towards poles in summers and towards equator in winter. When swinging to
south it takes very cold air with it to subtropical region.
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Student Notes:
Figure 23 – origin of the Polar front Jet stream at polar front zone
Sub-tropical jet stream
 It runs between 250 and 300 latitudes in both the hemispheres.
 It blows constantly
 Its speed is comparatively lower than polar jet streams
 The air currents arising near about the equator descend at 300 N and S latitudes. A part
of these air currents takes the form of Sub Tropical Jet streams.
 It swings to the north of Himalayas in summer in North India.
Eastern Tropical Jet Stream
 It is a seasonal Jet Stream.
 It blows between equator and 200N latitude at the time of South-West Monsoon in
summer over south-east Asia, India and Africa.
 Its direction is opposite to that of other two jet streams. It runs in eastern direction.
 It is located comparatively at higher height between 14km and 16km
 Its speed is around 180 km per hour.
Consequence of Jet Stream

 They affect weather conditions
 They substantially contribute to originating cyclones, anticyclones, storms and
depressions and influence their behaviour.
 The bursting of monsoon in India is said to be closely related to Eastern Tropical Jet
streams.
 If the weather is not disturbed the aeroplanes running in their parallel directions gain
great speed and considerably save fuel.
 Sometimes aeroplanes cannot be flown in opposite direction.
 These jet streams are still being investigated with respect to their effect on weather
conditions.
Air Mass
When the air remains over a homogenous area for a sufficiently longer time, it acquires the
characteristics of the area. Such homogenous areas have uniform characteristics in terms of
temperature, pressure and moisture. The air with distinctive characteristics in terms of
temperature and humidity is called an air mass. It is defined as a large body of air having little
horizontal variation in temperature and moisture. The homogenous surfaces, over which air
masses form, are called the source regions. There are five major source regions. These are:
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i. Warm tropical and subtropical oceans N

ii. The subtropical hot deserts Student Notes:
iii. The relatively cold high latitude oceans
iv. The very cold snow covered continents in high latitudes
v. Permanently ice covered continents in the Arctic and Antarctica
The air masses are classified according to the source regions. Air masses originated from
tropical region are warm while those originated from polar region are cold. Air masses
originated from these regions are called primary air masses. Accordingly, following types of
airmasses are recognised:
Figure 25 – Airmasses
i. Maritime tropical (mT)
ii. Continental tropical (cT)
iii. Maritime polar (mP)
iv. Continental polar (cP)
v. Continental arctic (cA).
Where ‘m’ stands for Maritime; ‘c’ stands for continental; ‘T’ stands for tropical; ‘P’ stands for
polar and ‘A’ stands for arctic region.
As these air masses move around the earth they can begin to acquire additional attributes. For
example, in winter an arctic air mass (very cold and dry air) can move over the ocean, picking
up some warmth and moisture from the warmer ocean and becoming a maritime polar air
mass (mP) - one that is still fairly cold but contains moisture. If that same polar air mass moves
south from Canada into the southern U.S. it will pick up some of the warmth of the ground, but
due to lack of moisture it remains very dry. Another way of changes is internal modification in
the airmasses. The resultant air mass by these processes is termed as secondary air mass. Air
masses can control the weather for a relatively long time period: from a period of days, to
months. Most weather occurs along the periphery of these air masses at boundaries called
fronts.
Fronts
When two different air masses with distinct properties (temperature, moisture, density,
pressure etc.) meet, the boundary zone between them is called a front. These air masses are
brought together by converging movements in the general atmospheric circulation. The
process of formation of the fronts is known as frontogenesis while Frontolysis is the end stage
of a front (table 3). The fronts do not mix readily. In fact, they come in contact with one
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another along sloping boundaries. These sloping boundaries are actually a transition zone N
across which a sharp contrast in weather condition occurs. The air masses are of vast size Student Notes:
covering tens of thousands of square kilometers. Therefore, frontal zones of discontinuity
about 15 to 200 kms wide are relatively narrow. So on the weather map they are represented
by only a thick line. A front can be recognized with following observations:
 Sharp temperature changes over a relatively short distance. Sometimes change of 100
to 200 C may be observed.
 Change in moisture content
 Rapid shifts in wind direction
 Pressure changes
 Clouds and precipitation patterns
Frontogenesis Frontolysis
creation of altogether new fronts destruction or dying of a front
Only after the process of frontogenesis have Process of frontolysis must continue for some
been in operation for quite some time, front time in order to destroy an existing front.
do come into existence
is likely to occur when the wind blow in such a likely to occur when fronts move into regions
way that the isotherms become packed along of divergent air flow on crossing the sub-
the leading edge of the intruding air mass tropical high pressure regions, the fronts
generally disappear
Convergence of the wind toward a point or divergence of the wind from a point is helpful
contraction towards a line augments the to the process of frontolysis
process of Frontogenesis.
Cyclonic wind shear witnesses the creation of

fronts. Contrarily, the areas of anti-cyclonic
wind shear do not allow the formation of
fronts. Even the pre-existing fronts
degenerate in such areas.
Table 3 – difference between frontogenesis and frontolysis
As a result of the observations of atmospheric conditions at the surface and aloft, the following
types of fronts are identified:
Warm Front
When a warmer and lighter air mass moves against an existing cold and dense airmass, it rises
over the coldet and denser air mass. This type of front is known as warm front. (figure 26a). As
the warm air gradually ascends the gently sloping surface of the wedge of cold air lying ahead,
it cools. This cooling leads to the cloudy condensation and precipitation. Unlike the cold front,
the changes in temperature and wind direction are gradual.
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Student Notes:
Figure 26 – Fronts: (a) Warm front; (b) Cold front
Cold Front
When a cold and dense airmass forces its way under warm and lighter airmass it makes the
warm and lighter airmass to ride over it. This type of front is called cold front. The effect of
friction retards the air motion near the ground, while the free air aloft has a higher velocity.
This causes the cold front to become much steeper than the warm front. STATIONARY FRONT
A stationary front forms when a cold front or warm front stops moving. This happens when two
masses of air are pushing against each other but neither is powerful enough to move the other.
Winds blowing parallel to the front instead of perpendicular can help it stay in place.
OCCLUDED FRONT
Sometimes a cold front follows right behind a warm front. A warm air mass pushes into a
colder air mass (the warm front) and then another cold air mass pushes into the warm air mass
(the cold front). Because cold fronts move faster, the cold front is likely to overtake the warm
front. This is known as an occluded front.
At an occluded front, the cold air mass from the cold front meets the cool air that was ahead of
the warm front. The warm air rises as these air masses come together. Occluded fronts usually
form around areas of low atmospheric pressure. The fronts occur in middle latitudes and are
characterised by steep gradient in temperature and pressure. They bring abrupt changes in
temperature and cause the air to rise to form clouds and cause precipitation
There are two types of occlusion namely, cold front occlusion and war front occlusion (figure
27). The differences are given below in table 6.
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Student Notes:
Figure 27- cold front occlusion and warm front occlusion Figure 28 – symbols used for Fronts
Cold front occlusion Warm front occlusion

Occurs when the cold air which overtakes the Occurs when the retreating cold air mass is
warm air is colder than the retreating cold air colder than the advancing cold air mass
In the initial stage, weather system of the
warm front persists. At the later stages the
weather conditions resemble those of the cold
front.
Overtaking cold airmass plows under both air Advancing cold air being relatively less dense
masses overrides the retreating cold air mass
Table 6 – Occluded fronts – difference between cold front occlusion and warm front occlusion
Cyclones
The atmospheric disturbances which involve a closed circulation about a low pressure centre,
anticlockwise in the northern atmosphere and clockwise in the southern hemisphere are called
cyclones. They fall into the following two broad categories: (a) Extra-tropical and (b) tropical
cyclones.
Extra-Tropical Cyclones
Extra-tropical cyclones are the weather disturbances in the mid and high latitude, beyond the
tropics. These latitudes are an area of convergence where contrasting air masses generally
meet to form polar fronts.. . The stages of development of extra-tropical cyclone are described
below with diagram.
 Initially, the front is stationary (figure 29-1).
 In the northern hemisphere, warm air blows from the south and cold air from the
north of the front. When the pressure drops along the front, the warm air moves
northwards and the cold air move towards, south setting in motion an anticlockwise
cyclonic circulation(figure 29-2).
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 The cyclonic circulation leads to a well developed extra tropical cyclone, with a warm N
front and a cold front (figure 29-3). Student Notes:
 The warm air glides over the cold air and a sequence of clouds appear over the sky
ahead of the warm front and cause precipitation (figure 29-4).
 The cold front approaches the warm air from behind and pushes the warm air up
(figure 29-5). As a result, cumulus clouds develop along the cold front.
 The cold front moves faster than the warm front ultimately overtaking the warm front.
The warm air is completely lifted up and the front is occluded and the cyclone
dissipates (figure 29-6).
Figure 29 – life cycle of a extra-tropical cyclone
There is great degree of variation in shape and size of extra-tropical cyclones. Generally, the
isobars are almost circular or elliptical. However, in certain depressions, the isobars take the
shape of the letter ‘V’. Such storms are called V-shaped depression. At times, the cyclones
become so broad and shallow that they are referred to as troughs of low pressure.
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Student Notes:
Figure 30 – world: pathways of cyclones (Numbers indicate average frequency of cyclones)

Paths and movement of extra-tropical cyclone – the general direction of movement of
temperate cyclones is from west to east with frequent trends towards the southeast to
northeast (figure 30). They are subject to the general westerly flow of atmosphere in
temperate zone. The heavy concentration of storms tracks in the vicinity of the Aleutian(Islands
west to the Alaska Peninsula) and Icelandic lows is the most important feature of the
distribution of extra-tropical cyclones. During winter months, the opposing air masses have
greater contrasts in their properties. So the winter cyclones are greater in number and are
more intense. On an average cyclone may cover a distance of about 1000 km per day. Cyclones
invariably move towards higher latitudes.
Secondary cyclones – under the normal conditions, in the later stages of occlusion the cyclone
weakens and ultimately dissipates. But sometimes, during the late maturing stage of a cyclone,
a new low develops on the equatorward margin of the original cyclone. Thus, a secondary
cyclone is formed which passes through different stages of its life cycle and matures very
rapidly. It may follow the tract of primary cyclone or may move along new path.
Cyclone families – It is found that an extra-tropical cyclone never appears alone. It is usually
followed by three or four cyclones forming a series. The primary or the leading cyclone gets
occluded, while the new ones originate on the trailing front and are in an incipient stage. In the
rear of the last member of the cyclone family there is an outbreak of polar air which builds up
an anti-cyclone. Original cyclone would be in high latitudes and each secondary cyclone would
follow progressively a more southerly path. Cyclone families frequent the oceans in a larger
number.
Extra-tropical cyclone and Jet stream – there is a close relationship between the flow aloft and
the cyclonic storm at the surface. Rossby waves produced at the top of troposphere helps in
transporting large bodies of polar air to the lower latitudes and tropical air masses are carried
to the higher latitudes. This results in the intensity of surface cyclonic activity. There are
instances when extra-tropical cyclones form without the prior existence of a polar front. These
depressions are actually initiated by a trough in the upper-air westerlies. Once such storms
originate in the lower atmosphere they attract different air masses together which leads to the
generation of fronts.
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Tropical Cyclones N
Student Notes:
The tropical cyclone develops from the ‘warm core’ of extremely low pressure area in the
tropical oceanic areas. They are energized from the condensation process in the towering
cumulonimbus clouds, surrounding the centre of the storm. The arrangement of isobars is
almost circular. With continuous supply of moisture from the sea, the storm is further
strengthened. On reaching the land the moisture supply is cut off and the storm dissipates. The
place where a tropical cyclone crosses the coast is called the landfall of the cyclone. The
conditions favourable for the formation and intensification of tropical storms are:
 Large sea surface with temperature higher than 27° C
 Presence of the Coriolis force
 Small variations in the vertical wind speed
 A pre-existing weak low-pressure area or low-level-cyclonic circulation -
 Upper divergence above the sea level system.
Large and continuous supply of warm and moist air from the ocean provides necessary energy
in the form of latent heat of condensation. Coriolis force causes cyclonic circulation. At the
equator, the Coriolis force is zero and the wind blows perpendicular to the isobars. The low
pressure gets filled instead of getting intensified. That is the reason why tropical cyclones are
not formed near the equator.
Because of small variations in the vertical wind speed or wind shear, cyclone formation
processes are limited to latitudes equatorword of the sub-tropical jet stream. It is the pre-
existing low pressure area which intensifies and develops as cyclone. It must be pointed out
that only a few of these disturbances develop into true tropical cyclones. Upper divergence
helps in ascending air currents to be pumped out to maintain the low pressure at the centre of
the cyclone.
Tropical cyclone shown in figure 31 has following features:
 Eye – it is the centre of cyclone around which strong spirally winds circulate in a mature
tropical cyclone. It is a region of calm with subsiding air.
 Eye Wall – there is a strong spiraling ascent of air to greater height reaching the
tropopause. The wind reaches maximum velocity in this region, reaching as high as 250
km per hour. Torrential rain occurs here. From the eye wall rain bands may radiate and
trains of cumulus and cumulonimbus clouds may drift into the outer region.
 The diameter of the circulating system can vary between 150 and 250 km.
 The diameter of the storm over the Bay of Bengal, Arabian Sea and Indian Ocean is
between 600 - 1200 km. The system moves slowly about 300 - 500 km per day.
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Student Notes:
Figure 31 – tropical cyclone Figure 32 – different names of tropical cyclone

Impact on humans
 This is one of the most devastating natural calamities. They move over to the coastal
areas bringing about large scale destruction caused by violent winds, very heavy rainfall
and storm surges.
 The cyclones, which cross 20oN latitude generally, re-curve and they are more
destructive.
 Trees are uprooted and broken and the loose objects swept away.
 A particular location on the land surface encounters opposite winds twice from the
circular fashion of the cyclone. These winds create more damage to objects.
 Torrential rains that occur in the towering cumulonimbus clouds inundate the low-lying
areas, cause floods and landslides resulting in great loss of life and property damage.
 Strom waves of great heights are great hazard to shipping. These are called storm surge
whose height may go up to 20 meters. If cyclone wave combines with the spring tide,
the result is disastrous.
Naming of tropical cyclones - In the beginning, storms(tropical cyclone) were named

arbitrarily. Then the mid -1900's saw the start of the practice of using feminine names for
storms. In the pursuit of a more organized and efficient naming system, meteorologists later
decided to identify storms using names from a list arranged alphabetically.
There is a strict procedure to determine a list of tropical cyclone names in an ocean
basin(s) by the Tropical Cyclone Regional Body responsible for that basin(s) at its
annual/biennial meeting. There are five tropical cyclones regional bodies. The Regional
Specialized Meteorological Centre (RSMC) – Tropical cyclones is responsible for monitoring
and prediction of tropical cyclones over their respective regions. They are also responsible to
name the cyclones.
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Student Notes:
In general, tropical cyclones are named according to the rules at a regional level. The
WMO/ESCAP Panel on Tropical Cyclones at its twenty-seventh Session held in 2000 in Muscat,
Sultanate of Oman agreed in principal to assign names to the tropical cyclones in the Bay of
Bengal and Arabian Sea. After long deliberations among the member countries, the
naming of the tropical cyclones over north Indian Ocean commenced from September
2004. The list of names India has added to the database includes Agni, Akash, Bijli, Jal (cyclones
which have all occurred since 2004). The Indian names in the queue are Leher, Megh, Sagar and
Vayu, while those suggested by Pakistan include Nilofar, Titli and Bulbul.
If public wants to suggest the name of a cyclone to be included in the list , the
proposed name must meet some fundamental criteria. The name should be short and
readily understood when broadcast. Further the names must not be culturally sensitive and not
convey some unintended and potentially inflammatory meaning. A storm causes so much
death and destruction that its name is considered for retirement and hence is not used
repeatedly. Names are usually assigned to tropical cyclones with one-, three-, or ten-minute
sustained wind speeds of more than 65 km/h depending on which area it originates.
Importance for naming tropical cyclones:
 It would help identify each individual tropical cyclone.
 It helps the public to become fully aware of its development.
 Local and international media become focused to the tropical cyclone.
 It does not confuse the public when there is more than one tropical cyclone in the
same area.
 The name of the tropical cyclone is well remembered by million of people as it is
unforgettable event whose name will long be remembered.
 Warnings reach a much wider audience very rapidly.
 It heightens interest in warnings and increases community preparedness.
Difference between extra-tropical cyclone and tropical cyclone is given in table 7 below:
Extra-tropical cyclone Tropical cyclone
have a clear frontal system and get energy Fronts are not present and get energy from
from the horizontal temperature contrasts warm and moist air of ocean
that exist in the atmosphere
Large size (1500-3000km) Relatively small in size
can originate over the land and sea originate only over the seas
Travel both on oceans and land on reaching the land they dissipate.
Affects a much larger area as compared to the
tropical cyclone.
Wind velocity in a tropical cyclone is much
higher and it is more destructive.
move from west to east move from east to west
Table 7 – comparison between tropical and extra-tropical cyclone
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Thunderstorms and Tornadoes N

Student Notes:
Unlike Tropical Cyclones, thunderstorms and tornadoes are highly localized weather
phenomenon. They are of short duration, occurring over a small area but are violent. They are
so small and short lived as to make their prediction very difficult.
A storm accompanied by thunder and lightning is called thunderstorm. It is associated with the
cumulonimbus clouds.. Thunderstorms are caused by intense convection on moist hot days.
When the clouds extend to heights where sub-zero temperature prevails, hails are formed and
they come down as hailstorm. If there is insufficient moisture, a thunderstorm can generate
dust storms. Stages in the development of thunderstorm are described below and shown in
figure 33.
1. Cumulus stage – Warm, moist air rises in a buoyant plume or in a series of convective
updrafts. As this occurs the air begins to condense into a cumulus cloud. As the warm
air within the cloud continues to rise, it eventually cools and condenses. The
condensation releases heat into the cloud, warming the air. This, in turn, causes it to
rise adiabatically. The convective cloud continues to grow upward, eventually growing
above the freezing level where super-cooled water droplets and ice crystals coexist
Precipitation begins once the air rises above the freezing level.
2. Mature stage – it is characterized by the presence of both updrafts and downdrafts

within the cloud. The downdrafts are initiated by the downward drag of falling
precipitation. Cold descending air in the downdraft will often reach the ground before
the precipitation. As the mature-stage thunderstorm develops, the cumulus cloud
continues to increase in size, height and width. Cloud to ground lightning usually begins
when the precipitation first falls from the cloud base. During this phase of the life cycle,
the top of the resulting cumulonimbus cloud will start to flatten out, forming an anvil
shape often at the top of the troposphere.
Figure 33 – three stages in the development of a thunderstorm: (a) cumulus stage; (b) Mature
stage; (c) Dissipating stage
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3. Dissipating stage – It is characterized by downdrafts throughout the entire cloud. N

Decay often begins when the super-cooled cloud droplets freeze and the cloud Student Notes:
becomes glaciated, which means that it contains ice crystals. The cloud begins to
collapse because no additional latent heat is released after the cloud droplets freeze,
and because the shadow of the cloud and rain cooled downdrafts reduce the
temperature below the cloud.
What Causes Lightning and Thunder

The rising air in a thunderstorm cloud causes various types of frozen precipitation to form
within the cloud. Included in these precipitation types are very small ice crystals and much
larger pellets of snow and ice. The smaller ice crystals are carried upward toward the top of the
clouds by the rising air while the heavier and denser pellets are either suspended by the rising
air or start falling toward the ground. Collisions occur between the ice crystals and the pellets,
and these collisions serve as the charging mechanism of the thunderstorm. The small ice
crystals become positively charged while the pellets become negatively charged. As a result,
the top of the cloud becomes positively charged and the middle to lower part of the storm
becomes negatively charged. When the strength of the charge overpowers the insulating
properties of the atmosphere, lightning happens.
At the same time, the ground underneath the cloud becomes charged oppositely of the charges
directly overhead. When the charge difference between the ground and the cloud becomes too
large, a conductive channel of air develops between the cloud and the ground, and a small
amount of charge (step leader) starts moving toward the ground. When it nears the ground, an
upward leader of opposite charge connects with the step leader. At the instant this connection
is made, a powerful discharge occurs between the cloud.
The channel of air through which lightning passes can be heated to 50,000°F—hotter than the
surface of the sun! The rapid heating and cooling of the air near the lightning channel causes a
shock wave that results in the sound we know as “thunder.”
Why thunders are cause of concern

Each year, many people are killed or seriously injured by severe thunderstorms despite the
advance warning. While severe thunderstorms are most common in the spring and summer,
they can occur at just about any time of the year. Cloud-to-ground lightning, Hail, Tornadoes
and waterspouts, Flash flood and Downburst are some of the hazards associated with
thunderstorm.
There is no safe place outside during a thunderstorm but building constructed according to
current guidance could provide safe seltor and avoid injury or death.
Tornado – From severe thunderstorms sometimes spiraling wind descends like a trunk of an
elephant with great force, with very low pressure at the centre causing massive destruction on
its way. Such a phenomenon is called a tornado. Excessive instability and steep lapse rate in the
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atmosphere are necessary pre-requisite for the development of a tornado. Tornadoes N

generally occur in middle latitudes. The tornado over the sea is called water sprouts. Chief Student Notes:
features of tornadoes are:
 Tornado’s funnel can have size of 90-460m in diameter.
 Tornadoes generally occur in middle latitudes.
 Tornadoes are the most violent of all the storms.
 They are very small in size and of short duration which makes weather prediction
difficult.
 The velocity of winds revolving tightly around the core reaches more than 300 km per
hour.
 It causes massive destruction on its way.
 When looked at from the ground, the funnel appears dark because of the presence of
condensed moisture and the dust and debris picked up from the ground by the whirling
tornado.
 Tornadoes may be found to be moving singly or in families of several individual
tornadoes.
 These generally move in straight paths.
These violent storms are the manifestation of the atmosphere’s adjustments to varying energy
distribution. The potential and heat energies are converted into kinetic energy in these storms
and the restless atmosphere again returns to its stable state.
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References: N
1. Since sunspots are darker than the surrounding photosphere it might be expected that Student Notes:
more sunspots would lead to less solar radiation and a decreased solar constant.
However, the surrounding margins of sunspots are brighter than the average, and so
are hotter; overall, more sunspots increase the Sun's solar constant or brightness.
2. Electromagnetic radiation is a term used to describe all the different kinds of energies
released into space by stars such as the Sun.
3. A photon is an elementary particle, the quantum of light and all other forms
of electromagnetic radiation
4. Conductor of heat - Ability to transfer heat to adjacent molecules.
5. The latent heat of condensation for water is defined as the heat released when one
mole of the substance condenses to form liquid droplets from water vapour. The
temperature does not change during this process, so heat released goes directly into
changing the state of the substance. The heat of condensation of water is equal to 40.8
kJ/mol. The heat of condensation is numerically exactly equal to the heat vaporization,
but has the opposite sign.
6. Albedo – it is reflectivity or reflecting power of a surface. It is defined as the ratio of
reflected radiation from the surface to incident radiation upon it. Albedos of typical
materials in visible light range from up to 0.9 for fresh snow to about 0.04 for charcoal,
one of the darkest substances.
7. The polar front is the boundary between the polar cell and the Ferrel cell in
each hemisphere. At this boundary a sharp gradient in temperature occurs between
these two air masses, each at very different temperatures.
8. An adiabatic process is a process that occurs without the transfer of heat or matter
between a system and its surroundings.
UPSC Previous Years’ mains questions

1. The recent cyclone on east coast of India was called 'Phailin'. How are the tropical
cyclones named across the world? Elaborate. (100 words)(UPSC 2013/5 marks)
2. What do you understand by the phenomenon of 'temperature inversion' in
meteorology? How does it affect weather and the habitants of the place? (100 words)
(UPSC 2013/5 marks)
3. List the significant local storms of the hot-weather season in the country and bring out
their socio-economic impact. (UPSC 2010/12 Marks)
4. Write about Nor’westers in 20 words. (UPSC 2008/15 Marks)

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VISIONIAS ™
www.visionias.in
GEOGRAPHY: 11
PRECIPITATION AND RELATED PHENOMENA
Contents:
1. Introduction
2. Water vapour
Importance of Water vapour
3. The Water Cycle
4. Humidity
Absolute Humidity
Specific Humidity
Relative Humidity
Significance of relative humidity
The horizontal distribution of relative humidity
5. Evaporation
6. Condensation
Latent heat
Saturated Air
Hygroscopic Nuclei
Dew point
7. Dew
8. Frost
9. Fog
Impact of Fog
10. Mist
11. Smog
12. Haze
13. Atmospheric Brown Cloud (ABC)/ Asian brown cloud
14. Clouds

15. Types of Clouds

(1) Cirrus(curl of hair) Clouds
(2) Cumulus(heap) Clouds
(3) Stratus(layer) Clouds
16. International Classification of Clouds
17. Precipitation
18. Necessary conditions for RAINFALL
19. Types of Rainfall
Convectional Rainfall
Orographic Rain
Cyclonic or Frontal Rainfall
20. Distribution of Precipitation
Season Distribution of Rainfall
Prelims Questions


Introduction N
Student Notes:
Precipitation is vital for life on Earth, but it can also be an inconvenience. Precipitation is any
product of the condensation of atmospheric water vapour that falls under gravity. The main
forms of precipitation include drizzle, rain, sleet, snow, graupel and hail. Let us first discuss
some basic concepts
Water vapour
Water is present in the atmosphere in three forms namely – gaseous, liquid and solid.. The
water vapour constitute about 2 per cent of the total composition of the atmosphere. This
percentage varies from zero per cent in cold dry air of the Arctic regions during the winter
season to as much as 5 per cent of the volume in warm humid equatorial regions.
The temperature of the atmosphere is the most important factor, as the capacity of the warm
air to hold water vapour is more than that of the cold air. About half of the total moisture
present in the atmosphere is concentrated in the lower layer of the atmosphere up to a height
of about 2 kilometres.
Importance of Water vapour
The water vapour present in the atmosphere is an important factor for the weather conditions
in a particular region. The amount of water vapour present in the atmosphere influences the
nature and amount of precipitation, the amount of loss of heat through radiation from the
earth’s surface, the surface temperature, the latent heat of the atmosphere, the stability and
instability of the air masses. Necessary energy for the development of storms (cyclones,
hurricanes etc.) is provided by the water vapour in the form of latent heat energy.
The Water Cycle

There is a constant and continuous circulation of water from the Earth’s surface to the
atmosphere and back to the Earth’s surface. This circulation of water is called the water cycle
or the hydrological cycle. The water cycle has no beginning or end, rather it is an intricate
combination of evaporation, transpiration, air mass movement, condensation, precipitation,
run-off and groundwater movement.
The Sun's heat provides energy to evaporate water from the Earth's surface (oceans, lakes,
etc.). Plants also lose water to the air (this is called transpiration). The water vapor eventually
condenses, forming tiny droplets in clouds. When the clouds meet cool air over land,
precipitation (rain, sleet, or snow) is triggered, and water returns to the land (or sea). Some of
the precipitation soaks into the ground. Some of the underground water is trapped between
rock or clay layers; this is called groundwater. But most of the water flows downhill as runoff
(above ground or underground), eventually returning to the seas as slightly salty water.
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N
Student Notes:
Humidity
Humidity refers to the amount of water vapour present in the atmosphere at a particular time
and place. Humidity in the air is due to the various processes of evaporation from the land and
water surfaces of the Earth. It can be expressed as an absolute, specific or a relative value.
Absolute Humidity
The Absolute Humidity is the weight of actual amount of water vapour present in a unit
volume of air. Generally it is expressed as grams per cubic meter of air. The absolute humidity
varies from place-to-place and from time-to-time. It decreases from the equator towards the
poles. . Generally, the absolute humidity changes as air temperature or pressure changes.
However, if temperature increases but there is no excess water for evaporation then absolute
humidity will not change.
Specific Humidity
The Absolute Humidity is the weight of actual amount of water vapour present in a unit weight
of air. Generally it is expressed as grams per kilogram of air.
Relative Humidity
Relative humidity is a better way of expressing the level of humidity in the air. It is the ratio of
actual amount of water vapour present in air at a given temperature to the amount of water
vapour air can hold at the same temperature. The Relative Humidity is expressed in
percentages.

( ℎ )
=

( ℎ ℎ ℎ ℎ )
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Generally capacity to hold water vapour increases with increase in temperature and decreases N
with decrease in temperature. Thus, the relative humidity of the air decreases with increase in Student Notes:
temperature and vice versa Changes in the Relative Humidity of Air1
Changes in Relative Humidity can occur in the following three ways:
I. The temperature remaining the same and amount of water vapour in air increases. Its
relative humidity will also increase.
II. When the temperature of air rises its humidity retentive capacity also rises
correspondingly and the Relative Humidity decreases.
III. If the temperature of air decreases its humidity retentive capacity also decreases and
Relative Humidity increases.
Significance of relative humidity
The absolute humidity determines the amount of precipitation while the relative humidity tells
us about the possibility of precipitation. The high and low relative humidity indicates the
possibility of wet and dry conditions respectively. Evaporation decreases when there is high
relative humidity and vice versa. Relative humidity is directly related to human health. That is
why, the equatorial region with high temperature and high relative humidity, and the tropical
hot deserts with very low relative humidity are unfavourable for human health.
Absolute Humidity Relative Humidity
It helps us to know the actual amount of It shows the ratio of water vapour actually
water vapour present in air. present in the air at a given temperature to the
retentive capacity of humidity of the same parcel
of air at the same temperature.
It does not take temperature into account. It takes temperature into account.
It is expressed in grams per cubic metre. It is expressed in percentages.
It Is not a useful measure of humidity It is a useful measure of humidity because it can

because it does not tell us the amount of show how far the air is humid.
water vapour required for the air to
become saturated.
The horizontal distribution of relative humidity

The equatorial region is characterized by the highest relative humidity. Relative humidity
gradually decreases towards the Tropical high pressure belts (between 25°—35° latitudes) .
After this, the relative humidity again increases polewards. The zones of high and low relative
humidity shift northward and southward with the apparent migration of the Sun, during the
summer and winter solstices respectively. Relative humidity is maximum in the mornings and
minimum in the evenings.
Evaporation
The process of transformation of liquid (water) into gaseous form (water vapour) is called
evaporation. The amount and rate of evaporation at a particular place depend upon the aridity
1
If any question based on change of a property(say temperature) is asked consider other factors (say
moisture) as constant unless otherwise specified.
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(vapour pressure), temperature and the movement of air. Evaporation is faster in dry air than N
in the wet air. There is more evaporation from the ocean than from the land. A special case of Student Notes:
evaporation is transpiration which entails loss of water from the leaves and stems of the
plants.
Condensation
The process of transforming of water vapour into water (liquid) and ice (solid) is called
condensation. Condensation takes place due to the loss of heat and can occur in one of the
following ways: a. When the warm moist air rises upwards and expands. b. When the warm
moist air comes in contact with the cold surface. c. When the warm moist air mixes with the air
coming from the colder regions.
Latent heat: At the time of evaporation, heat is absorbed and conserved in water vapour
(This is why Evaporation leads to cooling). It is known as latent heat. It is this same heat which
is released when water vapour again changes into water through the process of condensation.
Latent heat is essential for development of typhoons (storms, cyclones).
Saturated Air: If at any given temperature the humidity retentive capacity of air equals its
absolute humidity the air is said to be saturated. In other words the same parcel of air can no
longer absorb or accept any further amount of water vapour at the same temperature. 100 per
cent humid air is called saturated air.
Hygroscopic Nuclei: Condensation always takes place around some particles present in air.
These may be dust particles, smoke, oceanic salts or carbon dioxide which act as nuclei to hold
water. They are thus called condensation nuclei or hygroscopic nuclei.
Dew point
Condensation of water vapour in the atmosphere begins when the saturated air mass reaches
the dew point. This is level at which the air is not in a position to take up any more moisture.
Any further fall in temperature, beyond the dew point, would cause the condensation of the
moisture present in the air. In the atmosphere, the nuclei for the condensation of the moisture
is provided by the smoke and the dust particles.
Once the condensation of water vapour in the atmosphere has taken place, the moisture
present in the atmosphere may take one of the following forms— dew, frost, fog, mist, clouds,
etc. This will be according to the conditions prevalent in the atmosphere.
Dew
When the relative humidity of the air is low, even a drop in temperature during the winter
nights fails to saturate the air. Hence condensation does not take place in free air but on some
solid objects like leaves, flowers, grass blades, pieces of rocks, etc., which become
comparatively cool due to the quick radiation at night. When the cool air comes in contact with
these objects, the dew point is reached and condensation takes place. The deposition of water
droplets on these objects is called dew.
Some favourable conditions for the formation of dew are the following:
1) Long Nights: During long nights earth’s surface is cooled. With the coming into contact
of humid air with this surface, condensation occurs.
2) Cloudless Clear Sky: On account of cloudless and clear sky there is more heating during
the day. Hence evaporation will also be more and also rapid cooling of surface at night
due to terrestrial radiation.
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3) Calm Air: Calm air remains in contact with the surface for longer duration. It is a N
favourable condition for condensation. Student Notes:
4) Relative Humidity: High relative humidity promotes more condensation. That is why
condensation can be more in the months of August -September in India.
Frost
Frost is actually frozen dew. It is formed when temperature of dew point fall below freezing
point. Under such conditions droplets of condensation near or on the ground are frozen.
Generally for formation of dew and frost the conditions are similar. Only temperature should
fall below freezing point for the formation of frost
Dew Frost
It can be seen as droplets of water on leaves of It can be found on solid surfaces of earth’s
small plants or blades of grass. crust as ice or snow crystal.
It Is formed when temperature of dew point is It is formed when temperature is below

above freezing point. freezing point.
It is useful for plants. It is harmful for plant growth.
Fog
Fog is a special type of thin cloud consisting of very small water droplets which remain
suspended in air close to the surface of the Earth. Fog is formed due to condensation of water
droplets suspended in the atmosphere in the vicinity of the earth’s surface under certain
conditions, such as low temperature and high relative humidity.. During the winter season,
excessive radiation at night results in the fall of air temperature. The condensation of water
vapour takes place around the dust and smoke particles that remain suspended in the air. It is
called fog. The formation of fog near the surface of the Earth does not involve ascent and
consequent expansion of air. The visibility is greatly reduced (less than one km).
Fog is of three types:
1) Radiation Fog: The surface is cooled at night due to terrestrialradiation and the air
which come into contact with it also gets cooled. Consequently tiny droplets forming
the clouds are called radiation fog. It is not very thick and this thickness varies from 10
to 30 metres.
2) Advection Fog: It is formed when there is fall in temperature of warm moist air
moving horizontally over a cold surface. It is cooled by contact and sometimes by
mixing with cold air prevailing over cold surfaces.
3) Frontal or Precipitation Fog: The dividing line separating cold and warm air
masses are known as fronts. At these fronts convergence of warm and cold air takes
place and fog is formed. The warm air in the frontal area is light and rises above the
cold air mass. It then begins to cool and when the temperature reaches dew point,
frontal fog is formed.
Impact of Fog
Fog hinders travel by land, air and sea. When the fog is polluted it becomes poisonous and
causes serious health hazards. Agriculture sector is also affected since fog adversely hits late-
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sowing crops. Fog is beneficial to the tea and coffee plants as it protects them from the N
scorching sunlight on the hill slopes. Student Notes:
Mist
It is also a type of fog but is relatively less dense. The only difference between mist and fog is
density and its effect on visibility. A cloud that reduces visibility to less than 1 km is called fog,
whereas it's called mist if visibility range is between 1 and 2 km. Mists are frequent over
mountains as the rising warm air up the slopes meets a cold surface. Fogs are drier than mist
and they are prevalent where warm currents of air come in contact with cold currents. Mist
can occur as part of natural weather or volcanic activity or could be created artificially.
Smog
It refers to a mixture of smoke and fog. It also results from sun’s effect on certain pollutants in
the air, notably those from automobile exhaust. There are two main types of smog—
photochemical and industrial.
The photochemical smog is a mixture of primary and secondary pollutants. The primary
pollutants are hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides and their main source is the motor vehicles.
The secondary pollutants are formed when sunlight acts upon motor vehicle exhaust gases to
form harmful substances such as ozone (O3), aldehydes and peroxyacetylnitrate (PAN).
Photochemical smog formation requires (1)a still, sunny day and (2)temperature inversion
(pollutants accumulate in the lower inversion layer). The photochemical smog directly affect
lungs and eyes, causing irritation in these organs.
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The industrial smog is a mixture of sulphur dioxide and a variety of solid and liquid N
particles suspended in air.It comes from the stationary sources, such as furnaces, power plants, Student Notes:
etc., than from motor vehicles. Sulphur dioxide in combination with water and oxygen can turn
into sulphuric acid in the atmosphere and falls on the earth as acid rain. It can dissolve marble
and eat away iron and steel. In human it can affect the respiratory system.
Photochemical smog
Industrial smog
Name: (Los Angeles smog, Denver smog, brown
(New York smog, gray smog)
smog)
Weather: cool, damp sunny
Content: particulates, sulfur oxides NOx, ozone, hydrocarbons, PAN
Sources: coal, etc. gasoline(Petrol), combustion.
Haze is traditionally an atmospheric phenomenon where dust, smoke and other dry particles
obscure the clarity of the sky. The World Meteorological Organization manual of codes includes
a classification of horizontal obscuration into categories of fog, ice fog, steam fog, mist, haze,
smoke, volcanic ash, dust, sand and snow. Sources for haze particles include farming (ploughing
in dry weather), traffic, industry, and wildfires. One way to distinguish between smog and
naturally-occurring haze is by color. Natural haze is typically white, gray or even blue. Smog is
almost always yellowish or brown in color.
The international definition of fog is a visibility of less than 1 kilometre; mist is a visibility of
between 1 kilometre and 2 kilometres and haze from 2 kilometres to 5 kilometres . Fog and
mist are generally assumed to be composed principally of water droplets, haze and smoke can
be of smaller particle size.
Atmospheric Brown Cloud (ABC)/ Asian brown cloud

The ABC originally referred to the enormous blanket of pollution spreading across Asia,
distorting normal weather patterns in the region and threatening to devastate many countries’
economies. It was called the ‘Asian Brown Cloud’ in 2002, when a UN report first warned of this
layer of pollution comprising ash, acids and aerosols. At that time, the two-mile thick haze
extended ominously across the most densely populated areas of the world: southern, south-
eastern, and eastern Asia. Subsequently, however, similar patterns were detected elsewhere in
the world and it was renamed ‘Atmospheric Brown Cloud’.
Asia is particularly vulnerable as the ABC causes changes in the winter monsoon season, sharply
reducing rain over northwestern parts of the continent and increasing rain along the eastern
coast. However, India's scientific community have said the atmospheric brown clouds over Asia
are a seasonal, temporary phenomena which may look bad, but have none of the catastrophic
implications mentioned in the UN report.
Clouds
When the moist air ascends, it expands, loses temperature, becomes cool, and gets saturated.
With further decrease in temperature beyond the dew point, condensation of the moisture
takes place high up in the air and it results in the formation of clouds. Clouds are droplets of
water or tiny ice crystals which collect around the dust particles present in the atmosphere.
The water droplets and tiny ice crystals that remain suspended in the air can be disturbed by
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the slightest movement of the air. All forms of precipitation occur from the clouds. It should N
be noted that not all clouds yield precipitation but no precipitation is possible without the Student Notes:
clouds. The clouds play a major role in the heat budget of the Earth and the atmosphere, as
they reflect, absorb and diffuse some part of the incoming solar radiation. They also absorb a
part of the outgoing terrestrial radiation and then re-radiate it back to the Earth’s surface.
Whenever there are clouds in the sky, some sort of precipitation always occurs, although we do
not feel it on the Earth. Much of it is re-evaporated during its descent through the warm and
dry air. Clouds are more common on the windward slopes of the mountains than on the
leeward slopes. Clouds are more frequent during the cyclones than during the anticyclones.
Types of Clouds
Luke Howard, an English biologist, was the first to classify clouds in 1803. He used Latin names
which are still in vogue. Clouds are usually classified on the basis of altitude, shape, expanse,
density, colour, transparency, opaqueness, moisture content, etc. They exist at various
elevations from the sea level to about 20 km above the sea level. There are three basic groups
depending upon the height and shape of clouds. These are the cirrus clouds, the cumulus
clouds and the stratus clouds.
(1) Cirrus (curl of hair) Clouds:
Cirrus clouds are formed at high altitudes (8,000 - 12,000m). Being at considerable height these
clouds are formed of ice crystals and therefore are white and thin. They are detached, fibrous,
feathery, often with silky sheen in direct sunlight.
(2) Cumulus (heap) Clouds:
Cumulus clouds look like cotton wool. They are generally formed at a height of 4,000 -7,000 m.
They exist in patches and can be seen scattered here and there. With a flat base on rising they
appear like domes at the top. Their appearance and structure is like that of a Cauliflower.
(3) Stratus (layer) Clouds:
As their name implies, these are layered clouds covering large portions of the sky. These clouds
are generally formed either due to loss of heat or the mixing of air masses with different
temperatures.
The rain bearing clouds are generally the low level clouds and are given the prefix or suffix-
‘nimbus’, a Latin word meaning a rainy cloud.
Note: Whichever clouds you see in the sky these might be one or more of their types or their
combinations or even in changed appearances.
International Classification of Clouds

The World Meteorological Organisation presented a detailed International Atlas of Clouds
mentioning three main groups and ten main types of clouds.
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Cloud Height in Cloud Types N

Group meters Student Notes:
High 6000-12000 1. Cirrus High-level clouds form above 6,000

Clouds 2. Cirrostratus2 meters and since the temperatures
= Cirrus 3. Cirrocumulus are so cold at such high elevations,
these clouds are primarily composed
of ice crystals. High-level clouds are
typically thin and white in
appearance, but can appear in a
magnificent array of colors when the
sun is low on the horizon.
Middle 2000-6000 4. Altostratus The bases of mid-level clouds

Clouds 5. Altocumulus typically appear between 2,000 to
= Alto 6,000 meters. Because of their lower
altitudes, they are composed
primarily of water droplets, however,
they can also be composed of ice
crystals when temperatures are cold
enough.
Low below 2000 6. Stratus Low clouds are of mostly composed

Clouds 7. Stratocumulus of water droplets since their bases
= Stratus 8. Nimbostratus generally lie below 2,000 meters.
However, when temperatures are
cold enough, these clouds may also
contain ice particles and snow.
Clouds with 9. Cumulus Probably the most familiar of the classified clouds is
Vertical 10. Cumulonimbus the cumulus cloud. Generated most commonly
Growth through either thermal convection or frontal lifting,
these clouds can grow to heights in excess of 12,000
meters, releasing incredible amounts of energy
through the condensation of water vapor within the
cloud itself.
Special Mammatus
Clouds
Lenticular
Fog
Contrails
2
Sun’s Halo is produced by the ice crystals in cirrostratus clouds high (5–10 km) in the upper
troposphere.
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N
Student Notes:
Precipitation
The process of continuous condensation in free air helps the condensed particles to grow in size. When
the resistance of the air fails to hold them against the force of gravity, they fall on to the earth’s surface.
So after the condensation of water vapour, the release of moisture is known as precipitation.
This may take place in liquid or solid form. The precipitation in the form of water is called rainfall,
when the temperature is lower than the 00C, precipitation takes place in the form of fine flakes of snow
and is called snowfall. Moisture is released in the form of hexagonal crystals. These crystals form
flakes of snow. Usually the amount of snowfall is included in the rainfall figures. Besides rain
and snow, other forms of precipitation are sleet and hail, though the latter are limited in occurrence
and are sporadic in both time and space.
Sleet: Snow is not frozen rain. The term sleet is used for the frozen raindrops and the re-
frozen melted snow water in the cold layer of the air near the Earth’s surface. Sleet also refers
to a mixture of snow and rain.
Hailstones: Sometimes, drops of rain after being released by the clouds become solidified into
small rounded solid pieces of ice and which reach the surface of the earth are called hailstones.
Hailstone mostly in the cumulo-nimbus clouds. Small droplets of water are formed in the lower
part of the clouds due to condensation. Many of these small droplets join together to form
large ones. The strong rising convection current carries these raindrops to the higher levels,
which causes freezing and gives rise to small ice pellets. The strength of the vertical current is
highly variable. Thus the ice pellets are not taken up continuously. They fall for some distance,
slightly melt at the lower levels and are carried up again. This happens several times until the
weight of the ice pellets becomes so heavy that they cannot be carried up by the current.
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Ultimately these ice pellets fall as hailstones on the Earth. Hailstones have several concentric N
layers of ice one over the other. The size of the halistones depends upon the amount of ice it Student Notes:
collects during its ascent and descent in the atmosphere by the convection current.
Hailstones occur widely in the world, except in the polar regions, the hot deserts and the
equatorial region. The occurrence of hailstones is common during the spring and the early
summer in the sub tropical and the temperate regions.
Necessary conditions for RAINFALL

(a) there should be sufficient amount of evaporation from the water bodies( airmass must
be saturated with water vapour)
(b) there should be wind to carry the water vapour from one place to another, and
(c) there should be some way of decreasing the temperature of the moist air.
The rainfall does not occur unless these cloud droplets become so large that the air is not able
to hold them in suspension. Rainfall occurs only when the cloud droplets change to raindrops.
The diameter of a raindrop is about 5 mm and one raindrop contains about 8 million cloud
droplets.
Types of Rainfall
According to the way, the cooling of the warm moist airmass takes place, the rainfall can be of
the following three types: -
Convectional Rainfall
As it rises, it expands and loses heat and consequently, condensation takes place and cumulous
clouds are formed. With thunder and lightening, heavy rainfall takes place but this does not last
long. Such rain is common in the summer or in the hotter part of the day. It is very common in
the equatorial regions and interior parts of the continents, particularly in the northern
hemisphere.
In the equatorial regions convectional rainfall is received almost daily in the afternoons. In
these regions ground starts heating up early morning and by afternoon convectional currents
start rising. The whole sky soon is overcast with clouds. Late in the afternoon thunderstorms
and lightning occur. It generally happens regularly at 4 P.M. throughout the year. For this
reason it is also called 4’O clock rainfall.
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Orographic Rain N
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It is also known as the relief rain. When the saturated air mass comes across a mountain, it is
forced to ascend and as it rises, it expands; the temperature falls, and the moisture is
condensed. The chief characteristic of this sort of rain is that the windward slopes receive
greater rainfall. After giving rain on the windward side, when these winds reach the other
slope, they descend, and their temperature rises. Then their capacity to take in moisture
increases and hence, these leeward slopes remain rainless and dry. The area situated on the
leeward side, which gets less rainfall is known as the rain-shadow area. For example,
Mahabaleshwar lying on the windwardside of Western Ghats receives annual rainfall of about
622 cm as against Pune on the leeward side only 70 km away from Mahabaleshwar receives
only 66 cm annual rainfall.
The windward slope of a mountain, at the time of rainfall, has cumulus clouds while the
leeward slope has stratus clouds. The orographic rainfall may occur in any season. It is longer
duration. The orographic rainfall is supported by convectional and cyclonic processes of
condensation. Most of the precipitation in the world is orographic in nature.
In India, Cherrapunji in Meghalaya plateau, the Western Ghats and the entire Himalayan region
receive Orographic Rainfall.
Cyclonic or Frontal Rainfall

Cyclones have low pressure at the centre, surrounded by high pressure. When wind from all
directions blow towards centre, air masses of different characteristics meet creating fronts. The
warm air being the lighter, rises above the cold air. The rising warm air cools and condensation
takes place, causing rainfall.
This type of rainfall is associated with temperate and tropical cyclones. Since the lifting of warm
air along the warm front of the temperate cyclone is slow and gradual, the condensation is also
slow and gradual. Thus the precipitation occurs in the form of drizzle3, It is widespread and
continues for a longer duration. Most of the rainfall in the temperate region is received through
frontal or cyclonic rains.
The tropical cyclone, regionally known as typhoons, hurricanes, tornadoes, etc., yield heavy
downpour in China, Japan, Southeast Asia, India, USA, etc.
3
When the drops of rain are very small, it is called drizzle.
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Distribution of Precipitation
The mean annual rainfall on Earth is about 100 cm but different places on the earth’s surface
receive different amounts of rainfall in a year and that too in different seasons. Factors
controlling the distribution of rainfall over the earth's surface are the belts of converging-
ascending air flow (doldrums; polar front etc.), air temperature, moisture-bearing winds,
ocean currents, distance inland from the coast, and mountain ranges. In general, as we
proceed from the equator towards the poles, rainfall goes on decreasing steadily. The coastal
areas of the world receive greater amounts of rainfall than the interior of the continents. The
rainfall is more over the oceans than on the landmasses of the world because of being great
sources of water. Between the latitudes 350 and 400 N and S of the equator, the rain is
heavier on the eastern coasts and goes on decreasing towards the west. But, between 450
and 650 N and S of equator, due to the westerlies, the rainfall is first received on the western
margins of the continents and it goes on decreasing towards the east. Wherever mountains run
parallel to the coast, the rain is greater on the coastal plain, on the windward side and it
decreases towards the leeward side.
On the basis of the total amount of annual precipitation, major precipitation regimes of the
world are identified as follows.
Areas of Heavy Rainfall: The regions receiving more than 200 cm of annual precipitation are
included in this belt. The main areas are the equatorial belt, the mountain slopes along the
western coasts in the cool temperate zone and the coastal areas of the monsoon lands.
Areas of Moderate Rainfall: The regions receiving 100 cm to 200 cm of annual precipitation are
included in this belt. The main areas lie adjacent to the regions of heavy rainfall. The coastal
areas in the warm temperate zone also receive moderate precipitation.
Areas of Low Rainfall: The regions receiving 50 cm to 100 cm of annual precipitation are
included in this belt. The main areas lie in the central part of the tropical lands and in the
eastern and the interior parts of the temperate lands.
Areas of Scanty Rainfall: The regions receiving less than 50 cm of annual precipitation are
included in this belt. The main areas are the rain shadow areas on the leeward slopes of the
mountain ranges, the interior of the continents, the lands in the high latitudes, western
margins of the continents in the tropical areas and the arid deserts.
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Seasonal Distribution of Rainfall

The conditions, which can cause precipitation, do not exist in the same combination
throughout the year. This leads to the variations in the seasonal distribution of rainfall.
However, most of the areas in the world receive a major part of the precipitation during the
summer season.
The main characteristics of the seasonal distribution of rainfall
 Heavy rainfall occurs throughout the year in the equatorial region.
 A few degrees north or south of the equator have wet summers and dry winters.
 The monsoon circulation brings more seasonal contrasts resulting in wet summers, as the
wind blows onshore, and dry winters as the wind blows offshore.
 Seasonal variation, due to the monsoons, is well-developed in the Indian Subcontinent and
in Southeast Asia.
 Most of the western coastal areas in the mid- latitudes have dry summers and wet winters
due to the presence of the sub-tropical high pressure belts.
 In the temperate region the precipitation is cyclonic in nature and the cyclones are more
common in the winter season. Thus heavy rainfall occurs in winters and not in summers.
The monthly distribution of precipitation throughout the year is often more significant than the
average annual precipitation because rainfall is important for the various human activities,
especially agriculture. The dependence on rainfall is a matter of great concern to farmers in the
sub-humid and semi-arid lands where any departure from the normal regime may result in crop
failure.
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Clouds
1. Which one of the following statements is correct?
(a) Circus clouds are composed office crystals
(b) Cirrus clouds exhibit a flat base and have the appearance of rising domes
(c) Cumulus clouds are white and thin and form delicate patches and give a fibrous and
feathery appearance
(d) Cumulus clouds are classified as high clouds. (2004)
2. Sun’s halo is produced by the refraction of light in
(a) Water vapour in Stratus clouds
(b) Ice crystals in Cirro-Cumulus clouds
(c) Ice crystals in Cirrus clouds
(d) Dust particles in Stratus clouds (2004)
Precipitation: Distribution
3. "Assertion (A): Bangalore received much higher average rainfall than that of
Mangalore.
Reason (R): Bangalore has the benefit of receiving rainfall both from south – west and
north – east monsoons." (2004)
4. "Assertion (A): The eastern coast of India produces more rice than the western coast.
Reason (R): The eastern coast receives more rainfall than the western coast." (2003)

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VISIONIAS ™
www.visionias.in
GEOGRAPHY: 12 OCEAN BASICS AND OCEAN RESOURCES
Contents:
1. Ocean Basics
1.1. Relief of the Ocean Floor
1.1.1.Continental Shelf
1.1.2.Continental Slope
1.1.3.Continental Rise
1.1.4.Deep Sea Plain
1.1.5.Oceanic deeps or Trenches
1.2. Minor relief features of the Ocean Floor
1.3. The Oceanic Deposits of the Ocean Floor
1.4. Temperature
1.4.1.Factors affecting Temperature Distribution
1.4.2.Vertical Distribution of Temperature
1.4.3.Horizontal Distribution of temperature
1.5. Salinity
1.5.1.Factors affecting ocean salinity
1.5.2.Vertical Distribution of Salinity
1.5.3.Horizontal Distribution of Salinity
2. Movements of Ocean Water
2.1. Waves
2.1.1.Characteristics of waves
2.1.2.Wave Motion
2.2. Tides
2.2.1.Causes of Tides
2.2.2.Types of Tides
2.2.3.Tides based on frequency
2.2.4.Tides based on height
2.2.5.Characteristics of Tides

2.2.6.Importance of Tides
2.3. Ocean Currents
2.3.1.Causes of Ocean Currents
2.3.2.Types of Ocean Currents
2.3.3.Currents based on depth
2.3.4.Currents based on temperature
2.3.5.Characteristics of Ocean Currents
2.3.6.Currents of the Atlantic Ocean
2.3.7.Currents of the Pacific Ocean
2.3.8.Currents of the Indian Ocean
2.3.9.Effects of Ocean Currents
3. Ocean Resources
3.1. Fishing
3.1.1.Major Fishing grounds
3.2. Climate Buffer
3.3. Phytoplankton
3.4. Mining
3.4.1.Deep Sea Mining
3.4.2.Major Deep Sea Minerals
3.4.3.Constraints in Deep Sea mining
4. UPSC questions related to above topics

All rights are reserved. No part of this document may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or
transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise,
without prior permission of Vision IAS

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1] Ocean Basics
Water is an essential component of all life forms. The earth fortunately has an abundant supply
of water on its surface. Hence, our planet is called the Blue Planet. About 97 per cent of the
planetary water is found in the oceans. Oceans account for more than 70 per cent or 140
million square miles of the earth's surface.
Oceanography, the science of the oceans, has become such an important subject in recent
years and many researches into the deep seas have been conducted. The oceans, unlike the
continents, merge so naturally into one another that it is hard to demarcate them. The
geographers have divided the oceanic part of the earth into four oceans, namely the Pacific,
the Atlantic, the Indian and the Arctic.
1.1 Relief of the Ocean Floor

Ocean Floor refers to the land under the waters of the oceans. The ocean floor exhibits
complex and varied features similar to those observed over the land. The floors of the oceans
are rugged with the world’s largest mountain ranges, deepest trenches and the largest plains.
These features are formed, like those of the continents, by the factors of tectonic, volcanic and
depositional processes.
The ocean floors can be divided into following four major divisions:
1.1.1 Continental Shelf

The continental shelf is the extended margin of each continent occupied by relatively shallow
seas. It is the shallowest part of the ocean showing an average gradient of1° or even less. The
shelf typically ends at a very steep slope, called the shelf break.
The widths of the continental shelves vary from one ocean to another. The average width of
continental shelves is about 80 km. The shelves are almost absent or very narrow along some of
the margins like the coasts of Chile, the west coast of Sumatra, etc. On the contrary, the
Siberian shelf in the Arctic Ocean, the largest in the world, stretches to 1,500 km in width. The
depth of the shelves also varies. It may be as shallow as 30 m in some areas while in some areas
it is as deep as 600 m.
The continental shelves are covered with variable thicknesses of sediments brought down by
rivers, glaciers, wind, from the land and distributed by waves and currents. Massive
sedimentary deposits received over a long time by the continental shelves, become the source
of fossil fuels.
1.1.2 Continental Slope

The continental slope connects the continental shelf and the ocean basins (bottom of the
ocean). It begins where the bottom of the continental shelf sharply drops off into a steep slope.
The gradient of the slope region varies between 2-5°. The depth of the slope region varies
between 200 and 3,000m. The slope boundary indicates the end of the continents. Canyons
and trenches (discussed later in minor relief features of ocean floor) are observed in this region.
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1.1.3 Continental Rise
Where the continental slope ends, the gently sloping continental rise begins. Its general relief is
low and with increasing depth, the continental rise becomes virtually flat to merge with the
deep sea plains.
1.1.4 Deep Sea Plain

Deep sea plains are gently sloping areas of the ocean basins. These are the flattest and
smoothest regions of the world. The depths vary between 3,000 and 6,000m. These plains are
covered with fine-grained sediments like clay and silt.
Deep sea plains cover two-thirds of the ocean floor and are also known as abyssal plains. They
also contain features like ridges, guyots and oceanic islands that sometimes rise above the sea
level in the midst of oceans.
1.1.5 Oceanic deeps or Trenches

These areas are the deepest parts of the oceans. The trenches are relatively steep sided,
narrow basins. They are some 3-5 km deeper than the surrounding ocean floor. They occur at
the bases of continental slopes and along island arcs and are associated with active volcanoes
and strong earthquakes. That is why they are very significant in the study of plate movements.
As many as 57 deeps have been explored so far; of which 32 are in the Pacific Ocean; 19 in the
Atlantic Ocean and 6 in the Indian Ocean. The greatest known ocean deep is the Mariana
Trench near Guam Island, which is more than 36,000 feet deep.
Figure 1. Major relief features of the ocean floor.
1.2 Minor relief features of the Ocean Floor

Apart from the above mentioned major relief features of the ocean floor, following minor but
significant features predominate in different parts of the oceans:
1. Mid-oceanic ridges: A mid-oceanic ridge is composed of chains of mountains separated

by a large depression. Oceanic ridge is also known as an oceanic spreading center,
which is responsible for seafloor spreading. The uplifted sea floor results from
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convection currents which rise in the mantle as magma at a linear weakness in
the oceanic crust, and emerge as lava, creating new crust upon cooling. A mid-ocean
ridge demarcates the boundary between two tectonic plates, and consequently is
termed a divergent plate boundary.
The mountain ranges can have peaks as high as 2,500 m and some even reach above
the ocean’s surface. Iceland, a part of the mid-Atlantic Ridge, is an example.
2. Seamount: It is a mountain with pointed summits, rising from the seafloor that does
not reach the surface of the ocean. Seamounts are volcanic in origin. These can be
3,000-4,500 m tall. The Emperor seamount, an extension of the Hawaiian Islands in the
Pacific Ocean, is a good example.
3. Submarine canyons: These are deep valleys, found cutting across the continental
shelves and slopes, extending from the mouths of large rivers. The Hudson Canyon is
the best known submarine canyon in the world.
Figure 2. Minor Relief features of the ocean floor.
4. Guyots: It is a flat topped seamount. They show evidences of gradual subsidence

through stages to become flat topped submerged mountains. It is estimated that more
than 10,000 seamounts and guyots exist in the Pacific Ocean alone.
5. Atoll: These are low islands found in the tropical oceans consisting of coral reefs
surrounding a central depression. It may be a part of the sea (lagoon), or sometimes
form enclosing a body of fresh, brackish or highly saline water.
1.3 The Oceanic Deposits of the Ocean Floor

Materials eroded from the earth which are not deposited by rivers or at the coast are
eventually dropped on the ocean floor. The dominant process is slow sedimentation where the
eroded particles very slowly filter through the ocean water and settle upon one another in
layers. All oceanic deposits can be classified as follows:
1. Muds: These are terrigenous deposits because they are derived from land and are
mainly deposited on the continental shelves. The muds are referred to as blue, green or
red muds; their colouring depends upon their chemical content.
2. Oozes: These are pelagic deposits because they are derived from the oceans. They are
made of the shelly and skeletal remains of marine microorganisms with calcareous or
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siliceous parts. Oozes have a very fine, flour-like texture and either occur as
accumulated deposits or float about in suspension.
3. Clays: These occur mainly as red clays in the deeper parts of the ocean basins, and are
particularly abundant in the Pacific Ocean. Red clay is believed to be an accumulation of
volcanic dust blown out from volcanoes during volcanic eruptions.
1.4 Temperature
Like land masses, ocean water varies in temperature from place to place both at the surface
and at great depths. Ocean water gets heated by solar energy just as land. The process of
heating and cooling of the oceanic water is slower than land. This is due to higher specific heat
of water as compared to land as a result of which greater amount of energy is required to raise
the temperature of water as compared to land.
1.4.1 Factors affecting Temperature Distribution

The factors which affect the distribution of temperature of ocean water are:
1. Latitude: The temperature of surface water decreases from the equator towards the
poles because the amount of insolation decreases poleward.
2. Unequal distribution of land and water: The oceans in the northern hemisphere
receive more heat due to their contact with larger extent of land than the oceans in the
southern hemisphere.
3. Prevailing winds: The winds blowing from the land towards the oceans drive warm
surface water away from the coast resulting in the upwelling of cold water from below.
It results into the longitudinal variation in the temperature. Contrary to this, the
onshore winds pile up warm water near the coast and this raises the temperature.
4. Ocean currents: Warm ocean currents raise the temperature in cold areas while the
cold currents decrease the temperature in warm ocean areas.
All these factors influence the temperature of the ocean currents locally. The enclosed seas in
the low latitudes record relatively higher temperature than the open seas; whereas the
enclosed seas in the high latitudes have lower temperature than the open seas.
1.4.2 Vertical Distribution of Temperature

It is a well-known fact that the maximum temperature of the oceans is always at their surfaces
because they directly receive the heat from the sun and the heat is transmitted to the lower
sections of the oceans through the process of convection. It results into decrease of
temperature with the increasing depth, but the rate of decrease is not uniform throughout.
The temperature falls very rapidly up to the depth of 200 m and thereafter, the rate of decrease
of temperature is slowed down. The temperature profile of oceans shows a boundary region
between the surface waters of the ocean and the deeper layers. The boundary usually begins
around 100-400m below the sea surface and extends several hundred of metres downward.
This boundary region, from where there is a rapid decrease of temperature, is called the
thermocline. About 90 per cent of the total volume of water is found below the thermoclinein
the deep ocean. In this zone, temperatures approach 0°C.
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Figure 3. Variation of temperature with depth in oceans
The temperature structure of oceans over middle and low latitudes can be described asa
three-layer system from surface to the bottom:
 The first layer represents the top layer of warm oceanic water and it is about 500m
thick with temperatures ranging between 20° and25° C. This layer, within the tropical
region, is present throughout the year but in mid-latitudes it develops only during
summer.
 The second layer called the thermocline layer lies below the first layer and is
characterized by rapid decrease in temperature with increasing depth. The thermocline
is 500 -1,000 m thick.
 The third layer is very cold and extends up to the deep ocean floor. Here the
temperatures are close to 0° C.
In the Arctic and Antarctic circles, surface water temperatures are close to 0° C and so the
temperature change with the depth is very slight. Here, only one layer of cold water exists,
which extends from surface to deep ocean floor.
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1.4.3 Horizontal Distribution of temperature
The average temperature of surface water of the oceans is about 27°C and it gradually
decreases from the equator towards the poles. The rate of decrease of temperature with
increasing latitude is generally 0.5°C per latitude. The average temperature is around22°C at 20°
latitudes, 14° C at 40° latitudes and 0° C near poles.
The oceans in the northern hemisphere record relatively higher temperature than in the
southern hemisphere. The highest temperature is not recorded at the equator but slightly
towards north of it. The average annual temperatures for the northern and southern
hemisphere are around 19° C and 16°C respectively. This variation is due to the unequal
distribution of land and water in the northern and southern hemispheres.
Figure 4. Horizontal Distribution of temperature of oceans around the world
1.5 Salinity
Salinity is used to define the total content of dissolved salts in sea water. It is calculated as the
amount of salt (in gm) dissolved in 1,000 gm (1 kg) of seawater. It is usually expressed as parts
per thousand or ppt. Salinity is an important property of sea water. Salinity of 24.7 ppt has been
considered as the upper limit to demarcate brackish water(saltier than fresh water, but not as
salty as seawater).
1.5.1 Factors affecting ocean salinity

Major factors are as mentioned below:
 The salinity of water in the surface layer of oceans depends mainly on evaporation and
precipitation.
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 Surface salinity is greatly influenced in coastal regions by the fresh water flow from
rivers, and in polar-regions by the processes of freezing and thawing of ice.
 Wind also influences salinity of an area by transferring water to other areas.
 The ocean currents contribute to the salinity variations.
Salinity, temperature and density of water are interrelated. Hence, any change in the
temperature or density influences the salinity of water in an area.
1.5.2 Vertical Distribution of Salinity

Salinity changes with depth but the way it changes depends upon the location of the sea.
Salinity at the surface increases by loss of water to ice or evaporation, or decreases by the input
of fresh water, such as from the rivers. Salinity at depth is very much fixed, because there is no
way that water is lost, or the salt is added.
There is a marked difference in the salinity between the surface zones and the deep zones of
the oceans. The lower salinity water rests above the higher salinity dense water. Salinity,
generally, increases with depth and there is a distinct zone called the halocline, where salinity
increases sharply. Other factors being constant, increasing salinity of seawater causes its
density to increase. High salinity seawater, generally, sinks below the lower salinity water. This
leads to stratification by salinity.
1.5.3 Horizontal Distribution of Salinity

The salinity for normal open ocean ranges between 33 ppt and 37 ppt. In the land locked Red
sea, it is as high as 41 ppt, while in the estuaries and the Arctic, the salinity fluctuates from 0 –
35 ppt, seasonally. In hot and dry regions, where evaporation is high, the salinity sometimes
reaches to 70 ppt.
The salinity variation in the Pacific Ocean is mainly due to its shape and larger areal extent.
Salinity decreases from 35 ppt - 31 ppt on the western parts of the northern hemisphere
because of the influx of melted water from the Arctic region. In the same way, after 15° - 20°
south, it decreases to 33 ppt
The average salinity of the Atlantic Ocean is around 36 ppt. The highest salinity is recorded
between 15° and 20° latitudes. Maximum salinity (37 ppt) is observed between20° N and 30° N
and 20° W - 60° W. It gradually decreases towards the north. The North Sea, in spite of its
location in higher latitudes, records higher salinity due to more saline water brought by the
North Atlantic Drift. Baltic Sea records low salinity due to influx of river waters in large quantity.
The Mediterranean Sea records higher salinity due to high evaporation. Salinity is, however,
very low in Black Sea due to enormous fresh water influx by rivers.
The average salinity of the Indian Ocean is 35 ppt. The low salinity trend is observed in the Bay
of Bengal due to large influx of river water. On the contrary, the Arabian Sea shows higher
salinity due to high evaporation and low influx of fresh water.
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Figure 5. Surface salinity of World Oceans.
2] Movements of Ocean Water

Ocean water is dynamic. The horizontal motion refers to the ocean currents and waves. The
vertical motion refers to tides. The upwelling of cold water from subsurface and the sinking of
surface water are also forms of vertical motion of ocean water.
2.1 Waves
Waves are actually the energy, not the water as such, which moves across the ocean surface.
Water particles only travel in a small circle as a wave passes. Wind provides energy to the
waves. Wind causes waves to travel in the ocean and the energy is released on shorelines.
The motion of the surface water seldom affects the stagnant deep bottom water of the oceans.
As a wave approaches the beach, it slows down. This is due to the friction occurring between
the dynamic water and the sea floor and when the depth of water is less than half the
wavelength of the wave, the wave breaks. The largest waves are found in the open oceans.
Waves continue to grow larger as they move and absorb energy from the wind.
A wave’s size and shape reveal its origin. Steep waves are fairly young ones and are probably
formed by local wind. Slow and steady waves originate from faraway places, possibly from
another hemisphere. The maximum wave height is determined by the strength of the wind, i.e.
how long it blows and the area over which it blows in a single direction.
2.1.1 Characteristics of waves

Important terms associated with waves are:
 Wave crest and trough: The highest and lowest points of a wave are called the crest
and trough respectively.
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 Wave height: It is the vertical distance from the bottom of a trough to the top of a
crest of a wave.
 Wave amplitude: It is one-half of the wave height.
 Wave period: It is the time interval between two successive wave crests or troughs as
they pass a fixed point.
 Wavelength: It is the horizontal distance between two successive crests.
 Wave speed: It is the rate at which the wave moves through the water, and is
measured in knots.
 Wave frequency: It is the number of waves passing a given point during a one second
time interval.
2.1.2 Wave Motion

Waves travel because wind pushes the water body in its course while gravity pulls the crests of
the waves downward. The falling water pushes the former troughs upward, and the wave
moves to a new position. The actual motion of the water beneath the waves is circular. It
indicates that things are carried up and forward as the wave approaches, and down and back as
it passes.
Figure 6. Motion of waves and water molecules
2.2 Tides
The periodical rise and fall of the sea level, once or twice a day, mainly due to the attraction of
sun and the moon, is called a tide. Movement of water caused by meteorological effects (winds
and atmospheric pressure changes) are called surges. Surges are not regular like tides. The
study of tides is very complex, spatially and temporally, as it has great variations in frequency,
magnitude and height.
Causes of Tides
2.2.1 The moon’s gravitational pull to a great extent and to a lesser extent the sun’s
gravitational pull, are the major causes for the occurrence of tides. Another factor is centrifugal
force, which is the force that acts to counterbalance the gravity. Together, the gravitational pull
and the centrifugal force are responsible for creating the two major tidal bulges on the earth.
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Figure 7. Relation between gravitational forces and centrifugal forces
The ‘tide-generating’ force is the difference between the gravitational attraction of the moon
and the centrifugal force. On the surface of the earth, nearest the moon, pull or the attractive
force of the moon is greater than the centrifugal force, and so there is a net force causing a
bulge towards the moon.
On the opposite side of the earth, the attractive force is less, as it is farther away from the
moon, the centrifugal force is dominant. Hence, there is a net force away from the moon. It
creates the second bulge away from the moon.
2.2.2 Types of Tides

Tides vary in their frequency, direction and movement from place to place and also from time
to time. Tides may be grouped into various types based on their frequency of occurrence in one
day or based on their height.
2.2.3 Tides based on frequency
1. Semi-diurnal tide: The most common tidal pattern, featuring two high tides and two
low tides each day. The successive high or low tides are approximately of the same
height.
2. Diurnal tide: There is only one high tide and one low tide during each day. The
successive high or low tides are approximately of the same height.
3. Mixed tide: Tides having variations in height are known as mixed tides. These tides
generally occur along the west coast of North America and on many islands of the
Pacific Ocean.
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2.2.4 Tides based on height
The height of rising water (high tide) varies appreciably depending upon the position of sun and
moon with respect to the earth:
1. Spring tides: On full moon and new moon days, the Sun, the Moon and the Earth are
almost in the same line. On these days, the Sun and the Moon exert their combined
gravitational force on the Earth. Thus on these two days the high tides are the highest
and are known as spring tides. The height of a spring tide is about 20 per cent more
than the normal high tide. They occur twice every month.
2. Neap tides: On half Moon days (i.e. first and last quarter phases of the Moon), the Sun
and the Moon are at right angles to the centre of the Earth. The tide producing forces
of the Moon and the Sun, work in opposite directions and they partly cancel each
other's force. In such cases, the high tide is lower than the normal and low tide is
higher than the normal. The difference is about 20 per cent. This is known as the neap
tide.
2.2.5 Characteristics of Tides

 Tidal range: The difference between the high tide water and the low tide water is called
the tidal range. The time between the high tide and low tide, when the water level is
falling, is called the ebb. The time between the low tide and high tide, when the tide is
rising, is called the flow or flood.
Once in a month, when the moon’s orbit is closest to the earth (perigee), unusually high
and low tides occur. During this time the tidal range is greater than normal. Two weeks
later, when the moon is farthest from earth (apogee),the moon’s gravitation force is
limited and the tidal ranges are less than their average heights.
When the earth is closest to the sun (perihelion), around 3rd January each year, tidal
ranges are also much greater, with unusually high and unusually low tides. When the
earth is farthest from the sun (aphelion), around 4th July each year, tidal ranges are
much less than average.
 Tidal current: Tidal currents (a horizontal motion) are a result of the rise and fall of the
water level due to tides (a vertical motion). The effects of tidal currents on the
movement of water in and out of bays and harbours can be substantial.
The tidal bulges on wide continental shelves, have greater height. When tidal bulge shit
the mid-oceanic islands they become low. The shape of bays and estuaries along a
coastline can also magnify the intensity of tides. Funnel-shaped bays greatly change
tidal magnitudes. The highest tides in the world occur in the Bay of Fundy in Nova
Scotia, Canada. The tidal bulge is 15 - 16 m.
 Tidal bore: When the tide enters the narrow and shallow estuary of a river, the front of
the tidal wave appears to be vertical due to the piling up of the river water against the
tidal wave and the friction of the river bed. It looks as if a vertical wall of water is
moving upstream. This is called a tidal bore. In India tidal bores are common in the
Hugli River.
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2.2.6 Importance of Tides
Since tides are caused by the earth-moon-sun positions which are known accurately, the tides
can be predicted well in advance. This helps the navigators and fishermen plan their activities.
Some of the important activities associated with tides are:
1. Tidal flows are of great importance in navigation. Tidal heights are very important,
especially harbours near rivers and within estuaries having shallow ‘bars’ at the
entrance, which prevent ships and boats from entering into the harbour. Large ships
enter the harbour of a shallow sea during high tide and they go back also at the time
of high tide. London and I have become important ports due to the tidal nature of the
mouths of the Thames and Hugli rivers respectively.
2. The river mouths and estuaries are kept clean of sedimentation due to the action of
tidal currents. The force of the outgoing tide and the river current carries the silt away
to the open sea. This helps in navigation.
3. The tidal force can also be used as a source for generating electricity. A 3 MW tidal
power project at Durgaduani in Sunderbans of West Bengal is under way.
4. The inflow of the salty tidal water, especially along the coast of cold countries, retards
the process of freezing and prevents the harbours from becoming ice-bound.
5. The fishing industry is helped by the rhythm of high and low tides. The fishermen
mostly sail out to the open sea during low tides and return to the coast at high tides.
2.3 Ocean Currents

Ocean currents are like river flow in oceans. They represent a regular volume of water in a
definite path and direction.
2.3.1 Causes of Ocean Currents

Ocean currents are influenced by two types of forces namely:
 Primary forces that initiate the movement of water.

 Secondary forces that influence the currents to flow.
The forces that influence the currents are:
1. Heating by solar energy causes water to expand. That is why, near the equator the
ocean water is about 8 cm higher in level than in the middle latitudes. This causes a
very slight gradient and water tends to flow down the slope.
There is much difference in the temperature of ocean waters at the equator and at the
poles. As warm water is lighter and rises, and cold water is denser and sinks, warm
equatorial waters move slowly along the surface polewards, while the heavier cold
waters of the polar regions creep slowly along the bottom of the sea equatorwards.
2. Wind blowing on the surface of the ocean pushes the water to move. Friction between
the wind and the water surface affects the movement of the water body in its course.
Most of the ocean currents of the world follow the direction of the prevailing winds.
3. Coriolis force causes the water to move to the right in the northern hemisphere and to
the left in the southern hemisphere. These large accumulations of water and the flow
around them are called Gyres. These produce large circular currents in all the ocean
basins.
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4. Salinity of ocean water varies from place to place. Waters of high salinity are denser
than waters of low salinity. Hence on the surface, waters of low salinity flow towards
waters of high salinity while at the bottom, waters of high salinity flow towards waters
of low salinity.
5. The configuration of the coastline serves as an obstruction for the natural flow of
ocean currents and succeeds in changing its direction. This is quite conspicuous in the
equatorial region where the landmasses deflect the current towards the north and the
south.
2.3.2 Types of Ocean Currents

The ocean currents may be classified based on their depth or temperature.
2.3.3 Currents based on depth
1. Surface currents constitute about10 per cent of all the water in the ocean, these waters
are the upper 400 m of the ocean.
2. Deep water currents make up the other 90 per cent of the ocean water. Deep waters
sink into the deep ocean basins at high latitudes, where the temperatures are cold
enough to cause the density to increase.
2.3.4 Currents based on temperature
1. Cold currents bring coldwater into warm water areas. These currents are usually found
on the west coast of the continents in the low and middle latitudes (true in both
hemispheres) and on the east coast in the higher latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere.
2. Warm currents bring warm water into cold water areas and are usually observed on the
east coast of continents in the low and middle latitudes (true in both hemispheres). In
the northern hemisphere they are found on the west coasts of continents in high
latitudes.
2.3.5 Characteristics of Ocean Currents

The currents are strongest near the surface and may attain speeds over five knots. At depths,
currents are generally slow with speeds less than 0.5knots. The speed of a current is known as
its drift. Drift is measured in terms of knots. The strength of a current refers to the speed of the
current. A fast current is considered strong. A current is usually strongest at the surface and
decreases in strength (speed) with depth. Most currents have speeds less than or equal to 5
knots.
2.3.6 Currents of the Atlantic Ocean

Major currents of the Atlantic Ocean are:
North and South Equatorial Current
 To the north and south of the equator, there are two westward moving currents-the
North Equatorial Current and the South Equatorial Current.
 Due to the rotation of the Earth (Coriolis Effect), these currents move almost due west
along the equator.
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 The North Equatorial Current moves northwards due to the presence of the South
American continent and the Coriolis force, and takes the north-west direction. It enters
the Gulf of Mexico to form the Gulf Stream.
 The South Equatorial Current originates from the western coast of Africa, from where it
moves towards South America.
 The east coast of Brazil obstructs the South Equatorial Current which then bifurcates
into two branches.
 The northward branch merges with the North
 Equatorial Current, while the second branch flows along the east coast of Brazil and is
known as the Brazilian Current.
 The North Equatorial Current and the South Equatorial Current are warm currents.
Gulf Stream
 The Gulf Stream is one of the largest warm currents. It originates from the Gulf of
Mexico (about 20° N) and moves in a north-easterly direction along the eastern coast of
North America.
 The average speed is about 33 km per day and its average width is about 70 km.
 Under the impact of the Westerlies, this warm current reaches the western coast of
Europe (about 70° N latitude).
 The general direction of flow of the Gulf Stream, north of 30° N latitude, is northward.
 Near Newfoundland, its water mixes with the cold water of the Labrador Current, which
forms very dense fog. The foggy conditions around Newfoundland hamper the
navigation of ships.
 From here, the Gulf Stream moves northeastwards.
 This current gradually widens and its speed decreases. It becomes a prominent, slow-
moving current known as the North Atlantic Drift.
 Near Western Europe, it splits into two parts. One part moves northwards, past UK and
Norway, while the other part is deflected southwards as the cold Canary Current.
 The warm water of the Gulf Stream modifies the weather conditions off the eastern
coast of North America and the western coast of Europe.
 On the western coast of Europe, the seaports remain open even in the severe winter
season due to the warm water of the Gulf Stream.
Labrador Current
 The cold Labrador Current of the North Atlantic Ocean, has its origin in the Arctic
Ocean.
 This current flows from north to south between Greenland and the Baffin islands.
 The Labrador Current merges with the Gulf Stream near Newfoundland.
 This helps in the growth of plankton- a feed for fish. Thus the Grand Banks near
Newfoundland have become the ideal fishing ground in the world.
 The average speed of the Labrador Current is about 25 km per day.
 This current brings huge icebergs with it from the Arctic Ocean.
Canary Current
 The Canary Current is a cold current and flows along the western coast of Spain and
Portugal and the north-west coast of North Africa. .
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 The average speed of this current is about 45 km per day.
 The relative coolness of the Canary Current reduces the relative humidity and thus
causes scanty rainfall in the greater parts of the Sahara Desert.
Brazil Current
 The Brazil Current is a warm current and flows southward along the east coast of South
America (about 40° S latitude).
 The average speed of the Brazil Current is about 30 km per day.
 From 40° S, it is deflected eastwards due to the Earth's rotation and flows in easterly
direction.
 It modifies the weather conditions along the eastern coasts of Brazil and Argentina.
Falkland Current
 The cold waters of the Antarctic Sea flow as Falkland Current from south to north along
the eastern coast of South America up to Argentina.
 The Falkland Current brings huge icebergs from the Antarctic region to the South
American coast.
Benguela Current
 The Benguela Current is a cold current which originates in the Antarctic region and
flows along the coast of south-west Africa.
 The Benguela Current helps in reducing the relative humidity of the eastward moving
warm and moist air masses.
 The Kalahari Desert is largely formed under the influence of this current.
 Further northwards, the Benguela Current merges with the South Equatorial Current.
South Atlantic Drift
 The eastward continuation of the Brazil Current is called the South Atlantic Drift or the
West Wind Drift.
 It develops at about 40° S latitude due to the impact of the Westerlies.
 The eastward movement is due to the Earth's rotation.
2.3.7 Currents of the Pacific Ocean

Major currents of the Pacific Ocean are:
North Equatorial Current
 The North Equatorial Current is a warm current which originates off the western coast
of Mexico and flows in the westerly direction.
 It runs parallel to the equator and reaches the islands of Philippines after covering a
distance of about 12,000 km.
 Near Philippines, under the impact of Coriolis force, it turns northwards.
 One branch of the North Equatorial Current flows northward to join the Kuroshio
Current, while the southern branch turns eastwards to form the Counter Equatorial
Current.
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South Equatorial Current
 The South Equatorial Current is a warm current which originates due to the influence of
South-east Trade winds and flows from east to west.
 It bifurcates into northern and southern branches near New Guinea.
 The northern branch turns eastward and joins the Counter Equatorial Current, while
the southern branch flows along the north-eastern coast of Australia.
Kuroshio Current
 Kuroshio Current is an important warm current, which develops partly due to the
Coriolis force and partly due to the obstruction by the Philippines in the flow of the
North Equatorial Current.
 The average velocity is about 30 km per day and the average surface temperature is
about 20°C.
 This current keeps the eastern coast of Japan warm even in the coldest month
(January), when it is snowing heavily in Honshu and Hokkaido.
 A branch of Kuroshio Current enters the Sea of Japan as Tsushima Current and keeps
the western coast of Japan comparatively warm.
 Around 35° N, the Kuroshio current comes under the impact of the Westerlies and
flows in the north-east direction to reach the western coast of North America.
 Further northwards, it is known as the Aleutian Current.
Kurile or Oyashio Current
 The Kurile or Oyashio Current is a cold current which originates from the Bering Strait
and moves southwards along the coast of the Kamchatka peninsula to touch the island
of Kurile.
 It carries with it the cold water and icebergs from the Arctic Ocean to the coast of
eastern Russia and Japan.
 Near 50° N latitude, it is bifurcated into two branches. One of them merges with
Kuroshio Current and creates dense fog which is hazardous to navigation, but ideal for
abundant growth of plankton.
 Thus the north-eastern coast of the Japanese islands is an important fishing ground in
the world.
 The second branch moves up to the Japanese coast.
 The Oyashio Current is comparable to the Labrador Current of the North Atlantic
Ocean.
California Current
 The California Currents is a cold current which flows southwards along the Pacific
coastline of USA, and is comparable to the Canary Current of the Atlantic Ocean in most
of its characteristics.
 After reaching the Mexican coast, it turns westward and merges with the North
Equatorial Current.
 Dense sea fogs are experienced off the coast of San Francisco.
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Peru Current
 The Peru Current is a cold current, also known as the Humboldt Current, which flows
along the western coast of South America.
 It flows from south to north along the coast of Peru and is caused by the northward
deflection of the West Wind Drift.
 It affects the coastal climate of Chile and Peru.
East Australian Current
 The East Australian Current is a warm current which is the southern branch of the South
Equatorial Current, which flows from north to south along the eastern coast of
Australia.
 New Zealand is surrounded by this current.
 It raises the temperature along the east Australian and the New Zealand coasts for
considerable distance southwards.
West Wind Drift
 It is a strong, cold current, flowing from between Tasmania and South American coast.
 It flows under the influence of the Westerlies and is largely confined between 40° Sand
50° S latitudes.
 This current becomes very strong due to large volume of water and high velocity winds
(Roaring Forties).
 One of its branch enters the Atlantic Ocean through Cape Hom, and the other branch
turns northwards and joins the Peru Current.
Figure 8. Major Ocean currents
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2.3.8 Currents of the Indian Ocean
The ocean currents of the Indian Ocean are largely controlled and modified by the landmasses
and the Monsoon winds. The ocean currents of the North Indian Ocean flow under the
influence of the north-east and the south-west Monsoon winds. Thus the ocean currents
change the direction of flow twice a year.
The currents in the southern Indian Ocean follow the general pattern of other oceans and are
not affected by the seasonal changes in the direction of Monsoon winds.
Major currents of the Indian Ocean are:
North-east Monsoon Current
 In the winter season, the north-east Monsoon winds blow from land to ocean and from
the northeast to the south-west in the Northern Hemisphere.
 Under the influence of these winds, the ocean current also flows from the north-east to
the southwest.
South-west Monsoon Current
 There is a complete reversat in the direction of Monsoon winds during the summer
season and they blow from the south-west to the north-east in the Northern
Hemisphere.
 This also reverses the direction of the ocean current. Now the direction of the ocean
current also changes from the south-west to the northeast.
 Two branches of the main current move in the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal.
South Equatorial Current
 The warm South Equatorial Current flows from east to west between 10° Sand 15° S
latitudes from the western coast of Australia to the coast of Africa.
 After being obstructed by the Madagascar Island, this current is divided into many
branches.
 One major branch flows towards the south as the Agulhas Current.
Agulhas Current
 The Agulhas Current is a warm current which is a branch of the South Equatorial
Current which flows along the eastern coast of Madagascar.
 It continues southwards up to about 30° S, where it merges with the Mozambique
Current.
 Around 35° S latitude, it comes under the influence of the Westerlies and flows towards
the east.
Mozambique Current
 The Mozambique Current is a warm current which is the northern branch of the South
Equatorial Current which enters the Mozambique Channel around 10° S latitude.
 Moving southwards between Mozambique and Madagascar, it joins the Agulhas
Current around 30°S latitude.
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West Wind Drift
 The West Australian Current is a cold current is in the southern part of the Indian Ocean
and moves from west to east around 40° S latitude.
 The West Wind Drift develops under the influence of the Westerlies (Roaring Forties).
West Australian Current
 The West Australian Current is a cold current which flows along the western coast of
Australia.
 This current turns towards west and north-west near the Tropic of Capricorn and finally
merges with the South Equatorial Current.
 The second branch flows to the south of Australia and finally merges with the West
Wind Drift in the Pacific Ocean.
2.3.9 Effects of Ocean Currents

 The oceanic circulation transports heat from one latitude belt to another in a manner
similar to the heat transported by the general circulation of the atmosphere. The cold
waters of the Arctic and Antarctic circles move towards warmer water in tropical and
equatorial regions, while the warm waters of the lower latitudes move polewards.
 West coasts of the continents in tropical and subtropical latitudes (except close to the
equator) are bordered by cool waters. Their average temperatures are relatively low
with narrow diurnal and annual ranges. There is fog, but generally the areas are arid.
 West coasts of the continents in the middle and higher latitudes are bordered by warm
waters which cause a distinct marine climate. They are characterised by cool summers
and relatively mild winters with a narrow annual range of temperatures.
 Warm currents flow parallel to the east coasts of the continents in tropical and
subtropical latitudes. This results in warm and rainy climates. These areas lie in the
western margins of the subtropical anti-cyclones.
 The mixing of warm and cold currents help to replenish the oxygen and favour the
growth of planktons, the primary food for fish population. The best fishing grounds of
the world exist mainly in these mixing zones.
3] Ocean Resources
The ocean is one of Earth's most valuable natural resources. It provides food in the form of fish
and shellfish. It's used for transportation—both travel and shipping. It provides a treasured
source of recreation for humans. It is mined for minerals and drilled for crude oil. We discuss all
these in greater detail below:
3.1 Fishing
The oceans have been fished for thousands of years and are an integral part of human society.
Fish have been important to the world economy for all of these years. Fisheries of today
provide about 16% of the total world's protein with higher percentages occurring in developing
nations. Marine fisheries are very important to the economy and well-being of coastal
communities, providing food security, job opportunities, income and livelihoods as well as
traditional cultural identity.
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The word fisheries refers to all of the fishing activities in the ocean, whether they are to obtain
fish for the commercial fishing industry, for recreation or to obtain ornamental fish or fish oil.
Fishing activities resulting in fish not used for consumption are called industrial fisheries. Due
to the relative abundance of fish on the continental shelf, fisheries are usually marine and not
freshwater.
3.1.1 Major Fishing grounds

The major commercial fishing grounds are located in the cool waters of the northern
hemisphere in comparatively high latitudes. Commercial fishing is little developed in the tropics
or in the southern hemisphere. The best fishing grounds are found above continental shelves
which are not more than 200 metres below the water surface, where plankton of all kinds are
most abundant.
The world's most extensive continental shelves are located in high or mid-latitudes in the
northern hemisphere, e.g., the banks of Newfoundland, the North Sea and the continental
shelf off north-western Europe, and the Sea of Japan.
Plankton are in plentiful supply in polar waters, at the meeting of cold and warm ocean currents
as on the Newfoundland 'banks' and the Sea of Japan, or where cold water from the ocean floor
wells up to the surface as it does off the west coast of South America. The continental shelves of
the tropics are relatively less rich in plankton because the water is warm.
The amount of fish available in the oceans is an ever-changing number due to the effects of
both natural causes and human developments. It will be necessary to manage ocean fisheries in
the coming years to make sure the number of fish caught never makes it to zero.
3.2 Climate Buffer

Water has a very high specific heat capacity. This means that a lot of energy is needed to
increase its temperature (energy is needed to overcome the hydrogen bonds). As the Earth is
71% water, energy from the sun causes only small changes in the planet's temperature. This
stops the Earth getting too hot or too cold and makes conditions possible for life. Heat is stored
by the ocean in summer and released back to the atmosphere in winter. Oceans, therefore,
moderate climate by reducing the temperature differences between seasons.
By far the largest carbon store on Earth is in sediments, both on land and in the oceans, and it is
held mainly as calcium carbonate. The second biggest store is the deep ocean where carbon
occurs mostly as dissolved carbonate and hydrogen carbonate ions. About a third of the carbon
dioxide from fossil fuel burning is stored in the oceans and it enters by both physical and
biological processes.
3.3 Phytoplankton
Phytoplankton accounts for around 90% of the world's oxygen production because water covers
about 70% of the Earth and phytoplankton are abundant in the photic zone of the surface
layers. Some of the oxygen produced by phytoplankton is absorbed by the ocean, but most
flows into the atmosphere where it becomes available for oxygen dependent life forms.
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3.4 Mining
The oceans hold a veritable treasure trove of valuable resources. Sand and gravel, oil and gas
have been extracted from the sea for many years. In addition, minerals transported by erosion
from the continents to the coastal areas are mined from the shallow shelf and beach areas.
These include diamonds off the coasts of South Africa and Namibia as well as deposits of tin,
titanium and gold along the shores of Africa, Asia and South America.
Natural gas and oil have been extracted from the seas for decades, but the ores and mineral
deposits on the sea floor have attracted little interest. Yet as resource prices rise, so too does
the appeal of ocean mining.
3.4.1 Deep Sea Mining

Back in the early 1980s there was great commercial interest in marine mining. This initial
euphoria over marine mining led to the International Seabed Authority (ISA) being established
in Jamaica, and the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) being signed
in 1982 – the “constitution for the seas”. Since entering into force in 1994, this major
convention has formed the basis for signatories’ legal rights to use the marine resources on the
sea floor outside national territorial waters.
After that, however, the industrial countries lost interest in resources. For one thing, prices
dropped making it no longer profitable to retrieve the accretions from the deep sea and utilize
the metals they contained. Also, new onshore deposits were discovered, which were cheaper to
exploit.
The present resurgence of interest is due to:
 The sharp increase in resource prices and attendant rise in profitability of the
exploration business.
 Strong economic growth in countries like China and India which purchase large
quantities of metal on world markets. Even the latest economic crisis is not expected to
slow this trend for long.
 The industrial and emerging countries’ geopolitical interests in safeguarding their
supplies of resources also play a role. In light of the increasing demand for resources,
those countries which have no reserves of their own are seeking to assert
extraterritorial claims in the oceans.
3.4.2 Major Deep Sea Minerals
The major focus is on manganese nodules, which are usually located at depths below
4000 metres, gas hydrates (located between 350 and 5000 metres), and cobalt crusts along the
flanks of undersea mountain ranges (between 1000 and 3000 metres), as well as massive
sulphides and the sulphide muds that form in areas of volcanic activity near the plate
boundaries, at depths of 500 to 4000 metres.
Manganese Nodules
Manganese nodules are lumps of minerals covering huge areas of the deep sea with masses of
up to 75 kilograms per square metre. Manganese nodules are composed primarily of
manganese and iron. The elements of economic interest, including cobalt, copper and nickel, are
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present in lower concentrations and make up a total of around 3.0 per cent by weight. In
addition there are traces of other significant elements such as platinum or tellurium that are
important in industry for various high-tech products.
These chemical elements are precipitated from seawater or originate in the pore waters of the
underlying sediments. The greatest densities of nodules occur off the west coast of Mexico, in
the Peru Basin, and the Indian Ocean.
Cobalt crusts
These crusts accumulate when manganese, iron and a wide array of trace metals dissolved in
the water (cobalt, copper, nickel, and platinum) are deposited on the volcanic substrates. The
cobalt crusts also contain relatively small amounts of the economically important resources.
Extracting cobalt from the ocean is of particular interest because it is found on land in only a
few countries (Congo, Zaire, Russia, Australia and China), some of which are politically unstable.
Cobalt crusts form at depths of 1000 to 3000 metres on the flanks of submarine volcanoes, and
therefore usually occur in regions with high volcanic activity such as the territorial waters
around the island states of the South Pacific.
Massive Sulphides
Sulphur deposits produced from underwater volcanic areas are known as black smokers. These
occurrences of massive sulphides form at submarine plate boundaries, where an exchange of
heat and elements occurs between rocks in the Earth’s crust and the ocean due to the
interaction of volcanic activity with seawater.
Cold seawater penetrates through cracks in the sea floor down to depths of several kilometres.
Near heat sources such as magma chambers, the seawater is heated to temperatures exceeding
400 degrees Celsius. Upon warming, the water rises rapidly again and is extruded back into the
sea. These hydrothermal solutions transport metals dissolved from the rocks and magma,
which are then deposited on the sea floor and accumulate in layers. This is how the massive
sulphides and the characteristic chimneys (black smokers) are produced.
So far only a few massive sulphide occurrences which are of economic interest due to their size
and composition are known. While the black smokers along the East Pacific Rise and in the
central Atlantic produce sulphides comprising predominantly ironrich sulphur compounds –
which are not worth considering for deep-sea mining – the occurrences in the southwest
Pacific contain greater amounts of copper, zinc and gold. The largest known sulphide occurrence
is located in the Red Sea Here, the sulphides are not associated with black smokers, but appear
in the form of iron rich ore muds.
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Figure 9. Distribution of Deep Sea Minerals
3.4.3 Constraints in Deep Sea mining
Major problems associated with deep sea mining are:
 The most limiting factors associated with deep-sea marine mining are the political and
legal aspects. Legal and political issues surrounding exploration, exploitation, and
marketing of sea floor minerals must be resolved.
 The excavation of marine minerals would considerably disturb parts of the seabed.
Huge amounts of sediment, water, and countless organisms would be dug up with the
nodules, and the destruction of the deep-sea habitat would be substantial. It is not yet
known how, or even whether, repopulation of the excavated areas would occur.
 Sea floor mining will only be able to compete with the substantial deposits presently
available on land if there is sufficient demand and metal prices are correspondingly
high.
 The excavation technology has yet to be developed. There are serious technological
difficulties in separating the crusts from the substrate which combined with the
problems presented by the uneven sea floor surface further reduce the economic
potential of the marine mining.
Despite the challenges, deep sea mining has some potential benefits over terrestrial mining:
 The minerals are often much closer to the surface, so operations have to dig and
displace less rock, meaning a smaller footprint and fewer carbon emissions.
 Seabed mining infrastructure is both moveable and reusable, unlike roads and buildings
often left behind at abandoned mines on land.
 And no residents will be directly displaced by mining.
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4] UPSC questions related to above topics
1. ‘Temperature, salinity and density differences in ocean water are the prime causes of
ocean water circulation.’ Elaborate. (Geography Mains – 2011, 30 marks)
2. Write short notes on ocean deposits. (Geography Mains – 2010, 15 marks)
3. Write short notes on Ocean Currents of the North Atlantic Ocean.(Geography Mains-
2007, 200 words)
4. Present a concise account of bottom relief of the Indian Ocean. (Geography Mains
2003)
5. Give a reasoned account of the distribution of salinity in the oceans and partially
enclosed seas. (Geography Mains 1994)
6. Discuss the features of Gulf Stream. (IFoS-2011)
7. The major fishing grounds of the world are located in areas where cool and warm
currents converge. Discuss. (IFoS-2011)
8. Give an account of oceanic mineral resources. (IFoS-2010)
9. List the processes that initiate ocean currents and influence their speed and direction.
(IFoS-2009)
10. Distinguish between continental crust and continental rise. (IFoS – 2009)
11. What are ocean currents? State the uses of ocean currents. (IFoS – 2005)

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GEOGRAPHY: 13 CORAL REEFS AND INDIAN OCEAN
Contents:
1. Coral Reefs
1.1 Corals
1.1.1 Types of Corals
1.2 Zooxanthellae
1.3 Coral Formation and Types
2. Conditions needed for growth of Coral Reefs
2.1 Location of Coral Reefs
2.2 Importance of Coral Ecosystems
2.3 Threats to Coral Reefs
2.3.1 Climate Change
2.3.2 Unsustainable Fishing
2.3.3 Pollution
2.4 Coral Reefs in India
3. Indian Ocean
3.1 Significance of Indian Ocean for India
4. UPSC questions related to above topics


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Student Notes:
1] Coral Reefs
Coral reefs are some of the most diverse ecosystems in the world. Thousands of species rely on
reefs for survival. Thousands of communities all over the world also depend on coral reefs for
food, protection and jobs.
A reef is a strip or ridge of rocks, sand, or coral that rises to or near the surface of a body of
water. The best-known reefs are the coral reefs developed through biotic processes dominated
by corals and calcareous algae.
1.1 Corals
Corals are animals, even though they may exhibit some of the characteristics of plants and are
often mistaken for rocks. Corals can exist as individual polyps (a small sea animal that has a
body shaped like a tube), or in colonies and communities that contain hundreds to hundreds of
thousands of polyps. Corals are found throughout the oceans, from deep, cold waters to
shallow, tropical waters.
1.1.1 Types of Corals

Corals are classified as under:
1. Hard Corals: Hard corals, also known as stony corals, produce a rigid skeleton made of
calcium carbonate in crystal form called aragonite. Hard corals are the primary reef-
building corals. Hard corals consisting of hundreds to hundreds of thousands of
individual polyps are cemented together by the calcium carbonate 'skeletons' they
secrete. Living coral grow on top of the skeletons of their dead predecessors. Hard
corals that form reefs are called hermatypiccoral.
2. Soft Corals: Soft coral, also known ahermatypic coral, do not produce a rigid calcium
carbonate skeleton and do not form reefs, though they may be present in a reef
ecosystem. Soft corals are also mostly colonial i.e. what appears to be a single large
organism is actually a colony of individual polyps combined to form a larger
structure. Soft coral colonies tend to resemble trees, bushes, fans, whips, and grasses.
1.2 Zooxanthellae
Most reef-building corals contain photosynthetic algae, called zooxanthellae, that live in their
tissues. The corals and algae have a mutualistic relationship. The coral provides the algae with a
protected environment and compounds they need for photosynthesis. In return, the algae
produce oxygen and help the coral to remove wastes.
Zooxanthellae supply the coral with glucose, glycerol, and amino acids, which are the products
of photosynthesis. The coral uses these products to make proteins, fats, and carbohydrates, and
produce calcium carbonate. This is the driving force behind the growth and productivity of
coral reefs.
In addition to providing corals with essential nutrients, zooxanthellae are responsible for the
unique and beautiful colors of many stony corals. Sometimes when corals become physically
stressed, the polyps expel their algal cells and the colony takes on a stark white appearance.
This is commonly described as coral bleaching. If the polyps go for too long without
zooxanthellae, coral bleaching can result in the coral's death.
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1.3 Coral Formation and Types
Coral reefs begin to form when free-swimming coral larvae attach to submerged rocks or other
hard surfaces along the edges of islands or continents. As the corals grow and expand, reefs
take on one of three major characteristic structures:
 Fringing reefs, which are the most common, project seaward directly from the shore,
forming borders along the shoreline and surrounding islands.
 Barrier reefs also border shorelines, but at a greater distance. They are separated from
their adjacent land mass by a lagoon of open, often deep water.
 An atoll forms if a fringing reef forms around a volcanic island that subsides completely
below sea level while the coral continues to grow upward. Atolls are usually circular or
oval, with a central lagoon.
Figure 1. Types of Coral Reefs
2] Conditions needed for growth of Coral Reefs

Corals are found throughout the oceans, from deep, cold waters to shallow, tropical waters.
Conditions favourable to growth of corals reefs can be discussed as under:
1. Shallow coral reefs grow best in warm water (70–85° F or 21–29° C). It is possible for
soft corals to grow in places with warmer or colder water, but growth rates in these
types of conditions are very slow.
2. Reef-building corals prefer clear and shallow water, where lots of sunlight filters
through to their symbiotic algae. The most prolific reefs occupy depths of 18–27 m.
3. Corals also need salt water to survive, so they also grow poorly near river openings
with fresh water runoff.
4. Other factors influencing coral distribution are availability of hard-bottom substrate
and the availability of food such as plankton.
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2.1 Location of Coral Reefs
Coral reefs develop in shallow, warm water, usually near land, and mostly in the tropics. There
are coral reefs off the eastern coast of Africa, off the southern coast of India, in the Red Sea, and
off the coasts of northeast and northwest Australia and on to Polynesia. There are also coral
reefs off the coast of Florida, USA, to the Caribbean, and down to Brazil.
The Great Barrier Reef (off the coast of NE Australia) is the largest coral reef in the world. It is
over 2000 km long.
Figure 2. Global distribution of Coral Reefs
2.2 Importance of Coral Ecosystems

 Coral reefs are some of the most diverse and valuable ecosystems on Earth. Coral reefs
support more species per unit area than any other marine environment, including
about 4,000 species of fish, 800 species of hard corals and hundreds of other species.
They are often referred to as the Rainforests of the Sea.
 Healthy coral reefs have rough surfaces and complex structures that dissipate much of
the force of incoming waves. This buffers shorelines from currents, waves, and storms,
helping to prevent loss of life, property damage, and erosion. Reefs are also a source of
sand in natural beach replenishment.
 Being storehouses of immense biological wealth, reefs also provide economic and
environmental services to millions of people. Healthy reefs contribute to local
economies through tourism. Diving tours, fishing trips, hotels, restaurants, and other
businesses based near reef systems provide millions of jobs and contribute billions of
dollars all over the world. Coral reefs serve as habitat for many commercially important
species targeted for fishing.
 Coral ecosystems have proven to be beneficial for humans through the identification of
potentially beneficial chemical compounds and through the development of
medicines, both derived from organisms found in coral ecosystems. Many drugs are
now being developed from coral reef animals and plants as possible cures for cancer,
arthritis, human bacterial infections, viruses, and other diseases.
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2.3 Threats to Coral Reefs
An estimated 20 per cent of the world’s reefs are damaged beyond recovery and about half of
the remaining coral reefs are under risk of collapse. The top threats to coral reefs are:
2.3.1 Climate Change

Climate change impacts have been identified as one of the greatest global threats to coral reef
ecosystems. As temperature rise, mass bleaching, and infectious disease outbreaks are likely to
become more frequent. Additionally, carbon dioxide absorbed into the ocean from the
atmosphere has already begun to reduce calcification rates in reef-building and reef-associated
organisms by altering sea water chemistry through decreases in pH (ocean acidification).
In the long term, failure to address carbon emissions and the resultant impacts of rising
temperatures and ocean acidification could make many other coral ecosystem management
efforts futile.
2.3.2 Unsustainable Fishing

Coral reefs and associated habitats provide important commercial, recreational and subsistence
fishery resources. But coral reef fisheries, though often relatively small in scale, may have
disproportionately large impacts on the ecosystem if conducted unsustainably. Rapid human
population growth, demand for fishery resources, use of more efficient fishery technologies, and
inadequate management and enforcement have led to the depletion of key reef species and
habitat damage in many locations.
2.3.3 Pollution
Impacts from land-based sources of pollution (e.g. agriculture, deforestation, storm water,
coastal development, road construction, and oil and chemical spills) on coral reef ecosystems
include increased sedimentation, nutrients, toxins, and pathogen introduction. These pollutants
and related synergistic effects can cause disease and mortality in sensitive species, disrupt
critical ecological functions, cause trophic structure and dynamics changes (i.e. eutrophic
conditions), and impede growth, reproduction, and larval settlement.
These threats—combined with other threats like coral disease; tropical storms; tourism and
recreation; vessel damage; marine debris, and aquatic invasive species—compound upon each
other, making conservation efforts more difficult.
2.3 Coral Reefs in India

The coral reef ecosystems are found in four regions of India which are:
Region Type of Reef
Andaman & Nicobar Islands Fringing Reefs

Gulf of Mannar (Tamil Nadu) Fringing Reefs
Gulf of Kutchh (Gujarat) Fringing Reefs
Lakshadweep Islands Atolls
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Figure 3. Coral Reefs of India
There are no coral reefs on the central east and west coasts of India. The conditions here,
especially salinity and high sediment load, are not ideal for coral growth. Most major rivers of
India, like the Ganges, flow into the sea on the east coast, bringing in lots of sediments that
would not allow the corals to grow. On the west coast, the monsoon is intense from June to
August. The fresh water flow into the sea at this time reduces salinity to less than half of the
normal and the sea water becomes murky brownish with the sediments.
The Indian coral reefs are world famous but least explored, studied and utilised. On the other
hand, they are indiscriminately damaged by human exploitation mainly for the cement industry
(calcium carbide), road and building material in certain areas like the Gulf of Mannar and the
Gulf of Kutch. The other two regions, the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and the Lakshadweep,
because of their far-flung location from the mainland, are comparatively less affected by human
depredations.
3] Indian Ocean
The Indian Ocean is the third largest of the world's oceanic divisions, covering approximately
20% of the water on the Earth's surface. It is bounded by Asia—including India, after which the
ocean is named on the north, on the west by Africa, on the east by Australia, and on the south
by the Southern Ocean.
As one component of the World Ocean, the Indian Ocean is delineated from the Atlantic Ocean
by the 20° east meridian running south from Cape Agulhas (South Africa), and from the Pacific
Ocean by the meridian of 146°55' east. The northernmost extent of the Indian Ocean is
approximately 30° north in the Persian Gulf. The ocean is nearly 10000 km wide at the
southern tips of Africa and Australia, and its area is 73556000 km² including the Red Sea and
the Persian Gulf.
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Student Notes:
Island nations within the ocean are Madagascar, Comoros, Seychelles, Maldives, Mauritius, and
Sri Lanka. The archipelago of Indonesia borders the ocean on the east.
Figure 4. Geography of Indian Ocean
3.1 Significance of Indian Ocean for India

Significance of Indian Ocean for India can be discussed under following heads:
1. Geopolitical Significance: The Indian Ocean Region (IOR), comprising the ocean and its
littorals, is India’s regional or immediate geo-strategic environment. It exists on the
fringes of our boundaries and has a significant impact on the internal state of
affairs.Indian Ocean defines the Indian Navy’s primary Area of Maritime Interest, where
it seek to address the challenges having a bearing on national security and the nation’s
overall socio-economic development.
With substantial economic activity, including 90% trade by volume and bulk of our
energy imports, happening over the sea, maritime security is central to overall
development of our nation. Concurrently, India cannot hope to develop and grow
peacefully with an unstable and turbulent neighbourhood. Prevalence of peace in the
Indian Ocean Region is therefore a key national security imperative.
Riding on the benefits of globalisation, littorals of the IOR are now re-emerging to
achieve their original potential. The emergence of many regional countries, as
economic powerhouses, reflects this reality. Consequently, several regional economic
groupings such as ASEAN, BIMSTEC, SAARC, IOR-ARC, GCC and few others have evolved
over time in the IOR to harness the advantages of economic integration.
India’s geo-strategic location positions us right at the confluence of major arteries of

world trade. The Indian Navy is therefore viewed by some of the littorals as a suitable
agency to facilitate regional maritime security in the IOR as a net security provider.
India’s standing as a benign power provides credence to this perception, making us a
preferred partner for regional security.
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Economic security is central to the comprehensive approach to security. In this
globalised world, the Indian economy is integrated with, and consequently
interdependent on other world economies. The prospect of disruption of trade at
critical chokepoints, such as the Strait of Hormuz or Malacca, can be catastrophic for
the global economy. The downstream effects of such economic upheaval are certainly
disastrous for regional peace. Maintaining unimpeded flow of energy and other
commodities over the sea is therefore a prime concern for all nations, including ours.
Maritime terrorism is another grave challenge. The events of 26/11 brought to fore the
porosity of our long coastline and its resultant vulnerability to terror attacks
perpetrated from the sea. Moreover, the prospect of terror attacks on off-shore
infrastructure and sea-borne traffic, close to the coast, puts a premium on
ensuring coastal security. Consequent to government directives, the Navy is now
responsible for overall maritime security of the country, including the coast.
The region’s natural bounties and maritime trade carried over its sea lanes drive the
global economy. The fact that two-thirds of the world’s oil shipments, one-third of its
bulk cargo and half of the container traffic transit over its sea lanes, and through its
choke points, a large part of which is meant for countries outside the region,
underscores the Indian Ocean’s importance for the world at large.
In conclusion, maintenance of a peaceful maritime environment is an imperative, for

our nation and the region, to sustain our growth trajectories and to achieve our
national aspirations. The oceans are vast, challenges too many, and resources limited,
for any individual state to assure security of the global commons. This, therefore, calls
for a cooperative approach. By virtue of India’s geo-strategic location in the Indian
Ocean and her maritime capabilities, the Indian Navy is deemed by many to be the net
security provider in the IOR.
2. Economic Significance: Economic importance of the Indian Ocean is immense. It can be

discussed on the following points:
a. About 30% of world trade is handled in the ports of the Indian Ocean.
b. Half of the world’s container traffic passes through Indian Ocean.
c. Continental shelves cover about 4.2% of the total area of the Indian Ocean and
are reported to be very Rich in minerals including Tin, Gold, Uranium, Cobalt,
Nickel, Aluminium and Cadmium although these resources have been largely
not exploited, so far.
d. 40 out of 54 types of raw materials used by U.S. industry are supplied by the
Indian Ocean.
e. Several of the world’s top container ports, including Port Kelang and Singapore,
are located in Indian Ocean as well as some of the world’s fastest growing and
busiest ports.
f. Indian Ocean possesses some of the world’s largest fishing grounds, providing
approximately 15%of the total world’s fish catch (approximately 9 million tons
per annum).
g. 55% of known world oil reserves are present in Indian Ocean.
h. 40% of the world’s natural gas reserves are in Indian Ocean littoral states.
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4] UPSC questions related to above topics
1. What is the importance of Indian Ocean for India?(UPSC 1999/15 Marks)
2. Mention the advantages which India enjoys being at the end of the Indian Ocean.
(UPSC 1996/15 Marks)
3. Describe the ideal conditions for coral reef formation. (Geography Mains 2008)
4. Write short note on formation of coral reefs. (Geography Mains 2001/200 words)
5. Write short note on coral reefs. (Geography Mains 1988/200 words)
6. Examine economic significance of the resources of the Continental Shelf of the Indian
Ocean. (Geography Mains 2009/30 marks)
7. Assess the geographical significance of Indian Ocean. (Geography Mains 2008/200
words)
8. Analyse the role of India in the geo-politics of the Indian Ocean Region. (Geography
Mains 2003,2000/200 words)
9. Discuss the geopolitical importance of Indian Ocean area.
(Geography Mains 1999/200 words)

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VISIONIAS ™
www.visionias.in
GEOGRAPHY: 14 GEOGRAPHY (10)
Contents:
1 Introduction
1.1 Salient Features of Indian Climate
2 Factors Determining the Climate of India
2.1 Factors Related to Location and Relief
2.2 Factors Related to Air Pressure and Wind
2.3 Weather Conditions in Winter
2.4 Weather Conditions in the Summer Season
3 Indian Monsoon
3.1 Thermal Concept
3.2 Recent Concept about the Origin of Indian Monsoon
3.2.1 Role of Himalayas and Tibetan Plateau
3.2.2 Role of Jet Stream
3.2.3 Role of ENSO
3.2.4 Walker Cell
3.2.5 Indian Ocean Dipole
3.3 Nature of Indian Monsoon
3.4 Onset and Advance of Monsoon
3.5 Rain Bearing Systems and Distribution of Rainfall
3.6 Break in the Monsoon
3.7 Retreat of Monsoon
3.8 Features of Monsoon Rainfall
3.9 Monsoons and the Economic Life in India
4 Seasons
4.1 Traditional Indian Seasons
5 Distribution of Annual Rainfall
6 Variability of Annual Rainfall
7 Climatic Regions of India


Student Notes:
1] Introduction
Climate is an important element of the physical environment of mankind. It is the aggregate of
atmospheric conditions involving heat, moisture and air movement. In a developing country like
India climatic characteristics have a dominant role in affecting the economic pattern, way of
life, mode of living, food preferences, costumes and even the behavioural responses of the
people. In India despite a lot of scientific and technological developments our dependence on
monsoon rainfall for carrying out successful agricultural activities, has not been minimized.
The climate of India belongs to the ‘tropical monsoon type’ indicating the impact of its location
in tropical belt and the monsoon winds. Although a sizeable part of the country lying north of
the Tropic of Cancer falls in the northern temperate zone but the shutting effects of the
Himalayas and the existence of the Indian Ocean in the south have played significant role in
giving India a distinctive climatic characteristics.
1.1 Salient Features of Indian Climate
Following are the salient features of the Indian climate:
 Reversal of winds – the Indian climate is characterized by the complete reversal of wind
system with the change of season in a year. During the winter season winds generally
blow from north-east to south-west in the direction of trade winds. These winds are
dry, devoid of moisture and are characterized by low temperature and high pressure
conditions over the country. During summer season complete reversal in the direction
of the winds is observed and these blow primarily from south-west to north-east.
 Formation of Alternatively High and Low pressure areas over the land – there is a
change in the atmosphere pressure conditions with the change of season. During
winter season due to low temperature conditions high pressure areas is formed over
the northern part of the country. On the other hand the intense heating of the land
during summer season leads to the formation of a thermally induced low pressure cell
over the north-western part of the country. These pressure areas control the direction
and intensity of wind.
 Seasonal and variable rainfall – In India over 80 per cent of annual rainfall is obtained
in the latter part of the summer whose duration ranges from 1-5 months in different
parts of the country. Since the rainfall is in the form of heavy downpour, it creates
problems of floods and soil erosion. Sometimes there is continuous rain for many days
and sometimes there is a long spell of dry period. Similarly, there is a spatial variation in
the general distribution of rainfall. Cherrapunji has received in a single day an amount
equal to 10 years of rainfall at Jaisalmer, Rajasthan.
In fact Indian climate is so varied and complex that it denotes climatic extremes and
climatic varieties. While it provides enough heat to grow crops and carry on agricultural
activities all over the country it also helps in the cultivation of a number of crops
belonging to tropical, temperate as well as frigid1 areas.
1
The Polar Regions have a very cold climate. These places are sometimes called the Frigid Zones.
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 Plurality of seasons – the Indian climate is characterized by constantly changing

weather conditions. There are three main seasons but on broader consideration their
number goes to six a year (winter, fall of winter, spring, summer, rainy and autumn).
 Unity of Indian Climate – the Himalayas and the associated mountain ranges extend to
the north of India from east to west. These tall mountain ranges prevent the cold
northerly winds of Central Asia from entering into India. Therefore, even the parts of
India extending north of the Tropic of Cancer experience a tropical climate. These
ranges force the monsoon winds to cause rainfall over India and the entire country
comes under the influence of the monsoon winds. In this manner the climate in the
entire country becomes monsoon type.
 Diversity of Indian Climate – In spite of the unity of Indian climate, it is characterized by
regional differences and variations. For example, while in the summer the mercury
occasionally touches 55°C in the western Rajasthan, it drops down to as low as minus
45°C in winter around Leh. These differences are visible in terms of winds, temperature,
rainfall, humidity and aridity etc. These are caused by differences in the location,
altitude, distance from the sea, distance from mountains and general relief conditions
at difference places.
 Characterized by natural calamities – Due to its peculiar weather conditions especially
rainfall the Indian climate is characterized by natural calamities like floods, droughts,
famines and even epidemics.
2] Factors Determining the Climate of India

India’s climate is controlled by a number of factors which can be broadly divided into two
groups –
 Factors related to Location and Relief
 Factors related to air pressure and winds
2.1 Factors Related to Location and Relief

 Latitude - the Tropic of Cancer passes through the central part of India in east-west
direction. Thus, northern part of the India lies in sub-tropical and temperate zone and
the part lying south of the Tropic of Cancer falls in the tropical zone. The tropical zone
being nearer to the equator, experiences high temperatures throughout the year with
small daily and annual range. Area north of the Tropic of Cancer being away from the
equator, experiences extreme climate with high daily and annual range of temperature.
 The Himalayan Mountains – as already discussed, the lofty Himalayas in the north
along with its extensions act as an effective climatic divide between central Asia and
Indian subcontinent. The cold and chilly winds that originate near the Arctic Circle are
obstructed by the Himalayas and give a distinctive taste to climate of India.
 Distribution of Land and Water – India is flanked by the Indian Ocean on three sides in
the south and girdled by a high and continuous mountain-wall in the north. As
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compared to the landmass, water heats up or cools down slowly. This differential
heating of land and sea creates different air pressure zones in different seasons in and
around the Indian subcontinent.
 Distances from the Sea – With a long coastline, large coastal areas have an equable
climate. Areas in the interior of India are far away from the moderating influence of the
sea. Such areas have extremes of climate. That is why, the people of the Konkan coast
have hardly any idea of extremes of temperature and the seasonal rhythm of weather.
On the other hand, the seasonal contrasts in weather at places in the interior of the
country such as Kanpur and Amritsar affect the entire sphere of life.
 Altitude – Temperature decreases with height. Due to thin air, places in the mountains
are cooler than places on the plains2. For example, Agra and Darjiling are located on the
same latitude, but temperature of January in Agra is 16°C whereas it is only 4°C in
Darjiling.
 Relief – The physiography or relief of India also affects the temperature, air pressure,
direction and speed of wind and the amount and distribution of rainfall. The windward
sides of Western Ghats and Assam receive high rainfall during June-September whereas
the southern plateau remains dry due to its leeward situation along the Western Ghats.
2.2 Factors Related to Air Pressure and Wind

Air pressure and wind system is different at different altitude which affects the local climates of
India. Consider the following factors:
 Distribution of pressure and surface winds.
 Upper air circulation and the movement of different air masses and the jet stream.
 Rainfall caused by the westerly disturbances in winter and the tropical depressions in
south-west monsoon season.
The mechanism of these three factors can be understood with reference to winter and summer
seasons of the year separately.
2.3 Weather Conditions in Water
 Surface Pressure and Winds – During northern hemisphere’s winter, high pressure is
built up in the Central and West Asia. This centre of high pressure gives rise to the
flow of air at the low level from the north towards the Indian subcontinent, south of
the Himalayan mountain range, in the form of a dry continental air mass. These
continental winds come in contact with trade winds over northwestern India. The
contact zone is not stable and sometimes it shifts up to the middle Ganga valley thus
bringing the entire north-western India under the influence of the north-westerly
winds.
2
Thin air=> low pressure=> low temperature
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Figure 1 – Winter Monsoon: Surface Winds

 Jet stream and Upper Air Circulation – a different pattern of air circulation is observed
at a height of about 3 km above the surface. Direction and velocity of winds at this
height are different from those of the surface winds. All of Western and Central Asia
remains under the influence of westerly winds along the altitude of 9-13 km from west
to east (Figure 2). These winds blow across the Asian continent at latitudes north of the
Himalayas roughly parallel to the Tibetan highlands. These are known as Jet Streams3.
Tibetan highlands act as a barrier in the path of these jet streams. As a result, jet
streams gets bifurcate – one to the south and other to the north of this mountain chain
along 25° N latitude. This jet stream is responsible for bringing western disturbances4
from the Mediterranean region into Indian sub-continent. Winter rain and hail storms
in northwestern plains and occasional heavy snowfall in hilly regions are caused by
these disturbances.
Figure 2 - Direction of Winds in India in winter at the Height of 9-13 km
3
For more details about jet stream, See document “INSOLATION, EARTH’S HEAT BALANCE, DIFFERENT
ATMOSPHERIC…”
4
For more details about extra-tropical cyclones (known as western disturbances in Indian subcontinent),
See document “INSOLATION, EARTH’S HEAT BALANCE, DIFFERENT ATMOSPHERIC…”
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 Western Cyclonic Disturbance and Tropical Cyclones – The western cyclonic

disturbances which enter the Indian subcontinent from the west and the northwest
during the winter months originate over the Mediterranean Sea and are brought into
India by the westerly jet stream. An increase in the prevailing night temperature
generally indicates an advance in the arrival of these cyclones disturbances. It brings
little rain in winter months. This rain is considered to be very good for wheat crops in
northern plains.
Tropical cyclones originate over the Bay of Bengal and the Indian Ocean. These tropical
cyclones have very high wind velocity and heavy rainfall and hit the Tamil Nadu, Andhra
Pradesh and Orissa coast. Most of these cyclones are very destructive due to high wind
velocity and torrential rain that accompanies it.
2.4 Weather Conditions in the Summer Reason
 Surface Pressure and Winds - As the summer sets in and the sun shifts northwards, the
wind circulation over the subcontinent undergoes a complete reversal at both, the
lower as well as the upper levels. By the middle of July, the low pressure belt nearer the
surface, termed as Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), shifts northwards, roughly
parallel to the Himalayas between 20° N and 25° N (Figure 3). It extends from Punjab to
the Chota Nagpur plateau. By this time, the westerly jet stream withdraws from the
Indian region. There is a cause and effect relationship between the northward shift of
the ITCZ and the withdrawal of the westerly jet stream from over the North Indian
Plain.
Being an area of low pressure, the ITCZ attracts winds from all around. The maritime
tropical airmass (mT) from the southern hemisphere, after crossing the equator, rushes
to the low pressure area in the general southwesterly direction (Figure 4). These winds
cross the Equator between 40°E and 60°E longitudes. Blowing over the ocean for a long
distance, they pick up a large amount of moisture. It is this moist air current which is
popularly known as the southwest monsoon.
Figure 3 – position of Inter-tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) in the month of January and July
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Figure 4 – summer monsoon winds: Surface circulation

 Jet Streams and Upper Air Circulation – at the upper layers of the troposphere, the
winds blow in a direction reverse to that of the surface winds. An easterly jet stream
flows over the southern part of the Peninsula in June, and has a maximum speed of 90
km per hour (Figure 5). In August, it is confined to 15o N latitude, and in September up
to 22o N latitudes.
Figure 5 – The direction of winds at upper atmosphere in summer season

 Tropical cyclones – The easterly jet stream steers the tropical depressions into India.
These depressions play a significant role in the distribution of monsoon rainfall over the
Indian subcontinent. The tracks of these depressions are the areas of highest rainfall in
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India. Their frequency, direction and intensity determine the rainfall pattern during the
southwest monsoon period.
3] Indian Monsoon
We already know that India’s climate is ‘tropical monsoon’ type. The word ‘monsoon’ has been
derived from the Arabic word ‘Mausim’ which means ‘season’. Originally, this word was used by
Arab traders to describe a system of seasonal reversal of winds along the shores of the Indian
Ocean. Monsoons are especially prominent within the tropics on the eastern sides of the great
landmass, but in Asia, it occurs outside the tropics in China, Korea and Japan.
Monsoon is a complex meteorological phenomenon. Experts of meteorology have developed a
number of concepts about the origin of the monsoon. Some of the important concepts about
the origin of monsoon have been given as under.
3.1 Thermal Concept
Halley, a noted astronomer, hypothesized that the primary cause of the annual cycle of the
Indian monsoon circulation was the differential heating effects of the land and the sea.
According to this concept monsoon are the extended land breeze and sea breeze on a large
scale. During winter the huge landmass of Asia cools more rapidly than the surrounding oceans
with the result that a strong high pressure centre develops over the continent. On the other
hand, the pressure over adjacent oceans is relatively lower. As a consequence the pressure-
gradient directed from land to sea. Therefore there is an outflow of air from the continental
landmass towards the adjacent oceans so that it brings cold, dry air towards the low latitudes.
In summer the temperature and pressure conditions are reversed. Now, the huge landmass of
Asia heats quickly and develops a strong low pressure centre. Moreover, the pole-ward shift of
the Inter-tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) to a position over Southern Asia reinforces the
thermally induced low pressure centre. The pressure over the adjacent oceans being high, a
sea-to-land pressure gradient is established. The surface air flow is, therefore, from the highs
over the oceans towards the lows over the heated land. The air that is attracted into the centers
of low pressure from over the oceans is warm and moist.
Halley’s concept is criticized on following lines:
 It fails to explain the intricacies of monsoon such as sudden burst of monsoon, breaks
in monsoon, spatial and temporal distribution of monsoon.
 The low pressure areas are not stationary. The rainfall is not only convectional but a mix
of orographic, cyclonic and convectional rainfall.
3.2 Recent Concept about the Origin of Indian Monsoon
After world war second, the upper atmospheric circulation has been studied significantly. It is
now believed that the differential heating of sea and land alone can’t produce the monsoon
circulation. Apart from it, recent concept of monsoon rely heavily on the role of
 Himalayas and Tibetan plateau as a physical barrier and a source of high-level heat.
 Circulation of upper air jet streams in the troposphere.
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 Existence of upper air circum-polar whirl over north and south poles in the
troposphere.
 The occurrence of ENSO (El-Nino and Southern Oscillation) in the South Pacific ocean
 Walker cell in Indian Ocean.
 Indian Ocean Dipole
3.2.1 Role of Himalayas and Tibetan Plateau
In 1970s, it was found that Tibet plateau plays a crucial role in initiating the monsoon
circulation. The plateau of Tibet extends over an area of about 4.5 million sq. km. The average
height of these highlands is 4000 m. Due to its enormous height it receives 2-3oC more
insolation than the neighbouring areas. Heating of these areas leads to a clockwise air
circulation in the middle troposphere and two-wind streams originate from this area. One of
these wind streams blow southward and develops into the tropical easterly jet stream (TEJ).
The other stream blows in an opposite direction towards the North Pole and becomes the
westerly jet stream over Central Asia.
Figure 6 – Tibet anti-cyclone and Easterly Jet stream

3.2.2 Role of Jet Stream
As already discussed, sub-tropical westerly jet stream is bifurcated by the high-land Tibet in
winters. Northward branch extends up to 20oN-35oN (Figure 6). Tropical easterly jet stream
(TEJ), that branch off from anticyclone developed over Tibet, sometimes reaches to the tip of
Peninsular India. Apart from this, Jet speed winds are also reported over other parts of
Peninsular. This jet descends over the Indian Ocean and intensifies its high pressure cell known
as Mascarene High. It is from this high pressure cell that the onshore winds start blowing
towards the thermally induced low pressure area, developed in the northern part of the Indian
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subcontinent. After crossing the equator such winds become south-westerly and are known as
the south-westerly summer monsoon.
3.2.3 Role of ENSO
The Indian monsoon is also influenced by EL-Nino, southern oscillation and Somalian current.
We know that El Nino is the reversal of normal condition in the Pacific Ocean’s sea surface
temperature. Though there is no direct correlation between bad monsoon and El Nino, but
both are generally associated. There are years when India faced severe drought and those are
not El Nino years and vice-versa. Southern Oscillation is the see-saw pattern of atmospheric
pressure between the eastern and western Pacific Ocean. The oscillation has a period varying
from 2-7 years. It is measured with Southern Oscillation Index (SOI) by measuring pressure
difference between two points in Pacific Ocean (Tahiti and Darwin). A negative value of SOI
implies high pressure over north Indian Ocean during the winter season and a poor monsoon.
The Somalian current changes its direction of flow after every six months. During the North-
East Monsoon the Somali Current flows to the south-west, while during the South-West
Monsoon it is a major western boundary current, comparable with the Gulf Stream (Figure 7).
Normally, there remains a low pressure area along the eastern coast of Somalia. In exceptional
years, after every six or seven years, the low pressure area in western Arabian Sea becomes a
high pressure area. Such a pressure reversal results into a weaker monsoon in India.
Figure 7 – Somali current

3.2.4 Walker Cell
It is observed that there is an east-west atmospheric circulation over the tropical oceanic
regions. Such circulation in Pacific Ocean is generally called walker cell. However, many
scientists use the term ‘walker cell’ for all east-west circulations in different oceans. Walker cell
is associated with southern oscillation and its strength fluctuates with that of Southern
Oscillation Index (SOI). With a high positive SOI, there would be a zone of low atmospheric
pressure over Australia and Indonesian archipelago. The rising air from this region deflects in
upper atmosphere in both directions towards Africa and South America. In Indian Ocean, the
air descends down at high pressure zone from where surface winds blow as Southwest
monsoon towards Indian sub-continent in summers. During La-Nina Indian ocean branch of
walker cell get strengthen and surface winds are more intense. La-Nina condition is generally
associated with good monsoon.
During appearance of El-Nino or negative SOI, the ascending branch of the walker cell shifts to
the central regions of the Pacific Ocean from west pacific region (Figure 8). In result, the Indian
Ocean cell shifts towards east. The surface winds or Southwest monsoon winds are weaker than
normal conditions.
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Figure 8 – walker cell and Indian Monsoon

3.2.5 Indian Ocean Dipole
The Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) also known as the Indian Nino is a coupled Ocean-atmosphere
phenomenon in the Indian Ocean. It is defined by the difference in sea surface temperature
between two areas (or poles, hence a dipole) – a western pole in the Arabian Sea (western
Indian Ocean) and an eastern pole in the eastern Indian Ocean south of Indonesia. The IOD
involves a periodic oscillation of sea-surface temperatures (SST), between "positive", "neutral"
and "negative" phases. A positive phase sees greater-than-average sea-surface temperatures
and greater precipitation in the western Indian Ocean region, with a corresponding cooling of
waters in the eastern Indian Ocean—which tends to cause droughts in adjacent land areas
of Indonesia and Australia (Figure 9). The negative phase of the IOD brings about the opposite
conditions, with warmer water and greater precipitation in the eastern Indian Ocean, and
cooler and drier conditions in the west.
Figure 9 – Indian Ocean Dipole
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The IOD is one aspect of the general cycle of global climate, interacting with similar phenomena
like the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) in the Pacific Ocean. Positive and negative IOD both
has been seen coupled with La Nina. Thus, there is no direct correlation between IOD and
ENSO.
The IOD also affects the strength of monsoons over the Indian subcontinent. Positive IOD which
is associated with warm sea-surface temperatures of western Indian Ocean is favourable for
monsoon in Indian subcontinent.
3.3 Nature of Indian Monsoon
Systematic studies of the causes of rainfall in the South Asian region help to understand the
salient features of the monsoon, particularly some of its important aspects, such as:
 Onset and advance of monsoon
 Rain-bearing systems and the relationship between their frequency and distribution of
monsoon rainfall.
 Break in the monsoon
 retreat of the monsoon
3.4 Onset and Advance of Monsoon

The differential heating of land and sea is still believed to be the primary cause of the monsoon
by many meteorologists. Low pressure at ITCZ which is located over north India in month of
May becomes so intense that it pulls the trade winds of the southern hemisphere northwards
(Figure – summer monsoon winds). These southeast trade winds cross the equator and enter
the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea, only to be caught up in the air circulation over India.
Passing over the equatorial warm currents, they bring with them moisture in abundance. With
the northwards shift of ITCZ, an easterly jet stream develops over 15oN.
The rain in the south-west monsoon season begins rather abruptly. One result of the first rain is
that it brings down the temperature substantially. This sudden onset of the moisture-laden
winds associated with violent thunder and lightning, is often termed as the “break” or “burst”
of the monsoons.
Southwest monsoon first of all reaches in Andaman-Nicobar Islands on 15th May. Kerala coast
receives it on 1st June. It reaches Mumbai and Kolkata between 10th and 13th June. By 15th of
July, Southwest monsoon covers whole of India (Figure 10).
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Figure 10 – India: Normal dates of Onset of the Southwest Monsoon

3.5 Rain Bearing Systems and Distribution of Rainfall
The southwest monsoon splits into two branches, the Arabian Sea Branch and the Bay of Bengal
Branch near the southernmost end of the Indian Peninsula. Hence, it arrives in India in two
branches: the Bay of Bengal branch and the Arabian Sea Branch (Figure 11). First originate in
the Bay of Bengal causing rainfall over the plains of north India. Second is the Arabian Sea
current of the southwest monsoon which brings rain to the west coast of India. The latter
extends toward a low-pressure area over the Thar Desert and is roughly three times stronger
than the Bay of Bengal branch.
The monsoon winds originating over the Arabian Sea further split into three branches:
 One branch is obstructed by the Western Ghats. These winds climb the slopes of the
Western Ghats and as a result of orographic rainfall phenomenon, the windward side of
Ghats receives very heavy rainfall ranging between 250 cm and 400 cm. After crossing
the Western Ghats, these winds descend and get heated up. This reduces humidity in
the winds. As a result, these winds cause little rainfall east of the Western Ghats. This
region of low rainfall is known as the rain-shadow area.
 Another branch of the Arabian Sea monsoon strikes the coast north of Mumbai.
Moving along the Narmada and Tapi river valleys, these winds cause rainfall in
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extensive areas of central India. The Chotanagpur plateau gets 15 cm rainfall from this
part of the branch. Thereafter, they enter the Ganga plains and mingle with the Bay of
Bengal branch.
Figure 11 – Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal branches of Southwest Monsoon

 A third branch of this monsoon wind strikes the Saurashtra Peninsula and the Kutch. It
then passes over west Rajasthan and along the Aravallis, causing only a scanty rainfall.
In Punjab and Haryana, it too joins the Bay of Bengal branch. These two branches,
reinforced by each other, cause rains in the western Himalayas.
 The intensity of rainfall over the west coast of India is, however, related to two factors:
o The offshore meteorological conditions.
o The position of the equatorial jet stream along the eastern coast of Africa.
The Bay of Bengal branch strikes the coast of Myanmar and part of southeast Bangladesh. But
the Arakan Hills along the coast of Myanmar deflect a big portion of this branch towards the
Indian subcontinent. The monsoon, therefore, enters West Bengal and Bangladesh from south
and southeast instead of from the south-westerly direction. From here, this branch splits into
two under the influence of the Himalayas and the thermal low is northwest India.
 One branch moves westward along the Ganga plains reaching as far as the Punjab
plains.
 The other branch moves up the Brahmaputra valley in the north and the northeast,
causing widespread rains. Its sub-branch strikes the Garo and Khasi hills of Meghalaya.
Mawsynram, located on the crest of Khasi hills, receives the highest average annual
rainfall in the world.
 The Tamil Nadu coast remains dry during this season because it is situated in
rainshadow area of Arabian Sea branch of the south-west monsoon and lies parallel to
the Bay of Bengal branch of south-west monsoon.
Frequency of tropical depressions originating over the Bay of Bengal varies from year to year.
The path of these depressions also keeps changing with the position of the ITCZ, also known as
monsoon trough (Figure – position of Inter-tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) in the month of
January and July). As the axis of the monsoon trough oscillates with the apparent movement of
sun between Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn, there are fluctuations in the track and
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direction of these depressions, and the intensity and the amount of rainfall vary from year to
year. The amount of rainfall in north India varies with the frequency of the tropical depressions.
On an average, one to three depressions are observed every month and the life span of one
depression is about one week [4].
The rain which comes in spells, displays a declining trend from west to east over the west coast,
and from the southeast towards the northwest over the North Indian Plain and the northern
part of the Peninsula. Rajasthan desert receives low rainfall in spite of being in the path of
Arabian Sea branch of monsoon. This branch blows parallel to Aravalis mountain chain without
obstruction and thus, does not release moisture here.
3.6 Break in the Monsoon
During the south-west monsoon period after having rains for a few days, if rain fails to occur for
one or more weeks, it is known as break in the monsoon. These dry spells are quite common
during the rainy season. These breaks in the different regions are due to different reasons:
i. In northern India rains are likely to fail if the rain-bearing storms are not very frequent
along the monsoon trough or the ITCZ over this region.
ii. Over the west coast the dry spells are associated with days when winds blow parallel to
the coast.
3.7 Retreat of Monsoon

Monsoon starts retreating in September (Figure 12). On the first of September it starts
retreating from north-western part of India. This day is the last day of rainy season in Jaisalmer
and Barmer in Rajasthan. By 15th September, monsoon leaves Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan and
Gujarat. The area under the monsoon influence shrinks slowly and the monsoon retreats from
all parts of India except the southern peninsular region. Monsoon winds in most parts of the
country are replaced by the north-easterly trade winds. These winds blowing over the Bay of
Bengal pick up moisture from there and cause rainfall in Tamil Nadu.
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Student Notes:
Figure 12 – India: Normal dates of withdrawal of the Southwest Monsoon

3.8 Features of Monsoon Rainfall
 Monsoon rain is seasonal in character which occurs between June and September.
 Spatial distribution of rainfall is largely governed by relief or topography. For instance
the windward side of the Western Ghats registers a rainfall of over 250 cm. Again, the
heavy rainfall in the northeastern states can be attributed to their hill ranges and the
Eastern Himalayas. Rainfall ranges from 20 cm in western Rajasthan to more than 400
cm in certain parts of Western Ghats and North-East India.
 The monsoon rainfall has a declining trend with increasing distance from the sea.
Rainfall decreases from east to west in plains as one branch of monsoon enters from
eastern side. Kolkata receives 119 cm, Allahabad 76 cm and Delhi 56 cm only.
 Breaks (discussed above) in rainfall are related to the cyclonic depressions mainly
formed at the head of the Bay of Bengal, and their crossing into the mainland. Besides
the frequency and intensity of these depressions, the passage followed by them
determines the spatial distribution of rainfall.
 The rains sometimes end considerably earlier than usual, causing great damage to
standing crops and making the sowing of winter crops difficult.
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3.9 Monsoons and the Economic Life in India

 Monsoon is that axis around which revolves the entire agricultural cycle of India. It is
because about 64 per cent people of India depend on agriculture for their livelihood
and agriculture itself is based on southwest monsoon.
 Except Himalayas all the parts of the country have temperature above the threshold
level to grow the crops or plants throughout the year.
 Regional variations in monsoon climate help in growing various types of crops.
 Agricultural prosperity of India depends very much on timely and adequately
distributed rainfall. If it fails, agriculture is adversely affected mainly in areas where
irrigation is not developed.
 Sudden monsoon burst creates problem of soil erosion over large areas in India.
4] Seasons
Seasons are a special feature of Indian climate. Temperature, pressure, wind direction and the
amount and duration of rain varies from one season to the other. Meteorologists identify four
seasons in India. They are described briefly in table 1 below
Season Duration General Temperature Wind, rainfall
characteristics disturbances
Winter Mid- Clear skies, Mean daily High pressure Westerly
season November fine weather, temperature over north- disturbances
to February low humidity below 21oC in western India. cause rainfall in
North India. Winds blow northern
Some part from north- plains. Rainfall
experience west to south- decreases from
temperature east. Around west to east in
below freezing four or five plains but
point. westerly increases in
Temperature disturbances north-east
increases from are carried by again as it
north to westerly jet catch water
south. stream. from Bay of
Bengal. North-
east monsoon
causes winter
rainfall in
southern
Andhra
Pradesh, Tamil
Nadu etc.
Summer April, May, Excessive heat, Temperature Low pressure Completely dry
season June hot loo, dust rises up to over north- season. Dust
storms and 45oC in north western part storms and
dryness India. of India and thunder storms
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Temperature high pressure provide some

has increased over southern rainfall. Eastern
to 50oC in parts of Bay regions
Ganganagar of Bengal. receives more
earlier. ITCZ shifts to rainfall
Summer in Ganges plain. comparatively.
south India is Wind
not so direction
extreme. varies from
one part of
India to the
other. Dust
storms are
frequency
experienced
in the
afternoon in
northern
plains.
South- June – Whole of India June is the Winds are India receives
west September under south- hottest south- its 80%
monsoon west month. westerly over precipitation in
monsoon. Temperature mainland this season.
India faces remains low India. There is decline
severe during July of rainfall from
cyclones, and August east to west in
thunderstorms which rises plains. Details
etc. high in are discussed
September under
with ‘monsoon’
decreasing above.
amount of
precipitation.
Retreating October- Monsoon Day Winds are Southern
monsoon November winds are temperature is north- Peninsular
retreating high and easterly. Clear region (Tamil
gradually and nights are cool skies and Nadu, Kerala,
sudden rise of and pleasant. gentle breeze and Southern
temperature The average are Andhra
with October minimum characteristics Pradesh)
heat. temperature of this season. receives rain.
fall below Cyclonic
20oC. activities are
more frequent
in Peninsular
region.
Table 1 – Different seasons of India with their characteristics
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4.1 Traditional Indian Seasons

In the Indian tradition, a year is divided into six two-monthly seasons. This cycle of seasons,
which the common people in north and central India follow is based on their practical
experience and age-old perception of weather phenomena. However, this system does not
match with the seasons of south India where there is little variation in the seasons.
Season Months according to Indian Months according to English
Calendar Calendar
Vasanta Chaitra-Vaisakha March-April
Grishma Jyaistha-Asadha May-June
Varsha Sravana-Bhadra July-August
Sharada Asvina-Kartika September-October
Hemanta Margashirsa-Pausa November-December
Shishira Magha-Phalguna January-February
Table 2 – Indian seasons
5] Distribution of Annual Rainfall

The distribution of average annual rainfall in India is shown in figure 13. A glance on this map
indicates that the distribution of rainfall in India is uneven. On the basis of the distribution of
rainfall, India can be divided into the following four regions as shown below in table 3.
Category Rainfall in cms regions
Heavy Rainfall More than 200 Western coast, western ghats,
sub-Himalayan region of
north-east, Garo, Khasi and
Jaintia hills of Meghalaya. In
some parts, rain exceeds 1000
cm.
Moderate rainfall Between 100 to 200 100 cm isohyet extends from
Gujarat to south up to
Kanyakumari parallel to
western ghats. Northern
Andhra Pradesh, eastern part
of Maharashtra, Madhya
Pradesh, Odisha, some parts
of Jammu and Kashmir
Low rainfall Between 60 to 100 Most parts of Tamil Nadu,
Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh,
eastern Rajasthan, south-
western Uttar Pradesh
Inadequate rainfall Less than 60 Punjab, Haryana, north-
western Rajasthan, Kachchh,
Kathiawar
Table 3 – Different rainfall regions of India
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Student Notes:
Figure 13 – India: Annual rainfall
6] Variability of Annual Rainfall

Variability of rainfall refers to variations in rainfall from the average amount. The variability of
rainfall is computed with the help of the following formula:
C.V. = (Standard Deviation / Mean) x 100; where C.V. is the coefficient of variation.
Study of variability of rainfall in an agricultural country such as India is very important. The
rainfall in India is highly variable. The actual rainfall of a place in a year deviates from its average
rainfall by 10 to over 60 per cent. The mean annual rainfall variability of rainfall in India has
been plotted in figure 14. Description of annual rainfall’s variability is details as:
 It may be noted from figure 13 and figure 14 that the highest variability is found in the
areas where the average annual rainfall is the lowest such as desert areas of Rajasthan.
Here, variability of rainfall is around 60 per cent.
 Contrary to this, in the areas where the average annual rainfall is over 200 cm
(Meghalaya plateau, Western Ghats), the annual variability of rainfall is less than 10 per
cent.
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 A very large part of India falls in the category of 15 to 30 per cent annual variability of
rainfall. Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra etc. fall in this category
 Variability of annual rainfall increases from the western coast to the interior of the
Peninsular region and from West Bengal and Odisha towards north and north-west.
Figure 14 – India: variability of annual rainfall
7] Climatic Regions of India

India is often referred to as a country with tropical monsoon type of climate. However, the large
latitudinal extent, the presence of Himalayas in the north, the India Ocean in the south have
resulted in great variations in the distribution of temperature and precipitation in the India. The
climate of north is different from that of south and so is the climate of east from that of the
west.
To study the variations of climate in various parts, India is divided into a large number of
climatic regions of small size. A climatic region is that area which possesses a broad uniformity
of climatic conditions caused by the combined effects of climatic elements – temperature,
pressure, winds, humidity and precipitation. Temperature and rainfall are two important
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Student Notes:
elements which are considered to be decisive in all the schemes of climatic classification. There
are different schemes of classification of climate. Major climatic types of India based on
Koeppen’s scheme have been show in figure 15.
Figure 15 – India: Climatic regions according to Koeppen scheme
Koeppen based his scheme of Climatic classification on monthly values of temperature and
precipitation. India’s climate is divided into the following climatic regions:
 Monsoon type with short dry season (Amw) – the western coastal region south of Goa
experiences this type of climate.
 Monsoon type with dry season in summers (AS) – the region of this type of climate
extends along the coromandel coast.
 Tropical Savannah type (Aw) – almost the entire peninsular region except for some
coastal parts experiences this type of climate.
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 Semi-arid steppe climate (BShw) – this climatic region includes the interior parts of the
peninsular plateau and some parts of Gujarat, Rajasthan, Haryana, Punjab and Jammu
& Kashmir.
 Hot desert type (BWhw) – this type of climate is found only in the western part of
Rajasthan.
 Monsoon type with dry winters (Cwg) – Largely Northern plains of India experiences
this type of climate.
 Cold-humid winter type with short summer (Dfc) – this climate of characterized by a
short summer season. This region covers the north-eastern parts of India.
 Polar type (E) – this type of climate is experienced in Jammu & Kashmir and the
neighbouring mountain ranges.
Agro Climatic Zones Of India
The agro-climatic classification is nothing but an extension of the climate classification keeping
in view the suitability to agriculture. Generally, the climate types may be distinguished on the
rainfall, temperature and as these two characteristics are influenced by altitude, the climate can
also be classified on the basis of above three parameters. National commission on agriculture
(1971) classified the country into 127 agro-climatic zones. The planning commission, as a result
of mid. term appairasal of planning targets of VII plan (1985 - 90) divided the country into 15
broad agro - climatic zones based on physiographic and climate. The emphasis was given on the
development of resources and their optimum utilization in a suitable manner with in the frame
work of resource constraints and potentials of each region.
Agro climatic zones of India :- (Planning commission 1989)
Ladakh, Kashmir, Punjab, Jammu etc.brown soils & silty loam,

1 Western Himalayan Region steep slopes.
Arunachal Pradesh, Sikkim and Darjeeling. Manipur etc. High
2 Eastern Himalayan Region rainfall and high forest covers heavy soil erosion, Floods.
3 Lower Gangatic plants Regions West Bengal Soils mostly alluvial & are prone to floods.
Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, High rainfall 39% irrigation, cropping
4 Middle Gangatic plans Region intensity 142%
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North region of U.P. (32 dists) irrigated by canal & tube wells
5 Upper Gangatic Plains Region good ground water
Punjab Haryana Union territory of Delhi, Highest sown area
6 Trans Gangatic plains Region irrigated high
Chota Nagpur, Garhjat hills, M.P, W. Banghelkhand plateau,
Orissa, soils Shallow to medium sloppy, undulating Irrigation
7 Eastern Plateaus & Hills Region tank & tube wells.
8 Central Plateau & hills Region M. Pradesh
Sahyadry, M.S. M.P. Rainfall 904 mm Sown area 65% forest
9 Western Plateau & hills Region 11% irrigation 12.4%
T. Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Typically semi and zone,
10 Southern Plateau & Hills Region Dry land Farming 81% Cropping Intensity 11%
Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh Orissa, Soils, alluvial, coastal sand,
11 East coast plains & hills Region Irrigation
Sourashtra, Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, T. Nadu, Variety of
12 West coast plains & Hills Region cropping Pattern, rainfall & soil types.
Gujarat (19 dists) Low rainfall arid zone. Irrigation 32% well and
13 Gujarat plains & Hills Region tube wells.
Rajasthan (9 dists) Hot. Sandy desert rainfall erratic, high
14 Western Dry Region evaporation. Scanty vegetation, femine draughts.
Eastern Andaman, Nikobar, Western Laksh dweep. Typical
equatorial, rainfall 3000 mm (9 months) forest zone
15 The Island Region undulating.
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Student Notes:
UPSC Previous Years’ Mains Questions on Climate:

1. List the significant local storms of the hot-weather season in the country and bring out
their socio-economic impact. (UPSC 2010/12 Marks)
2. Bring out the significance of the various activities of the Indian Meteorological
Department. (UPSC 2009/15 Marks)
3. Write about Nor’westers in 20 words. (UPSC 2008/15 Marks)
4. The winter rains in North India are largely related to Jet Streams and Western
Disturbances. Bring out the relationship. (UPSC 2008/15 Marks)
5. Write note on winter rains in India. (UPSC 2006/2 Marks)
6. Discuss the distribution of winds and rainfall over India in the summer monsoon
season. (UPSC 2002/10 Marks)
7. Explain the causes of the Indian Monsoon. (UPSC 2001/10 Marks)
8. Write short note on Mango Showers. (UPSC 2000/2 Marks)
9. Mention the agro-climatic regions of India starting the basis of classification. (UPSC
2000/10 Marks)
10. Discuss the origin of Monsoon in India. (UPSC 1997/15 Marks)
11. What is ‘intensity of rainfall’? Discuss its importance to Indian farmers. (UPSC 1995/15
Marks)
12. Which part of India receives more rainfall from the north-east monsoon than from the
south-west monsoon? Explain why it is so? (UPSC 1994/15 Marks)
13. What is the basis of Monsoon forecasts now prepared by the Indian Meteorological
Department, which have been reasonably correct for the last three successive years?
14. How far is it justifiable to state that the financial budget of this country is a gamble,
against the Indian monsoon? To what extent have developmental measures solved the
problem? (UPSC 1986/20 Marks)
15. Why is India undertaking expeditions to Antarctica? Describe the influence of Antarctica
and Antarctic Ocean on the climate of India and on the nutrient and energy supply to
Indian Ocean.
16. “Monsoon is known to be an energy released by the sea.” Explain. How does this
energy benefit the entire economic system of our country? In what ways could this
country prepare itself to fight the vagaries of the monsoons? (UPSC 1982/30 Marks)
17. Unlike most other parts of the country, why is the Tamil Nadu coast wettest in
November-December and not in July-August? (UPSC 1980/3 Marks)
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Student Notes:
UPSC Previous Years’ Prelims Questions on Climate:

1. La Nina is suspected to have caused recent floods in Australia. How is La Nina different from
El Nino?
1. La Nina is characterised by unusually cold ocean temperature in equatorial Indian
Ocean whereas El Nino is characterised by unusually warm ocean temperature in the
equatorial Pacific Ocean.
2. El Nino has adverse effect on south-west monsoon of India, but La Nina has no effect
on monsoon climate.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (2011)
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
2. With reference to India, which one of the following statements is not correct? (2002)
(a) About one-third of the area of the country records more than 750 millimetres of annual
rainfall
(b) The dominant source of irrigation in the country is wells
(c) Alluvial soil is the predominant type of soil in the northern plains of the country
(d) The mountain areas account for about thirty percent of the surface area of the country
3. The jet aircrafts fly very easily and smoothly in the lower stratosphere. What could be the
appropriate explanation? (2011)
1. There are no clouds or water vapour in the lower stratosphere.
2. There are no vertical winds in the lower stratosphere.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct in this context?
4. The average annual temperature of a meteorological station is 260C, its average annual
rainfall is 63 cm and the annual range to temperature is 90C. The station in question is
(2002).
(a) Allahabad (b) Chennai
(c) Cherrapunji (d) Kolkata
5. If there were no Himalayan ranges, what would have been the most likely geographical
impact on India?
1. Much of the country would experience the cold waves from Siberia.
2. Indo-gangetic plain would be devoid of such extensive alluvial soils.
3. The pattern of monsoon would be different from what it is at present.
(a) 1 only (b) 1 and 3 only
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

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VISIONIAS ™
www.visionias.in
GEOGRAPHY: 15 CLIMATE AND DIFFERENT WORLD CLIMATES
Contents:
1 Introduction
2 Climate & Weather
2.1 Comparison between Weather and Climate
2.2 Importance of Climate and Weather
2.3 Elements of climate
2.4 Factors affecting climate
2.5 Classification of climate
3 Global Climate Classification
3.1 The Hot, Wet Equatorial Climate
3.2 The Tropical Monsoon and Tropical Marine Climates
3.3 The Savannah or Sudan Climate
3.4 The Hot Desert and Mid-latitude Desert Climates:
3.5 The Warm Temperate Western Margin (Mediterranean) Climate
3.6 The Temperate Continental (Steppe) Climate
3.7 The Warm Temperate Eastern Margin (China Type) Climate
3.8 The Cool Temperate Western Margin (British Type) Climate
3.9 The Cool Temperate Continental (Siberian) Climate
3.10 The Cool Temperate Eastern Margin (Laurentian) Climate
3.11 The Arctic or Polar Climate
4 Mains Questions
5 Prelims Questions


Student Notes:
1] Introduction
Climate holds an important place in our own life. Our life and various economic activities
(agriculture, industries, commerce, etc.) are affected by climate. Climate has also an important
place in physical geography. Climate is a measure of the average pattern of variation in
temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, wind, precipitation, atmospheric particle count
and other meteorological variables in a given region over long periods of time. Any
independent study of each of these elements does not present any comprehensive view of
climate. On the basis of these elements, there could be thousands of types of climates in the
world.
2] Climate & Weather

The difference between weather and climate is that weather consists of the short-term
(minutes to months) changes in the atmosphere while climate is the average of weather over
time and space. In most places, weather can change from minute-to-minute, hour-to-hour, day-
to-day, and season-to-season. Climate, however, is the average of weather over time and space.
2.1 Comparison between Weather and Climate
Climate Weather
Definition Describes the average conditions Describes the atmospheric conditions at a
expected at a specific place over specific place at a specific point in time.
a long period of time. A region's Weather generally refers to day-to-day
climate is generated by the temperature and precipitation activity
climate system, which has five
components: atmosphere,
hydrosphere, cryosphere, land
surface and biosphere.
Components Climate may include Weather includes sunshine, rain, cloud
precipitation, temperature, cover, winds, hail, snow, sleet, freezing rain,
humidity, sunshine, and wind flooding, blizzards, ice storms,
velocity, phenomena such as thunderstorms, steady rains from a cold
fog, frost, and hail storms over a front or warm front, excessive heat, heat
long period of time. waves and more
Forecast By aggregates of weather By collecting meteorological data, like air
statistics over periods of 30 temperature, pressure, humidity, solar
years radiation, wind speeds and direction etc.
Determining Aggregating weather statistics Real-time measurements of atmospheric
factors over periods of 301 years. pressure, temperature, wind speed and
direction, humidity, precipitation, cloud
cover and other variables.
1
NCERT mentions 50 years but according to WMO it is 30 years.
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Time period Measured over a long period Measured for short term
Study Climatology Meteorology
2.2 Importance of Climate and Weather

The influence of climate and weather can be seen in day to day activities of human beings.
Forces of nature have regulated to a very great extent the sort of food we eat, what we wear,
how we live and work. Conditions of temperature, precipitation and humidity may promote or
discourage the growth of fungus and diseases which may be injurious to both men and crops.
Today, our activities are becoming more and more dependent upon meteorological services.
Meteorological stations are set up all over the globe to provide weather updates and predict
future conditions. A fair knowledge of the weather is not only useful but often essential.
2.3 Elements of climate
There are various environmental elements which have significant influence on the climate of a
region. Among them, temperature, pressure, precipitation and winds are the most important
because of their far reaching global influence. These elements are affected in different manner
by the following climatic factors: latitude, altitude, continentality, ocean currents, insolation,
prevailing winds, slope and aspect, natural vegetation and soil.
2.4 Factors affecting climate
Latitude: Due to the earth's inclination, the mid-day sun is almost overhead within the tropics
but the sun's rays reach the earth at an angle outside the tropics. Thus, temperature diminishes
from equatorial regions to the poles.
Altitude: Earth’s atmosphere is mainly heated through conduction from the surface, so places
near the surface are warmer than those higher up. Thus temperature decreases with increasing
height above sea level. This rate of decrease in temperature with altitude (lapse rate) is never
constant, varying from place to place and from season to season. However, for all practical
purposes, it may be reckoned that a fall of 6.5°C occurs with an ascent of 1000 meters or 1oC
per 165 meters.
Continentality (Distance from sea): Land surfaces have higher specific heat capacity of heat as
compared to water bodies i.e. it takes less energy to raise the temperature of a given volume of
land by 1oC as compared to same volume of water body. This accounts for temperature
extremes in the continental interiors as compared to maritime areas.
Oceans Currents: Marine areas are influenced by the warm or cold ocean currents. Ocean
currents like the Gulf Stream or the North Atlantic Drift warm the coastal districts of Western
Europe keeping their ports ice-free. Ports located in the same latitude but washed by cold
currents, such as the cold Labrador Current off north-east Canada, are frozen for several
months. Cold currents also lower the summer temperature, particularly when they are carried
landwards by on-shore winds.
Local winds: If winds are warm i.e. they have been blown from a hot area, they will raise
temperatures. If winds have been blown from cold areas, they will lower temperatures. Local
winds like Fohn, Chinook, Sirocco and Mistral also produce marked changes in temperature.
Relief and Topography: Climate can be affected by mountains. Mountains receive more rainfall
than low lying areas because as air is forced over the higher ground it cools, causing moist air to
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condense and fall out as rainfall. The higher the place is above sea level the colder it will be.
This happens because as altitude increases, air becomes thinner and is less able to absorb and
retain heat.
Latitude
Human
Altitude
Influence
Contineta
ElNino Factors lity
Affecting
Slope,
Shelter &
Aspect
Climate Ocean
Current
Natural Local
Vegetation
Relief &
Winds
Topography
Fig 1: Factors Affecting Climate

Natural Vegetation and Soil: Natural vegetation affects the temperature of the region
significantly. Often areas with dense forest cover like areas in thick foliage of Amazon jungles
receive less insolation and are, often, cooler than the areas in open space. Light soils reflect
more heat than darker soils which are better absorbers. Such soil differences may give rise to
slight variations in the temperature of the region. As a whole, dry soils like sands are very
sensitive to temperature changes, whereas wet soils, like clay, retain much moisture and warm
up or cool down more slowly.
Slope, Shelter and Aspect: A steep slope experiences much rapid change in temperature as
compared to a gentle slope. Mountain ranges that have an east-west alignment like the Alps
show a higher temperature on the south-facing 'sunny slope' than the north facing 'sheltered
slope'. The greater insolation of the southern slope is better suited for vine cultivation and has
a more flourishing vegetative cover. Consequently, there are more settlements and it is better
utilised than the 'shady slope'.
El Niño Effect: El Niño, which affects wind and rainfall patterns, has been blamed for droughts
and floods in countries around the Pacific Rim. El Niño refers to the irregular warming of
surface water in the Pacific. The warmer water pumps energy and moisture into the
atmosphere, altering global wind and rainfall patterns. The phenomenon has caused tornadoes
in Florida, smog in Indonesia, and forest fires in Brazil. El Niño is Spanish for 'the Boy Child'
because it comes about the time of the celebration of the birth of the Christ Child. The cold
counterpart to El Niño is known as La Niña, Spanish for 'the girl child', and it also brings with it
weather extremes.
Human Influence: The factors above affect the climate naturally. However, we cannot forget
the influence of humans on our climate. Early on in human history our effect on the climate
would have been quite small. However, as populations increased and trees were cut down in
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large numbers, so our influence on the climate increased. The number of trees being cut down
has also increased, reducing the amount of carbon dioxide that is taken up by forests
2.5 Classification of climate
If we were to compare the climates of different places on the basis of climatic elements, we
would come across many such places which would have similarity between one and more of
these elements. On the basis of these very regional similarities and differences of climatic
elements, attempts have been made to classify climate for easy understanding, description and
analysis.
Three broad approaches have been adopted for classifying climate. They are empirical, genetic
and applied. Empirical classification is based on observed data, particularly on temperature and
precipitation. Genetic classification attempts to organise climates according to their causes.
Applied classification is for specific purpose.
Heat Zones Classification: The Greek philosophers were the first to present classification of
climates. The temperature of the earth was the main bases of their classifications. They had
divided the earth into Torrid, Temperate and Frigid zones.
(1) Tropical or Torrid Zone: This zone lies between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of
Capricorn. In this zone the sunrays are almost vertical throughout the year. The temperature
always remains high. There is no winter season in this zone.
(2) Temperate Zone: There are two zones lying between the Tropic of Cancer - the Arctic Circle
and the Tropic of Capricorn - the Antarctic Circle.
Fig 2: Heat Zones Classifications

(3) Frigid Zone: This zone lies between Arctic Circle and North Pole and the Antarctic Circle and
the South Pole. The sunrays in these two zones in the Northern and Southern Hemisphere fall in
slanting form throughout the year. Therefore these zones experience very low temperature and
high degree of coldness. Therefore, these latitudinal zones are known as Frigid Zone.
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Koeppen Classification:
The most widely used classification of climate is the climate classification scheme developed by
German climatologist and plant geographer V. Koeppen. in 1918. The annual as well as monthly
averages of temperature and precipitation formed the basis of Koeppen classification of
climate. He also based his classification on the distribution of weather conditions. This
classification is both empirical and genetic type. Koeppen in his classification laid great
emphasis that all the characteristics of climate can well be expressed through the distribution of
natural vegetation that’s why he tried to associate his climate types with vegetation zones of
the world. He made use of annual averages of temperature and precipitation in fixing the
climate regions of the world. He presented five main climate types. Each of these climate types
was represented by capital English alphabets of A, B, C, D and E. He used the letter 'H' for
highland type of climates. While keeping temperature and precipitation variations in view these
five climate types were further subdivided as shown in the following table:
Sr. Chief Climatic Groups Climatic Types
No.
A Tropical Climate (Average temperature of the 1. Tropical rain forest type
coldest month is 18° C or higher) climate
2. Savannah type climate
3. Monsoon type climate
B Dry Climate (Potential evaporation exceeds 4. Desert climate
precipitation) 5. Steppe (Semi-desert)
climate
C Temperate Climate (The average temperature of 6. Mediterranean climate
the coldest month is higher than minus 3°C but 7. China type climate
below 18°C) 8. West European type
climate
D Continental Climate (The average temperature of 9. Taiga climate
the coldest month is minus 3° C or below) 10. Eastern coastal cold
climate
11. Continental climate
E Polar Climate (Average temperature for all months 12. Tundra climate
is below 10° C) 13. Snow-capped region type
climate
H Highland Climate (Cold due to elevation)
Thornthwaite Classification:
Thornthwaite was an American climatologist. He presented his first climate classification in
1931. In 1931, his classification looked similar to Koeppen. Like Koeppen, Thornthwaite also
thought that vegetation is the indicator of climate type. Two basic features of this classification
are (i) Precipitation Effectiveness, (ii) Temperature Efficiency. On the basis of these two
indicators, Thornthwaite divided the world into five humidity regions. Each region had its own
special type of vegetation as shown in the table below:
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Student Notes:
Sr. No. Humidity Region Special type of Vegetation

A Very Humid Rain Forest
B Humid Forest
C Semi Humid Grassland
D Semi Dry Steppe
E Dry Desert
On the basis of distribution of seasonal rainfall the above types of humidity regions were
further divided into following subdivisions:
Y = Heavy rainfall in all seasons
s = Scarcity of rainfall in summer season
w = Scarcity of rainfall in winter season
d = Scarcity of rainfall in all seasons
After linking precipitation effectiveness and seasonal distribution of rainfall to temperature
anomalies, the climates could be of 120 different types.
3] Global Climate Classification

The global climatic conditions can be studied under the following twelve classifications.
Climatic Zone Latitude ClimaticType Rainfall Regime (with NaturalVegetation
(Approximate) approx. total)
Equatorial 00-100N and S 1. Hot, wet equatorial Rainfall all year round : Equatorial rain forests
Zone 80 inches
Hot Zone 100-300N and 2. a) Tropical Monsoon Heavy summer rain: 80 Monsoon forests
S inches Much summer
b) Tropical Marine
rain: 70 inches
3. Sudan Type Rain mainly in summer: Savanna (tropical

30 inches grassland)
4. Desert: a) Saharan Little rain: 5 inches Desert vegetation and
type scrub
b) Mid-latitude type
Warm 30-0400N & S 5. Western Margin Winter rain: 35 inches Mediterranean forests
Temperate (Mediterranean type) and shrub
Zone
6. Central Continental Light summer rain: 20 Steppe or temperate

(Steppe type) inches grassland
7. Eastern Margin: Heavier summer rain : Warm, wet forests

a) China type 20 inches and bamboo
b) Gulf type
c) Natal type
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Cool 450-650N & S 8. Western Margin More rain in autumn & Deciduous forests
Temperate (British type) winter: 30 inches
Zone
9. Central Continental Light summer rain: 25 Evergreen coniferous
(Siberian type) inches forests
10. Eastern Margin Moderate summer rain Mixed forests
(Laurentian type) : 40 inches (coniferous and
deciduous)
Cold Zone 650-900 N & S 11. Arctic or Polar Very light summer rain : Tundra, mosses,
10 inches lichens
Alpine Zone 12. Mountain climate Heavy rainfall (variable) Alpine pastures,
conifers, fern, snow
3.1 The Hot, Wet Equatorial Climate

Distribution
The equatorial, hot, wet climate is found between 5o and 10 o north and south of the equator.
Its greatest extent is found in the lowlands of the Amazon, the Congo, Malaysia and the East
Indies. Further away from the equator, the influence of the on-shore Trade Winds, gives rise to
a modified type of equatorial climate with monsoonal influences.
Climatic Conditions
Temperature: The most outstanding feature of the equatorial climate is its great uniformity of
temperature throughout the year. The mean monthly temperatures are always around 27°C
with very little variation. There is no winter. Cloudiness and heavy precipitation moderates the
daily temperature, so that even at the equator itself, the climate is not unbearable. The diurnal
range of temperature is small, and so is the annual range.
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Precipitation: Precipitation is heavy, between 60 inches and 100 inches, and well distributed
throughout the year. There is no month without rain and a distinct dry season like those of the
Savannah or the Tropical Monsoon Climates, is absent. Due to the great heat in the equatorial
belt, mornings are bright, and sunny. There is much evaporation and convectional air currents
are set up, followed by heavy downpours.
Natural Vegetation: It supports a
luxuriant type of vegetation – the
tropical rain forest. Amazon tropical
rain forest is known as Selvas. It
comprises a multitude of evergreen
trees that yield tropical hardwood,
e.g. mahogany, ebony, greenheart,
cabinet wood. Lianas, epiphytic and
parasitic plants are also found. Trees
of single species are very scarce in
such vegetation.
Life and Development in the
Equatorial Regions: The equatorial
regions are generally sparsely
populated. In the forests most
primitive people live as hunters and collectors and the more advanced ones practise shifting
cultivation. In the Amazon basin, the Indian tribes collect wild rubber, in the Congo Basin the
Pygmies gather nuts and in the jungles of Malaysia the Orang Asli make all sorts of cane
products and sell them to people in villages and towns. In the clearings for shifting cultivation,
crops like manioc (tapioca), yams, maize, bananas and groundnuts are grown.
3.2 The Tropical Monsoon and Tropical Marine Climates
Distribution: It is found in the zones between 5° and 30° latitudes on either side of the equator.
These areas are the tropical monsoon lands with on-shore wet monsoons in the summer and
off-shore dry monsoons in the winter. They are best developed in the Indian sub-continent,
Burma, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, parts of Vietnam and south China and northern Australia.
Outside this zone, the climate is modified by the influence of the on-shore Trade Winds all the
year round, and has a more evenly distributed rainfall. Such a climate, better termed the
Tropical Marine Climate, is experienced in Central America. West Indies, north-eastern
Australia, the Philippines, parts of East Africa, Madagascar, the Guinea Coast and eastern Brazil.
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Student Notes:
Climatic Conditions:
The basic cause of monsoon climates is the difference in the rate of heating and cooling of land
and sea. Average temperature of warm dry summer months ranges between 27°C and 32°C. In
the summer, when the sun is overhead at the Tropic of Cancer, the great land masses of the
northern hemisphere are heated. The seas, which warm up much slower, remain comparatively
cool. At the same time, the southern hemisphere experiences winter, and a region of high
pressure is set up in the continental interior of Australia. Winds blow outwards as the South-
East Monsoon, to Java, and after crossing the equator are drawn towards the continental low
pressure area reaching the Indian sub-continent as the South-West Monsoon. In the winter,
conditions are reversed. The sun is overhead at the Tropic of Capricorn, central Asia is
extremely cold, resulting in rapid cooling of the land. A region of high pressure is created with
out-blowing winds-the North-East Monsoon.
The Seasons of Tropical Monsoon Climate: In regions like the Indian sub-continent which have a
true Tropical Monsoon Climate, three distinct seasons are distinguishable - The cool, dry season
(October to February), the hot dry season (March to mid-June) and the rainy season (mid-June
to September).
The Tropical Marine Climate: This type of climate is experienced along the eastern coasts of
tropical lands, receiving steady rainfall from the Trade Winds all the time. The rainfall is both
orographic, where the moist trades meet upland masses as in eastern Brazil, and convectional
due to intense heating during the day and in summer. Its tendency is towards a summer
maximum as in monsoon lands, but without any distinct dry period.
Natural Vegetation: The natural vegetation of tropical monsoon lands depends on the amount
of the summer rainfall. Trees are normally deciduous because of the marked dry period, during
which they shed their leaves to withstand the drought. Where the rainfall is heavy, e.g. in
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Student Notes:
southern Burma, peninsular India, northern Australia and coastal regions with a tropical marine
climate, the resultant vegetation is forest. The forests are more open and less luxuriant than the
equatorial jungle and there are far fewer species. Most of the forests yield valuable timber, and
are prized for their durable hardwood. Amongst these teak is the best known.
Economy: The main economic activity of the people is agriculture. Major agricrops are rice,
cane sugar, jute etc.
3.3 The Savannah or Sudan Climate
Distribution: The Savannah or Sudan Climate is a transitional type of climate found between
the equatorial forest and the trade wind hot deserts. It is confined within the tropics and is best
developed in the Sudan where the dry and wet seasons are most distinct, hence its name the
Sudan Climate. The belt includes West African Sudan, and then curves southwards into East
Africa and southern Africa north of the Tropic of Capricorn. In South America, there are two
distinct regions of savannah north and south of the equator, namely the llanos of the Orinoco
basin and the Campos of the Brazilian Highlands.
The Savannah climate is characterized by distinct wet and dry seasons. Mean high temperature
throughout the year is between 24°C and 27° C. The annual range of temperature is between
3°C and 8°C, but the range increases as one move further away from the equator. The extreme
diurnal range of temperature is a characteristic of Sudan type of climate. The average annual
rainfall ranges between 100 cm and 150 cm. The prevailing winds of the region are the Trade
Winds which bring rain to the coastal districts.
Natural Vegetation: The savannah landscape is typified by tall grass and short trees. The terms
'parkland' or 'bush-veld' perhaps describe the landscape better. Trees grow best towards the
equatorial humid latitudes or along river banks but decrease in height and density away from
the equator. The trees are deciduous, shedding their leaves in the cool, dry season to prevent
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excessive loss of water through transpiration, e.g. acacias. Others have broad trunks, with
water-storing devices to survive through the prolonged drought such as baobabs and bottle
trees. Trees are mostly hard, gnarled and thorny and may exude gum like gum arabic.
Animal Life of the Savannah: The savannah, particularly in Africa, is the home of wild animals.
It is known as the 'big game country' and thousands of animals are trapped or killed each year
by people from all over the world. Some of the animals are tracked down for their skins, horns,
tusks, bones or hair, others are captured alive and sent out of Africa as zoo animals, laboratory
specimens or pets.
Economy: Many tribes live within the Savannah lands. Some tribes live as pastoralists like the
Masai and other as settled cultivators like the Hausa of northern Nigeria. However, agriculture is
not much developed.
3.4 The Hot Desert and Mid-latitude Desert Climates:
Distribution: Deserts are regions of scanty rainfall which may be hot like the hot deserts of
the Saharan type or temperate as are the mid- latitude deserts like the Gobi. The major hot
deserts of the world are located on the western coasts of continents between latitudes 15º and
30ºN and S. They include the Sahara Desert, the largest single stretch of desert, which is 3,200
miles from east to west and at least 1,000 miles wide. The next biggest desert is the Great
Australian Desert which covers almost half of the continent. The other hot deserts are the
Arabian Desert, Iranian Desert, Thar Desert, Kalahari and Namib Deserts. In North America, the
desert extends from Mexico to USA and is called by different names at different places, e.g. the
Mohave Sonoran, Californian and Mexican Deserts. In South America, the Atacama or Peruvian
Desert is the driest of all deserts with less than 0.5 inches of rainfall annually. The Patagonian
Desert is more due to its rain- shadow position on the leeward side of the lofty Andes than to
continentality.
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Rainfall: The aridity of deserts is the most outstanding feature of the desert climate. Few
deserts whether hot or mid-latitude have an annual precipitation of more than 10 inches while
in others less than 0.02 inches. The hot deserts lie astride the Horse Latitudes or the Sub-
Tropical High Pressure Belts where the air is descending, a condition least favourable for
precipitation of any kind to take place. The rain bearing trade winds blow off shore and the
Westerlies, that are on-shore, blow outside the desert limits. Whatever winds reaches the
deserts blow from the cooIer to the warmer regions, and their relative humidity is lowered,
making condensation almost impossible.
Temperature: The deserts are some of the hottest spots on earth and have high temperatures
throughout the year. There is no cold season in the hot deserts and the average summer
temperature is around 30°C. The highest shade temperature recorded is 58°C at Al Azizia, 25
miles south of Tripoli, Libya, in the Sahara. The diurnal range of temperature in the deserts is
very great.
Natural Vegetation: All deserts have some form of vegetation such as grass, scrub, herbs,
weeds, roots or bulbs. Though they may not appear green and fresh all the time, they lie
dormant in the soil awaiting rain which comes at irregular intervals or once in many years. The
environment, so lacking in moisture and so excessive in heat, is most unfavourable for plant
growth and significant vegetation cannot be expected. The predominant vegetation of both hot
and mid-latitude deserts is xerophytes or drought-resistant scrub. This includes the bulbous
cacti, thorny bushes, long-rooted wiry grasses and scattered dwarf acacia. Trees are rare except
where there is abundant ground water to support clusters of date palms.
Life in the Deserts: Despite its inhospitality, the desert has always been peopled by different
groups of inhabitants. They struggle against an environment deficient in water, food and other
means of livelihood. The desert inhabitants may be grouped under the following categories -
The primitive hunters and collectors (The Bushmen and The Bindibu), the nomadic herdsmen
(The Tuaregs of the Sahara, the Gobi Mongols and The Bedouin of Arabia), the caravan traders,
the settled cultivators and the mining settlers.
3.5 The Warm Temperate Western Margin (Mediterranean) Climate
Distribution: The Warm Temperate Western Margin Climate is found in relatively, few areas in
the world. They are entirely confined to the western portion of continental masses, between
30° and 45° north and south of the equator. The basic cause of this type of climate is the
shifting of the wind belts. Though the area around the Mediterranean Sea has the greatest
extent of this type of 'winter rain climate', and gives rise to the more popular name
Mediterranean Climate. Other Mediterranean regions include California (around San Francisco),
the south-western tip of Africa (around Cape Town), southern Australia (in southern Victoria
and around Adelaide, bordering the St. Vincent and Spencer Gulfs), and south-west Australia
(Swanland).
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Climatic Conditions: The Mediterranean type of climate is characterized by very distinctive

climatic features - a warm summer with off-shore trades, a concentration of rainfall in winter
with onshore westerlies, bright, sunny weather with hot dry summers and wet, mild winters
and the prominence of local winds around the Mediterranean Sea (Sirocco, Mistral). Since all
regions with a Mediterranean climate are near large bodies of water, temperatures are
generally moderate with a comparatively small range of temperature res between the
winter low and summer high. Areas with this climate receive almost all of their yearly rainfall
during the winter season, and may go the summer without having any significant precipitation.
Natural vegetation: Trees with small broad leaves are widely spaced and never very tall.
Though there are many branches they are short and carry few leaves. The absence of shade is a
distinct feature of Mediterranean lands. Growth is slow in the cooler and wetter season, even
though more rain comes in winter. The warm, bright summers and cool, moist winters enable a
wide range of crops to be cultivated. The Mediterranean lands are also known as the world's
orchard lands. A wide range of citrus fruits such as oranges, lemons, limes, citrons and
grapefruit are grown. Wine production is another speciality of the Mediterranean countries,
because the best wine is essentially made from grapes. Some 85 per cent of grapes produced,
go into wine. The long, sunny summer allows the grapes to ripen and then they are hand-
picked.
Economy: The area is important for fruit cultivation, cereal growing, wine-making and
agricultural industries as well as engineering and mining.
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Student Notes:
3.6 The Temperate Continental (Steppe) Climate

Distribution
Bordering the deserts, away from the Mediterranean regions and in the interiors continents are
the temperate grasslands. Though they lie in the Westerly wind belt, they are so remote from
maritime influence that the grasslands are practically treeless. These grasslands are so
distinctive in their natural vegetation that, although those which occur in the southern
hemisphere have a much more moderate climate, they are often dealt with together. In the
northern hemisphere, the grasslands are far more extensive and are entirely continental. In
Eurasia, they are called the Steppes and stretch eastwards from the shores of the Black Sea
across the Great Russian plain to the foothills of the Altai Mountains, a distance of well over
2,000 miles. There are isolated sections in the Pustaz of Hungary and the plains of Manchuria.
In North America, the grasslands are also quite extensive and are called Prairies. They lie
between the foothills of the Rockies and the Great Lakes astride the American Canadian border.
In the case of the Pampas of Argentina and Uruguay, the grasslands extend right to the sea and
enjoy much maritime influence. In South Africa, the grasslands are sandwiched between the
Drakensberg and the Kalahari Desert; and are further subdivided into the more tropical Bush-
veld in the north, and the more temperate High Veld in the south.
Climatic Conditions
Temperature: Their location in the heart of continents means that they have little maritime
influence. Their climate is thus continental with extremes of temperature. Summers are very
warm, over 19°C. Winters are very cold in the continental steppes of Eurasia because of the
enormous distances from the nearest sea. The winter months are well below freezing. In
contrast, the steppe type of climate in the southern hemisphere is never severe. The winters
are mild. Temperatures below freezing point even in midwinter (July in the southern
hemisphere) are exceptional.
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Student Notes:
Precipitation: In its continental position, the annual precipitation of the Steppe Climate is light.
The average rainfall may be taken as about 20 inches, but this again varies according to location
from 10 inches to 30 inches. The maritime influence in the steppe type of climate of the
southern hemisphere is even better brought out by the rainfall regime. Its annual precipitation
is always more than the average 20 inches because of the warm ocean currents that wash the
shores of the steppe-lands.
Natural Vegetation: The reference to steppe grassland is taken to mean the temperate
grasslands of the mid-latitudes, the Steppes, Prairies, Pampas, Veld and Downs. The steppes are
grass covered, differing only in the density and quality of the grass. Their greatest difference
from the tropical savannah is that they are practically treeless and the grasses are much
shorter. Where the rainfall is moderate, above 20 inches, the grasses are tall, fresh and
nutritious and are better described as long prairie grass. The appearance of the temperate
grasslands varies with seasons. Trees are very scarce in the steppes, because of the scanty
rainfall, long droughts and severe winters.
Economy: The grasslands have been ploughed up for extensive, mechanized wheat cultivation
and are now the ‘granaries of the world’. Besides wheat, maize is increasingly cultivated in the
warmer and wetter areas. The tufted grasses have been replaced by the more nutritious
Lucerne or alfalfa grass.
3.7 The Warm Temperate Eastern Margin (China Type) Climate
Distribution: This type of climate is found on the eastern margins of continents in warm
temperate latitudes, just outside the tropics. It has comparatively more rainfall than the
Mediterranean climate in the same latitudes, coming mainly in the summer. It is, in fact, the
climate of most parts of China –a modified form of monsoonal climate. It is thus also called the
Temperate Monsoon or China Type of climate. In south-eastern U.S.A., bordering the Gulf of
Mexico, continental heating in summer induces an inflow of air from the cooler Atlantic Ocean.
It is sometimes referred to as the Gulf type of climate. In the southern hemisphere, this kind of
climate is experienced along the warm temperate eastern coastlands of all the three
continents: in New South Wales with its eucalyptus forests; in Natal where cane sugar thrives;
and in the maize belt of the Parana-Paraguay-Uruguay basin.
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Student Notes:
Climatic Condition:
The Warm Temperate Eastern Margin Climate is typified by a warm moist summer and a cool,
dry winter. The mean monthly temperature varies between 5°C and 25°C and is strongly
modified by maritime influence. The relative humidity is a little high in mid-summer. Rainfall is
more than moderate, anything from 25 inches to 60 inches. Another important feature is the
fairly uniform distribution of rainfall throughout the year. There is rain every month, except in
the interior of central China, where there is a distinct dry season. Rain comes either from
convectional sources or as orographic rain in summer, or from depressions in prolonged
showers in winter. Local storms, e.g. typhoons, and hurricanes, also occur.
It can be sub-divided into three main types – a) The China type: central and north China
(including southern Japan (temperate monsoonal). b) The Gulf type: south-eastern United
States, (slight-monsoonal). c) The Natal type: the entire warm temperate eastern margin (non-
monsoonal areas) of the southern hemisphere including Natal, eastern Australia and southern
Brazil-Paraguay-Uruguay and northern Argentina.
Natural Vegetation: The eastern margins of warm temperate latitudes have a much heavier
rainfall than either the western margins or the continental interiors and thus have luxuriant
vegetation. The lowlands carry both evergreen broad-leaved forests and deciduous trees quite
similar to those of the tropical monsoon forests. On the highlands, are various species of
conifers such as pines and cypresses that are important softwood.
Economy: The warm temperate eastern margins are the most productive parts of the middle
latitudes. Besides the widespread cultivation of. Maize and cotton in the Corn and Cotton Belts
of U.S.A. fruit and tobacco are also grown. Rice, tea and mulberries are extensively grown in
monsoon China.
Elsewhere are found other products of economic importance, e.g. cane sugar in Natal, coffee
and maize in South America and dairying in New South Wales and Victoria.
3.8 The Cool Temperate Western Margin (British Type) Climate
Distribution Climate
The cool temperate western margins are under the permanent influence of the Westerlies all
round the year. They are also regions of much cyclonic activity, typical of Britain, and are thus
said to experience the British type of climate. From Britain, the climatic belt stretches far inland
into the lowlands North-West Europe, including such regions as northern and western France,
Belgium, the Netherlands, Denmark, western Norway and also north-western Iberia. In the
southern hemisphere, the climate is experienced in southern Chile, Tasmania and most parts of
New Zealand, particularly in South Island.
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Student Notes:
Climatic Conditions
Temperature: The mean annual temperatures are usually between 5°C and 15°C. The annual
range of temperature is small. Summers are, in fact, never very warm. Monthly temperatures of
over 18°C even in mid-summer are rare.
Precipitation: The British type of climate has adequate rainfall throughout the year with a
tendency towards a slight winter or autumn maximum from cyclonic sources. Since the rain-
bearing winds come from the west, the western margins have the heaviest rainfall. The amount
decreases eastwards with increasing distance from the sea.
Natural Vegetation: The natural vegetation of this climatic type is deciduous forest. The trees
shed their leaves in the cold season. This is an adaptation for protecting themselves against the
winter snow and frost. Shedding begins in autumn, the 'fall' season, during which the leaves fall
and are scattered by the winds. Some of the more common species include oak, elm, ash, birch,
beech, poplar, and hornbeam. Unlike the equatorial forests, the deciduous trees occur in pure
stands and have greater lumbering value from the commercial point of view. The deciduous
hardwoods are excellent for both fuel and industrial purposes.
Economy: The region differs from many others in its unprecedented industrial advancement.
The countries are
concerned in the production of machinery, chemicals, textiles and other manufactured articles
rather than agriculture, fishing or lumbering, though these activities are well represented in
some of the countries. Fishing is particularly important in Britain, Norway and British Columbia.
A very large part of the deciduous woodlands have been cleared for fuel, timber or agriculture.
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Student Notes:
3.9 The Cool Temperate Continental (Siberian) Climate

Distribution
The Cool Temperate Continental (Siberian) Climate is experienced only in the northern
hemisphere where the continents within the high latitudes have a broad east-west spread. On
its pole ward side, it merges into the Arctic tundra of Canada and Eurasia at around the Arctic
Circle. The Siberian Climate is conspicuously absent in the southern hemisphere because of the
narrowness of the southern continents in the high latitudes. The strong oceanic influence
reduces the severity of the winter and coniferous forests are found only on the mountainous
uplands of southern Chile, New Zealand, Tasmania and south-east Australia.
Temperature: The climate of the Siberian type is characterized by a bitterly cold winter of long
duration, and a cool brief summer. Spring and autumn are merely brief transitional periods. The
extremes of temperature are so great in Siberia that it is often referred to as the 'cold pole of
the earth'. Some of the lowest temperatures in the world are recorded in Verkhoyansk.
Precipitation: The interiors of the Eurasian continent are so remote from maritime influence
that annual precipitation cannot be high. Generally speaking, a total of 15 to 25 inches is typical
of the annual precipitation of this sub-Arctic type of climate. It is quite well distributed
throughout the year, with a summer maximum from convectional rain.
Natural Vegetation
No other trees are as well adapted as the conifers to withstand such an inhospitable
environment as the Siberian type of climate. The coniferous forest belts of Eurasia and North
America are the richest sources of softwood for use in building construction, furniture,
matches, paper and pulp, rayon and other branches of the chemical industry, The world's
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Student Notes:
greatest softwood producers are U.S.S.R, U.S.A., Canada and the Fenoscandian countries
(Finland, Norway and Sweden). In the field of newsprint, Canada has outstripped all other
producers, accounting for almost half of the world's total annual production. There are four
major species in the coniferous forests – a) Pine, e.g. white pine, red pine, Scots pine, Jack pine,
b) Fir, e.g., Douglas fir and balsam fir, c) Spruce and d) Larch.
Economy: The coniferous forest regions of the northern hemisphere are comparatively little
developed. Only in the more accessible areas are the forests cleared for lumbering. There is
little agriculture, as few crops can survive in the sub-Arctic climate of these northerly lands.
Many of the Samoyeds and Yakuts of Siberia, and some Canadians are engaged in hunting,
trapping and fishing.
3.10 The Cool Temperate Eastern Margin (Laurentian) Climate
Distribution
The Cool Temperate Eastern Margin (Laurentian) Climate is an intermediate type of climate
between the British and the Siberian type of climate. It has features of both the maritime and
the continental climates. The Laurentian type of climate is found only in two regions. One is
north-eastern North America, including eastern Canada, north-east U.S.A., (i.e. Maritime
Provinces and the New England states), and Newfoundland. This may be referred to as the
North American region. The other region is the eastern coastlands of Asia, including eastern
Siberia, North China, Manchuria, Korea and northern Japan. It may be referred to as the Asiatic
region. In the southern hemisphere, this climatic type is absent because only a small section of
the southern continents extends south of the latitude of 40° S.
The Laurentian type of climate has cold, dry winters and warm, wet summers. Winter
temperatures may be well below freezing-point and snow falls to quite a depth. Summers are as
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Student Notes:
warm as the tropics (21° - 27°C) and if it were not for the cooling effects of the off-shore cold
currents from the Arctic, the summer might be even hotter. Though rain falls throughout the
year, there is a distinct summer maximum from the easterly winds from the oceans. Of the
annual precipitation of 30 to 60 inches, two-thirds come in the summer. Winter is dry and cold,
because the winds are dry Westerlies that blowout from the continental interiors.
Natural Vegetation
The predominant vegetation of the Laurentian type of climate is cool temperate forest. The
heavy rainfall, the warm summers and the damp air from fogs, all favour the growth of trees.
Generally speaking, the forest tends to be coniferous north of the 50° N. parallel of latitude. The
increase in the length and severity of the winter excludes forests that are not adaptable to cold
conditions. Oak, beech, maple and birch are the principal trees.
Economy
Lumbering and its associated timber, paper and pulp industries are the most important
economic undertaking. Agriculture is less important in view of the severity of the winter and its
long duration. Fortunately the maritime influence and the heavy rainfall enable some hardy
crops to be raised for local needs. The fertile Annapolis valley in Nova Scotia is the world’s most
renowned region for apples. Fishing is, however, the most outstanding economic activity of the
Laurentian climatic regions.
3.11 The Arctic or Polar Climate
Distribution
The polar type of climate and vegetation is found mainly north of the Arctic Circle in the
northern hemisphere. The ice-cap is confined to Greenland and to the highlands of these high-
latitude regions, where the ground is permanently snow-covered. The lowlands, with a few
months ice-free, have tundra vegetation. They include the coastal strip of Greenland, the
barren grounds of northern Canada and Alaska and the Arctic seaboard of Eurasia.
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Student Notes:
Climatic Conditions
Temperature: The polar climate is characterized by a very low mean annual temperature and its
warmest month in June seldom rises to more than 10°C. In mid-winter (January) temperatures
are as low as – 35°C and much colder in the interior. Winters are long and very severe; summers
are cool and brief.
Precipitation: Precipitation is mainly in the form of snow, falling in winter and being drifted
about during blizzards. Snowfall varies with locality; it may fall either as ice crystals or large,
amalgamated snowflakes. Convectional rainfall is generally absent because of the low rate of
evaporation and the lack of moisture in the cold polar air. There is normally a summer
maximum, and the precipitation is then in the form of rain or sleet.
Natural vegetation
In such an adverse environment as the tundra, few plants survive. The greatest inhibiting factor
is the region's deficiency in heat. With a growing season of less than three months and the
warmest month not exceeding 10o C (the tree-survival line), there are no trees in the tundra.
Such an environment can support only the lowest form of vegetation, mosses, lichens and
sedges. Drainage in the tundra is usually poor as the sub-soil is permanently frozen. Ponds and
marshes and waterlogged areas are found in hollows.
Economy:
Human activities of the tundra are largely confined to the coast. Where plateaux and mountains
increase the altitude, it is uninhabitable, for these are permanently snow-covered. The few
people who live in the tundra live a semi-nomadic life and have to adapt themselves to the
harsh environment. The Arctic region, once regarded as completely useless, is now of some
economic importance. Apart from the efforts of the various governments in assisting the
advancement of the Arctic inhabitants the Eskimos, Lapps, Samoyeds etc., new settlements
have sprung up because of the discovery of minerals.
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Student Notes:
4] Mains Questions
1. Major hot deserts in northern hemisphere are located between 20-30 degree north and
on the western side of the continents. Why? (UPSC 2013/10 Marks)
2. “As regards the increasing rates of melting of Arctic ice, the interests of the Arctic
Council nations may not coincide with those of the wider world. “Explain. (UPSC
2011/12 Marks)
3. Why is India undertaking expeditions to Antarctica? Describe the influence of Antarctica
and Antarctic ocean on the climate of India and on the nutrient and energy supply to
Indian Ocean.
5] Prelims Questions
1. “Climate is extreme, rainfall is scanty and the people used to be nomadic herders.”
The above statement best describes which of the following regions? (2013)
(a) African Savannah (b) Central Asian Steppe
(c) North American Prairie (d) Siberian Tundra
2. Which one of the following is the (2012)
Characteristic climate of the Tropical Savannah Region?
(a) Rainfall throughout the year (b)Rainfall in winter only
(c) An extremely short dry season (d) A definite dry and wet season
3. What could be the main reason/reasons of the formation of African and Eurasian desert
belt? (2011)
1. It is located in the sub-tropical high pressure cells.
2. It is under the influence of warm ocean currents.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct in this context?
4. A geographic region has the following distinct characteristics:
1. Warm and dry climate
2. Mild and wet winter
3. Evergreen oak trees
The above features are the distinct characteristics of which one of the following regions?
(2010)
(a) Mediterranean (b) Eastern China
(c) Central Asia (d) Atlantic coast of North America
5. Consider the following statements: (2002)
1. In equatorial regions, the year is divided into four main seasons.
2. In Mediterranean region, summer receives more rain.
3. In China type climate, rainfall occurs throughout the year.
4. Tropical highlands exhibit vertical zonation of different climates.
Which of these statements are correct/
(a) 1, 2, 3 and 4 (b) 1, 2 and 3
(c) 1, 2 and 4 (d) 3 and 4
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Student Notes:
6. The temperature and rainfall of a meteorological station are given below:

Temperature (0C) Rainfall (cm) (2001)
Average Temperature: 12.80C

Average Rainfall: 54.9 cm per annum
Identify the region having the above climatic pattern from amongst the following:
(a) Mediterranean region (b) Monsoon region
(c) Steppe region (d) N.W. European region
7. Consider the following statements:
1. The annual range of temperature is greater in the Pacific Ocean than that in the Atlantic
Ocean.
2. The annual range of temperature is greater in the Northern Hemisphere than that in
the Southern Hemisphere.

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VISIONIAS ™
www.visionias.in
GEOGRAPHY: 16
MISCELLANEOUS TOPICS LIKE EL NINO, LA NINA, ENSO, URBAN CLIMATE,

APPLIED CLIMATOLOGY, HEAT ISLAND ETC.
Contents:
1 EL NIÑO
1.1 EL NIÑO - Southern Oscillation (ENSO)
1.2 LA NIÑA
1.3 Walker Circulation
1.4 EL NIÑO & LA NIÑA Modoki
2 Urban Climate
2.1 Urban Heat Island
2.2 Atmospheric Pollution Over Cities
2.3 Urban Climate and Global Climate Change
3 Microclimate
4 Applied Climatology
4.1 Climate and Natural Vegetation
4.2 Climate and Agriculture
4.3 Climate and Animal Husbandry
4.4 Climate and Housing
4.5 Air Pollution and Health
4.6 Climate and Economy
4.7 Climatic Adaptation


Student Notes:
1] EL NIÑO
Near the end of each year as the southern hemispherical summer is about to peak, a weak,
warm counter-current1 flows southward along the coasts of Ecuador and Peru in the eastern
equatorial Pacific Ocean, replacing the cold Peruvian current (an eastern boundary current
along South America). In the past, local residents referred to this annual warming as “El Niño,”
(Spanish: meaning “The Boy Child”) due to its appearance around the Christmas season. For
Peruvian fishermen, it signifies the end of the fishing season. Normally, these warm counter-
currents last for at most a few weeks when they again give way to the cold Peruvian current.
However, every three to seven years, this counter-current is unusually warm and strong. It lasts
for several months and is often accompanied by heavy rainfall in the arid coastal regions of
Ecuador and northern Peru. Over time the term El Niño began to be used in reference to these
major warm episodes.
Figure 1 – El Nino conditions: Warm water pool approaches the South American coast. The
absence of cold upwelling increases warming.
Under normal conditions, the cold Peruvian current flows equatorward along the coast of
Ecuador and Peru (figure 2). The Peruvian current is slow and thus not very strong. Near the
coast, it is only about 200m deep, while increasing to 700m offshore. In the absence of an El
Niño, prevailing surface winds deviates water considerably to the left or away from the coast,
with subsequent upwelling of cold water from below. This upwelling of deep, nutrient-filled
waters is the primary food source for millions of fish, particularly anchovies along the Pacific
Coast of South America.
1
Counter-equatorial current - Between the North and South Equatorial currents, there is a
surface current moving down slope west to east, the Equatorial Countercurrent. This current
helps to return surface water accumulated against the eastern coast of continents by the
Equatorial currents. It is this counter-current in Pacific Ocean that increases in strength and
triggers an El-Niño event.
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Student Notes:
During El Niño, surface winds are weaker than their average value. Weaker surface winds are
beneficial for warm counter-equatorial current that becomes strong and replaces Peruvian
current along the coast of South America. This current carries warm water of west Pacific Ocean
to central and eastern Pacific Ocean. It increases the Pacific Ocean’s sea surface temperature
(SST).
Figure 2 – Normal Pacific pattern: Equatorial winds gather warm water pool toward the west.
Cold water upwells along South American coast.
1.1 EL NIÑO – Southern Oscillation (ENSO)
ENSO consists of two components. The first, mainly oceanic, is known as El Niño. The second,
mainly atmospheric, component of ENSO has been described as the Southern Oscillation. We
already know that El Niño is the unusual warm oceanic water at pacific coast of South America.
Major El Niño events are intimately related to large-scale atmospheric circulation. Each time an
El Niño occurs, the barometric pressure drops over large portions of the south-eastern Pacific,
whereas in the western Pacific, near Indonesia and northern Australia, the pressure rises.
Then, as a major El Niño event comes to an end, the atmospheric pressure difference between
these two regions swings back in the opposite direction. This see-saw pattern of atmospheric
pressure between the eastern and western Pacific is known as the "Southern Oscillation".
The strength of the Southern Oscillation is measured by the Southern Oscillation
Index (SOI). The SOI is computed from fluctuations in the surface air pressure difference
between Tahiti, French Polynesia and Darwin, Australia. El Niño episodes are associated with
negative values of the SOI, meaning there is below normal pressure over Tahiti and above
normal pressure of Darwin.
ENSO appears to be a necessary mechanism for maintaining long-term global climate stability
by transporting heat from the Tropics to the higher latitudes.
Effects of EL NINO/ENSO
 The abnormally strong winds originating from the west push masses of warm surface
water from the equatorial region against the South-American coast, and are ultimately
deflected towards Mexico, Peru, and Ecuador, creating an area of warm water
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Student Notes:
thousands of kilometers in length. The sun warms the surface layer still further, thus
enhancing the effect. The thermocline2 falls, and along with it the pool of nutrient rich
water.
 In an immediate effect, this warm blob of water blocks off the upwelling of colder along
South American coast, nutrient rich water driving anchovies fish into starvation. These
fish do no longer support large population of fish-feeding birds, whose droppings
(guano) are mined for fertilizer. With the disappearance of anchovies and other marine
organisms, predators like seabirds, further up the food-chain, experience a drastic
decline in nutritional resources.
 In a long-lasting ENSO event, the dissolved seawater oxygen content becomes depleted.
This favours production of foul-smelling hydrogen-sulfide and other gases, blackening
the "lead paint" on ships and producing other discoloring effects
 During El Nino, some inland areas of South America that are normally arid receive an
uncommon abundance of rain. Here pastures and cotton fields have yields far above
the norm.
 Most important aspect of an ENSO event is the change in the precipitation patterns
over the globe (Figure 3).
Figure 3 – global precipitation pattern during El Nino
2
Thermocline – is a thin but distinct layer in a large body of fluid (e.g. water, such as an ocean
or lake, or air, such as an atmosphere) in which temperature changes more rapidly with depth
than it does in the layers above or below.
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Student Notes:
1.2 LA NIÑA
La Niña (Spanish: meaning “The Girl Child”) is a counterpart of El Niño. During La Niña, the cold
pool in the eastern tropical Pacific intensifies and the trade winds strengthen. During a period
of La Niña, the sea surface temperature (SST) across the equatorial Eastern Central Pacific
Ocean will be lower than normal by 3–5 °C.
Effects of LA NIÑA
 Africa - La Niña results in wetter-than-normal conditions in Southern Africa from
December to February, and drier-than-normal conditions over equatorial East Africa
over the same period.
 Asia - During La Niña years, the formation of tropical cyclones, along with the
subtropical ridge position, shifts westward across the western Pacific ocean, which
increases the landfall threat to China. Generally, South Asian monsoon is good during La
Nina events as it strengthens the Indian Ocean loop of walker cell.
Figure 4 – global precipitation pattern during La Nina

 South America - During a time of La Niña, drought plagues the coastal regions of Peru
and Chile.
 North America - La Niña causes mostly the opposite effects of El Niño, above-
average precipitation across the Northern California, and the northern Rockies etc.
There are above average hurricanes in the Atlantic and less in the Pacific.
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Student Notes:
1.3 Walker Circulation

The Walker Circulation refers to an east-west circulation of the atmosphere above the tropical
Pacific, with air rising above warmer ocean regions (normally in the west), and descending over
the cooler ocean areas (normally in the east). Its strength fluctuates with that of the Southern
Oscillation. The characteristics of the Walker Circulation were largely determined by the
coupling between the tropical atmosphere and oceans. Walker Circulation is closely tied to that
of the Southern Oscillation and El Niño. The term Walker Circulation was first introduced in
1969 by Jacob Bjerknes. After Bjerknes, there have been reports of similar east–west circulation
cells spanning different longitudinal sectors along the Equator. Compared to pacific cell, these
cells cover smaller longitude ranges and tend to have weaker vertical motions (figure 5). The
Indian Ocean cell is associated with the development of the South Asian monsoon. Generally,
walker circulation is associated with only cells of Pacific Ocean.
Figure 5 - east–west atmospheric circulation along the longitude–height plane over the
Equator. The cell over the Pacific Ocean is referred to as the Walker Circulation.
The easterly trade winds are part of the low-level component of the Walker Circulation.
Typically, the trade winds bring warm moist air towards the Indonesian region. Here, moving
over normally very warm seas, moist air rises to high levels of the atmosphere. The air then
travels eastward before sinking over the eastern Pacific Ocean. The rising air is associated with a
region of low air pressure, towering cumulonimbus clouds and rain. High pressure and dry
conditions accompany the sinking air. Sinking air completes the loop.
During El Niño event, the Walker Circulation and accompanying east–west circulations differ
significantly from normal conditions (figure 6a). Rising motions prevailed at almost all
longitudes. In particular, strong ascent in the mid-troposphere replaced descending air motion
over the central and eastern Pacific, where the water was anomalously warm due to El Niño.
The Walker Circulation is weakened and became less organized.
Walker Circulation may even reverse in the more intense episodes of El Niño. In this instance
westerly winds are observed over parts of the equatorial western and central Pacific where
normally easterly (trade) winds would be expected. Oceans around Australia cool, and
slackened trade winds feed less moisture into the region.
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Student Notes:
Figure 6 – Walker circulation during La Niña and El Niño

During La Niña, or reverse El Niño, the Walker Circulation is enhanced and became very
pronounced, with well-defined rising and sinking branches (figure 6b). While the cells in Pacific
and Atlantic Oceans intensify, the Indian Ocean cell weakens.
Impacts on world climate
The Walker Circulation regulates global exchange of momentum, heat, and water vapor within
the tropics via massive overturning motions. In doing so, it plays an important role in the
balance of atmospheric energy in the equatorial region and in determining the characteristics
of weather and climate in the tropics.
The strongest atmospheric impacts associated with the fluctuations of the Walker Circulation
are found over tropical and subtropical regions around the Pacific Rim. During an El Niño, the
weakening Walker Circulation causes widespread drought in Indonesia/maritime continent,
drought in northeastern Brazil, severe floods in Peru and Ecuador, and in south-eastern Brazil
and northern Argentina. During a La Niña, the Walker Circulation intensifies and leads to rainfall
anomalies with reverse sign compared to El Niño.
The Walker Circulation also represents the fundamental link between the changes in sea
surface temperature in the eastern Pacific and the variability of the Asian–Australian monsoon.
The mechanisms that are responsible for the interactions between the monsoon and El Niño
Southern Oscillation have been attributed, in part, to the changes in the Walker Circulation.
During El Niño, Walker Circulation is weakened and shifted eastward owing to reduced east–
west sea surface temperature gradient across the Pacific Ocean. This suppresses broad-scale
convection over the western Pacific and eastern Indian Ocean and leads to weaker South Asian
monsoon.
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Student Notes:
Walker circulation interacts with the Hadley cell3 in the form of an inverse variation between
the two circulations. When the cold water belt along the Equator is well developed, the air
above it will be too cold and heavy to join the ascending motion in the Hadley circulations.
Instead, the equatorial air flows westward between the Hadley circulations of the two
hemispheres to the warm west Pacific. These changes are the causes for severe weather and
climate anomalies in the Asian–Pacific–American regions.
1.4 EL NIÑO & LA NIÑA Modoki
Like El Niño, El Niño Modoki (Japanese: meaning ‘similar, but different’) is a coupled ocean-
atmosphere phenomenon in the tropical Pacific. El Niño is characterized by strong anomalous
warming in the eastern equatorial Pacific. On the other hand, El Niño Modoki is associated with
strong anomalous warming in the central tropical Pacific and cooling in the eastern and
western tropical Pacific (figure 7b).
Figure 7 – El Nino Modoki and La Nina Modoki

La Nina Modoki is associated with low sea surface temperature (SST) in central tropical Pacific
Ocean while eastern and western tropical pacific are warm relatively. It produces two walker
cells with rising limbs at both ends of tropical pacific and descending limb of both cells fall at
central equatorial pacific (figure 7d).
Together El Nino Modoki and La Nina Modoki forms ‘ENSO Modoki’. Several studies have shown
that the ENSO Modoki has become more prominent in recent times, as compared to ENSO, and
thereby changing the teleconnection pattern arising from the tropical Pacific. The ENSO Modoki
has distinct teleconnections and affects many parts of the world. For example, the West Coast
of United States of America is wet during El Nino but dry during El Nino Modoki. Recent studies
show that teleconnections associated with ENSO Modoki influence the rainfall over India and
South Africa.
3
Hadley Cells are the low-latitude overturning circulations that have air rising at the equator and air
sinking at roughly 30° latitude.
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Student Notes:
El Nino results in anomalous two-cell Walker Circulation over the tropical Pacific, with a wet
region in the central Pacific. During pre-monsoon and post-monsoon seasons in the North
Indian Ocean, more cyclones form in the Bay of Bengal compared with the Arabian Sea. El Nino
is found to suppress cyclone formation in the Arabian Sea. While in some years more cyclones
form in the Arabian Sea than usual. This is due to El Nino Modoki. During El Nino Modoki, one
of the descending limbs of the walker cell is over the Bay of Bengal which causes dry conditions
not conducive for cyclone formation. On the other hand, there is large convergence over the
Arabian Sea during an El Nino Modoki explaining the large number of cyclones in that region.
2] Urban Climate
The urban areas across the world experience a climate distinctive from the regional pattern. The
process of urbanization changes the physical surroundings and induces alterations in the energy,
moisture, and motion regime near the surface. The agglomeration of buildings interferes with the
wind and atmospheric characteristics to a degree at least equal to that of a large forest. An
urban area changes the air’s composition, temperature and precipitation graphs etc.
Wind speed is lower in cities than in open areas due to obstructive nature of structure of cities.
Actual effect varies with the street design, the season and the time of day. The wind tends to
channel down streets parallel to the general direction of flow, especially in a city with canyon
like streets (high rise buildings). While if street pattern is at right angle to the wind, strong lee
effects may be experienced. During the day, city wind speeds are considerably less than
surrounding areas, but at night, turbulence over the city makes contrasts less apparent. Rural-
urban contrasts are most marked with strong winds, and the effects are therefore more evident
in winter4 than in summers.
Cities absorb much less water per area than rural areas, as much of city area is paved or built
on. In some areas this creates a need for specific measures to reduce the risk of
localised flooding during periods of heavy rainfall. Heavy construction activities in flood plains
of rivers flowing through cities increase the period and intensity of flooding.
Cities tend to have lower humidity in contrast to rural or forested areas. Due to concrete
surface, rapid surface run-off removes water. The lower density of vegetation and general
absence of water bodies etc. also contribute for lower humidity and evaporation. On the other
hand, it seems likely that under certain conditions, thermal and turbulences over cities may
trigger off precipitation or thunderstorms. Many cities encounter more light rain and thunder
than surrounding areas, resulting in a slight increase in total precipitation.
2.1 Urban Heat Island
The term "heat island" describes built up areas that are hotter than nearby surrounding areas.
An urban heat island (UHI) is a metropolitan area that is significantly warmer than its
surrounding rural areas due to human activities. The phenomenon was first investigated and
4
There is much greater variation in barometric pressure during the winter than during the summer. On
average, high pressure systems are higher pressure and low pressure systems are lower pressure. This
leads to a more rapid flow of air between the systems. This fluctuation is caused by much greater
variation in temperature during the winter. While most summer days are roughly the same temperature,
winter temperatures fluctuate dramatically.
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described by Luke Howard in the 1810s. The temperature difference usually is larger at night
than during the day, and is most apparent when winds are weak. The typical temperature
difference is several degrees between the center of the city and surrounding fields. It can be as
high as 10 °C.
Figure 8 – Urban Heat Island Profile

There are three main factors responsible for this:
 The direct production of heat in city from fires, industry, home
 Heat conserving properties of the bricks and fabric of the city
 Blanketing effect by atmospheric pollution on outgoing radiation
Heat trapped in concrete buildings, pavements during day time is released very slowly in the
form of long wave radiations, making cooling a slow process. With a decreased amount of
vegetation, cities also lose the shade and cooling effect of trees, the low albedo of their leaves,
and the removal of carbon dioxide. The tall buildings within many urban areas provide multiple
surfaces for the reflection and absorption of sunlight, increasing the efficiency with which
urban areas are heated. Tall buildings also inhibit cooling by convection and pollution from
dissipating. Chemicals emitted by cars, industries affect sunshine in different ways, often
trapping it and creating more heat. All these factors cause a change in the energy balance of the
urban area.
As a population center grows, it tends to expand its area and increase its average
temperature. For instance, Los Angeles has been very much affected by its urban heat island.
The city has seen its average temperature rise approximately 0.5 °C every decade since the
beginning of its super-urban growth since the World War II era. Other cities have seen increases
of 0.1°-0.4°C each decade.
Each city's urban heat island varies based on the city structure and thus the range of
temperatures within the island varies as well (figure 8). Parks and greenbelts reduce
temperatures while the Central Business District (CBD), commercial areas, and even suburban
housing tracts are areas of warmer temperatures. Every house, building, and road changes the
microclimate around it, contributing to the urban heat islands of our cities.
Impact on urban dwellers
 The increased heat of our cities increases discomfort for everyone
 Homes require an increase in the amount of energy used for cooling purposes.
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Student Notes:
 The UHI decreases air quality by increasing the production of pollutants such as ozone,
and decreases water quality as warmer waters flow into area streams and put stress on
their ecosystems.
 Increased heat enhances photochemical reactions, which increases the particles in the
air and thus contributes to the formation of smog and clouds. For instance, London
receives approximately 270 fewer hours of sunlight than the surrounding countryside
due to clouds and smog.
The heat island effect can be counteracted in several ways:
 Most prominent is to use light color or white or reflective materials in construction
work – roof top, houses, road, and pavements – to increase the albedo. Dark/Black
surfaces can be up to 21°C hotter than light surfaces and that excess heat is
transferred to the building itself, creating an increased need for cooling. By switching
to light colored roofs, buildings can use 40% less energy.
 Mitigation of the UHI effect can be accomplished through the use of green roofs (figure
9). The roof of a building is partially or completely covered with vegetation and a
growing medium, planted over a waterproofing membrane. Rooftop ponds are another
form of green roofs which are used to treat grey-water. Apart from mitigating the UHI
effect, Green roofs serve several purposes for a building, such as absorbing rainwater,
providing insulation, creating a habitat for wildlife, and helping to lower urban air
temperatures. Financially, it reduces energy usage, bring tax incentives provided by the
government, increases life span of roof etc.
Figure 9 – green roof

 Green Building is constructed in a manner that is resource-efficient, environmentally
sustainable. Sun light is used efficiently within the building. It lowers the overall energy
usage of the building and thus, helps in reducing the effect of UHI.
 Another way is to increase the amount of well-watered vegetation. It is empirically
tested that the cooling potential per area was highest for street with higher tree
density. They increase evapotranspiration, which decreases the air temperature. Trees
can reduce energy costs by 10-20%.
Typically heat island mitigation is part of a community's energy, air quality, water, or
sustainability effort. Activities to reduce heat islands range from voluntary initiatives, such as
cool pavement demonstration projects, to policy actions, such as requiring cool roofs via
building codes. Most mitigation activities have multiple benefits, including cleaner air, improved
human health and comfort, reduced energy costs, and lower greenhouse gas emissions.
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Student Notes:
2.2 Atmospheric Pollution Over Cities

Generally any substance that people introduce into the atmosphere that has damaging effects
on living things and the environment is considered air pollution. A city atmosphere is affected
by soot, ash, gases, fumes, smoke and oxides of sulphur, carbon, nitrogen. Carbon dioxide and
other greenhouse gases such as Methane are the main pollutant that is warming Earth. Sulfur
dioxide and closely related chemicals are known primarily as a cause of acid rain. These have
effect of blanketing the radiation over a city, increasing the city’s albedo. These also act as a
condensation nuclei. Under normal conditions, much of this polluted part is diffused upwards
by turbulence and removed by stronger winds at height. However, high rise buildings of cities
act as obstruction in free movement of these particles. The greatest concentrations of smoke
occur with low wind speeds, temperature inversion and high relative humidities.
It requires multifold strategies with the active participation of civil society and individual city
people. On a larger scale, governments are taking measures to curb the air pollution through
legislation, tax benefits and other schemes. Civil society can play its part by spreading
environmental awareness among people and helping people in urban forestry etc.
2.3 Urban Climate and Global Climate Change
The changes in urban Climate are strongly linked to global climate change. As centres for socio-
economic activities, cities produce large amounts of Green House Gases, most notably CO2 as a
consequence of human activities such as transport, development (e.g. concrete production),
and waste related to heating and cooling requirements etc. cities are the top consumer of
energy produced largely through fossil fuels.
Many cities are vulnerable to the projected consequences of climate change (sea level rise,
changes in temperature, precipitation, storm frequency) as most develop on or near coast-lines,
nearly all produce distinct urban heat islands and atmospheric pollution.
3] Microclimate
A microclimate is the distinctive climate of a small-scale area, such as a garden, park, valley or
part of a city. The weather variables in a microclimate, such as temperature, rainfall, wind or
humidity, may be subtly different to the conditions prevailing over the area as a whole and from
those that might be reasonably expected under certain types of pressure or cloud cover.
Indeed, it is the mixture of many, slightly different microclimates that actually makes up the
climate for a town, city or wood.
Microclimate can be caused by several factors such as
 Near water bodies
 Heat retaining capacity of urban areas
 Slope of mountains
 Absence of vegetation such as in central business districts
 Large presence of vegetation such in protected areas
 Soil type
There is a distinctive microclimate for every type of environment on the Earth’s surface:
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Student Notes:
Upland regions
Upland areas have a specific type of climate that is notably different from the surrounding
lower levels. Temperature usually falls with height at a rate of between 5 and 10 °C per 1,000
metres, depending on the humidity of the air. This means that even quite modest upland
regions can be significantly colder on average.
Occasionally, a temperature inversion5 can make air warmer in upland regions, but such
conditions rarely last for long. With higher hills and mountains, the average temperatures can
be so much lower that winters are longer and summers much shorter. Higher ground also tends
to be windier, which makes for harsher winter weather. Katabatic wind6 also creates cold
conditions in the valley. The effect of this is that plants and animals are often different from
those at low levels.
Coastal regions
The coastal climate is influenced by both the land and sea between which the coast forms a
boundary. The thermal properties of water are such that the sea maintains a relatively
constant day to day temperature compared with the land. The sea also takes a long time to
heat up during the summer months and, conversely, a long time to cool down during the winter.
Coastal microclimates display different characteristics depending on where they occur on the
earth’s surface. In the tropics, sea temperatures change little and the coastal climate depends
on the effects caused by the daytime heating and night-time cooling of the land. In temperate
latitudes, the coastal climate owes more to the influence of the sea than of the land and coasts
are usually milder than inland during the winter and cooler in the summer. Around the poles,
sea temperatures remain low due to the presence of ice, and the position of the coast itself can
change as ice thaws and the sea re-freezes.
Forest regions
Tropical rainforests cover only about 6% of Earth’s land surface, but it is believed they have a
significant effect on the transfer of water vapour to the atmosphere. This is due to a process
known as evapotranspiration from the leaves of the forest trees. Woodland areas can be cooler
and less windy than surrounding grassland areas, with the trees acting as a windbreak and the
incoming solar radiation being ‘filtered’.
Urban regions
These are perhaps the most complex of all microclimates. Temperature is higher relative to
surroundings (see ‘Urban Heat Island’ topic for details). The distribution of rainfall over a town
or city is very much influenced by topography with the largest values occurring over the more
hilly regions and lowest values in more low—lying areas. The nature of rainfall varies during the
year. In summer, rainfall is often of a showery nature, falling over short periods, and is normally
more intense than in winter.
5
Temperature inversion – It is a deviation from the normal change of
an atmospheric temperature with altitude i.e., an increase in temperature with height, or to the
layer ("inversion layer") within which such an increase occurs.
6
Katabatic wind - a wind that carries high density air from a higher elevation down a slope
under the force of gravity.
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Student Notes:
4] Applied Climatology
Weather and climate are important factors in determining our day to day and longer term
activities and life styles. The ways in which the climatic elements affect every form of economic
and social activity are now receiving increasing attention from climatologists. ‘It is since second
world war that new consciousness arose about the potentialities of climatology as an active
subject with immense practical utility for planning almost all human requirements ranging from
the development of water resources to the eradication of diseases.
4.1 Climate and Natural Vegetation
Natural vegetation is an indicator of the climate. But they are interrelated as one influences the
other to a great extent. The knowledge of optimum climatic conditions in different stages of
the growth of forest trees is essential for those engaged in the task of afforestation for timber,
watershed management. In silvicultural7 practices the interrelationship between forests and
climate must be taken into account. Microclimate of forest is taken into account for getting
higher yields.
4.2 Climate and Agriculture
Food is the first and foremost need of humans. As a matter of fact, climate and vegetation are
complementary to each other. Weather components – temperature, precipitation, humidity,
wind etc. – play the most prominent role in the crop production. For instance, crops like coffee,
bananas and sugar cane are very sensitive to frosts. Coconuts and pineapples need temperature
above 21 oC for their best growth. In hilly areas, the citrus and other sensitive crops are planted
on the slopes exposed to the sun avoiding the valleys which are subject to winter frosts at night.
4.3 Climate and Animal Husbandry
Meat and Milk products are obtained by animals which are dependent on pastures and feed
crops. Pasture land and crops are highly influenced by climatic factors. Of all the climatic
elements affecting the animal husbandry temperature factor is indeed the most important. If
the temperature is very high, milk produced from animals is less. It is required to maintain the
temperature otherwise continuous high temperature reduces yield of flesh and fat from
animals. Precipitation has direct effect on animals. Availability of grass in the pastures is much
reduced because of snowfall. Animals feel discomfort in extreme relative humidity conditions.
In animal husbandry, natural or artificial shelters are built to keep the animals safe from the
negative effect of climate. By heating or air conditioning, temperature is controlled in animal
shelters.
4.4 Climate and Housing
It is the climate which determines the house types. Igloo in polar region (the house of Eskimos),
and open houses in tropical areas are the glaring examples. In terms of building or architectural
climatology, the micro-climatic conditions are influenced by a number of factors such as local
relief, nearby buildings, landscaping, existing water bodies and industrial wastes. Climate is an
important input in green buildings which tries to maximize usage of sunshine, winds etc.
7
Silviculture is the practice of controlling the establishment, growth, composition, health, and quality of
forests to meet diverse needs and values.
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Student Notes:
In tropical countries, double roofs to ensure free movement of air reduce the flow of absorbed
solar heat into a building. The type of roofs designed for houses in different climatic conditions
take care of precipitation or snowfall.
4.5 Air Pollution and Health
Medical climatology studies the relationship between human health and climate or weather.
Some of the local winds like the loo, cold wave etc are said to be the causes of irritability,
depression, dizziness and hypertension. High concentration of pollens in air (such as in
Bangalore) causes breathing problems to some people. For instance, local Bangalore
government put ban on planting flowering saplings in its parks for certain period of the year to
reduce the concentration of pollens in air.
All the cities are discharging huge quantity of pollutants into the atmosphere. These pollutants
convert into acids through chemical reactions and fall as ‘acid rain’ with rainwater. Study of the
atmospheric percentage of these chemical helps in regulating the industries. For instance,
vehicular traffic and industry is banned in surrounding of Taj Mahal, Agra. Acid rain is also
harmful for plant and marine life.
Certain diseases are, indeed, associated with certain climates or with a particular season. Cold
season controls the insects’ population by forcing hibernation. That’s the reason tropical
diseases such as Dengue and Malaria etc. are prevalent in tropical and subtropical regions.
There are certain diseases which are closely associated with seasons. Pneumonia, influenza,
measles etc can be cited as examples here. Such close association of diseases with season or
climate helps in issuing warnings to people or taking other measures by the government to
reduce the impact of same. Municipal bodies in cities of South Asia ensure that water is not
logged in parts of cities during monsoon seasons to avoid Malaria and other vector born
diseases.
4.6 Climate and Economy
Climate research benefits the following industries:
 Insurance
 Tourism
 Construction
 Energy
 Transport
 Sport
 Retail Food
 Retail Clothing
The insurance industry offers financial protection against climate-related damage. This includes
direct impacts from damage due to flood, frost, wind etc. Climate research can help reduce the
costs to insurers by quantifying the probability of extreme events, providing year-ahead
forecasts and identifying vulnerable regions. There is a peak time of tourists to a particular
place. This peak time is directly related to the climate of that particular place. For instance, hilly
cold areas’ peak time coincide with summer time.
Wind is a potential renewable source of energy in every country. Wind atlas of different region
and at different altitude is a crucial input to decide the location and height of wind turbines.
Similarly, hydro-electricity plants are established in areas which have continuous supply of
water either through glacial or rain.
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Student Notes:
Transport sectors such as air, shipping etc. are directly impacted by the climate or weather. High
altitude ports are frozen during winter season which makes them inaccessible for such period.
Atmospheric disturbances, extreme weather conditions such as fog, cold waves etc. interrupts
the flights’ schedule. Roads are specially designed for areas which faces extreme weather
conditions.
4.7 Climatic Adaptation
Humans and many other mammals have unusually efficient internal temperature regulating
systems that automatically maintain stable core body temperatures in cold winters and warm
summers. In addition, people have developed cultural patterns and technologies that help them
adjust to extremes of temperature and humidity. Less massive individuals are more often found
in warm climates near the equator, while those with greater bulk, or mass, are found further
from the equator in colder regions. This is due to the fact that big animals generally have larger
body masses which result in more heat being produced. People living in cold climates prefer
drinking alcohol as it increases blood flow to the body extremities, thereby providing a feeling
of warmth. With the help of technology, researches are able to stay throughout the year in
extremely cold Antarctica and Arctic regions. People are able to live in extremely hot climate of
tropical region by using air conditioners.
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Student Notes:
UPSC Previous Years’ Mains Questions

1. Bring out the causes for the formation of heat islands in the urban habitat of the world.
(100 words) (UPSC 2013/5 marks)
2. Bring out the significance of the various activities of the Indian Meteorological
Department. (UPSC 2009/15 Marks)
UPSC Previous Years’ Prelim Questions

1. La Nina is suspected to have caused recent floods in Australia. How is La Nina different
from El Nino? (2011)
1. La Nina is characterised by unusually cold ocean temperature in equatorial Indian
Ocean whereas El Nino is characterised by unusually warm ocean temperature in
the equatorial Pacific Ocean.
2. El Nino has adverse effect on south-west monsoon of India, but La Nina has no
effect on monsoon climate.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
2. A new type of El Nino called El Nino Modoki appeared in the news. In this context,
consider the following statements: (2010)
1. Normal El Nino forms in the Central Pacific ocean whereas El Nino Modoki forms in
Eastern Pacific ocean. Normal El Nino results in diminished hurricanes in the
Atlantic ocean but El Nino Modoki results in a greater number of hurricanes with
greater frequency.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
3. For short-term climatic predictions, which one of the following events, detected in the
last decade, is associated with occasional weak monsoon rains in the Indian sub-
continent? (2002)
(a) La Nina (b) Movement of Jet Streams
(c) El Nino and Southern Oscillation (d) Greenhouse effect on global level

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VISIONIAS ™
www.visionias.in
GEOGRAPHY: 17
DIFFERENT TYPES OF IRRIGATION AND IRRIGATION SYSTEMS

without prior permission of Vision IAS.

Student Notes:
Contents
1 Irrigation and Benefits of Irrigation ........................................................................................... 2
2 Classification of Irrigation Schemes........................................................................................... 3
2.1 Based on Sources ............................................................................................................... 3
2.1.1 Well and Tube-Wells .................................................................................................... 4
2.1.2 Canal ............................................................................................................................ 4
2.1.3 Tank ............................................................................................................................. 4
2.2 Based on Magnitude .......................................................................................................... 6
2.2.1 Major and Medium vis-à-vis Minor Irrigation Projects ............................................... 7
2.3 Based on Technique of Distribution of Water .................................................................... 7
2.4 Based on the way the water is applied .............................................................................. 9
2.5 On the basis of duration of the applied ........................................................................... 10
2.6 Choice of Irrigation Method ............................................................................................. 10
3 Efficiency ................................................................................................................................. 11
4 Irrigation and National Water Policy ....................................................................................... 11
5 Command Area Development and Water Management (CADWM) ....................................... 12
6 Participatory Irrigation Management (PIM) ............................................................................ 13
7 Accelerated Irrigation Benefits Programme (AIBP) ................................................................. 13
8 Repair, Renovation and Restoration of Water Bodies Scheme................................................ 14
9 Virtual Water ........................................................................................................................... 15
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Student Notes:
Getting an irrigation system is easy, but getting the most efficient irrigation system for
your needs can be quite a bit harder.
1 Irrigation and Benefits of Irrigation
The process of supplying water to crops by artificial means such as canals, tube wells, tanks etc.
is known as irrigation. It is used to assist in the growing of agricultural crops, maintenance of
landscapes, and revegetation of disturbed soils in dry areas and during periods of inadequate
rainfall. In contrast, agriculture that relies only on direct rainfall is referred to as rain-fed
or dryland farming.
Mankind is getting benefits of irrigation system since ancient time. Archaeological investigation
has identified evidence of irrigation where the natural rainfall was insufficient to support crops.
For example, Perennial irrigation was practiced in Mesopotamian plains, Terrace irrigation in
Syria, Basin irrigation in Egypt etc. With the advent of diesel and electric motors in 20th century,
humans increased the area under irrigation by pumping more and more ground water and
extending the canals etc.
In greater part of India, agriculture is rain-fed. In the incidence of failure of monsoon, the crop
fails. The behavior of Indian monsoon is highly erratic. Excess rainfall may cause floods, but
scanty rainfall may reduce the crop yield substantially, and in acute cases the crop may be a
complete failure.
India has very large population and it is estimated that India needs more than 450 million
tonnes of grain to meet the demand of growing population. Climate change will result into
more instances of erratic climatic conditions and thus, crops are more prone to high variability
in rain. The present productivity of irrigated land is about 2.5 tonnes/hectare and less than 0.5
tonnes/hectare for rainfed lands. In this context, there is an urgent need to implement and plan
irrigation strategies.
India possesses 4% of the total average annual run off in the rivers of the world. The per capita
water availability of natural run off is at least 1100 cubic meters/yr. The amount of water that
can actually be to put to beneficial use is much less due to severe limitations imposed by
physiographic, topographic, interstate issues and the present technology to harness water
resources economically.
Benefits of irrigation
 Increase in crop yield: the production of almost all types of crops can be increased by
providing the right amount of later at the right time, depending on its shape of growth.
Such a controlled supply of water is possible only through irrigation.
 Protection from famine: the availability of irrigation facilities in any region ensures
protection against failure of crops or famine due to drought. In regions without
irrigation, farmers have to depend only on rains for growing crops and since the rains
may not provide enough rainfall required for crop growing every year, the farmers are
always faced with a risk.
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Student Notes:
 New areas under cultivation: irrigation brings new areas under cultivation and
increases the net area under irrigated cultivation.
 Cultivation of superior crops: with assured supply of water for irrigation, farmers may
think of cultivating superior variety of crops or even other crops which yield high
return. Production of these crops in rain-fed areas is not possible because even with the
slight unavailability of timely water, these crops would die and all the money invested
would be wasted.
 Elimination of mixed cropping: in rain-fed areas, farmers have a tendency to cultivate
more than one type of crop in the same field such that even if one dies without the
required amount of water, at least he would get the yield of the other. However, this
reduces the overall production of the field. With assured water by irrigation, the farmer
would go for only a single variety of crop in one field at anytime, which would increase
the yield.
 Economic development: with assured irrigation, the farmers get higher returns by way
of crop production throughout the year, the government in turn, benefits from the tax
collected from the farmers in base of the irrigation facilities extended.
 Hydro power generation: usually, in canal system of irrigation, there are drops or
differences in elevation of canal bed level at certain places. Although the drop may not
be very high, this difference in elevation can be used successfully to generate electricity.
Such small hydro electric generation projects, using bulb-turbines have been
established in many canals, like Ganga canal, Sarada canal, Yamuna canal etc.
 Domestic and industrial water supply: some water from the irrigation canals may be
utilized for domestic and industrial water supply for nearby areas. Compared to the
irrigation water need, the water requirement for domestic and industrial uses is rather
small and does not affect the total flow much. For example, the town of Siliguri in the
Darjeeling district of West Bengal, supplies its residents with the water from Teesta
Mahananda link canal.
2 Classification of Irrigation Schemes
Due to difference in topology, water availability, land availability, feasibility of technology etc.,
different irrigation technologies exist in the world. Irrigation system is classified under various
schemes as discussed below:
2.1 Based on Sources
Depending on the availability of surface and underground water, slope of land, nature of the
soil and the types of crops grown in a region, a number of sources of irrigation are utilized. The
main sources of irrigation used in different parts of the country are (figure 1):
 Wells and tube-wells

 Canals
 tanks
 other sources – springs, kuhls, dhenkli, dongs and bokka
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Student Notes:
2.1.1 Well and Tube-Wells
This type of irrigation is practiced since ancient time. It accounts for 62 per cent of the total
irrigated area of the country. It is the easiest source of irrigation. It can be installed in a short
duration of time. It is however expensive and diminishes the underground water-table, if
exploited in unsustainable manner. The largest area under tube-well irrigation is in Uttar
Pradesh followed by Rajasthan, Punjab, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, and Bihar.
Figure 1: Net Area under irrigation by sources (2009-10)
2.1.2 Canal
Canal used to be the main source of irrigation in 1950-51, irrigating almost 50 per cent of the
total irrigated area of India. In 1960s, there was a tremendous increase in the tube-well
irrigated area promoted by the government. Consequently, the percentage of canal irrigated
area declined to less than 40 per cent and in 2009-10, it is only 26 per cent.
Canals are an effective in low and leveled relief, productive plain areas where perennial source
of surface drainage is available. These conditions are ideally found in the Northern plains of
India, Kashmir and Manipur valleys and the Eastern Coastal plains (figure 2). High density of
canals is found in Uttar Pradesh with Ganga canal system, Punjab, Haryana and Western
Rajasthan with Indira Gandhi Canal. In Peninsular region, Damodar, Mahanadi, Godavari,
Krishna, Narmada rivers etc. rivers have important canal system. Uttar Pradesh has the first rank
in canal irrigation followed by Andhra Pradesh.
2.1.3 Tank
An irrigation tank or tank is an artificial reservoir of any size. It can also have a natural or man-
made spring included as part of a structure. In some parts of the country, especially in the
peninsular India tank is an important source of irrigation. About 3 per cent of the total irrigated
area is under tank irrigation.
According to the third minor irrigation census carried out in 2000-01, there are about 5.56 lakh
tanks in the country, with the most occurring in the following states:
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 West Bengal: 21.2 per cent of all the tanks in the country
 Andhra Pradesh: 13.6 per cent
 Maharashtra: 12.5 per cent
 Chhattisgarh: 7.7 per cent
 Madhya Pradesh: 7.2 per cent
 Tamil Nadu: 7.0 per cent
 Karnataka: 5.0 per cent
Figure 2: India – Source of irrigation
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Many of the tanks, however, dry up during the summer season when more irrigation is
required. Due to non-use of these 15 percent tanks nearly 1 M-ha of Irrigation potential is lost.
Another, around 2 M-ha of potential is lost due to under utilisation of tanks in use. Loss of
potential due to non use is more pronounced in Meghalaya, Rajasthan and Arunachal Pradesh
(above 30%), whereas loss of potential due to under utilisation is more than 50 percent in case
of Gujarat, Nagaland, Rajasthan, A&N Island and Dadar and Nagar Haveli.
2.2 Based on Magnitude
Irrigation Projects in India are classified into three categories on the basis of Culturable
command area (CCA) [1] as:
 Major - Projects which have a CCA of more than 10,000 hector are termed as Major
Projects
 Medium - Irrigation Projects which have a CCA of less than 10,000 hector but more
than 2,000 hector are termed as Medium projects
 Minor Irrigation - those Irrigation Projects which have a CCA of 2,000 hector or less are
known as Minor projects.
The ultimate irrigation potential of the country from major and medium irrigation projects has
been assessed as about 64 M-ha. For the country as a whole, 66% of it has been created. The
average rate of creation of irrigation potential through Major and Medium projects from 1951
to 1997 has been found to be of the order of 0.51 Million hectare per year. During the year
1997 to 2005, the rate for creation has been found to be 0.92 Million hectare per year. This
increase in pace is probably due to fruition of projects started much earlier, which have been
expedited due to increased support through AIBP(Accelerated Irrigation Benefit Programme).
Minor irrigation projects have both surface and ground water as their source, while Major and
Medium projects mostly exploit surface water resources. Ground water minor irrigation is
primarily done through individual and cooperative effort of farmers with the help of
institutional finance and their own savings. Surface water minor irrigation schemes are
generally funded from the public sector only. The ultimate irrigation potential from minor
irrigation schemes have been assessed as 75.84 million ha of which partly would be ground
water based (58.46 million ha) and covers about two thirds. By the end of the ninth plan, the
total potential created by minor irrigation was 60.41 million ha.
Minor irrigation schemes contribute a major share in the growing irrigation across the country
accounting for about 65% of the total irrigation potential utilized. The Minor irrigation scheme
has been categorized broadly into five major types, namely:
1. Dugwell
2. Shallow tubewell
3. Deep tubewell
4. Surface flow schemes
5. Surface lift schemes
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2.2.1 Major and Medium vis-à-vis Minor Irrigation Projects
While formulating strategies for irrigation development the water resources planner should
realize the benefits of each type of project based on the local conditions. For example, it may
not always be possible to benefit remote areas using major/medium projects. At these places
minor irrigation schemes would be most suitable. Further, land holding may be divided in such
a way that minor irrigation becomes inevitable. However, major and medium projects wherever
possible is to be constructed to reduce the overall cost of development of irrigation potential.
2.3 Based on Technique of Distribution of Water
Various types of irrigation techniques differ in how the water obtained from the source is
distributed within the field. In general, the goal is to supply the entire field uniformly with
water, so that each plant has the amount of water it needs, neither too much nor too little. The
various irrigation techniques are as under:
 Surface Irrigation: In surface irrigation systems, water moves over and across the land by
simple gravity flow in order to wet it and to infiltrate into the soil. It is often called flood
irrigation when the irrigation results in flooding or near flooding of the cultivated land.
Surface irrigation can be subdivided into:
o Basin irrigation has historically been used in small areas having level surfaces that
are surrounded by earth banks (figure 3). The water is applied rapidly to the entire
basin and is allowed to infiltrate. Basins may be linked sequentially so that drainage
from one basin is diverted into the next once the desired soil water deficit is
satisfied.
o Furrow irrigation is conducted by creating small parallel channels along the field
length in the direction of predominant slope (figure 4). Water is applied to the top
end of each furrow and flows down the field under the influence of gravity.
o Border strip, otherwise known as border check or bay irrigation could be
considered as a hybrid of level basin and furrow irrigation. The field is divided into a
number of bays or strips; each bay is separated by raised earth check banks
(borders). The bays are typically longer and narrower compared to basin irrigation
and are orientated to align lengthwise with the slope of the field.
Figure 3: Basin irrigation Figure 4: Furrow irrigation using siphon tubes
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 Localized Irrigation: Localized irrigation is a system where water is distributed under low
pressure through a piped network, in a pre- determined pattern, and applied as a small
discharge to each plant or adjacent to it. It is also known as low-flow irrigation
system/low volume irrigation/micro-irrigation. Drip irrigation, spray or micro-sprinkler
irrigation and bubbler irrigation belong to this category of irrigation methods.
o Drip Irrigation: Drip irrigation, also known as trickle irrigation, functions as its
name suggests (figure 5). Water is delivered at or near the root zone of plants, drop
by drop. This method can be the most water- efficient method of irrigation, if
managed properly, since evaporation and runoff are minimized. The field water
efficiency of drip irrigation is 80 to 90 percent. In modern agriculture, drip irrigation
is often combined with plastic mulch, further reducing evaporation, and is also the
means of delivery of fertilizer. This is known as fertigation.
Figure 5: Drip Irrigation system
o Sprinkler Irrigation: In sprinkler or overhead irrigation, water is piped to one or

more central locations within the field and distributed by overhead high-pressure
sprinklers or guns (figure 6). A system utilizing sprinklers, sprays, or guns mounted
overhead on permanently installed risers is often referred to as a solid-set
irrigation system. Higher pressure sprinklers that rotate are called rotors and are
driven by a ball drive, gear drive, or impact mechanism. Guns are used not only for
irrigation, but also for industrial applications such as dust suppression and logging.
Sprinklers can also be mounted on moving platforms connected to the water source
by a hose. Automatically moving wheeled systems known as traveling sprinklers
(figure 7) may irrigate areas such as small farms, sports fields, parks, pastures, and
cemeteries unattended. The field water efficiency of sprinkler irrigation is 60 to
70%.
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Student Notes:
Figure 6: Sprinkler irrigation Figure 7: Travelling Sprinkler irrigation
 Sub-irrigation: Sub-irrigation also sometimes called seepage irrigation has been used
for many years in field crops in areas with high water tables. It is a method of artificially
raising the water table to allow the soil to be moistened from below the plants' root
zone. Often those systems are located on permanent grasslands in lowlands or river
valleys and combined with drainage infrastructure. A system of pumping stations,
canals, weirs and gates allows it to increase or decrease the water level in a network of
ditches and thereby control the water table. Sub-irrigation is also used in commercial
greenhouse production, usually for potted plants. Water is delivered from below,
absorbed upwards, and the excess collected for recycling. Three basic types of sub-
irrigation are: ebb-and-flow, trough, and flooded floor.
There are various challenges to adopt these localized forms of irrigation. Few of them are listed
below:
 Expense: initial cost can be more than overhead systems.

 Waste: the sun can affect the tubes used for drip irrigation, shortening their usable life.
 Clogging: if the water is not properly filtered and the equipment not properly
maintained, it can result in clogging.
 Waste of water, time and harvest, if not installed properly. These systems require
careful study of all the relevant factors like land topography, soil, water, crop and agro-
climatic conditions, and suitability of drip irrigation system and its components.
2.4 Based on the way the water is applied
The classification of the irrigation systems can also be based on the way the water is applied to
the agricultural land as:
 Flow irrigation system: where the irrigation water is conveyed by growing to the
irrigated land. This may again be classified into the following.
o Direct irrigation: Where the irrigation water is obtained directly from the river,
without any intermediate storage. This type of irrigation is possible by
constructing a weir or a barrage across a river to raise the level of the river
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water and thus divert some portion of the river flow through an adjacent canal,
where the flow takes place by gravity.
o Reservoir/tank/storage irrigation: The irrigation water is obtained from a river,
where storage has been created by construction an obstruction across the river,
like a dam. This ensures that even when there is no inflow into the river from
the catchment, there is enough stored water which can continue to irrigate
fields through a system of canals.
 Lift irrigation system: Where the irrigation water is available at a level lower than that
of the land to be irrigated and hence the water is lifted up by pumps or by other
mechanical devices for lifting water and conveyed to the agricultural land through
channels flowing under gravity. For instance, a large portion of Indira Gandhi canal in
Rajasthan is fed by lift irrigation system.
2.5 On the basis of duration of the applied
Classification of irrigation systems may also be made on the basis of duration of the applied
water, like:
 Inundation/flooding type irrigation system: In which large quantities of water flowing

in a river during floods is allowed to inundate the land to be cultivated, thereby
saturating the soil. The excess water is then drained off and the land is used for
cultivation. This type of irrigation uses the flood water of rivers and therefore is limited
to a certain time of the year. It is also common in the areas near river deltas, where the
slope of the river and land is small. Unfortunately, many of the rivers, which were
earlier used for flood inundation along their banks, have been embanked in the past
century and thus this practice of irrigation has dwindled.
 Perennial irrigation system: In which irrigation water is supplied according to the crop
water requirement at regular intervals, throughout the life cycle of the crop. The water
for such irrigation may be obtained from rivers or from walls. Hence, the source may be
either surface or ground water and the application of water may be by flow or lift
irrigation systems.
2.6 Choice of Irrigation Method
As we have discussed above, there are various ways to provide water to crops. However,
choosing right kind of method is a challenge. It must suit the particular crop, soil and of course,
depends on availability of water. For example, following is a short list of available methods
corresponding to the kind of crop.
Method Suitable for crops

Border Strip method Wheat, Leafy vegetables, Fodders
Furrow method Cotton, Sugarcane, Potatoes
Basin method Orchard trees
Table 1: Irrigation method for different crops
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Other methods like sprinkler and drip irrigation systems are adapted where water is scarce and
priority for its conservation is more than the consideration for cost. Although most advanced
countries are adopting these measures, they have not picked up as much in India mainly due to
financial constraints. However, as time passes and land and water resources get scarce, it would
be essential to adopt these practices in India, too.
3 Efficiency
Irrigation efficiency is defined as the ratio between the water stored in the soil depth inhabited
with active plant roots to the water applied by the irrigation system. Thus, water applied by the
irrigation system and not being made available to be taken up by plant roots is wasted and
reduces irrigation efficiency. The major causes for reduced irrigation efficiency are drainage of
excess irrigation water to soil layers deeper than the depth of active roots. Leakage of
irrigation water to deep soil layers could result in pollution of the water table. Over-irrigation
and under-irrigation, both are injurious to the crop. Thus, the timings of irrigation and the
quantity of water supplied are decisive for the satisfactory performance of the crop. In the case
of wheat for example, appropriate timing and spacing of irrigation raise the yield as much as 50
per cent with less use of water.
The cases of irrigation efficiency of 100 percent are practically none existent even in the most
modern irrigation systems. Major difficulties in obtaining high irrigation efficiency stems from
the inability to obtain an accurate estimate of the quantity of water needed to recharge the soil
root zone depth and the lack of valid, real time information concerning the actual soil depth of
active roots.
Conservative estimates suggest that even under optimal management practices the average
irrigation efficiency is estimated to be 70 percent. Thus, the average water loss under sprinkler
and drip irrigation is 30 percent but could drop to values of over 50 percent under furrow and
flood irrigation. Efficiency of drip irrigation can reached to 90 per cent with best efforts. Water
losses of irrigation water under urban and landscape irrigation could easily reach 50 percent of
the applied water.
India’s national water mission aims to increase water use efficiency by 20 per cent. Agriculture
contributes for more than 80 per cent of water usage in the country. Therefore, a large focus of
the mission is on the improving efficiency of various irrigation projects such as Major & minor
irrigation schemes, CAP&WM (Command Area programmme & Water Management), and AIBP
(Accelerated Irrigation Benefits Programme) etc.
4 Irrigation and National Water Policy
India had adapted a national water policy in the year 1987 which was revised in 2002. The
policy document lays down the fact that planning and development of water resources should
be governed by the national perspective. Certain aspects of policy related to irrigation are
quoted below:
 Irrigation planning either in an individual project or in a watershed as a whole should

take into account the irrigability of land, cost-effective irrigation options possible from
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all available sources of water and appropriate irrigation techniques for optimizing water
use efficiency. Irrigation intensity should be such as to extend the benefits of irrigation
to as large a number of farm families as possible, keeping in view the need to maximize
production.
 There should be a close integration of water use and land use policies.
 Water allocation in an irrigation system should be done with due regard to equity and
social justice. Disparities in the availability of water between head-reach and tail end
farms and between large and small farms should be obviated by adoption of a
rotational water distribution system and supply on a volumetric basis subject to certain
ceilings and rational pricing.
 Concerted efforts should be made to ensure that the irrigation potential created is
fully utilised. For this purpose, the command area development approach should be
adopted in all irrigation projects.
 Irrigation being the largest consumer of fresh water, the aim should be to get optimal
productivity per unit of water. Scientific management farm practices and sprinkler and
drip system of irrigation should be adopted wherever feasible.
 Reclamation of water-logged/saline affected land by scientific and cost effective
methods should form a part of command area development programme.
5 Command Area Development and Water Management (CADWM)
The planned development of irrigation sector started in a big way since the First Five Year Plan
(1951–56). New projects were taken up in the Second Five Year Plan, the Third Five Year Plan,
and the Annual Plans 1966–69. During the Fourth Five Year Plan emphasis was shifted to the
completion of ongoing schemes.
The widening gap between potential creation and utilization was felt in the Fifth Plan (1974–
78) and accordingly Command Area Development programme (CADP) was launched as a
Centrally-sponsored scheme in 1974-75. The CADP is an integrated area development approach
towards the command areas of major and medium irrigation projects in the country. The
programme is aimed at bridging the gap between created irrigation potential and its utilization
in the command area.
The CAD programme was initially introduced in the Indira Gandhi Canal Command Area in 1974.
Up to March 1998 the total number of projects taken up for command area development
increased to 217 with cultivable command area (CCA) of 21.78 million hectares and spreading
over 23 states and 2 union territories.
This programme was restructured and renamed as Command Area Development and Water
Management (CADWM) Programme since April 1, 2004. The scheme is now being implemented
as a State sector scheme during the XI Five Year Plan (2008-09 to 2011-12). During the XII Plan,
the Scheme is to be implemented pari-passu with Accelerated Irrigation Benefits Programme
(AIBP). The total proposed outlay for the XII Plan (Central share) is Rs.15,000 crore to cover
about 7.6 Mha.
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The Programme involves execution of on- farm development works like construction of Field
channels and Fields drains, land leveling and shaping and conjunctive use of surface and
ground-water. Warabandi or the rotational system of water distribution is undertaken with a
view to ensuring equitable and timely supply of water to the farmers. Attention is also given to
diversification of crore pattern so that water is put to optimum use and productivity of land
increased. During such diversion Frication emphasis would be given to the production of oil
seeds, pulses etc to eliminate as far as possible their shortage.
Under the CAD programme, the Ministry of Water Resources is also introducing and promoting
participatory irrigation management (discussed below) in the CAD Projects by creating
awareness and providing financial assistance to farmers' associations. Reclamation of
waterlogged areas in irrigated commands is also an important component of the Programme.
An area of about 20.149 Mha has been covered under the programme since inception up to
end of March, 2012.
6 Participatory Irrigation Management (PIM)
Any irrigation project cannot be successful unless it is linked to the stakeholders, that is, the
farmers themselves. In fact, people’s participation in renovation and maintenance of field
channels was the established practice during the pre-independence days. However, the
bureaucracy encroached on this function in the post-independence period and a realization has
dawned that without the participation of farmers, the full potential of an irrigation scheme may
not be realized.
The concept of involvement of farmers in management of the irrigation system has been
accepted as a policy of the Government of India and has been included in the National Water
Policy adopted in 1987. It stated that
“Efforts should be made to involve farmers progressively in various aspects of management

of irrigation systems, particularly in water distribution and collection of water rates.
Assistance of voluntary agencies should be enlisted in educating the farmers in efficient
water-use and water management.”
Policy guidelines were framed for farmers’ participation in the areas under the Centrally
Sponsored Command Area Development Programme. One of the objectives of PIM is to create
a sense of ownership of water resources and the irrigation system among the users, so as to
promote economy in water use and preservation of the system.
At operational level, Water Users’ Association (WUA), Distributary Committee and Project
Committees have been formed. With the help of a model act by central government, various
states have enacted laws for PIM. Total area covered under various WUA in all states together is
approximately 15 million hectare in 2010.
7 Accelerated Irrigation Benefits Programme (AIBP)
The government of India launched Accelerated Irrigation Benefits Program (AIBP) in 1996-97.
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This program was launched to give loan assistance to the states to help them a few major
irrigation projects which were in advanced stage of completion. The advanced stage of
construction would imply that
 At least 50% of latest approved estimated project cost already incurred and
 At least 50% of physical progress of essential works of the project has taken place; and
 The proposal of the State for inclusion of project under AIBP must be supported by a
credible construction schedule indicating the works already executed and works to be
executed along with their costs.
In this program major, medium and Extension, Renovation & Modernization (ERM) irrigation
projects which were having investment clearance of Planning Commission and were in
advanced stage of construction and can be completed in the next four financial year and also
were not receiving any other form of financial assistance were considered for inclusion in the
programme.
The State Governments have been provided an amount of Rs.43425.6331 crore as CLA/Grant
under AIBP since inception of this programme till 1.12.2010 for 283 major/medium irrigation
projects and 11655 Surface minor irrigation schemes. After commencement of this Programme
129 major/medium projects and 7969 Surface major/medium irrigation Schemes have so far
been reported completed. An additional irrigation potential of 59.39 lakh hectare has been
created up to March 2009.
8 Repair, Renovation and Restoration of Water Bodies Scheme
In India, tanks/ponds and lakes have traditionally played an important role in conserving water
for meeting various needs of the communities. Minor irrigation sources (tanks etc.) have 6.27
million ha. of irrigation potential. Around 15-20 per cent sources are not in use for one reason
or the other, as a result of which one million ha of irrigation potential has been lost. Another,
around 2 M-ha of potential is lost due to under utilisation of tanks in use.
The Government of India sanctioned a Pilot Scheme for “National Project for Repair,
Renovation & Restoration (RRR) of Water Bodies directly linked to Agriculture” in January,
2005. Financial share of centre and state is in ration of 3:1. The objectives of the Scheme were
to restore and augment storage capacities of water bodies, and also to recover and extend their
lost irrigation potential. In its pilot phase, irrigation potential for 1.73 lakh hectare was realized.
With the success of pilot scheme, scheme has been extended for twelfth five year plan. It is
envisaged to take up RRR works in 10,000 water bodies with a Central Assistance of Rs.
6235 crore. Out of 10000 water bodies, 9000 water bodies are proposed to be in rural areas
and balance 1000 water bodies will be in urban areas. The proposal of water bodies where the
Integrated Water Management Programme (IWMP) is implemented would be considered to be
included under the scheme RRR of water bodies. At gram panchayat level, water users’
associations (WUA) are responsible for detail project report and implementation. There are
corresponding bodies at district, state levels and national level also.
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Student Notes:
Main objectives of the scheme
 Comprehensive improvement and restoration water bodies, thereby increasing tank

storage capacity.
 Ground Water Recharge.
 Increased availability of drinking water.
 Improvement in agriculture/horticulture productivity.
 Improvement of catchment areas of tank commands.
 Environmental benefits through improved water use efficiency; by promotion of
conjunctive use of surface and ground water.
 Community participation and self-supporting system for sustainable management for
each water body.
 Capacity Building of communities, in better water management.
9 Virtual Water
The concept of “virtual water” was introduced by Prof. Allan in the early 1990s and refers to the
water that is required for the production of agricultural commodities, or in other words the
water “embedded” in agricultural products. For instance, it takes 1,600 cubic meters of water
on average to produce one metric tonne of wheat. The water is said to be virtual because once
the wheat is grown, the real water used to grow it is no longer actually contained in the wheat.
The concept of virtual water helps us realize how much water is needed to produce different
goods and services. In semi-arid and arid areas, knowing the virtual water value of a good or
service can be useful towards determining how best to use the scarce water available.
Virtual water trade refers to the idea that when goods and services are exchanged, so is virtual
water. When a country imports one tonne of wheat instead of producing it domestically, it is
saving about 1,300 cubic meters of real indigenous water. If this country is water-scarce, the
water that is 'saved' can be used towards other ends. If the exporting country is water-scarce,
however, it has exported 1,300 cubic meters of virtual water since the real water used to grow
the wheat will no longer be available for other purposes. Water-scarce countries like Israel
discourage the export of oranges (relatively heavy water guzzlers) precisely to prevent large
quantities of water being exported to different parts of the world.
Limitation of the Virtual water measures
 Relies on an assumption that all sources of water, whether in the form of rainfall or
provided through an irrigation system, are of equal value.
 Implicitly assumes that water that would be released by reducing a high water use
activity would necessarily be available for use in a less water-intensive activity. For
example, the implicit assumption is that water used in rangeland beef production
would be available to be used to produce an alternative, less water-intensive activity. As
a practical matter this may not be the case, nor might the alternatives be economic.
 Fails as an indicator of environmental harm nor does it provides any indication of
whether water resources are being used within sustainable extraction limits. The use of
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virtual water estimates therefore offer no guidance for policy makers seeking to ensure
that environmental objectives are being met.
 Importing food could pose the risk of further political dependence. The notion of "Self
Sufficiency" is pride among people of many nations.
Figure 8: Virtual water flows by the region
In sum, virtual water trade allows a new, amplified perspective on water problems: In the
framework of recent developments from a supply-oriented to a demand-oriented management
of water resources it opens up new fields of governance and facilitates a differentiation and
balancing of different perspectives, basic conditions and interests. Analytically the concept
enables one to distinguish between global, regional and local levels and their linkages. This
means, that water resource problems have to be solved in problemsheds if they cannot be
successfully addressed in the local or regional watershed. Virtual water trade can thus
overcome the hydro-centricity of a narrow watershed view.
References:
[1] Culturable command area (CCA) - The gross command area contains unfertile barren land,
alkaline soil, local ponds, villages and other areas as habitation. These areas are called
unculturable areas. The remaining area on which crops can be grown satisfactorily is known as
cultivable command area (CCA). Culturable command area can further be divided into 2
categories
 Culturable cultivated area: It is the area in which crop is grown at a particular time or
crop season.
 Culturable uncultivated area: It is the area in which crop is not sown in a particular
season.
nd
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INDIAN AGRICULTURE


Student Notes:
Contents
Land Resources and Agriculture..................................................................................................... 3
Land Use Categories ................................................................................................................... 3
Land-use Changes in India.......................................................................................................... 5
Intensity of cropping .............................................................................................................. 6
Common Property Resources ................................................................................................ 6
Agricultural Land Use in India .................................................................................................... 6
Salient Features of Indian Agriculture........................................................................................ 6
Cropping Season in India ............................................................................................................ 7
The Kharif season ................................................................................................................... 7
The Rabi season ..................................................................................................................... 7
The Zaid season ...................................................................................................................... 8
Type of Farming (On Basis of Moisture for crops)...................................................................... 8
Type of Farming (On Basis of Changing Geographical Environment or Historical Background) 9
Shifting Agriculture- ............................................................................................................... 9
Subsistence Agriculture.......................................................................................................... 9
Intensive Agriculture .............................................................................................................. 9
Extensive Agriculture ............................................................................................................. 9
Plantation Agriculture ............................................................................................................ 9
Commercial Agriculture ......................................................................................................... 9
Mixed Farming...................................................................................................................... 10
Cropping Pattern ...................................................................................................................... 10
Food grains ............................................................................................................................... 10
Cereals .................................................................................................................................. 10
Rice.................................................................................................................................................................. 11
Wheat .............................................................................................................................................................12
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Jowar (Sorghum) ............................................................................................................................................. 12

Bajra ................................................................................................................................................................ 12
Maize............................................................................................................................................................... 12
Pulses .............................................................................................................................................................. 12
Gram ............................................................................................................................................................... 12
Oilseeds: ............................................................................................................................... 13
Groundnut ....................................................................................................................................................... 13
Rapeseed and Mustard ................................................................................................................................... 13
Other Oilseeds................................................................................................................................................. 14
Cash Crops ............................................................................................................................ 14

Cotton .............................................................................................................................................................14
Jute .................................................................................................................................................................. 15
Sugarcane........................................................................................................................................................ 15
Tea .................................................................................................................................................................. 15
Coffee .............................................................................................................................................................. 16
Tabular Representation of Various Crop Requirements in India .......................................... 16
Agricultural Development in India ........................................................................................... 17
Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) .................................................................... 18
Government Steps to Enhance Agricultural Inputs .................................................................. 19
Seeds .................................................................................................................................... 19
Mechanization and Technology ........................................................................................... 20
Integrated Nutrient Management........................................................................................ 20
Irrigation ............................................................................................................................... 20
Major Schemes / Programmes for the Agricultural Sector ...................................................... 20
National Food Security Mission ........................................................................................... 21
Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana ................................................................................................ 21
National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture....................................................................... 22
Bringing Green Revolution to Eastern India(BGREI) ............................................................. 22
Integrated Scheme Of Oilseeds, Pulses, Oilpalm & Maize (ISOPOM) .................................. 23
Problems of Indian Agriculture ................................................................................................ 25
UPSC Questions Covered ......................................................................................................... 26
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Student Notes:
Land Resources and Agriculture

Land is an important natural resource, which serves variety of functions. Different types of
lands are suited to different uses. Human beings thus, use land as a resource for production as
well as residence and recreation. Though, land seems to be in vast amount but its usage pattern
and category makes it a limited resource.. There are two main factors determining land-use:
I. Physical Factors: These factors are like topography, soils, climate etc.
II. Human Factors: Growth of human population, duration of land control, technology,
land rights, social, economic and cultural factors are some of the human factors.
Land Use Categories

In India, land-use records are maintained by land revenue department. The land use categories
add up to reporting area, which refers to the total area reported by the land revenue
department. At a surprising note, it is often different from the geographical area which is the
total area as measured by the Survey of India and remains fixed as per the international
boundaries.
Survey of India
Survey of India, The National Survey and Mapping Organization of the country under the
Department of Science & Technology, is the OLDEST SCIENTIFIC DEPARTMENT OF THE GOVT. OF
INDIA. It was set up in 1767 to help consolidate the territories of the British East India Company.
In its assigned role as the National Principal Mapping Agency, Survey of India bears a special
responsibility to ensure that the country’s domain is explored and mapped suitably to provide
base maps for expeditious and integrated development and ensure that all resources contribute
their full measure to the progress, prosperity and security of India.
Besides being grouped under ‘‘Scientific Surveys’’ in Government of India Business Rule 1971, it
has also been called upon extensively to deploy its expertise in the field of geodetic and
geophysical surveys, study of seismicity and seismotectonics, glaciology, participation in Indian
Scientific Expedition to Antarctica and projects related to digital cartography and digital
photogrammetry, etc., to provide basic data to keep pace with Science and Technology
Development.
Botanical Survey of India (BSI), Zoological Survey of India (ZSI) and Archaeological Survey of
India (ASI) are some other important surveying agencies of government of India.
The land-use categories as maintained in the Land Revenue Records1 are as follows:
(i) Forests: According to Survey of India report, forest area is one that is notified by the
department as land under forests, irrespective of whether it has any tree cover or not. The
1
As per the records of Land Revenue Department
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Student Notes:
land under forest cover is the land exceeding one hectare area having a minimum of 10 per
cent tree cover irrespective of any other land-use. Thus, the area under actual forest cover may
be different from area classified as forest. Hence, there may be an increase in this category
without any increase in the actual forest cover.
(ii) Land put to Non-agricultural Uses: This includes the part of the geographic area that is put
to non-agricultural uses like settlements, both rural and urban, infrastructure development like
roads, railway lines, canals, industries, shops and other similar uses.
(iii) Barren and Wastelands: The land classified as a wasteland such as barren hilly terrains,
desert lands, ravines, etc. are normally can not be brought under cultivation with the available
technology. They remain non suitable for agriculture and generally remain fallow.
(iv) Area under Permanent Pastures and Grazing Lands: The above type land is generally
owned by the village ‘Panchayat’ or the Government (Forest & Revenue Department). Only a
small proportion of this land is privately owned. These lands are not used for cultivation. The
land owned by the village panchayat comes under ‘Common Property Resources’. The benefits
of this land accrue to the members of the community as a whole.
(v) Area under Miscellaneous Tree Crops and Groves: These areas are not included in net sown
area. The land under orchards and fruit trees is included in this category. Most of this land is
privately owned by the people.
(vi) Culturable Waste-Land: Any land which is left fallow (uncultivated) for more than five years
is categorised as a culturable wasteland. This land may be marshy, saline land having degraded
soil on account of soil erosion or under dense bushes. Such land can be brought under
cultivation after improving it through reclamation practices.
(vii) Current Fallow: The land which has been left without cultivation for one or less than one
agricultural year is known as current fallow. The practise adopted for giving rest to the
culturable land is called fallowing. The land recoups the lost fertility through natural processes
in the time duration.
(viii) Fallow other than Current Fallow: These are also the cultivable land which are left
uncultivated for more than a year. The duration for which the land has been left uncultivated
should be less than five years. Most of this land is either of poor quality or the cost of
cultivation of such land is very high. If the land is left uncultivated for more than five years, it
would be categorised as culturable wasteland.
(ix) Net Area Sown:
Net area sown represents the area sown with crops at least once in any of the crop season of
the year counting area sown more than once in the same year, only once2. Net sown area is of
2
Gross Cropped Area: This represents the total area sown once and/or more than once in a particular
year, i.e. the area is counted as many times as there are sowings in a year. This total area is also known as
total cropped area or total area sown.
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Student Notes:
crucial importance for India because it is the land actually under cultivation of crops and India
has the highest percentage of Net Sown Area.
Land-use Changes in India

Land-use in a region, to a large extent, is influenced by the nature of economic activities
carried out in that region. However, while economic activities change over time, land, like many
other natural resources, is fixed in terms of its area. The pattern of land use depends on the
economy of the region. With the increase in size of the economy, due to increasing population,
change in income level, and updated technology, the pressure on the land increases many folds.
Hence, marginal land also comes under usage. Also, with the change in composition of
economy, brisk rate of growth of secondary and tertiary sector, there is gradual shift of land
from agricultural usage to non-agricultural usage. But, it has been observed that though the
share of agricultural land decreases with time, the pressure on land does not decrease. It is so
because the number of people that the agricultural sector has to feed is increasing day by day.
India has undergone major changes within the economy over the past four or five decades, and
this has influenced the land-use changes in the country. It has been observed that share of area
under forest, area under non-agricultural uses and current fallow lands have shown an increase.
The rate of increase is the highest in case of area under non-agricultural uses. This is due to the
changing structure of Indian economy, which is increasingly depending on the contribution
from industrial and service sectors. Thus, the area under non-agricultural uses is increasing at
the expense of wastelands and agricultural land.
Barren and wasteland, culturable wasteland, area under pastures and tree crops and net area
sown have shown a decline in the areas. With the pressure on land increasing, wastelands and
culturable wastelands have declined. Also, putting more area under the non-agriculture usage
has caused a decline in net sown areas.
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Student Notes:
Intensity of cropping
(To be covered)
Common Property Resources
Land, according to its ownership can broadly be classified under two broad heads – private land
and common property resources (CPRs). While the former is owned by an individual or a group
of individuals, the latter is owned by the state meant for the use of the community. CPRs can be
defined as community’s natural resource, where every member has the right of access and
usage with specified obligations, without anybody having property rights over them.
Community forests, pasture lands, village water bodies and other public spaces are examples of
the common property resources. CPRs provide fodder for the livestock and fuel for the
households along with other minor forest products like fruits, nuts, fibre, medicinal plants, etc.
In rural areas, such land is of particular relevance for the livelihood of the landless and marginal
farmers, other weaker sections and women.
Agricultural Land Use in India

The term 'agriculture' has been derived from two Latin words ager meaning land and culture
meaning cultivation. Agriculture thus means cultivation of land. Agriculture also includes
horticulture, animal husbandry, forestry, fishing, etc. Agriculture, unlike other secondary and
tertiary sectors, depends directly on the on the land use patterns in the country. Quality and
fertility of land has a direct bearing on the productivity of agriculture. Besides in rural areas,
aside from its value as a productive factor, land ownership has a social value and serves as a
security for credit, natural hazards or life contingencies, and also adds to the social status. It has
been observed that over the years, there has been a marginal decline in the available total
stock of cultivable land as a percentage to total reporting area. The scope for bringing in
additional land under net sown area in India is limited. There is, thus, an urgent need to evolve
and adopt land-saving technologies. It can be achieved either by increasing the yield of any
particular crop per unit area of land or by increasing the total output per unit area of land from
all crops grown over one agricultural year by increasing land-use intensity. A high value of
cropping intensity3 is desirable for improving the agricultural output in India.
Salient Features of Indian Agriculture

Indian agriculture has very wide variations throughout the length and breadth of the country.
With growth of technology, more area has been brought under cultivation. Increase in irrigation
facilities, coupled with use of fertilizers and pesticides and use of high yield variety of seeds has
improved the productivity in the country. Despite the variations, there are some salient features
which characterize Indian agriculture. They are:
3
Cropping Intensity is defined as the ratio of Gross Cultivated Area (GCA) to Net Sown Area (NSA). It is
generally expressed in percentage.
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Student Notes:
1. Subsistence agriculture4: In general, the Indian agriculture is subsistence in nature.

Farmers generally have a small piece of land and crop production is mostly for family
use with surplus sold to market.
2. Pressure of population: Agriculture has to provide food for the rapidly increasing
population and also employment to a large section of landless labourers. Hence, there
is large pressure on agriculture. Besides, the increasing trend of urbanization is
diverting the agricultural land to non-agricultural uses.
3. Importance of animals: In India, many of the agricultural operations such as ploughing,
irrigation, threshing and transporting of the agricultural products are done by the
animals. Animals form a major part of farmer’s life in India. Complete mechanization of
the Indian agricultural system is still a distant goal.
4. Dependent upon monsoons: The Indian farmer depends mainly on the monsoons,
which are uncertain, unreliable and irregular. Only about 35 per cent of the total
cropped area is under perennial irrigation and the rest depends on the monsoons.
Thus, the dependency on monsoon makes life of Indian farmers highly vulnerable.
5. Small land holdings: The national average size of the land holdings is only 1.7 hectares.
It is uneconomical to cultivate small farms and thus is a great hindrance to the progress
of agriculture. Most of the farmers in our country are not owners of the land they
cultivate.
6. Variety of crops: Due to highly suitable environmental conditions, the Indian farmers
are able to grow a large variety of tropical and temperate crops. It includes food crops
and commercial crops. The food crops score over all other crops for land under
agriculture.
7. Predominance of food crops: The production of food crops is the first priority of the
farmers, as they have to provide enough food for the rapidly increasing population of
our country. About two-thirds of the total land under agriculture is devoted to food
crops in India.
8. Less importance to fodder crops: India has the largest population of livestock in the
world. Still the fodder crops are not given due consideration in the cropping pattern.
Thus, we have very poor quality of domestic animals, when compared internationally.
Cropping Season in India

There are three distinct cropping seasons in India, namely Kharif, Rabi and Zaid.
The Kharif season largely coincides with Southwest Monsoon in the months of June –
September. Major crops cultivated in Northern states include Rice, Cotton, Bajra, Maize, Jowar,
and Tur. In southern states, major crops are Rice, Maize, Ragi, Jowar, and Groundnut.
The Rabi season begins with the onset of winter in October-November and ends in March-
April. The major crops cultivated in northern states include Wheat, Gram, Rapeseeds and
Mustard, Barley. In the southern states, major crops include Rice, Maize, Ragi, Groundnut, and
Jowar.
4
Subsistence agriculture is self-sufficiency farming in which the farmers focus on growing enough food to
feed themselves and their families.
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Student Notes:
The Zaid season is a short duration summer cropping season beginning after harvesting of Rabi
crops. The cultivation of watermelons, cucumbers, vegetables and fodder crops during this
season is done on irrigated lands. However, this type of distinction in the cropping season does
not exist in southern parts of the country.
Cropping Season Duration Season Major Crops

Kharif June-July to Oct.- Rainy season Rice, maize, jowar, bajra, cotton,
Nov sesamum, groundnut and pulses
like mung, urad etc.
Rabi Oct.-Nov. to March- Winter season Wheat, barley, gram and oilseeds
April like linseed, rape and mustard,
etc.
Zaid March-April to May- Summer season Vegetables, fruits like
June watermelon and cucumber and
rice, maize etc.
Type of Farming (On Basis of Moisture for crops)
On the basis of main source of moisture for crops, the farming can be classified as irrigated
farming and rainfed farming (barani). Irrigated farming can be further sub-divided into
protective farming or productive farming. Protective irrigation farming is to protect the crops
from adverse effects of soil moisture deficiency i.e. irrigation acts as a supplementary source of
water over and above the rainfall. Whereas productive irrigation farming is meant to provide
sufficient soil moisture in the cropping season to achieve high productivity. In such irrigation the
water input per unit area of cultivated land is higher than protective irrigation.
Rainfed farming is further classified on the basis of adequacy of soil moisture during cropping
season into dryland and wetland farming. . In wetland farming, the rainfall is in excess of soil
moisture requirement of plants during rainy season. These areas grow various water intensive
crops such as rice, jute and sugarcane. The dryland farming is largely confined to the regions
having annual rainfall less than 75 cm. These regions grow hardy and drought resistant crops
such as Ragi, Bajra, Moong, Gram and Guar (fodder crops) and practise various measures of soil
moisture conservation and rain water harvesting.
Chief Features of Dryland Farming are:
1. The techniques of rainwater harvesting are practised.It helps to reduce the gap of
dryness between two rainfall periods.
2. Excess rainfall than needed is allowed to seep underground. It helps in water
conservation.
3. Soil and water are the two main resources of dryland farming.
4. On account of long periods of aridity soil erosion sets in.
5. On account of destruction of humus in the top layer the soils become unproductive and
infertile.
6. Only very poor farmers practice dryland farming. These persons account of lack of
funds, are unable to access irrigation and invest in soil fertility.
7. To supplement income animal husbandry is practised.
8. On account of pressure of population grazing lands are is becoming less and less.
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Student Notes:
Steps taken
Type of Farming (On Basis of Changing Geographical Environment or Historical
Background)
Various type of farming patterns have developed in India due to highly variable environmental
conditions. Based on changing geographical environment and historical background, we can
further classify farming into following categories:
Shifting Agriculture- Shifting agriculture is also known as slash and burn cultivation. It is mostly
practised in backward forest areas with heavy rainfall. Covered patchesof ground are cleared by
cutting and burning trees and forests. The cleared land is then cultivated for two or three years
in a primitive manner. When soil becomes leached and unproductive, the farmers shift to other
part of the forest and follow the same pattern. There are certain disadvantages of shifting
agriculture. We find that productivity is high in the first year but slowly the productivity
decreases with every passing year. With the cutting of forests, soil gets easily degraded and
blown away by wind and rain. The recovery period of the soil is long and it takes time to recover
to the original state. Shifting cultivation is practised on a small scale in the forested areas of
north eastern states, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and parts of Kerala. It is known
by different mimes such as Jhum in Assam, Podu in Orissa and Andhra Pradesh, Bewar in
Madhya Pradesh and Ponam in Kerala.
Subsistence Agriculture – It is practised mainly for consumption purpose and maintenance of

one’s family. The farmer produces a variety of crops, and the total production is just enough to
meet the requirements of the family. The farms are small and the yield is low. All types of
manures, such as household waste, animal droppings, green manures, night soil and a little of
chemical fertilizers are used. This type of agriculture is generally practised in the tribal areas of
Assam and in the Himalayan region.
Intensive Agriculture – It is practised in regions with highly dense populated land with limited
cultivable area. The farmer tries to get the maximum possible output from the small piece of
land. More than one crop is cultivated in a year. Intensive agriculture is widely practised in the
irrigated areas of the northern plains and the coastal plains of India.
Extensive Agriculture - This type of agriculture is practised in areas with low population density
and the cultivable land is abundant. The farmer specializes in one or two commercial crops. In
India, extensive cultivation is widely practised in the Terai region of the Himalayas and the
north-western states.
Plantation Agriculture - This type of agriculture was introduced by the Europeans in the tropical
and the subtropical regions of the country. Large tracts of agricultural land are mostly owned by
the companies. In India, the main crops produced on plantations are tea, coffee, spices, coconut
and rubber. The success of plantation agriculture depends on accessibility, availability of labour
and adequate means of transport. Scientific methods of farming are used with an aim of higher
yield and superior product quality.
Commercial Agriculture- The main aim of commercial farming is to produce crops as per the
market demands. It can be either intensive or extensive. To keep the cost of production low,
most modern methods of cultivation are employed. It is generally practised in areas of sparse
population. In India, commercial farming is not very common due to heavy pressure of
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Student Notes:
population on land. Commercial agriculture has developed in Punjab, Haryana, Gujarat,

Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Assam.
Mixed Farming - In this type of farming, livestock is reared along with crop farming. Cattle
rearing and rotation of crops are important part of mixed farming. It is practised in thickly
populated areas. The yields are generally high. Efficient methods of cultivation, quick means of
transport and ready markets are seen as promoters of mixed farming in the country.
Cropping Pattern5
Cropping pattern refers to the yearly sequence and spatial arrangement of crops and fallows on
a given area. The farmer’s decision on crops and cropping pattern depends on several factors –
soil and climate, household needs, socio-economic issues, market infrastructure, post-harvest
storage and processing facilities, labour availability, technological development, government
policies etc. By and large, most of the Indian farmers go for cultivation of a number of crops on
their farms and rotate a particular crop combination over a period of 3 -4 years. It results in
multiplicity of cropping system which remains dynamic in time and space.
A large diversity of cropping system exist under rainfed and dryland areas with an over-riding
practise of intercropping due to greater risk involved in cultivating large area under a particular
crop, while in areas of assured irrigation only a few cropping system are followed, they have a
considerable coverage across the region and contribute significantly to food grain production at
national level.
Three major type of cropping system in India are- (i) Sequential System- In this system, we have
sequential multiple cropping using short duration crops and intensive input management. (ii)
Intercropping System- Growing of two or more crops simultaneously on the same field; Crop
intensification is in both temporal and spatial dimensions. (iii) Alley Cropping System – Growing
of annual crops with multipurpose perennial trees or shrubs. It is a way of increasing
production potential under fragile environment.
Food grains
Food grains are the dominant crop in all parts of the country whether it is subsistence or
commercial agricultural economy. On the basis of the structure of grain, the food grains can be
classified as cereals and pulses.
Cereals: The cereals occupy about 54 per cent of total cropped area in India. The country
produces about 11 per cent cereals of the world and ranks third in production after China and
U.S.A. India produces a variety of cereals, which are classified as fine grains (rice, wheat) and
coarse grains (Jowar, Bajra, maize, Ragi), etc.
5
The crops of India are divided into mainly two types: (a) Food crops (b) Cash crops. A cash crop is an
agricultural crop which is grown for sale to return a profit. It is typically purchased by parties separate
from a farm. Rice, wheat, maize, millet, barley, mower are the examples of food grains. Jute, cotton,
sugarcane, oil seeds and rubber are known as cash crops.
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Student Notes:
Rice: Rice is the most important cereal crop in India. About 3,000 varieties are grown in
different agro-climatic regions of the country. Rice being a tropical and sub-tropical plant
requires a fairly
high temperature
of more than 22°C
and amount of
rainfall more than
100 cm. Irrigation is
necessary in areas
of lesser rainfall.
Clayey alluvial soil
in which water can
remain standing is
ideal for rice. A
good crop of rice
can be obtained
only if the fields are
kept filled with
water. Cultivation
of rice is labour-
intensive. India
contributes 22 per
cent of rice
production in the
world and ranks
second after China.
About one-fourth
of the total cropped
area in the country
is under rice
cultivation. West
Bengal, Punjab,
Uttar Pradesh,
Andhra Pradesh
and Tamil Nadu were five leading rice producing states in the country.
Golden Rice
Golden Rice is a new type of rice that contains beta carotene, a source of vitamin A. Golden
Rice is being developed as a potential new food-based approach to improve vitamin A status.
Vitamin A deficiency is a serious public health problem affecting millions of children and
pregnant women globally.
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Student Notes:
Wheat: Wheat is the second most important cereal crop in India after rice. Indian production of
wheat is second in the world after China6. It is primarily a crop of temperate zone. Wheat
needs about 75 cm of water and winter temperature of 10° to 15° C and summer temperature
of 21°C to 26°C during ripening to produce a good crop. It requires a rainfall of 50 to 75 cm.
Excessive rainfall is harmful to wheat crop. Roots of the plant are destroyed in standing water.
Light loam soil is ideal. Hence, its cultivation in India is done during winter i.e. rabi season.
Cultivation of wheat is not labour-intensive. Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan and
Madhya Pradesh are five leading wheat producing states.
Jowar (Sorghum): It is main food crop in semi-arid areas of central and southern India. Jowar is
grown both as a Kharif and as a rabi crop. As a Kharif crop, it grows in areas having mean
monthly average temperature of 26°C to 33°C. It requires rainfall of about 30cm during the
growing season. Jowar can be grown in a variety of soils including loamy and sandy soils. The
clayey, regur and alluvium are most suitable for Jowar cultivation. Maharashtra alone produces
more than half of the total Jowar production of the country. Other leading producer states of
Jowar are Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh. The grain also makes for an
excellent poultry feed.
Bajra: Bajra is sown in hot and dry climatic conditions in north-western and western parts of
the country. It is grown in areas with rainfall about 40-50 cm and temperature of about 25°C -
30°C. It is a hardy crop which resists frequent dry spells and drought in this region. It is
cultivated alone as well as part of mixed cropping. Leading producers of Bajra are the states of
Maharashtra, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan and Haryana.
Maize: Maize is a food as well as fodder crop grown under semi-arid climatic conditions and
over inferior soils. It requires 50-100cm of rainfall and a temperature ranging from 21°C to
27°C. Maize is sown all over India except eastern and north-eastern regions. The leading
producers of maize are the states of Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Rajasthan
and Uttar Pradesh. Yield level of maize is higher than other coarse cereals. It is high in southern
states and declines towards central parts.
Pulses: Pulses are rich source of protein in India. India is a leading producer of pulses and
accounts for about one-fifth of the total production of pulses in the world. The cultivation of
pulses in the country is largely concentrated in the dryland of Deccan and central plateaus and
north-western parts of the country. Gram and tur are the main pulses cultivated in India.
Gram is cultivated in subtropical areas. It is mostly a rainfed crop cultivated during Rabi season
in central, western and north-western parts of the country. Preferred temperature range is 20°C
– 25°C and rainfall in the range of 40-50cm. Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra,
Andhra Pradesh and Rajasthan are the main producers of this pulse crop. Tur is the second
important pulse crop in the country. It is also known as red gram or pigeon pea. It is cultivated
over marginal lands and under rainfed conditions in the dry areas of central and southern states
of the country. Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka, Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh are the
main producers of Tur.
6
http://faostat.fao.org/site/339/default.aspx
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Student Notes:
Oilseeds:
The oilseeds are produced for extracting edible oils. Dryland of Malwa plateau, Marathwada,
Gujarat, Rajasthan, Telangana and Rayalseema region of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka plateau
are oilseeds growing regions of India. Groundnut, rapeseed and mustard, Soyabean and
sunflower are the main oilseed crops grown in India.
Groundnut: Groundnut is largely a rainfed Kharif crop of dryland. Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Andhra
Pradesh, Karnataka and Maharashtra are the leading producers.
Rapeseed and Mustard: Rapeseed and mustard comprise several oilseeds as rai, sarson, toria
and taramira. These are subtropical crops cultivated during rabi season in north-western and
central parts of India. Rajasthan contributes about one-third production while other leading
producers are Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, West Bengal and Madhya Pradesh. Yields of these crops
are comparatively high in Haryana and Rajasthan.
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Student Notes:
Other Oilseeds: Soyabean and sunflower are other important oilseeds grown in India. Soyabean
is mostly grown in Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra. Sunflower cultivation is concentrated in
Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and adjoining areas of Maharashtra. It is a minor crop in northern
parts of the country where its yield is high due to irrigation.
Cash Crops
Cotton: Cotton is a tropical crop grown in Kharif season in semi-arid areas of the country. India
grows both short staple (Indian) cotton as well as long staple (American) cotton called ‘narma’
in north-western parts of the country. Cotton requires clear sky during flowering stage. Ideal
temperature range is 21°C – 30°C and rainfall in the range of 50 – 100cm. There are three
cotton growing areas, i.e. parts of Punjab, Haryana and northern Rajasthan in north-west,
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Student Notes:
Gujarat and Maharashtra in the west and plateaus of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil
Nadu in south. Leading producers of this crop are Maharashtra, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh,
Punjab and Haryana.
Jute: Jute is a cash crop in West Bengal and adjoining eastern parts of the country. West Bengal
accounts for about three-fourth of the production in the country. Bihar and Assam are other
jute growing areas. Ideal growing condition include temperature in range of 24°C – 35°C and
rainfall of 120- 150cm.
Sugarcane: Sugarcane
is a crop of tropical
areas. Under rainfed
conditions, it is
cultivated in sub-
humid and humid
climates. It requires
hot and humid
climate with average
temperature of 21°C-
27°C and 75-100 cm
rainfall. In Indo-
Gangetic plain, its
cultivation is largely
concentrated in Uttar
Pradesh. Sugarcane
growing area in
western India is
spread over
Maharashtra and
Gujarat. In southern
India, it is cultivated in
irrigated tracts of
Karnataka, Tamil Nadu
and Andhra Pradesh.
Uttar Pradesh
produces about two-
fifth of sugarcane of
the country.
Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh are other leading producers of this
crop.
Tea: Tea is a plantation crop used as beverage. It is grown over undulating topography of hilly
areas and well drained soils in humid and sub-humid tropics and sub-tropics. The ideal
temperature for growth is 20°C – 30°C and rainfall around 150-300cm. In India, tea plantation is
done in Brahmaputra valley of Assam, sub-Himalayan region of West Bengal (Darjiling,
Jalpaiguri and Cooch Bihar districts) and lower slopes of Nilgiris and Cardamom hills of Western
Ghats.
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Coffee: Coffee is a tropical plantation crop. There are three varieties of coffee i.e. arabica,
robusta and liberica. Coffee is cultivated in the highlands of Western Ghats in Karnataka, Kerala
and Tamil Nadu. The ideal temperature for growth is between 15°C and 28°C and rainfall from
150 cm to 250cm.
Tabular Representation of Various Crop Requirements in India

Crop Climatic Soil Requirements Area of Cultivation
Conditions
Rice Temp: Higher than Fertile clayey or loamy soil Lower and middle Ganga
22°C of the river valleys, flood Plains, the east and west
Rain: More than plains, coastal plains and coastal plains, the
100cm deltas capable of holding Brahmaputra Valley and parts
water of the Deccan Plateau.
Wheat Temp: Well-drained fertile silt and Punjab, Haryana, Uttar
Winter 10°C -15°C clayey loams Pradesh, Rajasthan and
Summer 21°C- Madhya Pradesh
26°C
Rain: 50-75 cm
Jowar Temp: 26°C – 33°C Clayey, regur and alluvium Maharashtra, Karnataka,
Rain: About 30 cm Madhya Pradesh, Andhra
Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Uttar
Pradesh, Rajasthan and
Gujarat
Bajra Temp: 25°C – 30 Sandy loams, black and red Maharashtra, Gujarat, Uttar
°C soils Pradesh, Rajasthan and
Rain: 40 -50 cm Haryana.
Maize Temp: 21°C – 27°C Deep fertile well drained Madhya Pradesh, Andhra
Rain: 50 -100 cm soil rich in organic matter Pradesh, Karnataka, Rajasthan
with good water holding and Uttar Pradesh
capacity
Ragi Temp: 20°C – 30°C Red, light black sandy Karnataka, Tamil Nadu,
Rain: 50 -100 cm loams Andhra
Pradesh, Orissa, Bihar, Gujarat
and Maharashtra
Gram Temp: 20°C – 25°C Well-drained fertile silt and Madhya Pradesh, Uttar
Rain: 40 -50 cm clayey loams Pradesh, Rajasthan, Haryana
and Maharashtra
Tur (Arhar) Temp: Winter Sandy loam to clayey loam, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya
15°C -18°C Deep well drained soil Pradesh, Maharashtra,
Summer 30°C- Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh,
35°C Odisha, Karnataka and Tamil
Rain: 50-70 cm Nadu
Groundnut Temp: 20°C – 30°C Sandy loams and black soil Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu,
Rain: 50 -80 cm Karnataka, Gujarat &
Maharashtra.
Rapeseed Temp: 10°C – 20°C Alluvial soil Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan,
& Mustard Rain: 50 -100 cm Punjab, Haryana, Madhya
Pradesh and Chhattisgarh
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Sesamum Temp: 20°C – 25°C Well-drained light loamy Orissa, Rajasthan, Gujarat,
(Til) Rain: About 50 soils Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra,
cm West
Bengal and Madhya Pradesh.
Sunflower Temp: 15°C – 25°C Well-drained loamy soil Karnataka, Maharashtra,

Rain: About 50 Andhra Pradesh, Haryana,
cm Bihar and Uttar Pradesh
Soyabean Temp: 15°C – 25°C Friable loamy soils can Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh,
Rain: 40-60 cm retain moisture. Uttarakhand, Madhya
Pradesh, Gujarat and
Chhattisgarh.
Linseed Temp: 10°C – 20°C Clay loams, deep black Madhya Pradesh, Uttar
Rain: 50 -75 cm soils and alluvial soils Pradesh, Bihar, Chhattisgarh
and Maharashtra
Cotton Temp: 21°C – 30°C Black soil, Alluvial soil and Punjab, Maharashtra, Gujarat
Rain: 50 -100 cm Red soil and Haryana
Jute Temp: 24°C – 35°C Light sandy or clayey loam West Bengal, Assam, Bihar
Rain: 120 -150 cm with annual water supply and Orissa
Sugarcane Temp: 21°C – 27°C Deep, well-drained, rich Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra,
Rain: 75 -100 cm loamy soil with moisture Tamil Nadu, Karnataka,
retaining capacity Andhra
Pradesh, Bihar and Punjab
Coconut Temp: 20°C – 25°C Loose porous or sandy Kerala, Tamil Nadu and
Rain: Above150 along Karnataka
cm sea shores
Tea Temp: 20°C – 30°C Well-drained deep fertile Brahmaputra & Surma valleys
Rain: 150 -300 cm sandy loams of Assam, Darjeeling and
Jalpaiguri districts of northern
West Bengal and Nilgiris,
Palnis and Annamalai hills in
South India
Coffee Temp: 15°C – 28°C Well-drained loamy soils, Karnataka , Kerala and Tamil
Rain: 150 -250 cm rich in humus and minerals Nadu
Rubber Temp: 25°C – 35°C Deep, rich and well- Kerala, Tamil Nadu,
Rain: Above drained loamy soil, at an Karnataka and Andaman and
300cm elevation of about 400 Nicobar Islands
metres
Agricultural Development in India

Agriculture continues to be an important sector of Indian economy. The importance of
agricultural sector in India can be gauged from the fact that about 57 per cent of its land is
devoted to crop cultivation, whereas, in the world, the corresponding share is only about 12
per cent. Indian agricultural economy has been largely subsistence in nature. After
Independence, the immediate goal of the Government was to increase food grains production
by (i) switching over from cash crops to food crops; (ii) intensification of cropping over already
cultivated land; and (iii) increasing cultivated area by bringing cultivable and fallow land under
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plough. Intensive Agricultural District Programme (IADP) and Intensive Agricultural Area
Programme (IAAP) were launched in 1950s to improve production. New seed varieties of wheat
(Mexico) and rice (Philippines) known as high yielding varieties (HYVs) were available for
cultivation by mid-1960s and India took advantage by introducing package technology
comprising HYVs, along with chemical fertilizers in irrigated areas of Punjab, Haryana, and
Western Uttar Pradesh. This strategy of agricultural development increased the food production
at very vast rate; this growth came to be known as Green Revol ution. This strategy of
agricultural development made the country self-reliant in food grain production. But green
revolution was initially confined to irrigated areas only. This led to regional disparities in
agricultural development in the country.
Agro-climatic planning
was introduced in 1988
to induce regionally
balanced agricultural
development in the
country. It also
emphasised the need
for diversification of
agriculture and
harnessing of resources
for development of
dairy farming, poultry,
horticulture, livestock
rearing and
aquaculture. However,
lack of development of
rural infrastructure,
withdrawal of subsidies
and price support, and
impediments in
availing of the rural
credits may lead to
inter-regional and
inter-personal
disparities in rural
areas. Improvement in
technology, better yield
crops, expansion in
irrigation, improved
fertilizers and use of
pesticides has significantly improved the agricultural productivity in the country. Government
initiated schemes like Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana, Rainfed Farming Systems, National
Horticulture mission etc along with National Mission on Oilseeds and Oil palms and Technology
Mission on Oilseed, Pulses and Maize has led to improvement in agricultural produce in India.
Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) - The Indian Council of Agricultural Research
(ICAR) is an autonomous organisation under the Department of Agricultural Research and
Education (DARE), Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India. It was formerly known as
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Imperial Council of Agricultural Research and it was established on 16 July 1929. The Council is
the apex body for co-ordinating, guiding and managing research and education in agriculture
including horticulture, fisheries and animal sciences in the entire country. The ICAR has played a
pioneering role in ushering Green Revolution and subsequent developments in agriculture in
India through its research and technology development that has enabled the country to
increase the production of foodgrains by 4 times, horticultural crops by 6 times, fish by 9
times (marine 5 times and inland 17 times),milk 6 times and eggs 27 times since 1950-51, thus
making a visible impact on the national food and nutritional security.
The mandates for the ICAR are to –
 To plan, undertake, aid, promote and co-ordinate education, research and its
application in agriculture, agro forestry, animal husbandry, fisheries, home science and
allied sciences.
 To act as a clearing house of research and general information relating to agriculture,
animal husbandry, home science and allied sciences, and fisheries through its
publications and information system; and instituting and promoting transfer of
technology programmes.
 To provide, undertake and promote consultancy services in the fields of education,
research, training and dissemination of information in agriculture, agro forestry, animal
husbandry, fisheries, home science and allied sciences.
 To look into the problems relating to broader areas of rural development concerning
agriculture, including postharvest technology by developing co-operative programmes
with other organizations such as the Indian Council of Social Science Research, Council
of Scientific and Industrial Research, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre and the
universities
 To do other things considered necessary to attain the objectives of the Society.
Government Steps to Enhance Agricultural Inputs

Government has taken many steps to improve the yield of agriculture in the country. Various
steps have been taken to promote efficient use of seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, micronutrients
and irrigation. Each of these plays a role in determining yield level and in turn augmentation in
level of production.
Seeds
Seeds are a critical input for agricultural crops. In India, farmers typically rely on farm-saved
seeds, overuse of which leads to a low seed replacement rate and poor yield. An Indian Seed
Programme for encouraging the development of new varieties and protecting the rights of
farmers and plant breeders has been put in place with the participation of central and state
governments, the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), state agricultural universities,
seed cooperatives, and private sectors. A central-sector Scheme for development and
strengthening of infrastructure facilities for production and distribution of quality seeds, with
the aim of making quality seeds of various crops available to farmers at affordable price, is
under implementation since 2005-06. A Sub-Mission on Seed and Planting Material under the
National Mission for Agricultural Extension and Technology has been approved for the Twelfth
Five Year Plan.
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Mechanization and Technology
Tractors are the main power source for various farm operations. With adoption of appropriate
mechanization of farm operations, we can increase production and farm productivity by 10-15
per cent. Steps are taken for setting up of custom-hiring centres/high-tech machinery banks so
that small and marginal farmers can reap the benefits of farm mechanization. The government
has initiated a Sub-Mission on Agriculture Mechanization in the Twelfth Five year Plan, with a
focus on custom hiring.
Integrated Nutrient Management
Over 80% of India’s Urea requirements are met from domestic production but we are largely
dependent on foreign imports for meeting requirements of potassic (K) and phosphatic (P)
fertilizers. Over-use of nitrogenous and limited use of P and K fertilizers are matters of great
concern and need appropriate price incentives by reducing fertilizer subsidies so that
sustainable practices are encouraged.
The government has notified the New Investment Policy 2012 (NIP-2012) in the urea sector
which will encourage investments leading to increase in indigenous capacities, reduction in
import dependence and savings in subsidy due to import substitution at prices below import
parity price. Under the Nutrient Based Subsidy (NBS) scheme for phosphatic and potassic (P&K)
fertilizers implemented in 2010, a fixed amount of subsidy, decided on annual basis, is provided
to each grade of P&K fertilizer, depending upon its nutrient content. An additional subsidy is
also provided to secondary and micro-nutrients. Under this scheme, manufacturers/marketers
are allowed to fix the maximum retail price (MRP).
Irrigation
Although India has made considerable progress in developing irrigation infrastructure, irrigation
efficiency is low for both surface and ground waters. In order to help the rainfed farmers
improve productivity and profitability, in situ soil and water conservation practices are
developed for different agro-climatic regions with special emphasis on effective rainwater
management. The central government initiated the Accelerated Irrigation Benefit Programme
(AIBP) in 1996-7 for extending assistance for the completion of incomplete irrigation schemes.
Besides, the Command Area Development Programme has also been amalgamated with the
AIBP to reduce the gap between irrigation potential that has created and that is utilized.
Major Schemes / Programmes for the Agricultural Sector

The central government has undertaken many schemes for enhancing productivity and
exploring untapped potential of the agricultural sector. The central government supplements
the efforts of state governments through centrally sponsored and central-sector schemes.
National Mission on Agricultural Extension and Technology (NMAET)
Agricultural productivity has a positive correlation with level of farm mechanization. For
accelerated growth in farm mechanization in the current decade, there is a need to include the
large community of small and marginal farmers into the fold of cost effective and remunerative
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mechanized farming, to help sustain desired agricultural growth and to enhance agricultural
productivity.
Agricultural Technology, including the adoption/ promotion of critical inputs, and improved
agronomic practices were being disseminated under 17 different schemes of the Department of
Agriculture & Cooperation during the 11th Plan. The Modified Extension Reforms Scheme was
introduced in 2010 with the objective of strengthening extension machinery and utilizing it for
synergizing interventions under these schemes under the umbrella of the Agriculture
Technology Management Agency (ATMA).
The NMAET has been envisaged as the next step towards this objective through the
amalgamation of these schemes.
NMAET consists of 4 Sub Missions:
(i) Sub Mission on Agricultural Extension (SMAE)

(ii) Sub-Mission on Seed and Planting Material (SMSP)
(iii) Sub Mission on Agricultural Mechanization (SMAM)
(iv) Sub Mission on Plant Protection and Plant Quarantine (SMPP)
The common threads running across all 4 Sub-Missions in NMAET are Extension and
Technology. Therefore, while 4 separate Sub-Missions are being proposed for administrative
convenience, these are inextricably linked to each other at the field level and most components
thereof have to be disseminated among farmers and other stakeholders through a strong
extension network.
The aim of the Mission is to restructure and strengthen agricultural extension to enable delivery
of appropriate technology and improved agronomic practices to farmers. This is envisaged to be
achieved by a judicious mix of extensive physical outreach and interactive methods of
information dissemination, use of ICT, popularisation of modern and appropriate technologies,
capacity building and institution strengthening to promote mechanisation, availability of quality
seeds, plant protection etc. and encourage aggregation of Farmers into Interest Groups (FIGs) to
form Farmer Producer Organisations (FPOs).
National Food Security Mission
With an aim to enhance the production of rice, wheat, and pulses by 10, 8, and 2 million tonnes
respectively, government had launched NFSM-Rice, NFSM-Wheat and NFSM-Pulses in 2007-08.
During 2012-13, a Special Plan to achieve 19+ million tonnes of pulses production during Kharif
2012 was launched by the government. The programme also aimed at area expansion and
productivity enhancement; restoring soil fertility and productivity; creating employment
opportunities; and enhancing farm-level economy to restore the confidence of farmers of
targeted districts.
Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana
The Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (RKVY) was launched in 2007-8 for incentivizing states to
enhance public investment. It permits taking up national priorities as sub-schemes, allowing the
states flexibility in project selection and implementation for increased public investment in
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agriculture by incorporating information on local requirements, geographical/climatic

conditions, available natural resources/ technology and cropping patterns. It aims to
significantly increase the productivity of agriculture and its allied sectors and eventually
maximize the returns of farmers in agriculture and its allied sectors.
National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture
Climate change poses a major challenge to agricultural production and productivity.
National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA), under the aegis of the National Action
Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC), seeks to transform Indian agriculture into a climate resilient
production system through suitable adaptation and mitigation measures in domains of both
crops and animal husbandry. NMSA as a programmatic intervention focuses on promotion of
location specific integrated/composite farming systems; resource conservation technologies;
comprehensive soil health management; efficient on-farm water management and
mainstreaming rainfed technologies.
NMSA identifies 10 key dimensions namely seed & culture water, pest, nutrient, farming
practices, credit, insurance, market, information and livelihood diversification for promoting
suitable agricultural practices that covers both adaption and mitigation measures through four
functional areas, namely, Research and Development, Technologies, Products and Practices,
Infrastructure and Capacity building. During XII Five Year Plan, these dimensions have been
embedded and mainstreamed into Missions/Programmes/Schemes of Ministry of Agriculture
including NMSA through a process of restructuring of various schemes/missions implemented
during XI Five Year Plan and convergence with other related programmes of Central/State
Governments.
Bringing Green Revolution to Eastern India(BGREI)
Bringing Green Revolution to Eastern India, initiated in 2010-11, intends to address the
constraints limiting the productivity of 'rice based cropping systems'7 in eastern India
comprising seven states, viz. Assam, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Odisha, Eastern Uttar
Pradesh, and West Bengal. The BGREI is a subscheme of the Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojna
(RKVYJ). The following strategies are being adopted, in general, for maximising productivity and
production of crops in the eastern region –
i. In situ water harvesting/conservation through adoption of cultural practices like bed

furrow in deep black cotton uplands and flat sowing & ridging later in red soils.
ii. Reclamation of soil salinity through application of gypsum particularly in oilseed crops
along with micro-nutrients like zinc, iron & sulphur in deficient soils.
iii. Reclamation of acidic soils through liming/paper mills sludge/application of organic
manures/green manures to improve physical condition of the soil
iv. Promotion of Integrated Nutrient Management to ensure balanced use of
fertilizers/organic manures/bio-fertilizers.
7
Current focus is on rice and wheat only.
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v. Adoption of soil & water conservation practices namely; summer ploughing, broad bed
furrow, compartmental bunding, pre-monsoon sowing and rain water harvesting (Farm
ponds) to check soil erosion and recycling runoff.
vi. Enhancement of irrigation Water Use Efficiency through adoption of micro-irrigation
system (Sprinkler & Drip).
vii. Promotion of high value crops namely; sweet sorghum, maize, pulses and oilseeds in
addition to hybrid rice in the region.
Outcome: Eastern region hitherto known as food deficit region, has with the help of the
programme, turned food surplus region. The rice production from the region is estimated at
562.6 lakh tons an increase of 19.8% over last year against an all India increase of 7%. And the
foodgrain production from the region is estimated at 1032 tons an increase of 11.9% against an
all India increase of 2.2%.
The increased productivity/ production was optimized due to resource allocation and
utilization. The significant increase in production of food grains in the region not only offset the
decline in production in central and peninsular India but also contributed significantly to the
highest ever production of food grains. The growth in food grains i.e. rice and wheat provides
an opportunity to procure and create food grain reserves locally reducing the pressure on
Punjab and Haryana, and cutting costs on transport and other logistics.
The focus will now be to consolidate the gains with continued emphasis during the 12th Plan.
Further steps will be taken to improve the infrastructure for procurement and storage of the
produce and to ensure a reasonable price for the farmers.
Evergreen Revolution
The architect of the country’s green revolution, M.S. Swaminathan, gave a clarion call for
taking up an ‘evergreen revolution’ that “increases productivity in perpetuity without causing
any ecological harm and without using chemical inputs”.
“I am against a second green revolution, but I am very much for an evergreen revolution,” he
said. Pointing out that a majority of food production comes from farmers with small holdings,
he said it was essential to increase their income through higher productivity. But it should be
done without harming ecological interests, he noted.
Swaminathan is an advocate of moving India to sustainable development, especially using

environmentally sustainable agriculture, sustainable food security and the preservation of
biodiversity, which he calls an "evergreen revolution."
Integrated Scheme Of Oilseeds, Pulses, Oilpalm & Maize (ISOPOM)
National Mission on Oilseeds and Oil Palm (NMOOP) envisages increase in production of
vegetable oils sourced from oilseeds, oil palm and TBOs from 7.06 million tonnes (average
of 2007-08 to 2011-12) to 9.51 million tonnes by the end of Twelfth Plan (2016-17). The
Mission is proposed to be implemented through three Mini Missions with specific target as
detailed below:
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MM I on Oilseeds Achieve production of 35.51 million tones and productivity of

1328 kg/ha of oilseeds from the present average
production & productivity of 28.93 million tonnes and
1081 kg/ha during the 11th Plan period respectively.
MM II on Oil Palm Bring additional 1.25 lakh hectare area under oil palm
cultivation through area expansion approach in the States
including utilization of wastelands with increase in productivity
of fresh fruit brunches (FFBs) from 4927 kg per ha to 15000
kg per ha.
MM III on TBOs Enhance seed collection of TBOs from 9 lakh tonnes to 14lakh
tonnes and to augment elite planting materials for area
expansion under waste land.
The strategy to implement the proposed Mission includes
 increasing Seed Replacement Ratio (SRR) with focus on Varietal Replacement;

 increasing irrigation coverage under oilseeds from 26% to 36%;
 diversification of area from low yielding cereals crops to oilseeds crops; inter-cropping
of oilseeds with cereals/ pulses/ sugarcane;
 use of fallow land after paddy /potato cultivation;
 expansion of cultivation of Oil Palm and tree borne oilseeds in watersheds and
wastelands;
 increasing availability of quality planting material enhancing procurement of oilseeds
and collection; and
 processing of tree borne oilseeds.
Inter-cropping during gestation period of oil palm and tree borne oilseeds would provide
economic return to the farmers when there is no production.
The scheme would be implemented in mission mode through active involvement of all the
stakeholders. The Centre and States will bear costs in the ratio of 75:25. Fund flow would be
strictly monitored to ensure that benefit of the Mission reaches the targeted beneficiaries in
time to achieve the results.
NEED FOR MISSION APPROACH
India is among major oilseed growers and edible oil importers. India’s vegetable oil economy is
world’s fourth largest after USA, China and Brazil. The oilseed accounts for 13% of the gross
cropped area, 3% of the Gross National Product and 10% value of all agricultural commodities.
The diverse agro-ecological conditions in the country are favourable for growing 9 annual
oilseed crops, which include 7 edible oilseeds (groundnut, rapeseed & mustard, soybean,
sunflower, sesame, safflower and niger) and two non-edible oilseeds (castor and linseed).
Oilseeds cultivation is undertaken across the country in about 27 million hectares mainly on
marginal lands, of which 72% in confined to rainfed farming.
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During the last few years, the domestic consumption of edible oils has increased substantially
and has touched the level of 18.90 million tonnes in 2011-12 and is likely to increase further.
With per capita consumption of vegetable oils at the rate of 16 kg/year/person for a projected
population of 1276 million, the total vegetable oils demand is likely to touch 20.4 million tonnes
by 2017.
A substantial portion of our requirement of edible oil is met through import of palm oil from
Indonesia and Malaysia. It is, therefore, necessary to exploit domestic resources to maximize
production to ensure edible oil security for the country.
Oil palm is a comparatively new crop in India and is the highest vegetable oil yielding perennial
crop. With quality planting materials, irrigation and proper management, there is potential of
achieving 20-30 MT Fresh Fruit Bunches per ha after attaining age of 5 years. Therefore, there
is an urgent need to intensify efforts for area expansion under oil palm to enhance palm oil
production in the country. Tree-borne oilseeds (TBOs), like sal, mahua, simarouba, kokum, olive,
karanja, jatropha, neem, jojoba, cheura, wild apricot, walnut, tung etc. are cultivated or grow
wild in the country under different agro-climatic conditions. These TBOs are also good source of
vegetable oil and therefore need to be supported for cultivation.
Background:
In order to provide flexibility to the States in implementation based on regionally differentiated

approach, to promote crop diversification and to provide focused approach to the programmes,
the four erstwhile schemes of OPP, OPDP, NPDP and AMDP were merged into one Centrally
Sponsored Integrated Scheme of Oilseeds, Pulses, Oil palm and Maize (ISOPOM) in 2004.
Now ISOPOM is replaced with National Mission on Oilseeds and Oil Palm (NMOOP) to be
implemented during the 12th Plan Period as NFSM absorbed pulses and maize component from
the ISOPOM scheme.
Problems of Indian Agriculture

The nature of problems faced by Indian agriculture varies according to agro-ecological and
historical experiences of its different regions. Many of the problems are common to the nation
and range from physical constraints to institutional hindrances.
1. Dependence on erratic Monsoon is one of the major problems in India. Irrigation

covers only about 33 per cent of the cultivated area in India. Hence, the crop
production in rest of the cultivated land directly depends on rainfall. Since, rainfall is
very fluctuating; the areas are vulnerable to both droughts and floods. Drought is a
common phenomenon in the low rainfall areas which may also experience occasional
floods.
2. Low Productivity is another major concern. Per hectare output of most of the crops
such as rice, wheat, cotton and oilseeds in India is much lower than that of other
countries in the world. Because of the very high pressure on the land resources, the
labour productivity in Indian agriculture is also very low in comparison to international
level.
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3. The farmers use outdated techniques. Most of the agricultural operations are carried
out manually using simple and conventional tools. This hampers the production
potential of the farmers.
4. Constraints on financial resources and indebtedness also make agriculture
unmanageable for small and marginal farmers with very meagre or no savings. Crop
failures and low returns from agriculture have forced them to fall in the trap of
indebtedness.
5. Lack of land reforms has led to exploitation of Indian farmers for long time. There are
no proper land records which make them susceptible to exploitation.
6. Besides, small size farms and fragmentation of land holdings also reduces the
productivity and production of the farms. More than 60 per cent of the ownership
holdings have a size smaller than one hectare (ha). Furthermore, about 40 per cent of
the farmers have operational holding size smaller than 0.5 hectare (ha). The small size
fragmented landholdings are uneconomic. A large number of farmers produce crops for
self-consumption. These farmers do not have enough land resources to produce more
than their requirement. Most of the small and marginal farmers grow food grains,
which are meant for their own family consumption.
7. There is a massive problem of under-employment in the agricultural sector in India,
particularly in the un-irrigated tracts. In these areas, there is a seasonal unemployment
ranging from 4 to 8 months.
8. Another serious problem that arises out of faulty strategy of irrigation and agricultural
development is degradation of land resources. Large tracts of fertile lands suffer from
soil erosion due to wind, deforestation, overgrazing and occasional heavy rainfall. Soil's
fertility should be conserved at any cost. This is serious because it may lead to
depletion of soil fertility. The situation is particularly alarming in irrigated areas. A large
tract of agricultural land has lost its fertility due to alkalisation and salinisation of soils
and water logging.
9. Besides, the marketing of agricultural products, especially in rural India, is neither
adequate nor standardised. Thus, many farmers have to sell their products at low prices
through local traders and middle-men.
UPSC Questions Covered

1. “Small-holder farms need to be strengthened to achieve national food security.” Do you
agree with this assessment? Substantiate. (UPSC 2010/12 Marks)
2. Assess the contributions made by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) in
agricultural development. (UPSC 2010/12 Marks)
3. Write about Organic Farming in 20 words. (UPSC 2008/2 Marks)
4. Agricultural Productivity in India remains low. Explain the reasons for this situation.
5. Write note on Negative impacts of shifting cultivation. (UPSC 2005/2 Marks)
6. Write short notes on Jhum cultivation – process and consequences. (UPSC 2002/2
Marks)
7. Give an account of the tea plantations of Assam and West Bengal and state the
economic significance of these plantations. (UPSC 2002/10 Marks)
8. What is dry farming? Discuss the relevance in augmenting the food supply in India.
9. What is shifting cultivation? Describe its salient characteristics with reference to India?
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10. What is dryland agriculture? Discuss its importance to India? (UPSC 1994/15 Marks)
11. Briefly explain the use of various chemical fertilizers in India agriculture. (UPSC 1992/15
Marks)
12. Mention the states where shifting cultivation is still practiced in India. (UPSC 1990/3
Marks)
13. What are the important wheat growing regions in India and why? Are we now growing
enough wheat in India to meet our own demand for it? (UPSC 1985/20 Marks)
14. Government of India has given high priority to Oilseeds Development Programme.
What strategy has been adopted to accelerate the efforts for increasing their
production? Name important oilseeds cultivated in India with their distribution. (UPSC
1984/15 Marks)
15. Name the cotton growing areas of India. Describe the various factors which favour its
cultivation in these areas. What part does cotton play in the present day economy of
India? (UPCS 1983/15 Marks)
16. Discuss the geographical conditions favouring the cultivation of wheat or rice in India
and describe the steps taken for improving its productivity. (UPCS 1982/30 Marks)
17. What is shifting cultivation? Where in India has this been resorted do? Consider its
consequences and examine the steps taken by Government to prevent this practice.
(UPCS 1981/20 Marks)
18. Which are the States in India that produce: (i) groundnut, (ii) tea, (iii) tobacco, and (iv)
pepper? (UPCS 1980/20 Marks)
19. Can be agricultural development, we have achieved so far, be considered adequate? If
so, why? If not, why not?

09650617807, 09968029039, 09717162595
VISIONIAS
www.visionias.in
GEOGRAPHY: 19
Distribution of Key Natural Resources Across

the World (Including South Asia and the Indian
Sub-Continent
Contents
1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................ 2
1.1 Uneven Distribution of Resources .............................................................................................................. 2
2 Classification of Resources ................................................................................................................................. 2
3 Energy Resources ............................................................................................................................................... 2
3.1 Coal ............................................................................................................................................................. 3
3.1.1 Coal in India ........................................................................................................................................ 4
3.2 Petroleum ................................................................................................................................................... 6
3.3 Natural Gas ................................................................................................................................................. 8
3.3.1 Shalegas .............................................................................................................................................. 9
3.3.2 Coalbed Methane (CBM) .................................................................................................................. 10
3.4 India – Petroleum – Petroleum and Natural Gas ..................................................................................... 11
3.5 Nuclear ..................................................................................................................................................... 15
3.5.1 India .................................................................................................................................................. 17

1 Introduction
Natural resources which satisfy the material and spiritual needs of humans are the free gifts of the nature. In
other words, any material or energy derived from the nature that is used by humans called a natural resource.
These resources include land, water, minerals, vegetation, wildlife etc. In fact every material has some utility for
human beings but its utilisation is possible on the availability of appropriate technology.
Distribution of natural resource refers to the geographic occurrence or spatial arrangement of resources on
earth. In other words, where resources are located. Any one place may be rich in the resources people desire
and poor in others.
1.1 Uneven Distribution of Resources

Low latitudes (latitudes close to the equator) receive more of the sun's energy and much precipitation, while
higher latitudes (latitudes closer to the poles) receive less of the sun's energy and too little precipitation. The
temperate deciduous forest biome provides a more moderate climate, along with fertile soil, timber, and
abundant wildlife. The plains offers flat landscapes and fertile soil for growing crops, while steep mountains and
dry deserts are more challenging. Metallic minerals are most abundant in areas with strong tectonic activity,
while fossil fuels are found in rocks formed by deposition (sedimentary rocks).
However, uneven distribution of natural resources have their own consequences on human settlement,
economic activities, trade and even on conflict and war. Human settlement has been found near the natural
resources in pre-historic time. Natural resources form the backbone of the economy of a nation. Without land,
water, forest, mineral one cannot develop agriculture and industry. By utilising natural resources, humans
created their own world of houses, buildings, means of transport and communication, industries etc.
2 Classification of Resources
Resources can be classified in several ways: one the bases of (i) renewability, (ii) origin and (iii) utility. The
objective of classification would primarily decide how we put a resource under a particular category.
Figure 1: Classification of Resources
3 Energy Resources
Energy is an essential input for economic development and improving the quality of life. It is required for
generation of power, required by agriculture, industry, transport and other sectors of the economy. Energy may
be classified into two categories, namely:

 Conventional – Coal, Petroleum, Natural gas and electricity

 Non-conventional – solar, wind, tidal, geothermal, and biogas energy
Other classification can be made between –
 Non-renewable resources – which when exhausted are exhausted forever such as coal etc.
 Renewable resources – which are inexhaustible such as wind energy, solar energy etc.
3.1 Coal
Coal is a one of the important minerals which is mainly used in the generation of thermal power and smelting of
iron ore. It is the one of the most mined mineral from the earth. According to one estimate, proven coal reserves
are 860, 938 million tonnes.
Of the three fossil fuels (Petroleum, natural gas and coal), coal has the most widely distributed reserves; coal is
mined in over 100 countries, and on all continents except Antarctica. The largest proved reserves are found in
the United States, Russia, China, Australia and India (figure 2). A proved recoverable reserve is the tonnage of
coal that has been proved by drilling etc. and is economically and technically extractable. Coal is found majorly in
forms of Lignite [1] and Anthracite. Distribution of coal across the world is shown in figure 3.
Figure 2: Global share of recoverable coal reserves
Figure 3: coal deposits of the world

In terms of production, China is the top coal producer since 1983. In 2011 China produced 3,520 millions of
tonnes (mt) of coal – 49.5% of 7,695 million tonnes world coal production. In 2011 other large producers
were United States (993 mt), India (589 mt), European Union (576 mt) and Australia (416 mt). Top coal
exporting countries are Australia with 27% and Indonesia with 26% of total world coal export in 2010. Japan is
the largest coal importer with 17% of total world coal import seconded by China having share of 16% in 2010.
Major coalfields of the world are listed in the table 1.
North  Pennsylvania anthracite field

America  Appalachian bituminous field
 Eastern Illinois field – Illinois, Indiana and Kentucky
 Western interior field – Iowa, Missouri, Oklahoma
 Gulf province – Texas, Alabama and Arkansas
 Rocky mountain province – Utah, Colorado, Wyoming, Montana, new Mexico
 Canada – Prairies, British Columbia coalfields, Nova Scotia Coal fields
Europe  Donetz coal basin (anthracite and high grade bituminous coal)
 Moscow-Tula coalfields
 Kuznetsk coal basin
 Karaganda field
 Silesia coal fields
 Ruhr area of Germany
 Other coal fields in Urals, Taimyr fields of the Arctic, deposits of the Caucasus
mountains
Asia  China – Shanxi, Fushun, Inner Mongolia, Kansu
 Japan – Chikugo coalfield, Ishikari coalfield
 India – Damodar valley, Raniganj, Bokaro, Jharia, Singareni.
 Pakistan - Quetta, Kalabagh and Thar coalfields
 Australia – Bowen Basin coalfield, Galilee Basin coalfield, South Maitland coalfield,
Sydney Basin coalfield, and Latrobe valley coalfield
Africa  Transvaal and Natal – Middleburg, Vereeniging and Witbank
 Zimbabwe – Wankie
 Zaire – Luena
 Mozambique – Maniamba
 Zambia – Nkandabwe and Mamba
 Nigeria – Enugu
South  Brazil – Santa Catarine and Rio grande de sul
America  Chile – Concepcion
 Columbia – Cauca valley coalfield
 Mexico – Piedras Negras, Sabinas and Lampazos
Table 1 – Distribution of coal across continents
3.1.1 Coal in India

Coal is the most important and abundant fossil fuel in India. It accounts for 55% of the country's energy need.
Hard coal deposit spread over 27 major coalfields, are mainly confined to eastern and south central parts of the
country. A cumulative total of 2,93,497 million tonnes of geological resources of Coal upto depth of 1200
meters have so far been estimated in the country as on 1.4.2012.
The lignite reserves stand at a level of 41.96 billion tones as on 1.4.2012, of which 90% occur in the southern
State of Tamil Nadu. Other states where lignite deposits have been located are Rajasthan, Gujarat, Kerala,
Jammu & Kashmir, and union territory of Puducherry
The coal resources of India are available in older Gondwana (570 million years to 245 million years ago)
formations of peninsular India and younger tertiary (60 to 15 million years ago) formations of north-eastern
region. Formation-wise coal resources of India as on 1.4.2012 are given in table 2 below:
Formation Proved (million tonnes) Total (million tonnes)

Gondwana coals 117551.01 292004.51
Tertiary coals 593.81 1492.64
Total 118114.82 293497
Table 2: Estimations for different types of coal based on formation
The Gondwana coal belongs to the carboniferous period. It is found in the Damodar, Mahanadi, Godavari, and
Narmada valleys. Raniganj, Jharia, Bokaro, Ramgarh, Giridih, Chandrapur, Karanpura, Tatapani, Talcher, Himgiri,
Korba, Penchgati, Sarguja, Kamthi, Wardha valley, Singreni (A.P.) and Singrauli are some of the important coal
mines of the Gondwana formations. The Jharguda coal mine (Chhattisgarh) is the thickest coal seam 132
meters of the Gondwana period, followed by the Kargali seam near Bokaro belong to the Gondwana period. The
detail of state-wise geological resources of Gondwana coal is given below in table 3.
State Proved (million tonnes) Total (million tonnes)

Andhra Pradesh 9566.61 22154.86
Chhattisgarh 13987.85 50846.15
Jharkhand 40163.22 80356.2
Madhya Pradesh 9308.70 24376.26
Maharashtra 5667.48 10882.09
Odisha 25547.66 71447.41
Uttar Pradesh 884.04 1061.80
West Bengal 12425.44 30615.72
Total 117551.01 292004.51
Table 3: Gondwana coalfields
Figure 4: Major coalfields of India

Tertiary coal is found in the rocks of the Tertiary era. It is about 15 to 60 million years old. The Tertiary coal is
also known as the ‘brown coal’. The Tertiary coal contributes only about two per cent of the total coal
production of the country. It is an inferior type of coal in which the carbon varies between 30 per cent in Gujarat
and Rajasthan to 50 per cent in Assam. Lignite coal is found in Arunachal Pradesh and West Bengal (Darjeeling
District). The largest lignite deposits of the country are at Neyveli in the state of Tamil Nadu. The detail of state-
wise geological resources of tertiary coal is given below in table 4.
State Proved (million tonnes) Total (million tonnes)

Arunachal Pradesh 31.23 90.23
Assam 464.78 510.52
Meghalaya 89.04 576.48
Nagaland 8.76 315.41
Total 593.81 1492.64
Table 4: Tertiary coalfields
3.2 Petroleum
Petroleum is also called ‘black gold’ or ‘liquid gold’. It is second to coal in terms of sources of energy. It is an
essential source of energy for all internal combustion engines in automobiles, railways and aircraft. Crude
petroleum occurs in sedimentary rocks of the tertiary period. It is formed when large quantities of dead
organisms, usually zooplankton and algae, are buried underneath sedimentary rock and subjected to intense
heat and pressure.
Petroleum (and natural gas) are born and accumulate in the sedimentary mantle of the Earth. Small amounts
of these hydrocarbons are present throughout the mantle, but large accumulations are encountered less
frequently. About 600 sedimentary basins, characterized by oil and gas occurrence, are found on the Earth.
Unlike coal, Petroleum is not distributed evenly around the world. More than half of the world’s proven oil
reserves are located in the Middle East (figure 5). Following the Middle East are Canada and the United States,
Latin America, Africa, and the region occupied by the former Soviet Union. Each of those regions contains less
than 15 percent of the world’s proven reserves [2].
Figure 5: Worldwide Oil Distribution

Since exploration for oil began during the early 1860s, some 50,000 oil fields have been discovered. More than
90 percent of these fields are insignificant in their impact on world oil production. The two largest classes of
fields are the super-giants, fields with 5 billion or more barrels of ultimately recoverable oil, and world-class
giants, fields with 500 million to 5 billion barrels of ultimately recoverable oil. Fewer than 40 supergiant oil fields
have been found worldwide. The Arabian-Iranian sedimentary basin in the Persian Gulf region contains two-
thirds of these supergiant fields. The remaining super-giants are distributed as follows: two in the United States,
two in Russia, two in Mexico, one in Libya, one in Algeria, one in Venezuela, and two in China.
The nearly 280 world-class giant fields thus far discovered, plus the super-giants, account for about 80 percent of
the world’s known recoverable oil. There are, in addition, approximately 1,000 known large oil fields that initially
contained between 50 million and 500 million barrels. These fields account for some 14 to 16 percent of the
world’s known oil. Major oil fields are listed below:
 Ghawar field – Saudi Arabia

 Burgan field – Kuwait
 Azeri-Chirag-Guneshli – Caspian Sea, Azerbaijan
 Ku-Maloob-Zaap – Mexico
 Zakum - UAE
 Ferdows field – Iran
 Sugar Loaf field – Brazil
 Bolivar Coastal field – Venezuela
World’s five largest offshore oilfields:
 Safaniya oilfield – Persian Gulf, Saudi Arabia

 Upper Zakum oilfield – Persian Gulf, UAE
 Manifa oilfield – Persian Gulf, Saudi Arabia
 Kashgan oilfield – Caspian Sea, Kazakhstan
 Lula Oilfield - Brazil
According to current estimates, more than 81% of the world's proven oil reserves are located in OPEC Member
Countries, with the bulk of OPEC oil reserves in the Middle East (figure 6). OPEC Member Countries have made
significant additions to their oil reserves in recent years. As a result, OPEC's proven oil reserves currently stand at
1,200.83 billion barrels.

Figure 6: Share of Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) in world crude oil reserves 2012
Classification of crude oil
Crude oil may be referred to as sweet if it contains relatively little sulfur (0.5%) or sour if it contains substantial
amounts of sulfur. Sweet crude requires less energy to be extracted and once extracted, yields higher quality
gasoline as well as larger quantities of it. Iraq is one of the leading producers of sweet crude. Major locations
where sweet crude is found include the Appalachian Basin in Eastern North America, Western Texas, the Bakken
Formation of North Dakota and Saskatchewan, the North Sea of Europe, North Africa, Australia, and the Far East
including Indonesia.
Sour crude, on the other hand, has a high level of impurities in it, namely sulfur, which must first be removed
before being processed into gas and other petroleum based products. Venezuela is a leading producer of sour
crude oil. Sour crude is more common in the Gulf of Mexico, Mexico, South America, and Canada. Crude
produced by OPEC Member Nations also tends to be relatively sour, with an average sulfur content of 1.77%.
According to IEA top 10 oil producer countries produced over 64 % of the world oil production in 2012. In 2012
total oil production was 4,142 Mt. The top oil producers in 2012 were:
 Russia - 544 Mt (13 %)

 Saudi Arabia - 520 Mt (13 %)
 United States - 387 Mt (9 %)
 China - 206 Mt (5%)
 Iran - 186 Mt (4 %)
 Canada - 182 Mt (4 %)
 United Arab Emirates (UAE) - 163 Mt (4 %)
 Venezuela - 162 Mt (4 %)
 Kuwait - 152 Mt (4 %)
 Iraq - 148 Mt (4 %).
3.3 Natural Gas

Natural gas is a fossil fuel formed when layers of buried plants, gases, and animals are exposed to intense heat
and pressure over thousands of years. The energy that the plants originally obtained from the sun is stored in
the form of chemical bonds in natural gas. Natural gas, a nonrenewable energy resource, is found in deep
underground rock formations or associated with other hydrocarbon reservoirs in coal beds and as methane
clathrates. Petroleum is another resource and fossil fuel found in close proximity to, and with natural gas.
Like Petroleum, natural gas is not distributed evenly around the world. More than three-fourth of the world’s
proved natural gas reserves are located in top ten countries (figure 7). Following the Russia are Iran and Qatar,
Turkmenistan, USA. Small gas fields are located in various parts of the world. [2]. Unconventional sources of
natural gas are:
 Shale gas
 Coalbed methane (CBM)
 methane hydrates

Figure 7: Countries with largest proved natural gas reserves
Some of the largest gas fields are listed below:
 South Pars/North Dome – Persian Gulf, Iran and Qatar

 Urengoy – Siberian Basin, Russia
 Yamburg – Arctic circle, Russia
 Hassi R’Mel – Algeria
 Shtokman – Barents Sea, Russia
 South lolotan-Osman – Turkmenistan
 Zapolyarnoye – Russia
 Hugoton – USA
 Groningen – Netherlands
 Bovanenko – Russia
As measured by the International Energy Agency, the top 10 natural gas producers in 2011 were (66.7% of
total):
 Russia (20.0%)
 United States (19.2%)
 Canada (4.7%)
 Qatar (4.5%)
 Iran (4.4%)
 Norway (3.1%)
 China (3.0%)
 Saudi Arabia (2.7%)
 Indonesia (2.7%)
 Netherlands (2.4%)
3.3.1 Shalegas
Shale gas is a natural gas produced from shale, a type of sedimentary rock. Due to constant announcements
of shale gas recoverable reserves, as well as drilling in Central Asia, South America and Africa, deepwater drilling,
estimates are undergoing frequent updates, mostly increasing. Since 2000, some countries, notably the US and
Canada, have seen large increases in proved gas reserves due to development of shale gas, but shale gas
deposits in most countries are yet to be added to reserve calculations. Some analysts expect that shale gas will
greatly expand worldwide energy supply. Figure 8 shows the major shale gas fields of the word. China is
estimated to have the world's largest shale gas reserves followed by USA, Argentina, Mexico, South Africa,
Australia, and Canada (table 5).
Figure 8: World Shale Gas
The United States and Canada are the major producers of commercially viable natural gas from shale formations
in the world, even though about a dozen other countries have conducted exploratory test wells. China is the only
nation outside of North America that has registered commercially viable production of shale gas, although the
volumes contribute less than 1% of the total natural gas production in that country. In comparison, shale gas as a
share of total natural gas production in 2012 was 39% in the United States and 15% in Canada.
Country Estimated recoverable Proven gas

reserves (trillion cubic reserves(trillion
feet) cubic feet)
China 1, 275 107
USA 862 272.5
Argentina 774 13.4
Mexico 681 12
South Africa 485 -
Australia 396 110
Canada 388 62
Libya 290 54.7
Algeria 231 159
Brazil 226 12.9
Table 5: List of top 10 countries by recoverable shale gas
3.3.2 Coalbed Methane (CBM)

CBM is generated by the conversion of plant material to coal through burial and heating. As “coalification”
progresses, increasingly dense coal is formed. Coal serves as both the source rock and the reservoir rock. Coal is
extremely porous but has low permeability (connected openings). Much of the methane generated by the
coalification process escapes to the surface or migrates into adjacent reservoir or other rocks, but a significant
volume remains trapped within the coal itself.

Figure 9: Major coalbed Methane reserves
CBM can be found almost anywhere there is coal. Figure 9 shows CBM resources by top countries. Deep coal
seams beyond the reach of mining operations present opportunities for development of CBM. The largest
proven recoverable coal reserves, according to the latest published data, are in the USA (28.6%), followed by
Russia (18.5%), China (13.5%), Australia (9.0%) and India (6.7%). Indonesia has highly prospective CBM
potential, with an estimated 453 Tcf of in-place resources located mainly in Sumatra and Kalimantan provinces.
Depending on the source, Russia’s resource estimates range from 600 to 2,825 Tcf.
Global CBM production totals 5.8 Bcfd (billion cubif feet per day) from 15 basins in the USA, Canada, Australia,
China, and India. The USA still dominates with nearly 5 Bcfd of production and about 20 Tcf produced to date,
but production there is expected to fall going forward because of resource maturity and depletion. Australia may
well displace the USA as the top-ranked producer, making a projected 6 Bcfd by 2020 once its LNG export plants
are fully operational. CBM production in China (150 MMcfd) and India (10 MMcfd) is struggling due to more
challenging geologic conditions and low well productivity.
3.4 India – Petroleum – Petroleum and Natural Gas

Oil exploration and production was systematically taken up after the Oil and Natural Gas Commission was set up
in 1956. Till then, the Digboi in Assam was the only oil producing region but the scenario has changed after
1956. Mumbai High which lies 160 km off Mumbai was discovered in 1973 and production commenced in 1976.
In recent years, new oil deposits have been found at the extreme western and eastern parts of the country.
State/region Reserves in million

metric tonnes
Gujarat 136.73
Assam (includes north eastern reserves) 178.07
Andhra Pradesh 7.42
Tamil Nadu 9.21
Western Offshore (includes Bombay High, 396.41
Rajasthan)
Eastern Offshore 30.43
Total 758.27
Table 6: Reserves of Crude Oil in India (2013)

India has total reserves (proved & indicated) of 758 million metric tonnes of crude oil (table 6) and 1355 billion
cubic meters of natural gas (table 7) as on 1.4.2013. Onshore and offshore crude oil constitutes 398 million
metric tonnes and 360 million metric tonnes respectively. Geographical distribution of crude oil indicates that
the maximum reserves are in the western offshore including Bombay High and Rajasthan (52%) followed by
Assam (23%) whereas maximum reserves of natural gas are in the Eastern offshore including CBM in West
Bengal (38%) followed by western offshore including Bombay High, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Jharkhand
(36%). The increase in the estimated natural gas reserves is largely from CBM.
State/region Reserves in billion cubic meters

Gujarat 77.53
Assam (includes north eastern reserves) 181.77
Andhra Pradesh 48.21
Tamil Nadu 45.83
Western Offshore (includes Bombay High, Rajasthan, 488.20
Madhya Pradesh and Jharkhand)
Eastern Offshore (Includes CBM in West Bengal) 513.22
Total 1354.76
Table 7: Reserves of Natural Gas in India (2013)
The 15 basins out of a total 26 sedimentary basins (figure 10) in India have prognosticated hydrocarbon
resources of about 206 Billion barrels of oil equivalent spread across onland, offshore and deepwater areas.
Total area under these basins is 3 million sq. km. Over the last twelve years, there have been significant forward
steps in exploring the hydrocarbon potential of the sedimentary basins of India. The unexplored area has come
down to 15% which was 50% in 1995-96.
Figure 10: sedimentary Basin of India
Oil and natural gas have been found in exploratory wells in Krishna-Godavari and Kaveri basin on the east coast.
Largest natural gas discovery has been made in Krishna-Godavari deep waters. Similarly, largest oil discovery
after Bombay High has been made in the Barmer oil fields of Rajasthan. In Assam, Digboi, Naharkatiya and
Moran are important oil producing areas. The major oil fields of Gujarat are Ankaleshwar, Kalol, Mehsana,
Nawagam, Kosamba and Lunej. Exclusive reserves of natural gas are located along the eastern coast as well as
Tripura, Rajasthan and off-shore wells in Gujarat and Maharashtra. Some of the major oil and gas discoveries in
21st century are shown in figure 11.

Figure 11: Major Oil and Gas discoveries after 2000
Coalbed Methane (CBM)
India has substantial coal reserves and most are suitable for CBM development. Deep coal deposits, not
accessible by conventional mining operations, also offer CBM development opportunities. In 1997, India’s
government formulated a CBM policy and allotted a number of blocks for exploration. Commercial production
of CBM began in 2007. The first CBM production started in 2007 from Raniganj in West Bengal. Government
aims to offer up to 90% of total coal bearing area by the end of 2016-17 for exploration and production of CBM.
The CBM reserves as per Directorate General of Hydrocarbons is tabulated here under:
State Coalfields/block Reserves in billion cubic metres

West Bengal North Raniganj, Eastern Raniganj and Birbhum 109.87
Jharkhand Jharia, East and West Bokaro, North Karanpura 174.93
Madhya Pradesh Sohagpur, Satpura 114.11
Gujarat Cambay Basin 311-549 (advance estimates)
Total 710 - 948
Table 8: CBM reserves of India
Shale gas
Shale gas has reduced America’s dependence on oil imports, leading other countries to look for such reserves.
India, too, has potential to reduce its dependence on imports by tapping the potential of shale gas. Six onshore
basins — Cambay, Krishna-Godavari, Cauvery, Assam-Arakan, Ganga and Gondwana/Damodar—have been
identified for shale exploration (figure 12). The Indian Government entered into a MoU with the United States
Geological Survey (USGS) to conduct an assessment of the shale gas resources.
According to the US Energy Information Administration, India could be sitting on as much as 96 TCF of
recoverable shale gas reserves, equivalent to about 26 years of its gas demand, compared with its 43.8 TCF of
natural gas reserves at the end of 2012. Another estimate, by Schlumberger Company, has indicated a shale gas
resource base of between 600 Tcf and 2,000 Tcf.

Figure 12: Shale oil and gas basins of India
Krishna Godavari basin, located in eastern India, is considered to hold the largest shale gas reserves in the
country. The basin is estimated to have around 27 Tcf of technically recoverable gas. The Cauvery basin in Tamil
Nadu state is estimated to have recoverable shale gas reserves of 7 Tcf. The Cambay basin in Gujarat is the
largest basin in the country, spread across 51,800 sq km. As per the initial studies, around 20 Tcf of gas is
estimated as technically recoverable reserves in the Cambay basin. ONGC had drilled the country’s first shale gas
well in Jambusar in the October in 2013 to exploit the natural gas trapped within the shale formations located in
Cambay basin.
Methane Hydrate
Methane Hydrate is a cage-like lattice of ice inside of which are trapped molecules of methane, the chief
constituent of natural gas. It is found in sea-bed that forms at low temperatures and high pressure. It is also
found in onshore deposits in the permafrost of northern Canada and Russia. Heating the deposits or lowering
the pressure will release gas from the solid. One litre of solid hydrate releases around 165 litres of gas.
Figure 13: Potential Gas Hydrate reserves of India

India has some of the biggest methane hydrate reserves in the world. These are tentatively estimated at 1,890
trillion cubic metres. An Indo-US scientific joint venture in 2006 explored four areas: the Kerala-Konkan basin,
the Krishna-Godavari basin, the Mahanadi basin and the seas off the Andaman Islands (figure 13). The deposits
in the Krishna Godavari basin turned out to be among the richest and biggest in the world. The Andamans
yielded the thickest-ever deposits 600 metres below the seabed in volcanic ash sediments.
3.5 Nuclear
Nuclear energy has emerged as a viable source in recent times. Important minerals used for the generation of
nuclear energy are uranium and thorium. Uranium is a relatively common element in the crust of the Earth. It is
a metal approximately as common as tin or zinc, and it is a constituent of most rocks and even of the sea. The
table 14 gives some idea of our present knowledge of uranium resources. It can be seen that Australia has a
substantial part (about 31 percent) of the world's uranium, Kazakhstan 12 percent, and Canada and Russia 9
percent each. Known uranium resources have increased almost threefold since 1975.
Recycled uranium and plutonium is another source for Uranium fuel, and currently saves 1500-2000 tU per year
of primary supply, depending on whether just the plutonium or also the uranium is considered. In fact,
plutonium is quickly recycled as MOX fuel, whereas the reprocessed uranium (RepU) is mostly stockpiled.
Re-enrichment of depleted uranium (DU, enrichment tails) is another secondary source. There is about 1.5
million tonnes of depleted uranium available, from both military and civil enrichment activity since the 1940s,
most at tails assay of 0.25 - 0.35% U-235. Russian enrichment plants have treated 10-15,000 tonnes per year of
DU producing a few thousand tonnes per year of natural uranium equivalent.
tonnes U percentage of world

Australia 1,661,000 31%
Kazakhstan 629,000 12%
Russia 487,200 9%
Canada 468,700 9%
Niger 421,000 8%
South Africa 279,100 5%
Brazil 276,700 5%
Namibia 261,000 5%
USA 207,400 4%
China 166,100 3%
Ukraine 119,600 2%
Uzbekistan 96,200 2%
Mongolia 55,700 1%
Jordan 33,800 1%
other 164,000 3%
World total 5,327,200
Figure 14: Known Recoverable Resources of Uranium 2011
Global uranium mine production increased by over 25% between 2008 and 2010 because of significantly
increased production in Kazakhstan, currently the world's leading producer. Global uranium production trend is
shown in figure 15. Demand for uranium is expected to continue to rise for the foreseeable future. Although the
Fukushima Daiichi nuclear accident has affected nuclear power projects and policies in some countries, nuclear
power remains a key part of the global energy mix.

Figure 15: Top 10 Uranium producing countries (2010)
Current usage of Uranium is about 68,000 tU/yr. Thus, the world's present measured resources of uranium (5.3
Mt) in the cost category around present spot prices and used only in conventional reactors, are enough to last
for about 80 years.
Thorium as a nuclear fuel
Today uranium is the only fuel supplied for nuclear reactors. However, thorium can also be utilised as a fuel for
CANDU (CANada Deuterium Uranium) reactors or in reactors specially designed for this purpose. Neutron
efficient reactors, such as CANDU, are capable of operating on a thorium fuel cycle, once they are started using a
fissile material such as U-235 or Pu-239. Then the thorium (Th-232) atom captures a neutron in the reactor to
become fissile uranium (U-233), which continues the reaction.
Thorium is about 3.5 times more common than uranium in the Earth's crust. Present knowledge of the
distribution of thorium resources is poor because of the relatively low-key exploration efforts arising out of
insignificant demand. World distribution of Thorium reserves is shown in figure 16. India and Australia are
believed to possess about 300,000 tonnes each; i.e. each country possessing 25% of the world's thorium
reserves.

Figure 16: World Thorium reserves (in tonnes) (2005)
3.5.1 India
India has relatively modest reserves of uranium. India's uranium resources are modest, with 102,600 tonnes U
(tU) as reasonably assured resources (RAR) and 37,200 tonnes as inferred resources in situ at January 2011.
However, department of atomic energy claims to have reserves of 1, 86, 653 tU in 2013. Andhra Pradesh
followed by Jharkhand and Meghalaya in that order is top state with largest uranium reserves.
With rise in number of reactors, India expects to import an increasing proportion of its uranium fuel needs. In
2013, India imported about 40% of her uranium requirements from France, Russia and Kazakhstan. India’s
Uranium mines are shown in figure 17. Ministry of Environment and Forest rejected the proposal of uranium
mining in Mehgalaya keeping in view of the sentiments of the local people and a number of representations
received from local civil society group. Following are the uranium mines in Jharkhand’s Singhbhum zone:
 Jaduguda Mine
 Bhatin Mine
 Turamdih Mine
 Bagjata Mine
 Narwapahar Mine
 Banduhurang Mine
 Jaduguda Mill
 Turamdih Mill
 Mohuldih Mine
Major areas which are currently under survey and exploration to augment uranium reserves in India
include:
 Tummalapalle-Rachakuntapalle, Kadappa district, Andhra Pradesh

 Koppunuru and adjoining areas, Guntur district, Andhra Pradesh
 Rohil and adjoining areas, Sikar district, Rajasthan
 Wahkut and Umthongkut areas of West Khasi Hills district, Meghalaya
 Gogi, Yadgir district, Karnataka
 Singridungri-Banadungri, East Singhbhum district, Jharkhand and
 Bangurdih, Seraikela-Kharsawan district, Jharkhand.

Figure 17: Uranium occurrence and production centres in India
Indian interest in thorium is motivated by their substantial reserves. Department of Atomic Energy has
established the presence of 10.70 million tonnes of Monazite ore, found in beach and river sand in the country,
which contains 9,63,000 tonnes of Thorium Oxide (ThO2) in 2009. India Monazite contains about 9-10% of ThO2
and about 8,46,477 tonnes of thorium Metal can be obtained from 9,63,000 tonnes. In 2013, total Monazite
reserves are estimated to be 11.93 million tonnes. Following is the state wise distribution:
State Monazite (million tonne)

Odisha 2.41
Andhra Pradesh 3.72
Tamil Nadu 2.46
Kerala 1.90
West Bengal 1.22
Jharkhand 0.22
Total 11.93
Thorium is mainly obtained from monazite and ilmenite in the beach sands along the coast of Kerala and Tamil
Nadu (figure 18). World’s richest monazite deposits occur in Palakkad and Kollam districts of Kerala, near
Vishakhapatnam in Andhra Pradesh and Mahanadi river delta in Odisha.

Figure 18: Thorium deposits, India
References:
[1] Types of coal
 Lignite - often referred to as brown coal, is a soft brown combustible sedimentary rock that is formed
from naturally compressed peat. It is considered the lowest rank of coal due to its relatively low heat
content. It has a carbon content of around 25-35%, a high inherent moisture content sometimes as high
as 66%, and an ash content ranging from 6% to 19%. It is mined in Bulgaria, Kosovo,
Greece, Germany, Poland, Serbia, Russia, Turkey, the United States, Canada, India, Australia and many
other parts of Europe and it is used almost exclusively as a fuel for steam-electric power generation.
 Bituminous coal or black coal is a relatively soft coal containing a tarlike substance called bitumen. It is
of higher quality than lignite coal but of poorer quality than anthracite. The carbon content of
bituminous coal is around 60-80%; the rest is composed of water, air, hydrogen, and sulphur.
 Anthracite is a hard, compact variety of mineral coal that has a high luster. It has the
highest carbon content, the fewest impurities, and the highest calorific content of all types of coal. The
carbon content is between 92.1% and 98%. It is used mainly in power generation, in the metallurgy
sector. Anthracite accounts for about 1% of global coal reserves,[4] and is mined in only a few countries
around the world. China accounts for the majority of global production; other producers are Russia,
Ukraine, North Korea, Vietnam, the UK, Australia and the US.
[2] Reserves are identified quantities of “in-place” minerals that are considered recoverable under current
economic and technological conditions.

Sources:
1. NCERT class XIl – India people and economy

2. Geography of India by Majid Hussain
3. Wikipedia
4. http://www.portal.gsi.gov.in/portal/page?_pageid=127,721708&_dad=portal&_schema=PORTAL
5. http://www.geologydata.info/coal_02.htm
6. http://www.coal.nic.in/reserve2.htm
7. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/454269/petroleum/50722/Status-of-the-world-oil-supply
8. http://www.petroleum.co.uk/sweet-vs-sour
9. http://www.forbes.com/sites/williampentland/2013/09/07/worlds-five-largest-offshore-oil-fields/
10. http://www.gazprominfo.com/articles/prospecting/
11. http://www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/detail.cfm?id=13491
12. http://www.britannica.com
13. http://www.cbmasia.ca/CBM-In-Indonesia
14. http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/industry-and-economy/between-a-rock-and-a-hard-
place/article5335576.ece
15. http://indiatogether.org/shale-environment
16. http://www.epmag.com/Technology-Operations/ONGC-Readies-Shale-Gas-Play_121525
17. http://www.dghindia.org/SedimentaryBasins.aspx#
18. http://petroleum.nic.in/kelkar.pdf
19. http://petroleum.nic.in/stratreport.pdf
20. http://petroleum.nic.in/pngstat.pdf
21. http://www.cmpdi.co.in/cbm.php
22. http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2013-03-17/news/37787191_1_hydrate-reserves-
methane-hydrate-japan-oil-gas
23. http://www.naturalgasasia.com/ngri-finds-gas-hydrate-reserves-along-east-coast-of-india-3638
24. http://www.dghindia.org/NonConventionalEnergy.aspx?tab=0
25. http://www.thehindu.com/business/Industry/shale-gas-oncg-to-drill-more-wells-in-
cambay/article5526061.ece
26. http://pib.nic.in/newsite/erelease.aspx?relid=74293
27. http://www.downtoearth.org.in/content/india-set-new-nuclear-age
28. http://www.ucil.gov.in/web/ucil_operetions_in_jharkhand.html
29. http://moef.nic.in/downloads/public-information/Ur_report.pdf
30. http://dae.nic.in/?q=node/660
31. http://thoriumforum.com/reserve-estimates-thorium-around-world
32. http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/Country-Profiles/Countries-G-N/India/
33. http://www.mapsofworld.com/thematic-maps/natural-resources-maps/
34. http://notesforupsc.blogspot.in/2014/01/gs-2-distribution-of-key-natural.html
35. https://drive.google.com/folderview?id=0Bz1txbcKwYPXdEQ0QzJOdDkxbTg&usp=sharing


VISIONIAS
www.visionias.in
GEOGRAPHY: 20
Mineral Resources & Manufacturing Industries

1. Mineral and Energy Resources
1.1 Types of Mineral Resources
1.2 Distribution of Minerals in India
1.2.1 The North-Eastern Plateau Region
1.2.2 The Central belt
1.2.3 The South-Western Plateau Region
1.2.4 The North-Western Region
1.3 Ferrous Minerals
1.3.1 Iron Ore
1.3.2 Manganese
1.4 Non-Ferrous Minerals
1.4.1 Copper
1.4.2 Bauxite
1.4.3 Lead
1.4.4 Zinc
1.4.5 Gold:
1.4.6 Silver
1.5 Non- Metallic Minerals
1.5.1 Mica
1.5.2 Limestone
1.5.3 Dolomite
1.6 Atomic Minerals
2. Energy Resources
2.1 Conventional Energy Sources
2.1.1 Coal:
2.1.2 Petroleum
2.1.3 Natural Gas
2.2 Non Conventional energy Sources
2.2.1 Solar Energy
2.2.2 Wind Energy

2.2.3 Tidal and Wave Energy
2.2.4 Geothermal Energy
2.2.5 Bio-energy
3. Manufacturing Industries
3.1 Types of Industries
3.2 Location of Industries
3.2.1 Geographical Factors
3.2.2 Non – Geographical Factors
3.3 Major Industries
3.3.1 Iron & Steel Industry
3.3.2 Cotton textile Industry
3.3.3 Sugar Industry
3.3.4 Petrochemical Industries
3.3.5 Machine Tools
3.3.6 Automobile Industry
3.3.7 Electronic Industry
3.3.8 Knowledge based Industries
3.4 Liberalisation, Privatisation, Globalisation (LPG) and Industrial Development in India
3.5 Industrial Regions
4. UPSC Questions Covered
Sources:

1. Mineral and Energy Resources

India is endowed with a rich variety of minerals. Large size and diverse geological formations have favoured India
in providing a wide variety of minerals. It has been estimated that nearly 100 minerals are known to be produced
and worked in India. The country has fairly abundant reserves of coal, iron and mica, adequate supplies of
manganese ore, titanium and aluminium, raw materials for refractory and limestone; but there is deficiency in
ores of copper, lead and zinc. There are workable deposits of tin and nickel. India earns a lot of foreign exchange
via export of a large variety of minerals such as iron ore, titanium, manganese, granite etc. while at the same
time India has to depend upon imports to meet her requirements of some other mineral sources such as copper,
silver, nickel, cobalt, zinc, lead, tin, mercury etc. The mineral resources in India are present in the peninsular part
of the country. The vast alluvial plain tract of north India is devoid of minerals of economic use. The mineral
resources provide the country with the necessary base for industrial development.
1.1 Types of Mineral Resources
On the basis of chemical and physical properties, minerals may be grouped under two main categories of
metallic and non-metallic minerals.
Metallic minerals are the sources of metals. Metallic minerals can be further divided into two class- ferrous
minerals (which have iron content) like iron, nickel, cobalt, tungsten, manganese etc. and non-ferrous minerals
(which don’t have iron content) like copper, bauxite, silver, gold etc.
Non-metallic minerals can be divided into fuel minerals (which are organic in origin) like coal, petroleum etc.
and other non-metallic minerals like limestone, graphite etc. Minerals have certain characteristics. These are
unevenly distributed over space. There is inverse relationship in quality and quantity of minerals i.e. good quality
minerals are less in quantity as compared to low quality minerals. All minerals are exhaustible over time and it
takes long to develop geologically and they cannot be replenished immediately at the time of need.
1.2 Distribution of Minerals in India
Most of the metallic minerals in India occur in the peninsular plateau region in the old crystalline rocks. Minerals
are generally concentrated in three major belts in India. There are some sporadic occurrences here and there in
isolated pockets. These belts are:
1.2.1 The North-Eastern Plateau Region: This belt covers Chota Nagpur (Jharkhand), Odisha Plateau, West
Bengal and parts of Chhattisgarh. It is the richest mineral belt in India. It has variety of minerals viz. iron ore,
coal, manganese, bauxite, mica. The Chota Nagpur plateau is also known as mineral heart land of India.
1.2.2 The Central belt: This belt encompassing parts of Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and
Maharashtra is the second largest mineral belt in the country. Large deposits of manganese, bauxite, limestone,
marble, coal, mica, iron ore are available here.
1.2.3 The South-Western Plateau Region: This belt extends over Karnataka, Goa and contiguous Tamil Nadu
uplands and Kerala. This belt is rich in ferrous metals and bauxite. It also contains high grade iron ore,
manganese and limestone. This belt packs in coal deposits except Neyveli lignite. It does not have mica and
copper deposits.
1.2.4 The North-Western Region: This belt extends along Aravali in Rajasthan and part of Gujarat and
minerals are associated with Dharwar system of rocks. This belt has developed recently and is gradually
becoming a productive region holding great promise for mining of the nonferrous metals. Copper, zinc has been
major minerals. Rajasthan is rich in building stones i.e. sandstone, granite, marble. Gypsum and Fuller’s earth
deposits are also extensive. Dolomite and limestone provide raw materials for cement industry.
1.3 Ferrous Minerals
Ferrous minerals form an important part of mining activity in India and provide base to metallurgical industries
in India. Our country is well-placed in respect of ferrous minerals both in reserves and production.
1.3.1 Iron Ore: Iron is a metal of universal use. India has the largest reserve of iron ore in Asia. It is used for
manufacturing articles from safety pins to ships. It is a durable and cheap metal which can be moulded in
different forms and can be mixed with other metals to form alloys. Iron is not found in pure form. It is often

mixed with lime, magnesium, phosphorous, silicon, etc. In India, we get four main types of iron ore, which are as
under:
Haematite: It is also known as red-ochre, as it is reddish in colour. The iron contents in this type ranges from
about 60 to 70 per cent. Most of the iron ore reserves in India belong to this type.
Magnetite: It is the best quality of iron ore and contains more than 70 per cent of the iron contents. The colour
of the ore is dark brown to blackish and is known as black ore. It has magnetic properties.
Limonite: It is yellow or light brown in colour and the iron contents ranges from about 40 to 60 per cent. It is
called hydrated iron oxide, when the iron ore in mixed with oxygen and water. Its mining is easier and cheaper.
Siderite: It is an inferior variety of iron ore and has many impurities. The iron contents ranges from about 20 to
40 per cent. It is also called iron carbonate.

About 95 per cent of total reserves of iron ore are located in the States of Odisha, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh,
Karnataka, Goa, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. In Odisha, iron ore occurs in a series of hill ranges in
Sundergarh, Mayurbhanj and Jhar. The important mines are Gurumahisani, Sulaipet, Badampahar (Mayurbhaj),
Kiruburu (Kendujhar) and Bonai (Sundergarh). In Jharkhand has some of the oldest iron ore mines and most of
the iron and steel plants are located around them. Important mines such as Noamundi and Gua are located in
Poorbi and Pashchimi Singhbhum districts. Dalli, and Rajhara in Durg are other important mines of iron ore. In
Karnataka, iron ore deposits occur in Sandur-Hospet area of Bellary district, Baba Budan hills and Kudremukh in
Chikmagalur district and parts of Shimoga, Chitradurg and Tumkur districts. The districts of Chandrapur,
Bhandara and Ratnagiri in Maharashtra, Karimnagar, Warangal, Kurnool, Cuddapah and Anantapur districts of
Andhra Pradesh, Salem and Nilgiris districts of Tamil Nadu are other iron mining regions. Goa has also emerged
as an important producer of iron ore.
India is the fifth largest exporter of iron in the world. Increasing demand of iron ore in domestic market has
adversely affected the export performance of the sector. About half of the total production of iron ore is
exported to Japan, South Korea, East European Countries and the Gulf region. Some iron ore is also exported to
USA and China. The main ports handling the export are Marmagao, Vishakhapatnam, Paradip, Mangalore, Haldia
and Chennai. Japan is the most important buyer of Indian iron ore.
1.3.2 Manganese: Manganese is a black hard iron like metal and is an important raw material for smelting of
iron ore and also used for manufacturing ferrous alloys. It is also used for the manufacture of bleaching powder,
insecticides, paints, glazed pottery, matches, batteries and china-clay. India has second largest ore reserves in
the world after Zimbabwe. Manganese deposits are found in almost all geological formations; however, it is
mainly associated with Dharwar system. Odisha is the leading producer of Manganese. Major mines in Odisha
are located in the central part of the iron ore belt of India, particularly in Bonai, Kendujhar, Sundergarh,
Gangpur, Koraput, Kalahandi and Bolangir. Karnataka is another major producer and here the mines are located
in Dharwar, Bellary, Belgaum, North Canara, Chikmagalur, Shimoga, Chitradurg and Tumkur. Maharashtra,
Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Goa and Jharkhand are minor producers of manganese. India is the world’s
fifth largest producer of manganese ore as over four-fifth of the total produce of manganese is consumed within
the country. Japan is the largest buyer of Indian manganese accounting for about two-third of the total export.
1.4 Non-Ferrous Minerals
India has limited reserves of non-ferrous minerals except bauxite. Copper, bauxite, gold, silver, tungsten, nickel,
cobalt are major non-ferrous minerals.
1.4.1 Copper: Copper has been used for making utensils and coins since long. Also, Copper is an indispensable
metal in the electrical industry for making wires, electric motors, transformers and generators. It is alloyable,
malleable and ductile. It is a good conductor of electricity and it is used in making electrical wires, equipments
and utensils. India has limited reserves of copper. The Copper deposits mainly occur in Singhbhum district in
Jharkhand, Balaghat district in Madhya Pradesh and Jhunjhunu and Alwar districts in Rajasthan. Minor
producers of Copper are Agnigundala in Guntur District (Andhra Pradesh), Chitradurg and Hasan districts
(Karnataka) and South Arcot district (Tamil Nadu). Mining of copper is a costly and tedious affair as copper ores
contain small percentage of metal. The production of copper ore in the country always fall short of our
requirements and India has to import copper from other countries, mainly USA, Canada, Zimbabwe, Mexico.
1.4.2 Bauxite: Bauxite is an important ore and is used in making aluminium. Due to its lightness, strength,
malleability, ductility, heat and electrical conductivity and resistance to atmospheric corrosion, aluminium has
become one of the most useful metals in the present age. It is not specifically a mineral but a rock consisting
mainly of hydrated aluminium oxides. Bauxite is found mainly in tertiary deposits and is associated with Laterite
rocks occurring extensively either on the plateau or hill ranges of peninsular India and also in the coastal tracts of
the country. India is self-sufficient in bauxite reserves. Kalahandi and Sambalpur in Odisha are the leading
producers in the country. Jharkhand, Gujarat, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra are other major
producers. Bhavanagar, Jamnagar in Gujarat have the major deposits. Chhattisgarh has bauxite deposits in
Amarkantak plateau while Katni-Jabalpur area and Balaghat in M.P. have important deposits of bauxite.
1.4.3 Lead: Lead is a widely used material mainly due to its malleability, softness, heaviness and bad
conductivity of heat. Important use of lead is as a constituent in alloys such as type metal, bronze and anti-
friction metal. It doesn’t occur free in nature and occurs as a cubic sulphide known as Galena. Lead ores occur in
India in the Himalayas, Tamil Nadu, Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh and Jharkhand. Rajasthan is the leading producer
of lead. Udaipur (Zawar, Rikhabdeo), Dungarpur (Ghughra and Mando) and Alwar are the main producing
districts. About 75% of Indian requirements are met by imports mainly from Australia, Canada and Myanmar.

1.4.4 Zinc: Zinc is a mixed ore containing lead and zinc and is mainly used for alloying and manufacturing
galvanized sheets. It is also used for dry batteries, white pigments, electrodes, textiles etc. Known reserves of
zinc in India are very limited. More than 99% of zinc in India is produced in Zawar area in Udaipur district of
Rajasthan. Most of the industrial needs are met via imports from Zaire, Canada, Australia and Russia.
1.4.5 Gold: Gold is a valuable material which occurs in auriferous lodes and in sands of several rivers. It is
known for making ornaments and usage as international currency. India’s contribution to global gold production
is very small. There are three main gold fields in India namely, Kolar Gold Field, Hutti Gold field in Raichur district
of Karnataka and Ramgiri Gold field in Anantpur district of Andhra Pradesh. Kolar is the largest mine and one of
the deepest mines in the world. Alluvial gold is obtained from the sands of the Subarnarekha River in Jharkhand.
Such deposits are called placer deposits and the process of recovering gold from these sources is called panning.
1.4.6 Silver: Silver is a precious metal valued next only to gold in making ornaments due to its softness and
attractive white colour. It is also used in manufacture of chemicals, electroplating, photography, for colouring
glasses etc. The chief ore minerals of silver are agentine, stephanite, pyrargyrite and proustite. India has limited
resources of silver ore and majority of production comes from Zawar mines in Udaipur district of Rajasthan.
1.5 Non- Metallic Minerals

Among the non-metallic minerals produced in India, mica is the important one. The other minerals extracted for
local consumption are limestone, dolomite and phosphate. They are used in a large variety of industries; the
major industries being cement, fertilizers, electrical, etc.
1.5.1 Mica: Mica is mainly used in the electrical and electronic industries as it can be split into very thin sheets
which are tough and flexible. It has also been used in India since ancient times as a medicinal item in Ayurveda
and is known as Abhrak. Three major types of mica found in India are- Muscovite, Phlogopite and Biotite.
Rajasthan have the largest deposits of mica. Mica in India is produced in Hazaribagh plateau of Jharkhand,
Nellore district of Andhra Pradesh, Bhilwara and Udaipur in Rajasthan followed by Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, West
Bengal and Madhya Pradesh. India has near monopoly in the production of mica, producing about 60% of the
world’s total production.
1.5.2 Limestone: Limestone is associated with rocks either composed of calcium carbonate or a mixture of
calcium carbonate and magnesium carbonate. It is used for large variety of purposes like cement industry, iron
and steel industry, chemical industry etc. Of the total consumption,. 75 per cent is used in cement industry, 16
per cent in iron and steel industry, 4 per cent in chemical industry and the rest in paper, sugar, fertilizers, Ferro-
manganese, glass and rubber industries. Limestone is produced in the states of Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan,
Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Chhattisgarh and Tamil Nadu. Madhya Pradesh is the largest producer of limestone in
India where large deposits occur in the districts of Jabalpur, Satna, Betul, Rewa.
1.5.3 Dolomite: Limestone with more than 10% of magnesium is called dolomite, when percentage rises to
about 45%, it is called true dolomite. Dolomite is chiefly used in metallurgical activities; as refractories; as blast
furnace flux; as a source of magnesium salts and in fertilizer and salt industry. Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Andhra
Pradesh, Jharkhand, Rajasthan and Karnataka are the major producers of Dolomite in India. Orissa is the largest
producer of dolomite in the country with major deposits in Sundargarh, Sambhalpur and Koraput districts.
1.6 Atomic Minerals
Uranium and thorium are the main atomic minerals; Beryllium, Lithium and Zirconium are the other minerals.
Uranium deposits occur in Singhbhum and Hazaribagh districts of Jharkhand, Gaya district of Bihar, and in the
sedimentary rocks in Saharanpur district of Uttar Pradesh. But the largest source of uranium comprise the
monazite sands, both beach and alluvial. The largest concentration of monazite sand is on the Kerala coast.
Some uranium is found in the copper mines of Udaipur in Rajasthan. India produces about 2% of world’s
uranium reserves. Thorium is also derived from monazite which contains 10% thorium. Other mineral carrying
thorium is thorianite. Kerala, Bihar, Jharkhand, Tamil Nadu and Rajasthan are the main producers.

2. Energy Resources
Depending upon its source and utilization, energy can be divided into two major classifications viz. (i) Traditional
or non-commercial, and (ii) Commercial Energy. Examples of non-commercial energy resources are firewood,
charcoal, cow dung and agricultural wastes. The commercial sources of energy comprise coal, oil, natural gas,
hydro-electricity, natural gas, nuclear power as well as wind and solar power.
Another important classification based on the nature of energy is conventional energy source and non-
conventional energy source. Coal, Petroleum, Natural Gas and electricity are the main sources of conventional
energy while solar, wind, tidal, geothermal etc are example of non-conventional source of energy.
2.1 Conventional Energy Sources
The conventional sources are exhaustible resources. Major conventional sources of energy are discussed below:

2.1.1 Coal: Coal is a one of the important minerals which is mainly used in the generation of thermal power and
smelting of iron ore. Coal occurs in rock sequences mainly of two geological ages, namely Gondwana and tertiary
deposits. Most of the coal deposits are about 300 million years old.
About 65 per cent of the total coal production is consumed for generating electricity. It is also used as a basic
fuel in many industries. Entire process of steel making is based on metallurgical coal. Cement industry consumes
about five per cent of the total production. Coal is also an important source of naphtha and ammonia, which are
widely used for making chemical fertilizers, tar, benzene, carbon black, etc. Soft coke is used as fuel in the
kitchen.
Depending upon the percentage of carbon present, the coal can be grouped in four types, such as peat, lignite,
bituminous and anthracite.
Peat- It represents the first stage of coal formation, i.e. from wood to coal, today; peat is being formed at many
places. It has a high percentage of moisture and volatile matter. The carbon content in peat is less than 40 per
cent. It burns like wood and gives more smoke and less heat. It leaves a large amount of ash after burning. Its
low heating capacity reduces its value as an industrial fuel.
Lignite- It is generally regarded as the next stage of coal formation after peat. It is also known as the brown coal.
Lignite is soft, but more compact than peat. The carbon contents vary from 40 per cent to 60 per cent. Lignite
has large percentage of moisture and less amount of combustible matter. The increasing demand for coal has
enhanced its use in thermal power stations and in some industries. In India, lignite is mostly found in Rajasthan,
Tamil Nadu, Assam and Jammu and Kashmir states.
Bituminous -It is the hard and compact variety of coal. The carbon content varies from about 60 per cent to 80
per cent. Almost 80 per cent of the world's total output of coal is of the bituminous type. The moisture and the
volatile contents are also less. Coke is mainly used in the iron and steel industry for smelting iron ore in blast
furnaces. Bituminous coal is found in Jharkhand, Orissa, West-Bengal, Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh.
Anthracite - It is the hardest and the best quality of coal. The carbon content varies from about 80 per cent to 90
per cent. Anthracite, practically, has no volatile matter. It does not ignite easily, but once lighted, it has the
highest heating capacity. It burns for a long time and leaves very little ash behind. Only about 5 per cent of the
world's total coal is anthracite. In India this type of coal is found only in Jammu and Kashmir and that too in very
small quantity.
About 80 per cent of the coal deposits in India is of bituminous type and is of non-coking grade. The most
important Gondwana coal fields of India are located in Damodar Valley. They lie in Jharkhand-Bengal coal belt
and the important coal fields in this region are Raniganj, Jharia, Bokaro, Giridih, Karanpura. The other river
valleys associated with coal are Godavari, Mahanadi and Son. The most important coal mining centres are
Singrauli in Madhya Pradesh (part of Singrauli coal field lies in Uttar Pradesh), Korba in Chhattisgarh, Talcher and
Rampur in Odisha, Chanda–Wardha, Kamptee and Bander in Maharashtra and Singareni and Pandur in Andhra
Pradesh.
Coal mining industry is facing a lot of problems in India. Some of the major problems are –
i. The distribution of coal is uneven; this involves high transport cost to carry heavy commodity like coal
over long distance. Consequently, the coal consuming industries have to pay much higher prices.
ii. Indian coal has high ash content and low calorific value. The ash content varies about 20-30 percent
which significantly reduces the calorific value of the product.
iii. A large percentage of the coal is taken out from underground mines where the productivity of the labour
and machinery is quite low.
iv. Besides the problem of pilferage and fire in mines, mining industry is also suffering from problems of
environmental pollution.
2.1.2 Petroleum: Crude petroleum consists of hydrocarbons of liquid and gaseous states varying in chemical
composition, colour and specific gravity. It is an essential source of energy for all internal combustion engines in
automobiles, railways and aircraft. Its numerous by-products are processed in petrochemical industries such as
fertiliser, synthetic rubber, synthetic fibre, medicines, Vaseline, lubricants, wax, soap and cosmetics.

The crude petroleum deposits are found only in the sedimentary rock basins of marine origin. But all
sedimentary rocks do not contain mineral oil. Petroleum has an organic origin and is formed by the gradual
decay and compression of various marine deposits. They remain buried for millions of years and the
decomposition of the organic matter has led to the formation of mineral oil. According to latest estimates the
total reserves of crude oil are about 500 crore tons on land and in off-shore regions. There are three main areas
of potential petroleum reserves. These are:
1. The Terai zone running parallel to the Himalayas from Jammu and Kashmir to Assam;
2. River basins of Ganga, Satluj, etc. including deltaic tracts of Ganga, Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and Kaveri;
3.The continental shelf along the Western Coast, Gulf of Cambay, and the islands in the Arabian Sea and the Bay
of Bengal. Oil and natural gas have been recently found in exploratory wells in Krishna-Godavari and Kaveri
basin on the east coast.
India is not self-sufficient in respect of crude oil and has to import huge quantities from abroad. At present, India
has to import about 55 per cent of its needs of petroleum and its products. The imports are mainly from the
Middle East countries (Iraq, Iran, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Bahrain), Russia, Indonesia, Malaysia and Kazakhstan.
Pipelines are most convenient, efficient and economical mode of transporting liquids like petroleum, petroleum
products, natural gas, water, milk etc. India has a pipeline network exceeding 7000 km in the country.

Advantages of Pipeline: 1. Pipeline are ideally suited to transport the liquids and gases. 2. Pipelines can be laid
through difficult terrains as well as under water. 3. It involves low energy consumption. 4. It needs little
maintenance. 5. They are safe, accident-free and environmental friendly. Disadvantages of Pipelines: 1. They are
not flexible i.e. they can be used only for a few fixed points. 2. The capacity cannot be increased once laid down.
3. It is difficult to maintain security arrangements for the pipelines. 4. Underground pipelines cannot be easily
repaired and detection of leakage is also difficult.
Important Pipelines in India:
1. Naharkatia- Nunmati – Barauni Pipeline
2. Mumbai High – Mumbai – Ankaleshwar – Kayoli Pipeline
3. Salaya- Koyali – Mathura Pipeline
4. Hajira – Bijapur – Jagdishpur (HBJ) Gas Pipeline
5. Jamnagar – Loni LPG Pipeline
6. Kandla – Bhatinda Pipeline
2.1.3 Natural Gas: Natural gas is obtained along with oil in all the oil fields. Whenever a well for oil is drilled, it
is natural gas which is available before oil is struck. But exclusive reserves have been located along the eastern
coast (Tamil Nadu, Odisha and Andhra Pradesh) as well as in Tripura, Rajasthan and off-shore wells in Gujarat
and Maharashtra.
With fast expanding transport network, the consumption level is increasing day by day. Oil products constitute
nearly 80% of the total commercial energy used in transport. As these energy sources are limited in quantity, so
the need of the hour is to develop and implement energy conservation programme in transport sector. The
Petroleum Conservation Research Association (PCRA) under the Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas has been
taking various steps to increase awareness and promote conservation of petroleum products.
2.2 Non Conventional energy Sources
With increasing demand for energy and with fast depleting conventional source of energy such as coal,
petroleum and natural gas, the non-conventional sources of energy such as energy from sun, wind, bio-mass,
tidal , geo-thermal energy are gaining importance. This energy is abundant, pollution-free, renewable and eco-
friendly. Besides, it can be supplied evenly to urban, rural and even remote areas. The non-conventional energy
sources are cost intensive at the initial stages but will provide more sustained, eco-friendly cheaper energy after
the initial cost is taken care of.
2.2.1 Solar Energy: Sun rays tapped in photovoltaic cells can be converted into energy, known as solar energy.
The two effective processes considered to be very effective to tap solar energy are photovoltaic and solar
thermal technology. Solar thermal technology has some relative advantages over all other non-renewable
energy sources. It is cost competitive, environment friendly and easy to construct. It is generally used more in
appliances like heaters, crop dryers, cookers, etc. The western part of India has greater potential for the
development of solar energy in Gujarat and Rajasthan.
2.2.2 Wind Energy: Wind energy is absolutely pollution free, inexhaustible source of energy. The mechanism
of energy conversion from blowing wind is simple. The kinetic energy of wind, through turbines is converted into
electrical energy. The Ministry of non-conventional sources of energy is developing wind energy in India to
lessen the burden of oil import bill. The country’s potential of wind power generation exceeds 50,000
megawatts, of which one fourth can be easily harnessed. In Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra and Karnataka,
favourable conditions for wind energy exist. Wind power plant at Lamba in Gujarat in Kachchh is the largest in
Asia. Another, wind power plant is located at Tuticorin in Tamil Nadu.
2.2.3 Tidal and Wave Energy: Ocean currents are the store-house of infinite energy. For the past few
centuries, persistent efforts were made to create a more efficient energy system from the ceaseless tidal waves
and ocean current. India has great potential for the development of tidal energy as large tidal waves are known
to occur along the west coast of India but so far these have not yet been utilised.
2.2.4 Geothermal Energy: There are vast possibilities of developing and exploiting geothermal energy in
India. Lots of hot spring localities have been found in the country. Many potential sites have been identified in
Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh. A geothermal energy plant has
been commissioned at Manikaran in Himachal Pradesh.
2.2.5 Bio-energy: Bio-energy refers to energy derived from biological products which includes agricultural
residues, municipal, industrial and other wastes. Bio energy is a potential source of energy conversion. It can be
converted into electrical energy, heat energy or gas for cooking. It will also process the waste and garbage and
produce energy. The technique is based on the decomposition of organic matter in the absence of air to yield gas
consisting of methane and carbon dioxide which can be used as a source of energy. This will improve economic
life of rural areas in developing countries, reduce environmental pollution, enhance self-reliance and reduce
pressure on fuel wood.
2.3 Conservation of Natural Resources
In order to promote sustainable development, we need to integrate economic development with environmental
concerns. In method of conventional usage of natural resources, there has been large amount of wastage and
many environmental problems. Hence, for sustainable development, there is an urgent need to conserve the
resources. The alternative energy sources like solar power, wind, wave, geothermal energy are inexhaustible
resource and should be developed to replace the exhaustible resources.
3. Manufacturing Industries
Manufacturing is the processing of primary products into more refined and more usable products. Many of the
natural products cannot be used directly without processing. It is because of this reason that we manufacture
cloth from cotton, sugar from sugarcane, paper from wood pulp etc. By doing so, we make the primary products
more valuable and usable. Thus, manufacturing means transformation of natural material endowments into
commodities of utility by processing, assembling and repairing.
3.1 Types of Industries
Industries are classified in a number of ways.
 On the basis of size, capital investment and labour force employed, industries are classified as large,
medium, small scale, and cottage industries.
 On the basis of ownership, industries are categorised as : (i) public sector, (ii) private sector, and (iii)
joint and cooperative sector, Public sector enterprises are government/state controlled companies or
corporations funded by governments. Industries of strategic and national importance are usually in the
public sector.
 Industries are also classified on the basis of the use of their products such as: (i) basic goods industries,
(ii) capital goods industries (iii) intermediate goods industries, and (iv) consumer goods industries.
 Another method of classifying industries is on the basis of raw materials used by them. Accordingly,
these can be: (i) agriculture based industries, (ii) forest-based industries, (iii) mineral-based industries,
and (iv) industrially processed raw material based industries.
 Another common classification of industries is based on the nature of the manufactured products. Eight
classes of industries, thus identified are: (1) Metallurgical Industries, (2) Mechanical Engineering
Industries, (3) Chemical and Allied Industries, (4) Textile Industries, (5) Food Processing Industries, (6)
Electricity Generation, (7) Electronics and (8) Communication Industries.
Sr. Basis Types of Chief Characterises Examples
No. Industries
1 Source of Raw (i)Agro-based (i) Agricultural products used as (i) Cotton, textile, jute, sugar
Material industries raw materials and paper industry (ii) Iron and
steel, chemical and cement
(ii) Minerals used as raw
industry (iii) Matchsticks and
materials (iii) Raw materials
Bidi industries (iv) Motor
used from forests (iv) Finished
industries use manufactured
products are used as raw
iron and steel.
materials for other industries.
2 Ownership (i) Public Sector (i) Operated and controlled by (i) Bokaro Steel Plant,
(ii) Private Sector government Chittaranjan Locomotive works;

(iii) Mixed Sector(ii) Operated and controlled by (ii) Tata Iron & Steel, Birla
an individual or a group as a Cement;
(iv) Cooperative
company;
Sector (iii)Maruti Udyog;
(iii) Established jointly by public
(v) Multinational (iv) Sugar Industry
and private sector; (iv)Industry
Companies (Maharashtra), Amul (Gujarat);
established by a co-operative
society of raw material (v)BMW car manufacturer of
producers (v)Foreign Germany
companies established their
companies with Indian
companies
3 Major (i) Basic Industry (i) Their finished product is (i) Iron & steel Industry
Functions used as raw material for other
(ii) Consumer (ii) Toothpaste, Soap, Sugar
industries
Goods Industry Industries
(ii) Their finished produce is
(iii) Capital Goods (iii) Produce machines for sugar
directly consumed;
Industry and cotton mills
(iii)Such machines are made
(iv) Half (iv) Plastic grains industries
which can be used to produce
Manufacturer
other goods.
Industry
(iv) Raw materials produced for
other industries
4 Knowledge - Application of special Software Industry
Based knowledge of manufacturing
Industries Hi-tech expertise, engineering
and management, Fast growth
rate
5 Manufactured (i) Metallurgical - -
Goods
(ii) Mechanical
Engineering
(iii) Chemical and
Related Activities
(iv)Textiles
(v) Fertiliser
(vi) Electronics
and Electricals
3.2 Location of Industries

Location of industries is influenced by several factors like access to raw materials power, market, capital,
transport and labour, etc. Relative significance of these factors varies with time and place. The factors affecting
the location of industry can be divided into two broad categories: a) Geographical Factors and b) Non-
Geographical Factors.
3.2.1 Geographical Factors
Following are the important geographical factors influencing the location of industries.
Raw Materials: Location of industries is often governed by the location of raw materials. Industries using weight-
losing raw materials are located in the regions where raw materials are located. For raw materials which lose
weight in process of manufacture or which cannot bear high transport cost or cannot be transported over a long
distance because of their perishable nature, industries are often located near the supply of raw materials.
Examples of this type of industry are sugar mills, pulp industry, copper smelting and pig iron industries.
Power: Regular supply of power is a pre-requisite for the location of industries. Coal, mineral oil and hydro
electricity are the three important conventional sources of power. Most of the industries tend to concentrate
around the source of power. Certain industries, like aluminium and synthetic nitrogen manufacturing industries
tend to be located near sources of power because they are power intensive and require huge quantum of
electricity.
Labour: Availability of cheap labour is a prerequisite for many industries which are labour intensive in nature.
Labour supply should be available in large numbers and also they should have skill or technical expertise as
needed. Light consumer goods and agro-based industries need plentiful of labour supplies.
Transport: Transport by land or water is necessary for the assembly of raw material and for the marketing of
finished goods. Thus, for proper industrial development, we need to have well developed transport facilities.
Market: The process of manufacturing requires that the finished goods do reach the market. Nearness to market
is essential for quick disposal of manufactured goods. It helps in reducing the transport cost and enables the
consumers to get products at reasonable prices. Similarly heavy machine, machine tools, heavy chemicals are
located near the high demand areas as these are market orientated. Cotton textile industry uses a non-weight-
losing raw material and is generally located in large urban centre, e.g. Mumbai, Ahmadabad, Surat, etc.
Petroleum refineries are also located near the markets as the transport of crude oil is easier and several
products derived from them are used as raw material in other industries.
Site: Site requirements for industrial development are of considerable significance. Sites, generally, should be
flat and well served by adequate transport facilities. Large areas are required to build factories. Now, there is
tendency to set up industries in rural areas as cost of land has shot up in urban areas.
3.2.2 Non – Geographical Factors
Apart from the geographical factors, there are various other factors which decide the location of industries in the
country. Following are some of the important non-geographical factors which influence the location of industries
in the country-
Capital: Modern industries are capital intensive and require huge investments which are generally available in
urban centres. Hence, many urban cities have become hub for major industries in the country.
Government Policies: Government activity in planning the future distribution of industries, for reducing regional
disparities, elimination of pollution of air and water and for avoiding their heavy clustering in big cities has
become an important factor. There is an increasing trend to set up industries in an area where the government
policies are favourable and promote industry friendly policies.
Industrial Inertia: Industries tend to develop at the place of their original establishment, though the original
cause may have disappeared. This phenomenon is known as geographical inertia or industrial inertia.
Banking Facilities: Establishment of industries involves daily exchange of Crores of rupees which is possible
through banking facilities only. So areas with better banking facilities are better suited to the establishment of
industries.
3.3 Major Industries
Major industries in India can be studied under the following headings:
3.3.1 Iron & Steel Industry
The development of the iron and steel industry opened the doors to rapid industrial development in India.
Almost all sectors of the Indian industry depend heavily on the iron and steel industry for their basic
infrastructure. The other raw materials besides iron ore and coking coal, essential for iron and steel industry are
limestone, dolomite, manganese and fire clay. All these raw materials are gross (weight losing), therefore, the
best location for the iron and steel plants is near the source of raw materials.
In India, there is a crescent shaped region comprising parts of Chhattisgarh, Northern Odisha, Jharkhand and
western West Bengal, which is extremely rich in high grade iron ore, good quality coking coal and other
supplementing raw materials. India has 11 integrated steel plants, 150 mini steel plants and a large number of
rolling, re-rolling mills and foundries. Except TISCO now Tata Steels Ltd., all the big steel plants are managed by
SAIL. The list of integrated iron and steel plants is-
1. Rashtriya Ispat Nigam Ltd. (Vishakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh)
2. Jindal Steel & Power Ltd. (Raigarh, Chhattisgarh)
3. Bhilai Steel Plant (Bhilai, Chhattisgarh)
4. Boakro Steel Plant (Bokaro, Jharkhand)
5. Tata Steels Ltd. (Jamshedpur, Jharkhand)
6. JSW Steel Ltd. (Bellary, Karnataka)
7. Tata Sponge Iron Limited (Keonjhar, Odisha)
8. Rourkela Steel Plant (Rourkela, Odisha)
9. Salem Steel Plant (Salem, Tamil Nadu)
10. Durgapur Steel Plant (Durgapur, West Bengal)
11. Indian Iron & Steel Company Ltd. (Burnpur, West Bengal)
Details of some of the important iron and steel plant are as follows:
Tata Steel Ltd.: It is the oldest and the largest integrated iron and steel plant in India located at Jamshedpur in
Jharkhand. TSL is most ideally located in respect to iron are, coking coal and flux supplies. The plant started
producing pig iron in 1908 and steel in 1911. This plant enjoys the following advantages:
(1) Iron ore is obtained from the Noamundi mines of Singhbhum district in Jharkhand and the Guruma-hisani
mines in Mayurbhanj district of Orissa. (2) Joda mines of Keonjhar(Kendujhar) district of Orissa supply
manganese. (3) Dolomite, limestone and fire clay are obtained from Sundargarh district of Orissa. (4) Large
requirement of water for cooling purposes is met from the Subernarekha and Kharkai rivers. (5) Labour: Labour
is available locally from the Santhal tribe and from Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh. (6) Coal: It is
available from the mines of Jharia and West Bokaro (Jharkhand).

Indian Iron and Steel Company (IISCO): The three steel plants at Kulti, Burnpur and Hirapur are located near
Asansol in West Bengal. They have merged together to form the Indian Iron and Steel
Company (IISCO). Pig iron is produced at Hirapur plant and sent to Kulti for making steel. The rolling mills are in
Burnpur. The IISCO plants have the following geographical advantages: (1) Iron ore is brought from Singhbhum
(Jharkhand) and Mayurbhanj (Orissa). (2) Coking coal is available from Jharia and cheap electricity from the
Damodar Valley Corporation. (3) Manganese is supplied by Jharkhand, Bihar, Orissa and Madhya Pradesh. (4)
Dolomite and limestone are obtained from Sundargarh (Orissa) (5) Cheap labour is ready available from the
adjoining thickly populated states. (6)Water is readily available from the Damodar river.

Visvesvaraya Iron and Steel ltd. (VISL): It was established as Mysore Iron and Steel Works in 1923 by the
princely state of Mysore. It is located at Bhadravati. This plant is one of the major producers of alloy and special
steel in the country.(1) High grade iron ore is available from Chikmaglur district; (2) Manganese is available from
Shimoga and Ghitradurga; (3) it uses hydroelectric power from Sharavali project.
Hindustan Steel Ltd (HSL)-Bhilai: The Bhilai Steel plant is located in the Durg district of Chhattisgarh and was
built with the Russian collaboration. Bhilai steel plant has the following geographical advantages; (1) Rich iron
ore is available from Dalli-Rajhara mines; (2) Coal is obtained from Korba and Kargali fields in Madhya
Pradesh.(3) Limestone from Nandini mines (4) Manganese is obtained from Bhandara (Maharashtra) and
Ballaghat (Madhya Pradesh)mines (5) Dolomite comes from Bilaspur.
3.3.2 Cotton textile Industry
The cotton textile industry is one of the traditional industries of India. The development of this industry in India
was due to several factors. One, it is a tropical country and cotton is the most comfortable fabric for a hot and
humid climate. Second, large quantity of cotton was grown in India. Abundant skilled labour required for this
industry was available in this country.
The first modern cotton mill was established in Mumbai in 1854. By 1947, the number of mills in India went up
to 423 but the scenario changed after partition when large number of mills had gone to West Pakistan. The
cotton textile industry in India can be broadly divided into two sectors, the organised sector and the
decentralised sector. The decentralised sector includes cloth produced in handlooms (including Khadi) and
power looms.

Cotton is a “pure” raw material which does not lose weight in the manufacturing process. So other factors, like,
power to drive the looms, labour, capital or market may determine the location of the industry. At present the
trend is to locate the industry at or close to markets, as it is the market that decides what kind of cloth is to be
produced. Also the market for the finished products is extremely variable; therefore, it becomes important to
locate the mills close to the market.
In the second half of the nineteenth century, the cotton textile industry expanded very rapidly throughout the
country. Thus, the cotton textile industry is located in almost every state in India, where one or more of the
locational factors have been favourable. Presently Maharashtra, Gujarat and Tamil Nadu are the leading cotton
producing states. West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka, and Punjab are the other important cotton textile
producers. Tamil Nadu has the largest number of mills and most of them produce yarn rather than cloth.
Although cotton textile is one of the most important industries of India, it suffers from many problems. Some of
the burning problems include- (1) Scarcity of raw materials; (2) Obsolete Machinery; (3) Erratic power supply; (4)
Low productivity of labour; (5) Labour strikes; (6) Stiff Competition in domestic and international market; (7) Sick
Mills; (8) Lack of finance.

3.3.3 Sugar Industry

The sugar industry is the second most important agro-based industry in the country. India is the largest producer
of both sugarcane and cane sugar. The industry provides employment for more than 4 lakh persons directly and
a large number of farmers indirectly. Sugar industry is a seasonal industry because of the seasonality of raw
materials. As Sugarcane is a weight-losing crop, Sugar factories hence, are located within the cane producing
regions.
Maharashtra is the leading sugar producer in the country and produces more than one-third of the total
production of the sugar in the country. Uttar Pradesh is the second largest producer of sugar. The sugar
factories are concentrated in two belts – the Ganga-Yamuna doab and the tarai region. In the southern India,
sugar mills are located in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. The other States which produce sugar are
Bihar, Punjab, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat.
Sugar Industry is a highly localized industry. The salient features for its localized nature are- (1) Sugar cane is the
chief raw material used for making sugar. (2) Sugar cane dries up quickly after harvesting. It can neither be
stored nor kept in the field after the crop matures. (3) There should be no gap between harvesting and crushing
of sugar cane. (4) Sugar cane is a bulky raw material and only about 9 to 12 tonnes of sugar is produced from 100
tonnes of cane (5) Transportation of sugar cane is costly. To reduce this cost sugar mills are established in sugar
cane growing areas. (6) Sugar cane is generally transported through animal driven transport or tractor trailers.
Therefore most of the sugar mills are installed within 20 km from the cane growing area. (7) Sugar mills have no
problem of fuel because the bagasse of sugar cane can be used for heating the juice or for generating electricity.
The entire energy requirements of a sugar mill are met through electricity generated with using bagasse as fuel.
3.3.4 Petrochemical Industries
Petrochemical industries are one of the fastest growing industries in India. A variety of products come under this
category of industries. Many items are derived from crude petroleum, which provide raw materials for many
new industries; these are collectively known as petrochemical industries. This group of industries is divided into
four sub-groups: (i) polymers, (ii) synthetic fibres, (iii) elastomers, and (iv) surfactant intermediate. Mumbai is
the hub of the petrochemical industries. Cracker units are also located in Auraiya (Uttar Pradesh), Jamnagar,
Gandhinagar and Hajira (Gujarat), Nagothane, Ratnagiri (Maharashtra), Haldia (West Bengal) and
Vishakhapatnam (Andhra Pradesh).
3.3.5 Machine Tools
It is a core industry and provides mother machines to all sectors of the economy. There are about 200 units
manufacturing various types of machine tools and hand tools. The Kirloskar Brothers ltd was the pioneer
company, which started production in 1930s. The Hindustan Machine Tools (HMT), Bangalore, a public sector
unit, is the first large scale modern machine tools factory in India. These factories produce a large variety of
machine tools, such as lathes, radial drilling machines, grinding machines, gear hobbling machines, lamp making
machines, etc. Besides machine tools, HMT also produces watches, tractors and printing machinery.
3.3.6 Automobile Industry
Before independence, assembling of foreign made vehicles was done in India. The real development of the
industry began with the setting up of two auto mobile units: (I) Premier Automobiles (Mumbai) in 1947, and (ii)
Hindustan Motors Ltd. (Kolkata), in 1948. As steel is the basic raw material for this industry, it tends to be
located near iron and steel producing; centres. Port cities are preferred due to import and export facilities. The
centres producing tyres, tubes, batteries, paints, etc. provide an added advantage. Recently, the trend has been
to locate the automobile manufacturing units near the market.

3.3.7 Electronic Industry
The electronics industry has developed mainly after independence. It covers a wide range of products including
transistor sets, televisions, telephone exchanges, telecommunication, computers and various equipments for
posts and telegraph, defence, railway and meteorological departments. The setting up of the Indian Telephone
Industry (ITI) in 1950 at Bangalore gave a boost to this industry. The software has emerged as a major industry in
the field of electronics. The computer industry made a modest beginning in the: mid 1970s. Now it has achieved
a major breakthrough. The main reason for its rapid growth is a big bank of technically competent manpower.
Bangalore is the largest centre of: electronics goods production and is rightly called the 'Electronic Capital of
India’.
3.3.8 Knowledge based Industries
The advancement in information technology has significantly increased the knowledge based industries in India.
The Information Technology (IT) revolution opened up new possibilities of economic and social transformation.
The IT and IT enabled business process outsourcing (ITES BPO) services continue to be on a robust growth path.
The IT software and services industry accounts for almost 2 per cent of India’s GDP.

3.4 Liberalisation, Privatisation, Globalisation (LPG) and Industrial Development in India

After the new Industrial Policy was announced in 1991, the major objectives of the policy were to build on the
gains already made, correct the distortions or weaknesses that have crept in, to maintain a sustained growth in
productivity and gainful employment and attain international competitiveness. Within this policy, measures
initiated are: (1) abolition of industrial licensing, (2) free entry to foreign technology, (3) foreign investment
policy, (4) access to capital market, (5) open trade, (6) abolition of phased manufacturing programme, and (7)
liberalised industrial location programme. The industrial licensing system was abolished for all except six
industries related to security, strategic or environmental concerns.
The government also decided to offer a part of the shareholdings in the public enterprises to financial
institutions, general public and workers. The threshold limits of assets have been scrapped and no industry
requires prior approval for investing in the delicensed sector. In the new industrial policy, Foreign Direct
Investment (FDI) has been seen as a supplement to the domestic investment for achieving a higher level of
economic development. Government has permitted access to automatic route for Foreign Direct Investment
under various sectors and respective limits have been setup for various fields. Besides, the industrial policy has
been liberalised to attract private investor both domestic and multi-nationals. New sectors like, mining,
telecommunications, highway construction and management have been thrown open to private companies. Still
there has been a big gap between approved and actual foreign direct investment, even though the numbers of
foreign collaborations are increasing. The thrust of globalisation has been to increase the domestic and external
competition through extensive application of market mechanism and facilitating dynamic relationship with the
foreign investors and suppliers of technology.
On the whole, it has been seen that the major share went to core, priority sectors while infrastructural sector
was untouched. Further, the gap between developed and developing states has become wider. Major share of
both domestic investment as well as foreign direct investment went to already developed states. In fact,
economically weaker states could not compete with the developed states in open market in attracting industrial
investment proposals and hence they are likely to suffer from these processes. Thus, we need to look ahead at
balancing the act and provide initiatives for the weaker states to reap benefits of the policies of liberalisation,
privatisation and globalisation.
3.5 Industrial Regions
Industries are distributed unevenly in India because the factors affecting industrial locations are not the same
everywhere. Industries tend to concentrate in few pockets because of certain favourable factors. These pockets
of high concentration of industries are known as industrial regions. Several indices are used to identify the
clustering of industries, important among them are : (i) the number of industrial units, (ii) number of industrial
workers, (iii) quantum of power used for industrial purposes, (iv) total industrial output, and (v) value added
manufacturing, etc. Industrial regions have been classified into three categories: Major Industrial region is
identified on the basis of a minimum daily factory working force of 1.5 lakh; Minor industrial region must have a
minimum working force of 25000 labours; industrial district has a working labour force of less than 25000.
Following are the eight major industrial regions of India:
1. Mumbai-Pune Industrial Region:
Location and Extent: This region extends along the coast of the Arabian Sea in Maharashtra. It extends up to
Pune to the southeast of Mumbai.
Advantages and Factors of Development:
(i) Raw material: A lot of cotton is produced in the area around Mumbai. Before independence, however, cotton
used to be imported through Mumbai port.
(ii) Sources of energy: This region is situated at a long distance from the coal producing regions. But electricity is
easily available from the Tata Hydro-electric power houses and the Tarapur Nuclear Power Station.
(iii) Climate: Humid climate of this region is suitable for cotton textile industry. Due to humid climate, thread
does not snap while spinning.

(iv) Capital and banking facilities: Mumbai is a major trading metropolis. Capital and banking facilities are,
therefore, easily available.
(v) Port facilities: The British purchased the Island of Mumbai in 1774 and built a port here. A railway line had
been laid in 1853 connecting Mumbai with Thane. Mumbai port is connected to Pune through Bhorghat Pass and
to Nasik through Thalghat Pass. Mumbai port developed rapidly after the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 .Its
hinterland has a dense network of railways and roads. It is a point of convergence of international air routes
also.
(vi) Market: This region is prosperous economically and the people here have a high purchasing power.
Therefore, there is a large demand of industrial goods in the domestic market. The region has easy access to
international markets also.
(vii) Labour: Skilled and unskilled labour is easily available. Services of foreign experts are also utilised these
days.
Important Industries: Cotton textiles, woollen, silk and synthetic fibres and textile printing are the chief
industries in this region. It is the largest cotton textile producing region in Asia. Manufacturing vegetable oils,
rubber goods, soaps and detergents, electrical goods, engineering goods, automobiles, cycles, etc. and oil
refining are also important industries of this region.
Chief Industrial Centres: Mumbai, the neighbouring suburbs of Thane, Lalganj, Parel, Worli, Mahi, Dadar, etc.
and Pune are the chief industrial centres of this region.
2. Hugli Industrial Region:
Location and Extent: This region extends on both sides of the Hooghly river from Bansberia to the north of
Kolkata to Birlanagar to the south.
Advantages and Factors of Development
(i) Raw material: Enough raw materials are available locally for jute, paper, chemical, silk, leather and
engineering industries,
(ii) Port facilities: Kolkata and Haldia ports facilitate import of necessary inputs and export of finished products.
(iii) Sources of energy: Coal and electricity are available from Damodar Valley nearby.
(iv) Water: Enough water is available from Hooghly and groundwater sources for industries such as jute and
paper mills.
(v) Capital and banking facilities: Kolkata being a major trade centre, capital and banking services are easily
available.
(vi) Transport: Railways and roads link this region with all parts of the country. Rivers Damodar and Hooghly are
navigable. Before independence this region was linked with Assam and the other parts of northeast through
Brahmaputra waterway.
(vii) Labour: This region is surrounded by areas of high density of population. Therefore, there is no shortage of
labour. Trained manpower is also available around Kolkata.
Important Industries: Important industries of this region are jute, paper, cotton textiles, automobiles,
engineering, electrical goods, chemicals, drugs and pharmaceuticals, diesel engines, machinery for textile and
sugar mills, cycles, paints, rubber goods, pottery, silk textiles, vegetable oil and match industries.
Chief Industrial Centres: Haldia, Serampur, Rishra, Howrah, Kolkata, Sibpur, Naihati, Kakinara, Titagarh,
Birianagar, Bansberia, etc. are the important industrial centres in this region. Silt deposition in Hooghly poses
problems to navigation. Farakka Barrage has been built to regulate the flow in the Ganga to solve this problem.
Special ships are used for de silting the Hooghly River. Haldia port on the coast of the Bay of Bengal has been
developed to reduce pressure on Kolkata port.

3. Bangalore-Chennai Industrial Region:

Location and Extent: This region lies in the two states of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. Madurai is situated in its
southern part while Bangalore is situated in the north.
(i) Raw material: This region is an important producer of cotton and sugar cane providing raw material for
cotton textile and sugar industries. Minerals like iron ore, gold, bauxite, magnetite, etc. are also found here.
They serve as raw materials for a number of industries.
(ii) Climate: This region has a mild climate which is suitable for hard work round the year.
(iii) Research institutions: Research institutions like Central Sugar cane Research Institute, Coimbatore, and
Indian Institute of Sciences, Bangalore, situated in this region provide skilled workers and technical support.
(iv) Transport: This region has a dense network of railways and roads and connected to Chennai, Mumbai and
Mangalore ports

(v) Sources of energy: This region does not have coal reserves but hydroelectricity is available. This region has
taken advantage of Mettur, Shivasamudram, Papanasam, Pykara and Sharavati hydroelectric power projects.
Important Industries: This region has a variety of industries. Industries like cotton textiles, silk textiles, sugar,
leather goods, chemicals, and machine tools have developed here. A number of large public sector industries like
Hindustan Machine Tools Ltd.; Indian Telephone Industries, Bharat Electronics and Hindustan Aeronautics are
situated in this region. Bhadravati Steel Plant under the management control of SAIL is also situated in this
region.
Chief Industrial Centres: Madurai, Sivakasi, Tiruchirapalli, Coimbatore, Madukottai, Mettur, Bangalore, Mysore
and Mandya are the important industrial centres. Coimbatore (Tamil Nadu) and Bangalore (Karnataka) have
witnessed a rapid industrial development during the last some years.
4. Gujarat Industrial Region:
Location and Extent: This region extends around the Gulf of Khambhat. Gujarat is situated in its northern part
and Bharuch in its southern part.
(i) Raw material: Area around this region produces large amount of cotton. Mineral oil and natural gas for
petrochemical industries are also locally available.
(ii) Cheap land: Land is cheap and abundant here in comparison to Mumbai.
(iii) Labour: This region has an old tradition of cloth weaving. Therefore, skilled cheap labour for cotton textile
industry is easily available.
(iv) Transport: Industrial centres of this region are connected with each other and other cities with railways and
roads. There are pipelines for transport of gas and oil. [t has given impetus to the development of petrochemical
industries.
(v) Capital: Ahmadabad and Vadodara are cities of rich people. Therefore capital for industry is easily available.
(vi) Port Facilities: This region is served by the new port of Kandla. This port is relatively closer to Europe, Africa
and Central Asia.
Important Industries: Cotton textile is the chief industry of this region. Chemical, drugs and pharmaceuticals,
woollen and silk textiles, paper, milk products, match and machinery for textile industries are the other
important industries. India's famous Amul Milk Industry is in this region. For the past some years, petrochemical
industry using mineral oil and natural gas has been making rapid progress.
Chief Industrial Centres: Ahmadabad, Vadodara, Koyali, Bharuch, Surat, Anand, Kheda, Gandhar, etc. are the
chief industrial centres.
5. Chhotanagpur Region:
Location and Extent: This region extends over West Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. The Damodar and the
Subernarekha rivers flow through this region.
(i) Raw material: This region is rich in mineral resources and has large reserves of iron ore, copper, mica,
bauxite, fire clay, coal, manganese, dolomite, limestone, etc.
(ii) Labour: Cheap workers from Bihar and Uttar Pradesh are easily available. Trained and skilled workers are also
available.
(iii) Sources of energy: The well-known coal deposits of Damodar valley lay in this region. Electricity is also
available from Damodar valley project.
(iv) Transport: This region is connected to the Kolkata port and other parts of India with roads and railways. The
canal waterways of Damodar Project are also used.
Important Industries and Chief Industrial Centres: A variety of industries including iron and steel, paper,
chemicals, heavy engineering, cycles, aluminium, fertilisers, cement, locomotive and railway wagons, etc. have
developed in this region. Iron and steel is the most important industry of Chhotanagpur region. The public sector
steel plants of Bokaro, Durgapur, Kulti and Burnpur and the private sector iron and steel plant of Jamshedpur are
situated in this very region. Sindri, Chittaranjan, Dhanbad, Ranchi, Chaibasa, Hazaribagh, Daltonganj, Garwa and
Japla are the chief industrial centres.
6. Vishakhapatnam-Guntur Region:
Location and Extent: This region extends from Vishakhapatnam in Andhra Pradesh to Prakashan and Kurnool
districts in the south.
Facilities available and Reasons for Development
(i) Raw materials: This area is also agriculturally prosperous. The raw materials like sugar cane, cotton and jute
are locally available. Iron ore is available nearby from Bailadila mines and bauxite reserves are also found in the
area. Limestone is also available locally,
(ii) Power resources: Coal available from Godavari valley and power generated from coal is also available in the
region. The benefit of oil and natural gas reserves in Krishna-Godavari basin also accrue to this region.
(iii) Port facilities: For import and export trade port facilities are available at Vishakhapatnam and
Machilipatnam. It also takes advantage of Chennai and a new port at Ennore.
(iv) Water: The surface water of Krishna and Godavari rivers and coastal waters as well as groundwater in
coastal areas is adequately available to industries in the region.
(v) Capital and banking: Finance and banking facilities are available from Vishakhapatnam, Vijayawada and other
cities.
(vi) Transport: A network of railways and road transport is found in the area. Many principal railway routes and
national highways pass through the region. In this industrial region density of population is also high. There is
thus no shortage of labour. There are many higher technical institutions in the cities of Andhra Pradesh.
Therefore, trained engineers and workers are also available.
(vii) Major industries: In this region chiefly the following industries have developed petrochemicals, sugar,
cotton clothes, jute, paper, fertilisers, cement, aluminium, iron and steel, lead, zinc smelting, etc.
(viii) Chief industrial centres: The chief industrial centres of the region are Vishakhapatnam, Vijayawada,
Vijayanagar, Rajahmundri, Guntur, Eeuru, and Kurnool.
7. Gurgaon-Delhi-Meerut Region:
Location and Extent: The industrial region is spread over the states of Delhi, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh and Union
Territory of Delhi. The region extends from Agra to Ambala.
Facilities Available and Reason for Development
(i) Raw materials: This region is away from mining and power resources region. It is, however, agriculturally
prosperous region. Sugar cane is the chief crop. It supplies raw materials to a large number of sugar mills in the
area. The region is also well developed in milk production.
(ii) Power resources: Two main sources are hydel and thermal power. There are many thermal power stations in
the region. It gets electricity from Northern Grid of Bhakra-Nangal project.
(iii) Transport: There is a vast rail-road network in the region. There are no problems in respect of availability of
raw materials, labour, capital and other facilities.
(iv) Labour: There is no shortage of trained and skilled labour because of the existence of a large number of
educational and training institutions in the area.
(v) Principal industries: The industries manufacturing light engineering and consumer durables are found in the
area. Chief industries are cotton, woollen and silk mills, instruments and tools, tractors, cycles and car
manufacturing units, electronics and vegetable oils, electrical instruments, domestic appliances, agricultural
tools, etc. Software and hardware and glass industries are also found. There are also two large oil refineries at
Panipat and Mathura in this region.

8. Kollam-Tiruvanantapuram Region:
Location and Extent: The region extends from Trichurnagar of Kerala state to Thiruvananthapuram in the South.
Five districts of Kerala namely: Trichur, Ernakulam, Allappuzha, Kollam and Thiruvananthapuram districts are
located in this region.
Facilities Available and Reasons for Development
(i) Raw materials: Almonite, rutoite, zercon, and mononite sands are found in adequate quantities. Plantation,
agriculture like tea, coffee, spices, etc supply raw materials to industries.
(ii) Sources of power: Hydroelectric power stations found in the region are the main sources of supply of
electricity in the region. These power sources are chiefly responsible for industrialisation of the region.
(iii) Transport: The principal rail routes and national highway linking coastal regions pass through the area. Even
roads are found in hilly regions. This wide network of roads and railways has helped in movement of raw
materials and goods. Therefore, distribution of manufactured goods also does not face any problems.
(iv) Ports: A chief port in the area namely Kochi has many facilities available.
(v) Chief industries: Agricultural products processing related industries such as cotton textiles, sugar, rubber,
matches, and fish, mineral-based industries like glass, chemical fertilisers, petroleum and its products,
paperboard and coir products, fine instruments, machinery and tools, etc. are found in the area.
(vi) Principal industrial centres: The principal industrial centres of the region are Thiruvananthapuram, Kollam,
Allappuzha, Kochi, Alwaye and Trichur.
There are thirteen Minor Industrial Regions in the country. They are Ambala-Amritsar, Saharanpur-
Muzaffarnagar-Bijnor, Indore-Dewas-Uijjain, Jaipur-Ajmer, Kolhapur-South Kannada, Northern Malabar, Middle
Malabar, Adilabad-Nizamabad, Allahabad-Varanasi-Mirzapur, Bhojpur-Munger, Durg-Raipur, Bilaspur-Korba, and
Brahmaputra valley. Also, there are fifteen industrial districts which are Kanpur, Hyderabad, Agra, Nagpur,
Gwalior, Bhopal, Lucknow, Jalpaiguri, Cuttack, Gorakhpur, Aligarh, Kota, Purnia, Jabalpur and Bareilly.
4. UPSC Questions Covered
Sources:
a) NCERT – India People and Economy
b) ICSE Geography- Class X - -R K Jain
c) Geography Class XII – Yashpal Singh
d) India- A Comprehensive Geography – D.R. Khullar
e) http://pib.nic.in/feature/feyr2000/fmar2000/f060320002.html
f) http://www.preservearticles.com/2011101215197/brief-notes-on-the-major-industrial-regions-
of-india.html
g) http://hbswk.hbs.edu/industries/


VISIONIAS
www.visionias.in
GEOGRAPHY: 21
Transport & Communication and International

Trade
1. Transport
1.1 Land Transport
1.1.1 Road Transport
1.1.1.1 Advantages of Roads
1.1.1.2 Distribution of Roads in the World
1.1.1.3 Distribution of Roads in India
1.1.1.3.1National Highways
1.1.1.3.2 The State Highways
1.1.1.3.3 The District Roads
1.1.1.3.4 The Village Roads
1.1.1.3.5 The Border Roads
1.1.1.3.6 Expressways
1.1.1.3.7 The Asian Highway (AH)
1.1.1.4 Road Density
1.1.1.5 Problems of Road Transport
1.1.2 Rail Transport
1.1.2.1 Advantages of Rail Transport
1.1.2.2 Limitations of Rail Transport
1.1.2.3 Distribution of Railways in the World
1.1.2.4 Distribution of Railways in India
1.1.2.5 Problems of Railways in India
1.2 Water Transport
1.2.1 Inland Waterways
1.2.1.1 Necessary Conditions for Inland Waterways
1.2.1.2 Advantages of Inland Waterways
1.2.1.3 Limitations of Inland Waterways
1.2.1.4 Distribution of Inland Waterways in the World

1.2.1.5 Distribution of Inland Waterways in India

1.2.2 Oceanic Routes
1.2.2.1 Main Ocean Routes of the World
1.2.2.2 Main Shipping Canals
1.2.2.3 Oceanic Routes in India
1.2.2.3.1 Problems of Shipping in India
1.2.3. Major Ports in India
1.2.4 Types of Port
1.2.5 Types of port on the basis of location
1.2.6 Types of port on the basis of specialised functions
1.3 Air Transport
1.3.1 Important Air Routes of the World
1.3.2 Air Transport in India
1.4 Pipeline Transport
1.4.1 Advantages of Pipeline Transport
1.4.2 Limitations of Pipeline Transport
1.4.3 Distribution of Pipelines in the World
1.4.4 Pipeline Transport in India
2. Communication
2.1 Personal Communication System
2.2 Mass Communication System
2.2.1 Radio
2.2.2 Television (T.V.)
2.2.3 Satellite Communication
3. International Trade
3.1 Factors influencing International Trade
3.2 Components of International Trade
3.3 Types of International Trade
3.4 International Pattern of Trade
3.5 Regional Trade Blocs and World Trade Organisation (WTO)
3.6 Balance of Trade
3.7 Concerns Related to International Trade
3.8 Limitations of International Trade
3.9 India’s Foreign Trade
3.10 Challenges in International Trade for India
4. Sources

1. Transport
Transport provides services of carrying men and materials from one place to another. It links all the spheres of
earth, land, air and water. Development of cheap and efficient means of transport is necessary for the progress
of a country. Transport routes serve as basic economic arteries of the country and provide important link
between production and consumption. Density of transport network and its modernity is the index of economic
development of any country.
Transport system can be broadly classified into four distinct ways i.e. land transport, water transport, air
transport and pipeline transport. Land transport can be taken by man himself or through animal transport, road
transport or rail transport. Water transport can be classified in inland transport systems and oceanic waterway
transport systems.
1.1 Land Transport

Man has been using footpaths for transport since prehistorical times. After the invention of wheel, when
manmade carts, driven by oxen, horse and camel and made use of unsurfaced roads; with the invention of
steam engine need was felt for providing rail lines. First such rail line was, perhaps, from Stockton and Darlington
in northern England opened in 1825. Soon the first public railway system became very popular as it was very
convenient and fastest mode of transport. The networks of road and rail transport threw open remote interior
parts of continents to human settlements, grain farming and industrialisation.
1.1.1 Road Transport

Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru said, ''The path of development goes to villages through roads". This is true to other fields
too. The roads are harbingers of economic development. Only 20 per cent population of the world lives in
developed countries, but it has 72 per cent cars, buses, trucks, etc of the world. Road networks are found in high
density in areas with higher population density round the world. With the advancement in technology, metalled
roads are reaching the countryside and helping in connecting people.
1.1.1.1 Advantages of Roads

The major advantages of road transport over other means of transport are as follows: -
1) Road transport is cheaper than rail transport. Its cost of construction, repair and maintenance is
comparatively less than railway transport.
2) Roads are available up to the house of consumer. The producer and trader prefer roads only because
there arise no need of loading and unloading of their goods at different places. The raw material and the
machines reach the factory directly and the products to the consumers safely.
3) Road transport is the best for short and medium distances. People and goods take less time in reaching
their destination.
4) Roads are highly useful for transporting ephemeral goods such as green vegetables, fruits and milk. The
roads are basis of truck farming.
5) Anytime, anywhere no problem of time and travel.
6) Regular expenditure on roads is very low as compared to rail transport which is high on maintenance of
stations, platforms, rail-routes and on employing large number of employees for running the railways.
7) The construction and usage of roads in inaccessible hilly areas with steep slopes and forested areas is
difficult but possible.
8) Packing of goods is not always necessary in road transport. Sometimes, fruits and vegetables are loaded
without packing.
9) Roads can negotiate steep slopes and sharp turns and are more flexible means of transport.

1.1.1.2 Distribution of Roads in the World

The road network is not evenly spread throughout the world; the density of roads is not the same everywhere
nor is there any system of distribution of roads between small towns and cities. City roads suffer from chronic
traffic congestion. There are peaks (high points) and troughs (low points) of traffic flow between certain hours of
the day. It is estimated that total length of roads in the world is three crore nine lakh km. Out of this only 1.5
crore km roads can be used in all seasons. The North American continent alone has 35 per cent of world's good
roads. The economically and industrially advanced countries have generally a good road network whereas
developing and poor countries cannot cope with the demands of traffic. The United States of America has also
highest road density.
Having consideration for safety on roads, many theories of transportation or traffic-flows have been put
forward. These seek to describe in a precise mathematical way the interactions among vehicles, drivers, and the
infrastructure. It has been found that there is some kind of relationship between these elements which if studied
properly could help in planning, design, and operations of roadway facilities. Particular attention is paid in
respect of flow, density and velocity. In most cities of the world there is chronic traffic congestion. Many
suggestions have been made for urban transport solutions. Among these suggestions include:
(i) Higher Parking Fee
(ii) Mass Rapid Transit (MRT)
(iii) Improved Public Bus Service
(iv) Expressways / Toll Roads
1.1.1.3 Distribution of Roads in India
India has one of the largest road networks in the world with a total length of 46.9 lakh km (2013). About 65% of
freight and 80% passenger traffic is carried by the roads. National Highways in India constitute only about 1.7%
of the road network but carry about 40% of the total road traffic. Number of vehicles has been growing at an
average pace of 10.16% per annum over the last five years.
India has a long tradition of building roads since the times of Chandragupta Maurya and Asoka. The real progress
was made during Mughal period, when Sher Shah Suri constructed a road between Peshawar and Kolkata. It is
now called Grand Trunk (G.T.) Road. Road transport in modern sense was very limited in India before World
War-II. The first serious attempt was made in 1943 when ‘Nagpur Plan’ was drawn. This plan could not be
implemented due to lack of coordination among the princely states and British India. After Independence,
twenty-year road plan (1961) was introduced to improve the conditions of roads in India. However, roads
continue to concentrate in and around urban centres. Rural and remote areas had the least connectivity by road.
Currently, the Indian road network consists of National Highways, State Highways, District roads and Village
roads. Besides these, there are International highways and the Expressways, which are of recent development.
1.1.1.3.1NATIONAL HIGHWAYS
These are the main roads, which are constructed and maintained by the Central Government through National
Highway Authority of India (NHAI)1, which was established in 1995. These roads are meant for interstate
movement and connect the state capitals, important ports, major cities and railway junctions. The total length of
the National Highways was about 19,700 km in 1951. It has increased to about 70,934 km in 2012. The National
Highways are only 2 per cent of the total road length in India, but these roads carry about 40 per cent of the
total road traffic of India.
1
The National Highways Authority of India (NHAI) was formed in 1995. It is an autonomous body under the Ministry of
Surface Transport. It is entrusted with the responsibility of development, maintenance and operation of National Highways.
This is also the apex body to improve the quality of the roads designated as National Highways.
As of now about 26 per cent (18,350 km) of the total length of National Highways (NHs) is single
lane/intermediate lane, about 51 per cent (36,031 km )is two-lane standard, and the balance 23 per cent (16,553
km)is four-lane standard or more.
The NHDP project is composed of the following phases:
Phase I: The Golden Quadrilateral (GQ) connecting the four major cities of Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai and Kolkata.
This project connecting four metro cities would be 5,846 km (3,633 mi). Total cost of the project is Rs.300 billion
(US$6.8 billion), funded largely by the government’s special petroleum product tax revenues and government
borrowing. In January 2012, India announced the four lane GQ highway network as complete.
Phase II: North-South and East-West corridors comprising national highways connecting four extreme points of
the country. The North-South and East-West Corridor (NS-EW; 7,300 km) connecting Srinagar in the north to
Kanyakumari in the south, including spur from Salem to Kanyakumari (Via Coimbatore and Kochi) and Silchar in
the east to Porbandar in the west. Total length of the network is 7,300 km (4,500 mi). The Golden Quadrilateral
and the corridors will also be connected to 10 major ports of India, namely Kandla, Jawaharlal Nehru Port,
Marmagao, New Mangalore, Kochi, Tuticorin, Ennore, Vishakhapatnam, Paradip and Haldia, through a road
length of 363 km.
Phase III: The government recently approved NHDP-III to upgrade 12,109 km (7,524 mi) of national highways on
a Build, Operate and Transfer (BOT) basis, which takes into account high-density traffic, connectivity of state
capitals via NHDP Phase I and II, and connectivity to centres of economic importance.
Phase IV: The government is considering widening 20,000 km (12,000 mi) of highway that were not part of Phase
I, II, or III. Phase IV will convert existing single lane highways into two lanes with paved shoulders. The plan will
soon be presented to the government for approval.
Phase V: As road traffic increases over time, a number of four lane highways will need to be upgraded/
expanded to six lanes. The current plan calls for upgrade of about 5,000 km (3,100 mi) of four-lane roads,
although the government has not yet identified the stretches.
Phase VI: The government is working on constructing expressways that would connect major commercial and
industrial townships. It has already identified 400 km (250 mi) of Vadodara (earlier Baroda)-Mumbai section that
would connect to the existing Vadodara (earlier Baroda)-Ahmadabad section. The World Bank is studying this
project. The project will be funded on BOT basis. The 334 km (208 mi) Expressway between Chennai—Bangalore
and 277 km (172 mi) Expressway between Kolkata—Dhanbad has been identified and feasibility study and DPR
contract has been awarded by NHAI.
Phase VII: This phase calls for improvements to city road networks by adding ring roads to enable easier
connectivity with national highways to important cities. In addition, improvements will be made to stretches of
national highways that require additional flyovers and bypasses given population and housing growth along the
highways and increasing traffic. The government has not yet identified a firm investment plan for this phase.
1.1.1.3.2 THE STATE HIGHWAYS

These highways are constructed and maintained by the State Governments through their respective Public
Works Departments (PWD). The State Highways provide linkages with the National Highways, district
headquarters, important towns, tourist centres and minor ports and carry the traffic along major centres within
the state. These arterial routes provide connectivity to important towns and cities within the state with National
Highways or State Highways of the neighbouring states. Their total length is about 137,712 km. These constitute
4 per cent of total road length in the country.
1.1.1.3.3 THE DISTRICT ROADS

These roads are constructed and maintained by Zila Parishads and the Public Works Departments. The district
roads mostly connect the district headquarters with the main towns and large villages within the districts. Now
most of these roads are metalled roads and provide accessibility to the rural areas. The total length is about
4,70,000 km. They account for 14 per cent of the total road length of the country.
1.1.1.3.4 THE VILLAGE ROADS

These roads are constructed and maintained by the Village Panchayat. They connect the villages with the
neighbouring towns and cities. These roads made great progress under the Pradhan Mantri Grameen Sadak
Yojana (PMGSY). Under this scheme, the all weather roads are constructed to provide easy access to the villages.
Their total length in 2005 was 26,50,000 km, which was about 80 per cent of all types of roads in India.
1.1.1.3.5 THE BORDER ROADS

The Border Roads Organisation (BRO) was established in 1960. Its main aim was to plan and construct roads of
strategic importance in the northern and north-eastern border areas of the country. BRO has constructed roads
in high altitude mountainous areas. Apart from this main work, the BRO also undertakes snow clearance in high
altitude areas.
1.1.1.3.6 EXPRESSWAYS
Expressways are the highest class of roads in the Indian Road Network. An expressway is a controlled-access
highway; it is a highway that controls entrances to it and exits from it by incorporating the design of the slip
roads for entry and exit into the design of the highway itself. Expressways make up approximately 1,208 km
(751 mi) of India's road network, as of 2013. The expressways in use are:


National Highway Route Distance
NH-1 Jalandhar – Uri 663
NH-1A New Delhi-Ambala-Jalandhar-Amritsar 456
NH-2 Delhi-Mathura-Agra-Kanpur-Allahabad-Varanasi-Kolkata 1465
NH-3 Agra-Gwalior-Nasik-Mumbai 1161
NH-4 Thane and Chennai via Pune and Belgaum 1235
NH-5 Kolkata - Chennai 1533
NH-6 Kolkata – Dhule 1949
NH-7 Varanasi – Kanyakumari 2369
NH-8 Delhi-Mumbai-(via Jaipur, Baroda and Ahmedabad) 1428
NH-9 Mumbai-Vijayawada 841
NH-10 Delhi-Fazilka 403
NH-11 Agra- Bikaner 582
NH-12 Jabalpur-Jaipur 890
NH-13 Sholapur-Mangalore 691
NH-15 Pathankot-Samakhiali 1526
NH-17 Panvel-Edapally 1269
NH-22 Ambala-Shipkitr 459
NH-28 Lucknow-Barauni 570

List of Main National Highways in India
1) Greater Noida – Agra Yamuna Expressway (165 kilometres)

2) Ahmadabad Vadodara Expressway (95 kilometres)
3) Mumbai-Pune Expressway (93 kilometres)
4) Jaipur-Kishangarh Expressway (90 kilometres)
5) Allahabad Bypass Expressway (86 kilometres)
6) Durgapur Expressway (65 kilometres)
7) Ambala Chandigarh Expressway (35 kilometres)
8) Chennai Bypass Expressway (32 kilometres)
9) Delhi-Gurgaon Expressway (28 kilometres)
10) NOIDA-Greater NOIDA Expressway (24 kilometres)
11) Delhi-NOIDA Flyway (23 kilometres)
12) Mumbai Nasik Expressway (150 kilometres)
13) PVNR Hyderabad Airport Expressway (12 kilometres)
14) Hyderabad ORR Expressway (150 kilometres)
15) Guntur-Vijayawada Outer ring road Expressway (46 Kilometres) Outer Ring Road, Guntur & Vijayawada
16) Coimbatore Bypass expressway(28 kilometres)

1.1.1.3.7 THE ASIAN HIGHWAY (AH)

The Asian Highway (AH) project, also known as the Great Asian Highway, is a cooperative project among
countries in Asia and Europe and the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific
(ESCAP), to improve the highway systems in Asia. It is one of the three pillars of the Asian Land Transport
Infrastructure Development (ALTID) project, endorsed by the ESCAP commission at its 48th session in 1992,
comprising Asian Highway, Trans-Asian Railway (TAR) and facilitation of land transport projects. Agreements
have been signed by 32 countries to allow the highway to cross the continent and also reach to Europe. Some of
the countries taking part in the highway project are India, Sri Lanka, Pakistan, China, Japan, South Korea and
Bangladesh. Most of the funding comes from the larger, more advanced Asian nations like Japan, India and China
as well as international agencies such as the Asian Development Bank.
The following are the routes which pass through India –
1) AH1; Petrapole to Atari via NH 1 & 2

2) AH42, 3,754 km (2346 miles); Lanzhou, China (on AH5) to Barhi, India (on AH1)
3) AH43, 3,024 km (1892 miles); Agra, India (on AH1) to Matara, Sri Lanka
4) AH44, 107 km (67 miles); Dambulla, Sri Lanka (on AH43) to Trincomalee, Sri Lanka
5) AH45, 2,030 km (1269 miles); Kolkata, India (on AH1) to Bangalore, India (on AH43/AH47)
6) AH46, 1,967 km (1,222 miles); named Great Eastern Highway within India from its East Coast to West
Coast - Hazirah-Surat-Jalgaon-Howrah(Kolkata) till AH2.
7) AH47, 2,057 km (1286 miles); Gwalior, India (on AH43) to Bangalore, India (on AH43/AH45)
8) AH48, 1 km (.625 miles); Phuentsholing, Bhutan to border between Bhutan and India
1.1.1.4 Road Density

The distribution of roads in India is highly uneven. The density of roads (length of roads per 100 sq km of area)
varies from only about 10.5 km in Jammu and Kashmir to about 400 km in Kerala. The national average of road
density is about 75 km per 100 sq km. The density of roads is generally high in most of Northern and Southern
states. It is low in the Himalayan region, Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan. This is due to the topography and the
level of economic development of the areas. The construction of roads is easy and cheaper in plain areas than in
the hilly and plateau regions. Keeping in view the volume of goods traffic and passengers, the road network is
not only insufficient, but also inefficient. About 45 per cent of the roads in India are unmetalled and this restricts
their use during the rainy season and also for heavy vehicles.
1.1.1.5 Problems of Road Transport

The road transport in India is facing a number of problems. Some of them are as under:
1) About half of the Indian roads are unsurfaced. These can be used only in fair weather and becomes
muddy and unfit during the rainy season.
2) Most of the National Highways suffer from inadequate capacity, weak pavements, old and broken
bridges, unbridged level crossings, lack of by-pass roads and lack of amenities and safety measures. The
mixing of traffic by high speed cars, trucks, buses, tractors, two wheelers, animal driven vehicles, cyclists,
etc. increases traffic time, congestion, pollution and road accidents.
3) The existence of multiple check posts, toll tax, and octroi duties collection points on roads waste time
and retards the traffic movement and speed.
4) Important amenities, such as repair shops, first aid centres, telephones, clean toilets, food outlets, rest
places are lacking along the roads.

State wise Length of Roads in India
5) The rules of road safety and traffic are wilfully violated by the drivers and there is no efficient system of
checking.
6) The road engineering and construction techniques are out-dated and are not able to meet the
challenges of the future.
7) The participation of private sector in road development is very little due to high investments and low
returns.
8) The policy relating to highway development is not stable, as it changes with the change of government.
9) The multiplicity of agencies involved in the planning, construction and maintenance of different types of
roads.
10) There is a shortage of funds for the construction and maintenance of roads, even for highways, in India.
1.1.2 Rail Transport

The first train of the world started in 1825 A.D. between Stockholm to Darlington in northern England. Since
then, railways became an important means of land transport. Railroad is normally called a track. Distance
between two parallel rails is known as gauge. Over sixty percents of world's rail routes are of standard gauge of
1435 mm. Rail gauge larger than standard gauge is called broad gauge and smaller than standard gauge is called
narrow gauge. The measurements of narrow and broad gauges slightly varies from country to country – narrow
gauge between 914 mm and 1067 mm and broad gauge between 1520 mm and 1676 mm [as in India]. Further
many countries have 1,000 mm gauge, also known as metre gauge.
1.1.2.1 Advantages of Rail Transport

The major advantages of the rail transport are as follows:
1) It is a cheap means of transport for long distance journeys of people and goods.
2) It is a fast transport for long distances.
3) Due to development of new technology in railway lines, wagons and coaches, engines and operation
system, the speed of trains has become more than 300 km per hour. The fast running trains are in
vogue in Japan, France and Germany.
4) On account of air-conditioned coaches, excellent arrangement in sleeper coaches and catering travel
by trains has become very comfortable.
5) Trains transport heavy and bulky goods over long distances.
6) Trains are convenient mode of transport for sending agro-products to consumers and raw materials
to factories.
7) After introduction of big containers, trains and trucks together help the goods to reach at the
doorstep of the consumers.
8) Provision of container services has considerably reduced expenses on packing, loading and
unloading.
9) Perishable goods are transported in refrigerated wagons.
10) Railways contribute greatly to economic development of a region.
1.1.2.2 Limitations of Rail Transport

Some of the limitations of the modern rail transport are-
1) Huge capital investment is imperative in constructing railway track, stations, platforms and
manufacturing wagons and coaches, etc.
2) It is difficult to construct and maintain rail routes in hilly terrains with steep slopes and deserts.
3) Rail transport is generally impossible in areas of heavy rainfall and snowfall.
4) Sending of goods through rail transport becomes difficult due to different gauge of railway lines i.e.
broad, metre and narrow. This increases the expenditure on loading and unloading.
1.1.2.3 Distribution of Railways in the World

The network of rail routes is unevenly distributed across the world. The economically developed countries of the
world have more railways. Railways have played an important role in the industrialisation of these countries. The
colonial rulers of Europe connected the interior parts of their colonies in Asia and Africa to the ports. The main
purpose of this was to bring the raw material from the interior of these colonies to the ports, which was later
shipped to European countries. This was the main purpose behind connecting Delhi to Kolkata, Mumbai and
Chennai. Similar course was followed in Africa by the French, Italians and other colonial powers.

Later, most of the cities were connected by the railway networks. Parts of Europe have great density of railway
network. It is said that Belgium has the world's densest rail route network It has 1 km railway lines for every
6.5sq km area. In Asia the countries of Japan, China and India are densely populated. They have also dense
network of railways. In other countries railways are not widespread. West Asia is least developed in rail
networks because of existence of vast deserts and thinly populated regions. Very recently China has constructed
railway line up to Lhasa in Tibet. The Qinghai-Tibet railway is the highest altitude railways of the world. Another
project, Trans-Asian Railway (TAR) undertaken by the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia
and Pacific [UNESCAP] integrates freight railway networks across Europe and Asia. North America has the
densest rail route network in the world. About 40 per cent rail routes of the world are found in this continent.
Very heavy load like minerals, food grains, logs of timber etc. are transported by railways. Passengers, however,
prefer air journey or road journey.
Intercontinental rail routes connect two ends of a continent. These rail routes are constructed from the political,
economic and military points of view. Important among these routes are given below:
(i) Trans-Siberian Railway: This route was constructed for connecting European Russia to Siberia or Asian Russia
and runs from St. Petersburg in the west to Vladivostok on the Pacific Coast in the east passing through Moscow,
Ufa, Novosibirsk, Irkutsk, Chita and Khabarovsk. It is the most important route in Asia and the longest (9,332 km)
double-tracked and electrified trans– continental railway in the world. It has helped in opening up its Asian
region to West European markets. Its development is on account of economic, political and defence reasons.
(ii) Canadian Pacific Railway: This 7,050 km long rail-line in Canada runs from Halifax in the east to Vancouver on
the Pacific Coast passing through Montreal, Ottawa, Winnipeg and Calgary. This was constructed for connecting
British Columbia (an eastern Province) to other states of Canada. Later on, it gained economic significance
because it connected the Quebec-Montreal Industrial Region with the wheat belt of the Prairie Region and the
Coniferous Forest region in the north. Thus each of these regions became complementary to the other.
(iii) Australian Intercontinental Rail Route: The main purpose of constructing this was to connect the Western
Australia to east Australian states so as to keep it within the union.
(iv) The Union and Pacific Railway: This rail-line connects New York on the Atlantic Coast to San Francisco on the
Pacific Coast passing through Cleveland, Chicago, Omaha, Evans, Ogden and Sacramento. The most valuable
exports on this route are ores, grain, paper, chemicals and machinery.
(v)Trans-Asiatic Railway: A UN assisted rail project for linking Istanbul with Bangkok via Iran, Pakistan, India,
Bangladesh and Myanmar has been pending since a very long time.
1.1.2.4 Distribution of Railways in India
The network of the Indian Railways is the largest in Asia and fourth largest in the world. It is the life-line of the
country catering to its need for large-scale movement of traffic, both passengers and freight. Mahatma Gandhi
said, the Indian railways “brought people of diverse cultures together to contribute to India’s freedom struggle.”
Indian Railway was introduced in 1853, when a line was constructed from Bombay to Thane covering a distance
of 34 km. Indian Railways is the largest government undertaking in the country. The length of Indian Railways
network is about 64,000 km. It’s very large size puts lots of pressure on a centralised railway management
system. Thus, in India, the railway system has been divided into sixteen zones.
On the basis of width of the track of Indian Railways, three categories have been made:
Broad Gauge: The distance between the rails in the broad gauge is 1.676 metres. The total length of broad
gauge line is about 46,800 km, which accounts for about 74 per cent of the total length of rail routes in the
country.

Metre Gauge: The distance between the rails in the metre gauge is one metre. The total length of the metre
gauge line is about 13,300 km, which accounts for about 21 per cent of the total length of rail routes in the
country.
Narrow Gauge: The distance between the rails in the narrow gauge is 0.762 metre or 0.610 metre. The total
length of the narrow gauge is about 3,124 km, which accounts for about 5 per cent of the total length of rail
routes in the country. The narrow gauge is generally confined to hilly areas.
The Government of India has nationalised the railways and adopted a policy of gauge conversion, mainly from
metre gauge to broad gauge. The unigauge system of railways will assure larger capacity, higher speed and
consequently cheaper transportation. The process of gauge conversion is very slow due to the shortage of funds
and it will take many more years to bring the total railway system under single gauge.
The distribution of Indian Railway network has been influenced by the geographical, economical and political
factors. The Northern Plains of India with level land, high density of population, fertile soils and intense
agriculture activities presents the most favourable environment for the development of railways. The relief of
Himalayas and the plateaus is not suitable for the large scale development of railway network. The development
of railways is more in economically active areas. Railways also bring economic development and prosperity to
those regions through which they pass. Due to this economic link, we find the highest density of railways near
big urban and industrial centres, and also in areas which are rich in minerals and agricultural resources. The
present railway system in India is the legacy of British Rule. They planned the pattern of the railway network
according to their needs.
1.1.2.5 Problems of Railways in India

Railways being the largest public sector undertaking has varied and complex problems. Some of them are as
under:
1) Its present railway network is overburdened and inadequate to meet the new challenges of a fast
developing economy.
2) Some regions are beyond the reach of railways due to unfavourable geographical conditions. These
areas need to be opened to railways for removing regional inequalities in economic growth.
3) Railways are facing stiff competition from road transport and thus its share in passenger and goods
traffic is declining.
4) Railways are overburdened with surplus staff on its regular pay roles. This burden hinders the further
development of railways.
5) The railways have to develop uneconomic projects due to political pressures and interferences.
6) Railways have huge outstanding payments to diesel and electric power supply companies.
7) The State Electricity Boards and NTPC increase the tariffs arbitrarily and thus add to the burden of
railways.
8) Railways are the largest consumer of diesel. Any increase in the rates of diesel, adversely affect the
financial resources.
9) Most of the equipment used by the railways are now obsolete and need immediate replacements.
10) There is mounting deficit due to non increase in fares and tariffs by the Government due to political
reasons.
Despite these problems and shortcomings, there is no other substitute for railways, as these are 5 times more
energy efficient and four times more economical than road transport. In the last few years, some administrative
changes have been implemented to reduce the deficit. As a result of consistent efforts, the Indian Railways are
now generating surplus funds. Some of the measures taken include sharpening of marketing capability;
Strengthening of high density network; Cutting down of unnecessary overheads; Commercial exploitation of
railway lands; Participation by the private sector; and Effective and efficient use of available financial resources.
1.2 Water Transport

Man has been using water transport since ancient times. Waterways were being used mainly for transporting
goods for the last few years. But now, big passenger ships are moving from one corner of the world to another
with the load of thousands of tourists. Water transport is the cheapest as compared to other means of transport
because no cost is involved in constructing the roads or on their maintenance. Waterways are highly suitable for
heavy and bulky materials. Waterways are of two types: (i) Inland Waterways, and (ii) Ocean Waterways.
1.2.1 Inland Waterways

The rivers, lakes and canal used for transporting goods or people are called inland waterways. The inland
waterways were very important before the invention of trains and motor vehicles. They were very much in use
for transporting passengers and goods. But, rail routes and roads have reduced their importance to some extent.
1.2.1.1 Necessary Conditions for Inland Waterways

The following are the necessary conditions which need to be met for successful inland water transport in the
country.
1) Rivers should be perennial or water should flow in sufficient quantity throughout the year. Seasonal
rivers are unsuitable for navigation.
2) Water transport cannot take place in river having rapids or waterfalls.
3) The water in rivers, lakes and canals should not freeze during winter season.
4) Soil or sand should not be deposited on the mouth of rivers. The deposition of sand or soil reduces the
depth of water.
5) The course of rivers should not be full of curves. These curves increase the time of transportation.
6) Rivers should not change their courses during floods.
1.2.1.2 Advantages of Inland Waterways
Inland waterways are advantageous in many ways. These can be summarised as –
1) Transportation of heavy and bulky goods is easy and cheap. Coal, different ores, wood and big size
manufactured goods are suitable for water transport.
2) Rivers and lakes are natural routes. Expenditure on their construction and maintenance is not required.
3) Waterways experience comparatively few accidents.
4) Rivers are the only means of transport in thick forested lands of heavy rainfall.
1.2.1.3 Limitations of Inland Waterways
In spite of the above mentioned advantages, the inland waterways have following limitations-
1) Time is lost due to slow speed. Hence, they are not suitable for transporting perishable goods such as
fruits, vegetables and milk and their by products.
2) Most of the rivers flow far away from the densely populated areas where demand for transportation is
more. Hence, this mode of transportation presents difficulties.
3) Seasonal change in the flow and depth of water creates problem in transportation
4) For keeping desired depth in the rivers, lakes and canals, silting of sand and soil is to be removed
regularly. This involves expenditure and the navigation is halted during such an exercise.
1.2.1.4 Distribution of Inland Waterways in the World

All the rivers and lakes of the world are more or less used for transportation. But, navigable rivers which pass
through densely populated areas are more used for navigation. The major inland water ways used extensively
round the globe can be studied as follows-

Rhine Waterway: Rhine River flows through industrial The Rhine flows through industrially advanced nations of
Switzerland, Germany, France, Belgium and the Netherlands. The Rhine River is navigable from Rotterdam for
about 870 km. At its source in Switzerland, it flows along boundary of France and Germany and drains Germany
and the Netherlands and has its mouth near North Sea. On its banks are located main cities of Europe like
Strasbourg {France}, Bonn, Cologne, Dusseldorf and Rotterdam. The vessel take the cargo of industrial products,
coal food grains in addition to passengers and tourists which have seen considerable rise in the past few
decades. For the benefit of tourists, the vessels are fitted with modern conveniences and sail in both directions
of the rift valley. One can enjoy the scenic beauty of the Vossages of France and Black Forest of Germany. Each
year more than 20,000 ocean-going ships and 2, 00,000 inland vessels sail in this waterway.
Danube Waterway: It is an important inland waterway of Eastern Europe. The Danube rises in the Black Forest
of Germany and flows eastwards through Austria, Slovak Republic, Hungary Croatia, Bulgaria, Romania and other
countries and then joins the landlocked Black Sea. It is 2,850 km long. In 1992, a 171 km canal was constructed
linking it with Kohlheim. Now Danube covers a distance of 3,500 km to fall into Black Sea. Cargoes carrying
export items are wheat, maize, timber, and machinery sail in the river. The waterway is also gaining importance
on account of rising tourism.
Great Lakes· St. Lawrence Seaway: This waterway flows through the industrially advanced region and estuary St.
Lawrence River of the United States and Canada. It is therefore the longest and busiest inland waterway of the
world. Ships can ply up to a distance of 3760 km in it. The ships plying on this route are long and narrow and are
capable of transporting 45,000 tonnes of freight. Agro-products, machines, iron ore, coal, petroleum, limestone,
etc. are mainly transported from the ports like Duluth and Buffalo, which are equipped with all modern facilities.
The Great Lakes region of North America consists of Lakes Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie and Ontario.
Mississippi Waterway: Mississippi River is one of the main rivers of North America. It has its source in Lake
Itasca in Minnesota and flow 3,718 km draining fertile lands of interior parts of North America. It then joins the
Gulf of Mexico. This waterway has become more important these days. About 16 km north its tributary Saint
Louis Missouri joins it. Together with Missouri, its total length is 6238 km. For greater part it is navigable.
Steamers can ply in this river up to Minneapolis some distance away from Lake Superior. The Mississippi-Ohio
waterway connects the interior part of U.5.A with the Gulf of Mexico in the south.
Volga Waterway: Volga is Europe's biggest river and has large number of developed waterways. After rising
from in the Valdai Hills north-west of Moscow, it flows for about 3689 km before draining into Caspian Sea. Oaka
River is its major right bank tributary. The river is connected to river Don by a canal which flows into the Black
Sea.
1.2.1.5 Distribution of Inland Waterways in India
The inland waterways refer to using inland water bodies, such as rivers, canals, creeks, backwaters, etc. for
transporting goods and people from one place to another. A number of rivers, like Ganga, Brahmaputra Yamuna,
Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri, Narmada, Tapi, etc. were the main arteries of inland waterways in India. At
present, the inland waterways in India are about 14,500 km in length, contributing about 1% to the country’s
transportation. Out of this about 3,700 km are navigable by mechanised boats.
In order to increase the significance of inland waterways and to improve their efficiency, the Inland Waterways
Authority of India (IWAI) was set up in 1986. The following inland waterways have been declared is the National
Waterways by the IWAI. There are six identified national waterways in India.
National waterway-1: Allahabad–Haldia stretch of the Ganges–Bhagirathi–Hooghly River of total length 1620 km
was declared as National Waterway-1 (NW-1) in the year 1986. The Hooghly river portion of the waterway from
Haldia to Nabadwip is tidal. Sea going vessels navigate up to Calcutta (140 km) and the fairway up to Calcutta is
maintained by the Calcutta Port Trust. From Calcutta up to Tribeni there are no restrictions for navigation by
inland vessels of a loaded draft up to 4m.From Farakka upstream the navigable route is through the main Ganga
River. The Feeder Canal and the navigation lock at Farakka become the link between the Bhagirathi and main
Ganga upstream Farakka Barrage. The large variation in discharge along with unstable morphological condition
of bank and bed, heavy sediment load, continuous braiding and meandering make development of navigational
channel a complex task.
National Waterway-2: Sadiya–Dhubri stretch of the Brahmaputra River of total length 891 km was declared as
National Waterway-2 (NW-2) in the year 1988. The river Brahmaputra flows down the centre of Assam Valley. It
receives a number of tributaries like Subansiri,Jia Bharali, Dihing, Burhi Dihing, Disang, Dhansiri and Kopili.
National Waterway-3:
Kollam–Kottapuram stretch of West Coast Canal and Champakara and Udyogmandal canals of total length 205
km was declared as National Waterway-3 (NW-3) in the year 1993. This waterway comprises of natural lakes,
back-waters, river sections and man-made canal sections. The Champakara and Udyogmandal canals link
industrial centres of Ambalamugal and Udyogmandal with the Kochi port.
National Waterway- 4:
Kakinada–Pondicherry stretch of canals and Kaluvelly tank, Bhadrachalam–Rajahmundry stretch of River

Godavari and Wazirabad–Vijayawada stretch of River Krishna of total length 1095 km was declared as National
Waterway-4 (NW-4) in the year 2008.

Talcher–Dhamra stretch of rivers, Geonkhali–Charbatia stretch of East Coast Canal, Charbatia–Dhamra stretch of
Matai river and Mahanadi delta rivers of total length 620 km was declared as National Waterway-5 (NW-5) in the
year 2008.
Lakhipur-Bhanga stretch of 121 km of the Barak River is the 6th waterway. It will result in unified development of
the waterways for shipping and navigation and transportation of cargo to the North Eastern Region particularly
in the states of Assam, Nagaland, Mizoram, Manipur, Tripura and Arunachal Pradesh. It was accepted as National
Waterway in January 2013 by Union Cabinet.
Uttar Pradesh has the highest length of inland waterways, followed by West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, Assam,
Kerala and Bihar.

1.2.2 Oceanic Routes

The oceans are linked with each other and are for most parts negotiable. Ocean transport plays a significant role
in international trade. Most of the crude oil from the oil producing countries of the world is exported through oil
tankers. The transportation of agro-products, processed foods and manufactured goods including all heavy and
bulky goods are moved through ocean routes.
1.2.2.1 Main Ocean Routes of the World
North Atlantic Ocean Route: It is one of the busiest sea routes in the world. It is also known as Big Trunk Route.
Approx 25 per cent of the ships of the world ply on this route. The main ports of Western Europe are Glasgow
and London (U.K.), Rotterdam (Netherlands), Antwerp (Belgium), Ie Havre and Bordeaux (France).Main ports of
North America are: Quebec and Montreal (Canada); Boston, New York and Baltimore (U.S.A.). Goods shipped
from Europe to Canada and the U.S.A includes manufactured goods like clothes, chemicals, fertilisers, wines etc.
From Canada and the U.S.A to Europe, items include food grains, iron and steel, transport equipment etc.
Mediterranean-Red Sea-Indian Ocean Route: This route connects Eastern Africa, Southern Asia and countries of
Far East to West European countries. This is a very important ocean route of the world. It passes through North
Sea, Atlantic Ocean Mediterranean Sea, Red Sea, Arabian Sea, Indian Ocean and South China Sea. The Suez Canal
route has reduced the distance 6,400 km. Main Ports include Port Said, Aden, Karachi, Mumbai, Kochi, Colombo,
Singapore and Bangkok. Materials moving towards East constitute mainly machines and industrial products etc.
while materials moving towards West are raw materials, cotton, tea, coffee, sugar, rubber, petroleum, etc.
Cape Ocean Route (Cape of Good Hope Route): Before the opening of Suez Canal Route, Europeans used to pass
through this route while visiting India, China and Australia. Still, this route connects Western Africa, South Africa,
Australia and New Zealand to Western Europe for trade, these days. Main Ports in this route are London, Lisbon,
Cape Town, Adelaide, Melbourne, Sydney, Wellington (New Zealand). Palm-oil, wood, almond and copper are
sent to Europe from Africa while wheat, maize, wool, etc. are sent to Africa from Australia. Industrial products
are sent from Europe to Africa and Australia.
South Atlantic Route: The trade between the countries of South America and Europe is being carried out
through this route. Brazil, Argentina, Uruguay are the main countries of South America benefitted by this route.
This route is comparatively less important. Quantity of trade is less because of the underdeveloped West African
countries. Main Ports on this route include London, Liverpool, Hamburg (Europe) Kingston, Havana (West Indies)
Rio-de Janeiro (Brazil, Buenos Aires (Argentina), Montevideo (Uruguay). Materials transported include coffee,
rubber, sugar, meat, wool, wheat, are sent from countries of South America and West Indies to Europe. Coal,
machines and industrial products are sent from Europe to these countries.
North Pacific Ocean Route: This route is used for trade between western regions of North America and Japan;
and China and Far East Asia. These ocean routes are lengthy route and lack facilities of harbours and refilling
fuels. Main Ports include Yokohama, Tokyo, Shanghai and Manila in East Asia and San Francisco, Seattle and Los
Angeles in Western North America. Goods Transported are silk and tea from Japan, wool and different minerals
from Australia are sent through this route to North America. In return, North America sends wood, cereals,
petroleum and finished goods to Australia, Japan and New Zealand.

Major Sea Routes round the world
1.2.2.2 Main Shipping Canals

Shipping canals are canals especially intended to accommodate ships used on the oceans, seas or lakes to which
it is connected. As opposed to it, a barge canal is intended to carry barges and other vessels specifically
designed for river and/or canal navigation. Because of the constraints of accommodating vessels capable of
navigating large bodies of open water, a ship canal typically offers deeper water. Ship canals are constructed for
a number of reasons which include creating a shortcut and avoiding lengthy detours; to create a navigable
shipping link between two land-locked seas or lakes; to provide inland cities with a direct shipping link to the
sea; and to provide an economical alternative to other options.
List of Important Shipping Canals in the World
Canal Length Lock Dimension Location Notes
depth
White Sea – 141 mi 3.5 m 135m × 14.3 Opened in 1933, is partly a
Baltic Canal (227 km) (11 ft) m × 3.5m Russia canalised river, partly an artificial
canal, and partly some natural
lakes.
Shallow depth limits modern
vessels from using the canal.
Rhine-Main- 106 mi 4m lock Opened in 1992, links the large
Danube (171 km) (13 ft) dimensions: Germany rivers Rhine and Danube, and thus
Canal 190m x also the North Sea and the Black
11.45m x 4m Sea.
Suez Canal 120.11 mi No locks, 205 m Egypt Opened in 1869, links
(193.30 km) but 24 m (673 ft) wide the Mediterranean Sea to the Red
(79 ft) Sea.
deep.
Volga-Don 62 mi 3.5 m lock Opened in 1952, connects

Canal (100 km) (11 ft) dimensions: Russia the Black, Azov, and Caspian Seas.
140m x
16.6m x 3.5m
Kiel Canal 60 mi 14 m lock Opened in 1895. Shortens the
(97 km) (46 ft) dimensions: Germany passage between the North
310m x 42m Sea and the Baltic Sea.
x 14m
Houston Ship 56 mi 14 m 161 m USA Connects Houston, Texas to
Channel (90 km) (46 ft) (528 ft) wide the Gulf of Mexico.
Panama 51 mi 25.9 m lock Opened in 1914. Links
Canal (82 km) (85 ft) dimensions: Panama the Caribbean Sea to the Pacific
320m x Ocean, creating a shortcut.
33.53m x
25.9 m
Danube- 40 mi 5.5 m lock Opened in 1984. Links
Black Sea (64 km) (18 ft) dimensions: Romania the Danube to the Black Sea.
Canal 138m x
16.8m x 5.5m
Manchester 36 mi 8.78 m lock UK Opened in 1894. Links the in-land
Ship Canal (58 km) (28.8 ft) dimensions: city of Manchester to Irish Sea.
170.68m x
21.94m x
8.78m
Welland 43.4 km 8.2 m lock Opened in 1931. Links Lake
Canal (27.0 mi) (27 ft) dimensions: Canada Erie to Lake Ontario and is part of
225.5m x the Saint Lawrence Seaway.
23.8m x 8.2
m
Saint 8.2 m lock Links Montreal with Lake
Canada
Lawrence (27 ft) dimensions: Superior.
Seaway 225.5m x USA
2.3m x 8.2 m
1.2.2.3 Oceanic Routes in India

The coastline of the mainland of India and of the islands is about 7,517 km long. India had a flourishing maritime
trade even during the ancient days with East Indies and Middle East countries. The shipping got a setback with
the arrival of European companies during the colonial rule.
India has 13 major ports and 176 non-major ones. The major ports carry about 3/4th of the total traffic. Despite
adequate capacity and handling facilities the average turnaround time of major Indian ports is less than 4 days
which is very high compared to the average turnaround time of about 10 hrs in Hong Kong. This undermines the
competitiveness of Indian ports. Since the ports are not adequately linked to the Hinterland, the evacuation of
CARGO is slow leading to congestion. To this end, all ports trust have set up groups with representatives from
the National Highway Authority of India(NHAI), Railways and State Governments to prepare comprehensive
plans aimed at improving road-rail connectivity of ports. The NHAI has taken up port connectivity as major
component of the National Highways Development Project (NHDP).

1.2.2.3.1 PROBLEMS OF SHIPPING IN INDIA

The Indian shipping industry is facing a number of problems. Some of them are as under:
1) Inadequacy of tonnage capacity.
2) Shortage of container fleet.
3) Over-aged vessels resulting in high operation costs.
4) Stiff competition with foreign shipping companies which provide better and cheaper service.
5) Congestion at the major ports, and
6) Inadequate infra-structural support like ship-repair facility, dry-docking and cargo handling.
1.2.3. Major Ports in India
The 13 major ports of India handle more than 95 per cent of our foreign trade by volume and 70 per cent by
value. The major ports are Kandla, Mumbai, Jawaharlal Nehru (Nhava Sheva), Mormugao, New Mangalore,
Kochi, Tuticorin, Chennai, Vishakhapatnam, Paradip, Haldia, Kolkata and Port Blair. Details of some of these ports
are as follows-
1) Kandla: Kandla port was developed soon after independence to make up the loss of Karachi to Pakistan. It is
a tidal port and is located at the eastern end of the Rann of Kachchh. It handles the exports and imports for
Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Delhi, Rajasthan and Gujarat. It handles crude oil,
petroleum products, cotton, fertilizers, food grains, cement, sugar, edible oils, scrap, etc.
2) Mumbai: It is the biggest natural harbour on the west coast of India. The opening of Suez Canal in 1869
brought it much closer to the European countries. A new port Nhava Sheva has been developed near
Mumbai port. It has decongested traffic at Mumbai port. It handles a large variety of cargo from Middle-East
and European countries. It serves as a hub port in this region.
3) Mormugao: Mormugao port is an important port of Goa and handles the iron ore export from India. It is
located on the entrance of the Zuari estuary. With the opening of Konkan Railway, its importance has been
enhanced and it is working as a multi-commodity port.
4) New Mangalore: It is a new port developed about 9 km north of the old port. The port is well linked with
Mumbai and Kanyakumari. The main items of cargo from this port are iron ore, manganese ore, fertilizers,
tiles, cement, coffee, cashew nuts, forest products, food grains, etc.
5) Kochi: It is a natural port located along the coast of Kerala and is popularly known as “Queen of the Arabian
Sea”. Kochi has sheltered backwater bay, and is open to traffic throughout the year. The main items of
export and import are coir goods, copra, coconut oil, tea, rubber, spices, cashew kernels, sea food, chemical
fertilizers, etc. The Kochi Oil Refinery receives crude oil from this port.
6) Tuticorin: It has been recently developed along the south-eastern coast of Tamil Nadu. It has an artificial
deep sea harbour and is well connected with railways and roads. Main exports and imports are tea, spices,
cotton textiles, hides and skins, edible oils, sugar, petroleum products, etc.
7) Chennai: It is the oldest artificial harbour on the east coast of India. It is often hit by cyclones in October and
November, making the shipping difficult. It is not suited for large ships due to lesser depth of water. This
port mainly handles petroleum products, fertilizers, iron ore, coal, edible oils, machinery, cotton, metals, etc.
8) Vishakhapatnam: It is the deepest, land-locked, protected and the best natural harbour of India. An outer
harbour has been developed to handle iron ore and petroleum. It also has the shipbuilding and ship-repair
industry. Its main imports and exports are petroleum, fertilizers, chemical, machinery, metals, iron ore,
timber, leather goods and food grains.
9) Paradip: It is deep water and all weather port, located about 100 km east of Cuttack. It has the deepest
harbour in the country. This port handles iron ore and coal along with some dry cargo. The port is well
connected through rail and road with different parts of Orissa.
10) Kolkata-Haldia: It is situated along the Hugli River about 148 km away from sea shore. It is one of the
leading ports of India. Its importance has slightly declined due to the development of Paradip and
Vishakhapatnam ports. Kolkata is a truncated port and has two dock systems-Kidderpore Docks and Netaji
Subhash docks. Recently in 1978, another port Haldia (90 km downstream from Kolkata) has been

developed, for handling the bulk cargo, and to relieve pressure on the old port. The port handles petroleum,
chemicals, edible oils, railway equipment, machinery, tea, sugar, gunnies, leather goods, lac, mica, scrap, etc.
1.2.4 Types of Port
Generally, ports are classified according to the types of traffic which they handle. Types of port according to
cargo handled:
(i) Industrial Ports: These ports specialise in bulk cargo-like grain, sugar, ore, oil, chemicals and similar materials.
(ii) Commercial Ports: These ports handle general cargo-packaged products and manufactured goods. These
ports also handle passenger traffic.
(iii) Comprehensive Ports: Such ports handle bulk and general cargo in large volumes. Most of the world’s great
ports are classified as comprehensive ports.
1.2.5 Types of port on the basis of location
(i) Inland Ports: These ports are located away from the sea coast. They are linked to the sea through a river or a
canal. Such ports are accessible to flat bottom ships or barges. For example, Manchester is linked with a canal;
Memphis is located on the river Mississippi; Rhine has several ports like Mannheim and Duisburg; and Kolkata is
located on the river Hooghly, a branch of the river Ganga.
(ii) Out Ports: These are deep water ports built away from the actual ports. These serve the parent ports by
receiving those ships which are unable to approach them due to their large size. Classic combination, for
example, is Athens and its out port Piraeus in Greece.
1.2.6 Types of port on the basis of specialised functions
(i) Oil Ports: These ports deal in the processing and shipping of oil. Some of these are tanker ports and some are
refinery ports. Maracaibo in Venezuela, Esskhira in Tunisia, and Tripoli in Lebanon are tanker ports. Abadan on
the Gulf of Persia is a refinery port.

(ii) Ports of Call: These are the ports which originally developed as calling points on main sea routes where ships
used to anchor for refuelling, watering and taking food items. Later on, they developed into commercial ports.
Aden, Honolulu and Singapore are good examples.
(iii) Packet Station: These are also known as ferry ports. These packet stations are exclusively concerned with the
transportation of passengers and mail across water bodies covering short distances. These stations occur in pairs
located in such a way that they face each other across the water body, e.g. Dover in England and Calais in France
across the English Channel.
(iv) Entrepot Ports: These are collection centres where the goods are brought from different countries for export.
Singapore is an entrepot for Asia. For e.g. Rotterdam for Europe, and Copenhagen for the Baltic region
(v) Naval Ports: These are ports which have only strategic importance. These ports serve warships and have
repair workshops for them. Kochi and Karwar are examples of such ports in India.

1.3 Air Transport

Air transport is the fastest means of movement from one place to the other. It has reduced distances by
minimising the travel time. It is very essential for a vast country like India, where distances are large and the
terrain and climatic conditions are diverse.
Air services can be further classified into two type’s i.e. (i) domestic air services; and (ii) international services.
The domestic air services provide air services by transporting passengers and goods from one part to another
part within the same country; whereas international services provide connection between two or more
countries.
1.3.1 Important Air Routes of the World
Generally, all the countries of the world have their own airways. But, air routes are well developed in industrially
advanced countries because aeroplanes get more passengers and goods for air transport in these countries.
Airlines earn a lot of profit in such countries. Areas of Dense Air routes cover Western Europe, South Eastern
Canada and Eastern United States of America and South and South East Asia. Air services for different directions
are available at many cities of the world.
1.3.2 Air Transport in India

Air transport in India made a beginning in 1911 when airmail operation commenced over a little distance of 10
km between Allahabad and Naini. But its real development took place in post-Independent period. In 1947,
there were four companies, namely 1 Indian National Airways; 2 Tata Sons Limited, 3 Air Services of India, and 4
Deccan Airways.
The Airport Authority of India is responsible for providing safe, efficient air traffic and aeronautical
communication services in the Indian Air Space. The authority manages 125 airports including 11 international,
86 domestic and 29 civil enclaves at defence air fields. To enhance airport infrastructure in India, modernization
of existing airport infrastructure in metro and non-metro cities and construction of Greenfield airports were
contemplated. The Twelfth Five Year Plan (2012-17) envisages an investment of Rs. 65,000 crore at Indian
airports, of which a contribution of about Rs. 50,000 crore is expected from the private sector. The air transport
in India was managed by two corporations, Air India and Indian Airlines after nationalisation. Now many private
companies have also started passenger services. Air India provides International Air Services for both passengers
and cargo traffic. It connects all the continents of the world through its services.
Domestic passenger traffic handled at Indian airports reached 106 million during January to November 2012;
while the International passenger traffic handled at Indian airports was placed at 37.8 million during January-
November 2012. International cargo throughput at Indian airports during January-November 2012 was 1.30
MMT as compared to 1.37 MMT during the previous year. Domestic cargo throughput during January-
November 2012 stood at 0.73 MMT.
The Government of India approved a Turn Around Plan (TAP) and a Financial Restructuring Plan (FRP) for
improving the operational and financial performance of Air India (AI) in April 2012. The company has taken
several initiatives towards cost cutting and revenue enhancement during the year 2011-12, covering route
rationalization, phasing out and grounding of old fleet, freezing of employment in non-operational areas,
leveraging assets of the company to increase MRO (maintenance, repair, and overhaul) revenue and revenue
from the company's real estate properties. The TAP also included operationalization of subsidiary companies in
ground handling and MRO and transfer of manpower and equipment so that these could be treated as
independent profit centres.

1.4 Pipeline Transport

Pipelines were used to supply water cities, factories, etc. till recently. But, nowadays, pipelines are used in
transporting liquid materials mainly petroleum and its products, natural gas, slurry of iron ore and coal and even
milk.
1.4.1 Advantages of Pipeline Transport

The pipeline transport provides many advantages in transport of fluid products across various centres for trade.
Their salient features include-
1) It is a cheap means of transport for liquid goods.
2) Maintenance expenditure is less as compared to other modes of transport after they are laid.
3) It is possible to lay pipelines even in inaccessible and undulating areas.
4) This mode of transport is not affected by bad weather conditions.
5) There is no problem of leakage, damage and accidents in pipeline transport.
1.4.2 Limitations of Pipeline Transport

Following are the main disadvantages of pipeline transport:
1) It is not flexible, i.e., it can be used only for a few fixed points.
2) Its capacity cannot be increased once it is laid.
3) It is difficult to make security arrangements for pipelines.
4) Underground pipelines cannot be easily repaired and detection of leakage is also difficult.
1.4.3 Distribution of Pipelines in the World

The areas of the world with dense network of pipelines are as under:
(i) United States of America has dense network of pipelines. Most of the pipelines transport petroleum products
and natural gas from the coastal areas like Gulf of Mexico to the consuming areas of north east. The total length
of pipelines in USA in 2007 was 8,00,000 km. In Canada (1, 00,000 km) and Mexico (40,016 km), pipelines are
also important means of transport. The most famous pipeline of the United States is called 'Big Inch'. It carries
mineral oil from oil wells of Gulf of Mexico to north-eastern parts.
(ii) In many European countries, petroleum products and natural gas is transported through pipelines. The oil of
North Sea is distributed through pipelines on the main land of the continent. Russia in 2007, alone has 2, 44,000
km long pipelines. Pipeline transport is also important in Germany and France. COMECON, 4800 km long is the
longest pipeline of the world. It transports mineral oil from Volga and Ural in Russia to East European countries.
(iii) Middle East Asia: Oil is transported through pipelines from Saudi Arabia (6550 km), Iraq and other countries
to refineries located on the Mediterranean coast. In Iran 9,800 km long pipeline exists.
(iv) Central Asia: The oil producing countries of central Asia i.e. Azerbaijan, Turkmenistan and Kazakhstan supply
petroleum and natural gas through many pipelines to Turkey and Russia. Thousand kilometres long pipelines are
under construction in this region.
1.4.4 Pipeline Transport in India
Pipeline transport in India dates back to 1959 when Oil India Limited (OIL) was incorporated as a company. Asia’s
first cross country pipeline covering a distance of 1,157 km was constructed by OIL from Naharkatiya oilfield in
Assam to Barauni refinery in Bihar. Other extensive network of pipelines has been constructed in the western
region of India of which Ankleshwar-Koyali, Mumbai High- Koyali and Hazira-Vijaipur-Jagdishpur (HVJ) are most
important. Recently, a 1256 km long pipeline connecting Salaya (Gujarat) with Mathura (U.P.) has been
constructed. It supplies crude oil from Gujarat to Punjab (Jalandhar) via Mathura.
Some of the important pipelines are briefly described as under:

1. Naharkatia-Nunmati-Barauni Pipeline: This was the first pipeline constructed in India to bring crude oil from
Naharkatia oilfield to Nunmati. It was later extended to transport crude oil to refinery at Barauni in Bihar. It is
1,167 km long. It is now extended to Kanpur in U.P.
2. Mumbai High-Mumbai-Ankleshwar-Koyali Pipeline: This pipeline connects oilfields of Mumbai High and
Gujarat with oil refinery at Koyali. A 210 km long double pipeline connects Mumbai with Mumbai High. It
provides facilities for transporting crude oil and natural gas. Ankleshwar-Koyali pipeline was completed in 1965.
It transports crude oil from Ankleshwar oilfield to Koyali refinery.
3. Salaya-Koyali-Mathura Pipeline: An important pipeline has been laid from Salaya in Gujarat to Mathura in
U.P. via Viramgram. This is 1,256 km long pipeline which supplies crude oil to refineries at Koyali and Mathura.
From Mathura, it has been extended to the oil refinery at Panipat in Haryana and further to Jalandhar in Punjab.
It has an offshore terminal for imported crude oil.
4. Hajira-Vijapur-Jagdishpur (HVJ) Gas Pipeline: This pipeline has been constructed by Gas Authority of India
Limited (GAIL) to transport gas. It is 1,750 km long and connects Hazira in Maharashtra to Vijapur in M.P. and
Jagdishpur in U.P. It carries 18 million cubic metres of gas everyday to three power houses at Kawas (Gujarat),
Anta (Rajasthan) and Auraiya (U.P.) and to six fertilizer plants at Bijapur, Sawai Madhopur,. Jagdishpur,
Shahjahanpur, Aonla and Babrala.
5. Jamnagar-Loni LPG Pipeline: This 1,269 km long pipeline has been constructed by Gas Authority of India
Limited (GAIL) at the cost of Rs. 1,250 crore. It connects Jamnagar in Gujarat to Loni near Delhi in U.P. and passes
through the states of Gujarat, Rajasthan, Haryana and U.P. This is the longest LPG pipeline of the world. It is
equivalent to transporting 3.5 lakh LPG gas cylinders across 1,269 km every day and its capacity is being
increased to 5.0 lakh cylinder per day.
6. Kandla-Bhatinda Pipeline: This 1,331 km long pipeline is proposed to be constructed for transporting crude oil
to the proposed refinery at Bhatinda. It is to be constructed by IOC at the estimated cost of Rs. 690 crore.
2. Communication
Earlier, means of transport and communication were the same. Transfer of information was done by man or
animals or birds. Inventions of telegraph and telephone have given a new shape to communication system. But
the revolution in the field of communication came after the invention of radio and television. This has made
impossible things possible.
Major revolution in communication came when Samuel Morse invented telegraph in 1844. It played a significant
role in colonisation of Western America in the 19th century. Invention of telephone in 1975 by Graham Bell and
radio in 1894 by Marconi gave new direction to communication. The news was transmitted throughout the
world with the help of radio and without using wire. Marconi sent the message across the Atlantic Ocean in
1901. After the fully developed television in 1945, transmission of picture becomes possible. Modern
information technology has given many forms to communication. Now, the whole world has come closer
together with the help of these communication aids such as cellular phone, E-mail, Fax, Internet, etc. Compared
to means of transport, the means of communication have transformed the world into a 'global village'.
Internet is today the world's most important means of communication. It has added new dimensions to
international trade, banking, remote sensing and other aspects. Today, the Internet is used in a variety of fields
like, education, trade, banking, management, industry, communication, health and surgery, scientific research,
meteorology, administration and in hundreds of other fields. Internet is a huge reservoir of knowledge.
According to one estimate, almost half of the world's population will be connected by internet by 2020.
On the basis of scale and quality, the mode of communication can be divided into following categories: a)
Personal Communication System and b) Mass Communication System.

2.1 Personal Communication System

Personal Communication System includes use of letters, telephones, telegrams, fax, emails, internet etc. Among
the above means, internet is the most widely used and most effective means of communication in urban areas.
The network through internet and e-mail provides an efficient access to information at a comparatively low cost.
It enables us with the basic facilities of direct communication. In the rural areas, telephones and letters play the
role of bridging the people. With the development of technology, internet is expected to soon penetrate in the
rural areas too.
2.2 Mass Communication System

Mass communication system includes usage of radio, television, cinema, satellite, newspaper, magazine and
book, public meetings, seminars and conferences etc. It focuses on a single source transmitting information to a
large group of receivers.
2.2.1 Radio
Radio broadcasting started in India in 1923 by the Radio Club of Bombay. Since then, it gained immense
popularity and changed the socio-cultural life of people. Government brought Radio Broadcasting under its
control in 1930 under the Indian Broadcasting System. It was changed to All India Radio in 1936 and to
Akashwani in 1957. All India Radio broadcasts a variety of programmes related to information, education and
entertainment. With the start of FM radio services in the country, radio has reached new standards in the
country.
FM broadcasting began on 23 July 1977 in Chennai, then Madras, and was expanded during the 1990s. Times FM
(now Radio Mirchi) began operations in 1993 in Ahmedabad. Until 1993, All India Radio or AIR, a government
undertaking, was the only radio broadcaster in India. Indian policy currently states that these broadcasters are
assessed a One-Time Entry Fee (OTEF), for the entire license period of 10 years. Under the Indian accounting
system, this amount is amortised over the 10 year period at 10% per annum. Annual license fee for private
players is either 4% of revenue share or 10% of Reserve Price, whichever is higher.
2.2.2 Television (T.V.)

Television broadcasting has emerged as the most effective audio-visual medium for disseminating information
and educating masses. Initially, the T.V. services were limited Television (T.V.) Television broadcasting has
emerged as the most effective audio-visual medium for disseminating information and educating masses.
Initially, the T.V. services were limited only to the National Capital where it began in 1959. After 1972, several
other centres became operational. In 1976, TV was delinked from All India Radio (AIR) and got a separate
identity as Doordarshan (DD). After INSAT-IA (National Television-DD1) became operational, Common National
Programmes (CNP) was started for the entire network and its services were extended to the backward and
remote rural areas.
Asianet was the first private channel in India and also most popular in India. The central government launched a
series of economic and social reforms in 1991 under Prime Minister Narasimha Rao. Under the new policies the
government allowed private and foreign broadcasters to engage in limited operations in India. This process has
been pursued consistently by all subsequent federal administrations. Foreign channels like CNN, STAR TV and
private domestic channels such as Zee TV, ETV and Sun TV started satellite broadcasts. Starting with 41 sets in
1992 and one channel, by 1995, TV in India covered more than 70 million homes giving a viewing population of
more than 400 million individuals through more than 100 channels.

There are five basic types of television in India: broadcast or "over-the-air" television, unencrypted satellite or
"free-to-air", Direct-to-Home (DTH), cable television, and IPTV. Over-the-air and free-to-air TV is free with no
monthly payments while Cable, DTH, and IPTV require a monthly payment that varies depending on how many
channels a subscriber chooses to pay for. Channels are usually sold in groups or a la carte. All television service
providers are required by law to provide a la carte selection of channels.
2.2.3 Satellite Communication

The beginning of era of space in the world took place with the sending of artificial satellite-Sputnik in the space
on 4th October, 1957. India has placed its own satellites in orbit for communication and surveying of national
resources through remote sensing techniques. This has helped in giving telephone connections to each village.
Now, a resident of a small village of India can talk via mobile or satellite phone from his home to his relative or
friend sitting in anywhere in the world. Artificial satellites, now, are successfully deployed in the earth’s orbit to
connect even the remote corners of the globe with limited onsite verification. These have rendered the unit cost
and time of communication invariant in terms of distance. This means it costs the same to communicate over
500 km as it does over 5,000 km via satellite
On the basis of configuration and purposes, satellite system in India can be grouped into two: Indian National
Satellite System (INSAT) and Indian Remote Sensing Satellite System (IRS). The INSAT is a multipurpose satellite
system for telecommunication, meteorological observation and for various other data and programmes.
Established in 1983 with commissioning of INSAT-1B, it initiated a major revolution in India’s communications
sector and sustained the same later. INSAT space segment consists of 24 satellites out of which 10 are in service
(INSAT-3A, INSAT-4B, INSAT-3C, INSAT-3E, KALPANA-1, INSAT-4A, INSAT-4CR,GSAT-8, GSAT-12 and GSAT-10).The
system with a total of 168 transponders in the C, Extended C and Ku-bands provides services to
telecommunications, television broadcasting, weather forecasting, disaster warning and Search and Rescue
operations2.
The IRS satellite system became operational with the launching of IRS-IA in March 1988 from Vaikanour in
Russia. India has also developed her own Launching Vehicle PSLV (Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle). These satellites
collect data in several spectral bands and transmit them to the ground stations for various uses. The National
Remote Sensing Agency (NRSA) at Hyderabad provides facilities for acquisition of data and its processing. These
are very useful in the management of natural resources.
3. International Trade
A transaction of any kind between two or more parties is called trade. It may takes place at two main levels -
international and national. International trade is the exchange of goods and services among two or more
countries of the world. There are various reasons although economic causes like availability and lower price are
generally the main cause for international trade to take place.
The initial form of trade in primitive societies was the barter system, where direct exchange of goods took place.
It was the system prevailing in the beginning and is considered the forerunner of modern trade. The barter
system of exchange was a difficult and cumbersome process. One had not only to search for sellers and buyers
but also carry a lot of weight amid any season of the year. There were other difficulties as well like making
enquiries to find out what was required and what not. All this was overcome with the introduction of money. In
the olden times, before paper and coin currency came into being, rare objects with very high intrinsic value
2
For complete list of Indian Communication Satellites, please visit http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Indian_satellites and
http://www.isro.org/satellites/allsatellites.aspx

served as money, like, flint stones, obsidian, cowrie shells, tiger’s paws, whale’s teeth, dogs teeth, skins, furs,
cattle, rice, peppercorns, salt, small tools, copper, silver and gold.
The Silk Route was an excellent example of early organised international trade between distant lands. The 6,000
km long Silk Route linked Rome to China with other connecting points like India, Persia and Central Asia. The
traders transported through this route Chinese silk, Roman wool and precious metals and many other high value
commodities. After disintegration of Roman Empire, ascendancy of Europe began in 12th and 13th centuries.
Trade flourished along with naval warfare. There was considerable rise in Asian and European trade which
helped the discovery of new land including Americas.
Fifteenth century onwards, the European colonialism began and along with trade of exotic commodities, a new
form of trade emerged which was called slave trade. The Portuguese, Dutch, Spaniards, and British captured
African natives and forcefully transported them to the newly discovered Americas for their labour in the
plantations.
After the Industrial Revolution the demand for raw materials like grains, meat and wool also expanded, but their
monetary value declined in relation to the manufactured goods. The industrialised nations imported primary
products as raw materials and exported the value added finished products back to the non-industrialised
nations. In the later half of the nineteenth century, regions producing primary goods were no more important,
and industrial nations became each other’s principle customers.
During the World Wars I and II, there were concerns about security, taxes and quantitative restrictions imposed
by many countries for the first time. As a result of these concerns organisations like General Agreement for
Tariffs and Trade (GATT) later christened the World Trade Organisation (WTO) came into being. Their first task
was to work towards reducing tariff, which many countries had imposed. International trade is the result of
specialisation in production. It benefits the world economy if different countries practise specialisation and
division of labour in the production of commodities or provision of services. Thus, international trade is based on
the principle of comparative advantage, complimentarity and transferability of goods and services and in
principle, should be mutually beneficial to the trading partners.
Trends in Growth in Trade Volumes
3.1 Factors influencing International Trade

There are many factors which influence the international trade. Important among these are described below:
Inequality in Natural Resources: The distribution of natural resources is uneven in the world. Due to diversity in
geological structure, climate, natural vegetation, soil, etc., different types of natural resources are found in
different countries. Some countries possess some resources more than their requirement. These countries

export their products to the countries which are either poor in reserves or do not have any reserve. Hence,
inequality in natural resources is the main base of international trade. This inequality is on account of three
important reasons:
1) Geological structure: The diversity of relief is influenced by geological structure which is turn determines
mineral resources base and diversity of agriculture and crops as well animals raised. For e.g. Lowlands
have greater agricultural potential. Mountains attract tourists and promote tourism.
2) Mineral resources: They are unevenly distributed the world over. The availability of mineral resources
provides the basis for industrial development.
3) Climate: It influences the type of flora and fauna that can survive in a given region. It also ensures
diversity in the range of various products, e.g. wool production can take place in cold regions, bananas,
rubber and cocoa can grow in tropical regions.
Population factors: Population size, distribution, diversity as well as people's tastes, likes and dislikes determine
the type and volume of goods traded. Two important population factors are:
a) Cultural factors: Distinctive forms of art and craft develop in certain cultures which are valued the world
over, e.g. China produces the finest porcelains and brocades. Carpets of Iran are famous while North
African leather work and Indonesian batik cloth are prized handicrafts.
b) Size of population: Densely populated countries have large volume of internal trade but little external
trade because most of the agricultural and industrial production is consumed in the local markets.
Standard of living of the population determines the demand for better quality imported products
because with low standard of living only a few people can afford to buy costly imported goods.
Stage of Economic Development: At different stages of economic development of countries, the nature of items
traded undergoes changes. In agriculturally important countries, agro products are exchanged for manufactured
goods whereas industrialised nations export machinery and finished products and import food grains and other
raw materials.
Extent of foreign investment: Foreign investment can boost trade in developing countries which lack in capital
required for the development of mining, oil drilling, heavy engineering, and lumbering and plantation
agriculture. By developing such capital intensive industries in developing countries, the industrial nations ensure
import of food stuffs, minerals and create markets for their finished products. This entire cycle steps up the
volume of trade between nations.
Production more than Requirement: Some countries produce more than their requirement because of their
favourable environment conditions, technological efficiency and skilled labour. Hence, these countries export
their surplus products to other countries.
Shortage of Goods: No country is independent in all its requirement of goods. There exists shortage of some or
the other goods. For example, Japan has technology for producing best quality steel and other means, but it
lacks iron ore and coal. Hence, it overcomes the shortage of raw materials by importing them from India and
Australia.
Development of Transport and Communication: Transport and communication are the main bases of
international trade. Surface, water, air and pipeline transport are required for transferring goods from surplus
producing countries to the countries of shortage.
Technological Inequality: Some countries have developed some specific type of technology which could not be
developed by other countries. For example, United States of America and France have high level technology for
building passenger aeroplanes. Other countries of the world purchase aeroplanes from these countries so as to
meet their demand.

Trade Policies: Developing countries provide some concessions to exporters for boosting their export e.g. tax
concessions, economic aid, etc. Such policies of the government aim to balance the trade in the country's favour
or to enhance the foreign currency reserve, because export help to earn more foreign money. Many countries
levy heavy taxes on goods of import so as to check their import and promote their local industries.
Economic Demand: Notwithstanding these bases, if there is no economic demand of goods, its international
trade is impossible in such a situation. A country may have any quantity of surplus production but without
demand, it cannot be goods of trade. When it becomes an economic demand, the country tries to procure it.
3.2 Components of International Trade

International trade has three very important aspects. These are volume, sectoral composition and direction of
trade.
Volume of Trade: Volume of trade can be measured in three different ways: (a) Actual tonnage of goods traded;
(b) Total volume and value of goods and; (c) Value on per capita basis. However, services traded cannot be
measured in tonnage. Therefore, the total value of goods and services traded is considered to be the volume of
trade.
Composition of Trade: The nature of goods and services imported and exported by countries have undergone
changes during the last century. There has been a steady rise in the volume and prices of manufactured goods.
On account of rapid growth of trade of manufactured goods there has been rapid growth of manufacturing
industries. Thus, the prices of manufactured goods on account of large supplies are coming down. The trend of
decrease in prices of manufactured goods is also on account of decrease in tariff barriers under the World Trade
Organisation (WTO).
Direction of International Trade: Historically, the developing countries of the present used to export valuable
goods and artefacts, etc. which were exported to European countries. During the nineteenth century there was a
reversal in the direction of trade. European countries started exporting manufactured goods for exchange of
foodstuffs and raw materials from their colonies. However, during the second half of the twentieth century,
Europe lost its colonies while India, China and other developing countries started competing with developed
countries. The nature of the goods traded has also changed.
3.3 Types of International Trade

International trade may be categorised into two types: (a) Bilateral trade: Bilateral trade is done by two
countries with each other. They enter into agreement to trade specified commodities amongst them. For
example, country A may agree to trade some raw material with agreement to purchase some other specified
item to country B or vice versa. (b) Multi-lateral trade: As the term suggests multi-lateral trade is conducted
with many trading countries. The same country can trade with a number of other countries. The country may
also grant the status of the “Most Favoured Nation” (MFN) on some of the trading partners.
3.4 International Pattern of Trade

1) On account of globalisation of agricultural and industrial products, the international trade become highly
complex.
2) Fast Growth Rate: The volume of trade is growing very fast.
3) The rate of growth of export trade is almost double that of production rate.
4) The rate of growth of export trade is many times more than the rate of growth of world population.
5) About 25 per cent of world production has now entered international trade.

3.5 Regional Trade Blocs and World Trade Organisation (WTO)

In1948, to liberalise the world from high customs tariffs and various other types of restrictions, General
Agreement for Tariffs and Trade (GATT) was formed by some countries. In 1994, it was decided by the member
countries to set up a permanent institution for looking after the promotion of free and fair trade amongst nation
and the GATT was transformed into the World Trade Organisation from 1st January 1995.
WTO is the only international organisation dealing with the global rules of trade between nations. It sets the
rules for the global trading system and resolves disputes between its member nations. WTO also covers trade in
services, such as telecommunication and banking, and others issues such as intellectual rights.
Regional Trade Blocs have come up in order to encourage trade between countries with geographical proximity,
similarity and complementarities in trading items and to curb restrictions on trade of the developing world.
Today, 120 regional trade blocs generate 52 per cent of the world trade. These trading blocs developed as a
response to the failure of the global organisations to speed up intra-regional trade. Though, these regional blocs
remove trade tariffs within the member nations and encourage free trade, in the future it could get increasingly
difficult for free trade to take place between different trading blocs.
Major Regional Trade Blocs
Regional Blocs Head Member Nations Origin Commodities Other areas of

Quarters co-operation
ASEAN Jakarta, Brunei, Indonesia, Aug, Agro products, rubber, Accelerate
(Association of Indonesia Malaysia, 1967 palm oil, rice, copra, economic
South East Asian Singapore, coffee, minerals – growth,
Nations) Thailand, Vietnam, copper, coal, nickel and Cultural
Philippines, tungsten; Energy development,
Myanmar, – petroleum and Peace and
Cambodia, Laos natural gas and regional
Software products stability
CIS Minsk, Armenia, - Crude oil, natural Integration
(Commonwealth Belarus Azerbaijan, gas, gold, cotton, and
of Independent Belarus, Georgia, fibre, aluminium cooperation
States) Kazakhstan, on
Kyrgyzstan, matters of
Moldova, Russia, economics,
Tajikistan, defence and
Turkmenistan, foreign policy
Ukraine and
Uzbekistan.
EU Brussels, Austria, Belgium, EEC - Agro products, Single market
(European Belgium Denmark, March minerals, with single
Union) France, Finland, 1957 chemicals, wood, currency
Ireland, Italy, the EU - paper, transport
Netherlands, Feb. vehicles, optical
Luxemburg, 1992 instruments,
Portugal, Spain, clocks - works of
Sweden and U.K. art, antiques
LAIA Montevideo, Argentina, Bolivia, 1960 - -
(Latin American Uruguay Brazil, Columbia,
Integration Ecuador, Mexico,
Association) Paraguay, Peru,
Uruguay and
Venezuela
NAFTA U.S.A., Canada 1994 Agro products, -
(North American and Mexico motor vehicles,
Free Trade automotive parts,
Association) computers,
textiles
OPEC Vienna, Algeria, 1949 Crude petroleum Coordinate
(Organisation of Austria Indonesia, Iran, and unify
Petroleum Iraq, Kuwait, petroleum
Exporting Libya, Nigeria, policies
Countries) Qatar, Saudi
Arabia, U.A.E.
and Venezuela
SAFTA Bangladesh, Jan- - Reduce tariffs
(South Asian Maldives, Bhutan, 2006 on
Free Trade Nepal, India, interregional
Agreement) Pakistan and Sri trade
Lanka
3.6 Balance of Trade
Balance of Trade includes all transactions in goods and services including international aid and investments
appearing in the current account of a country. By balances of trade we are able to compare the import-export of
goods and services into a country. When the value of exported goods of a country exceeds the value of imported
goods, it is called positive balance of trade. Contrary to this, if the value of imported goods exceeds the value of
exported goods, it is called negative trade balance.
Global Top 10 Trading Countries3
Rank Exporter Value Share Annual Rank Importers Value Share Annual
Percentage Percentage
Change Change
1 China 2049 11.1 8 1 USA 2336 12.6 3
2 USA 1546 8.4 4 2 China 1818 9.8 4
3 Germany 1407 7.6 -5 3 Germany 1167 6.3 -7
4 Japan 799 4.3 -3 4 Japan 886 4.8 4
5 Netherland 656 3.6 -2 5 UK 690 3.7 2
6 France 569 3.1 -5 6 France 674 3.6 -6
7 S.Korea 548 3.0 -1 7 Netherland 591 3.2 -1
8 Russia 528 2.9 1 8 Hong Kong 553 3.0 8
9 Italy 501 2.7 -4 9 S. Korea 520 2.8 -1
10 Hong Kong 493 2.7 8 10 India 490 2.6 5
Values in Billion Dollar and Percentage
3.7 Concerns Related to International Trade

International trade is mutually beneficial to nations provided the following conditions are met:
1) It leads to domestic competitiveness and enhances regional specialisation.

2) Increases sales and organisations achieve higher level of production
3) Improves standard of living both through income and employment opportunities.
4) It makes goods and services available globally.
3
Leading exporters and importers in World merchandise trade, 2012
5) Through enhancing sales potential there is equalisation of prices and wages.

6) International trade technology leads to diffusion of knowledge and culture.
3.8 Limitations of International Trade

The limitations and demerits of the international trade can be studied as follows:
1) It creates a scenario dependence on other countries.

2) More inequalities and uneven levels of development are created.
3) International trade promoted exploitation, and commercial rivalry leading to wars
4) Global trade affects many aspects of life.
5) Through rapid changes in consumption and production pattern, international trade impacts everything
from the environment to health and well-being of the people around the world.
6) International trade works to economy's and a company's advantage and leads to more, production and
the use of natural resources. It is detrimental to resources' consumption.
7) Resources get used up at a faster rate than they can be replenished.
8) Through increased shipping on account of increase in tourism and trade marine life depletes fast.
9) As a result of exploitation of natural resources forests are being cut down.
10) The river basins and underground water are used sold off to private drinking water companies.
11) There is more pollution on account of expanding business especially by multinational corporations
trading in oil, gas mining, pharmaceuticals and agri-business.
12) The norms of sustainable development are neglected as there is more profit maximisation.
3.9 India’s Foreign Trade

After moderating in the two years following the global economic crisis, world trade in both goods and services in
the financial year 2013-14 reached and surpassed pre-crisis levels in 2011. However, the deceleration in world
growth and trade in 2012 and forecast of only a gradual upturn in global growth by international institutions
portend a weak and slow recovery for world trade.
India's merchandise trade increased exponentially in the 2000s decade from US$ 95.1 billion in 2000-1 to US$
620.9 billion in 2010-11 and further to US$ 793.8 billion in 2011-12. India's share in

Commodity Composition of India’s Imports
global exports and imports also increased from 0.7 per cent and 0.8 per cent respectively in 2000 to 1.7 per cent
and 2.5 per cent in 2011 as per the WTO. Bolstered by the measures taken by the government to help exports in
the aftermath of the world recession of 2008 and the low base effect, India's export growth in 2010-11 reached
an all time high since Independence of 40.5 per cent. Though it decelerated in 2011-12 to 21.3 per cent, it was
still above 20 per cent and higher than the compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 20.3 per cent for the period
2004-5 to 2011-12.
India faced serious food shortage during 1950s and 1960s. The major item of import at that time was food grain,
capital goods, machinery and equipments. The balance of payment was adverse as imports were more than
export in spite of all the efforts of import substitution. After 1970s, food grain import was discontinued due to
the success of green revolution but the energy crisis of 1973 pushed the prices of petroleum, and import budget
was also pushed up. Food grain import was replaced by fertilisers and petroleum. Machine and equipment,
special steel, edible oil and chemicals largely make the import basket.
The export-import ratio highlights the direction of trade between the two countries. Most of the countries want
to maintain this ratio greater than one in order to boost their exports and reduce dependency on imports. A look
at the trade share and export-import ratio of India with its major trading partners is as follows:

3.10
Challenges in International Trade for India
The challenges for India on the trade front are many. While India has successfully diversified its export basket,
more needs to be done on the product diversification front. It also has to reposition itself in its traditional areas
of strength like textiles and leather & leather manufactures where it has lost considerable ground, while at the
same time making forays into new areas. With multilateral trade negotiations stalled, and RTAs on the rise, India
also has to follow a strategic regional trading policy focusing on the potential technology-intensive items in the
more important RTAs. Though geopolitical considerations are important, India may have to bargain more in its
regional trade negotiations, particularly in cases where livelihood concerns of large pockets of the population are
involved, There is also need to address the inverted duty structure in sectors like electronics, textiles, and
chemicals and the artificial inverted duty structure caused by some FTAs/RTAs. On the services front, a gold mine
of opportunity in sectors like tourism including health tourism is waiting to be tapped.
Thus there are many micro, port-specific and sector-specific issues that need urgent attention. These are related
to infrastructure, trade facilitation, tax and tariffs, and credit, and can realistically be addressed in the short and
medium term. Addressing these issues, as is currently being done by the government, can exponentially
promote India's export growth.

4. Sources
i. http://www.nhai.org/roadnetwork.htm
ii. Annual Report 2010–11" (PDF). Ministry of Road Transport and Highways, Government of India. p. 1.
Retrieved 3 April 2013.
iii. http://www.nhai.org/WHATITIS.asp
iv. https://sites.google.com/site/roadnumberingsystems/home/route-lists/asian-highways
v. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asian_Highway_Network
vi. http://iwai.nic.in/index1.php?lang=1&level=2&sublinkid=145&lid=164
vii. https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/policy/wesp/wesp_archive/2012chap2.pdf
viii. http://www.wto.org/english/res_e/statis_e/its2013_e/its13_toc_e.htm
ix. http://comtrade.un.org/db/mr/daYearsGraph.aspx
x. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_of_Southeast_Asian_Nations
xi. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FM_broadcasting_in_India
xii. Economic Survey 2013
xiii. NCERT – India People and Economy
xiv. ICSE Geography- Class X - -R K Jain
xv. Geography Class XII – Yashpal Singh
xvi. India- A Comprehensive Geography – D.R. Khullar
xvii. NCERT – Fundamentals of Human Geography


VISIONIAS
www.visionias.in
GEOGRAPHY: 22
Location of Industries
Contents
Factors affecting Location of Industries ..................................................................................................................... 3
Access to Market .................................................................................................................................................... 3
Access to Raw Material .......................................................................................................................................... 3
Access to Labour Supply ......................................................................................................................................... 3
Access to Sources of Energy ................................................................................................................................... 4
Access to Transportation and Communication Facilities........................................................................................ 4
Government Policy ................................................................................................................................................. 4
Access to Agglomeration Economies/Links between Industries ............................................................................ 4
Other miscellaneous factors................................................................................................................................... 4
Primary Activities ........................................................................................................................................................ 5
Hunting and Gathering ........................................................................................................................................... 5
Pastoralism or Animal Rearing ............................................................................................................................... 6
Nomadic Herding ................................................................................................................................................ 6
Commercial Livestock Rearing............................................................................................................................ 6
Agriculture .............................................................................................................................................................. 8
Subsistence Agriculture ...................................................................................................................................... 8
Plantation Agriculture ........................................................................................................................................ 9
Extensive Commercial Grain Cultivation ............................................................................................................ 9
Mixed Farming .................................................................................................................................................. 10
Dairy Farming ................................................................................................................................................... 10
Mediterranean Agriculture ............................................................................................................................... 12
Market Gardening and Horticulture ................................................................................................................. 12
Co-operative Farming ....................................................................................................................................... 12
Collective Farming ............................................................................................................................................ 12
Mining................................................................................................................................................................... 12

Manufacturing Activities .......................................................................................................................................... 13

Iron and Steel Industry ......................................................................................................................................... 13
America............................................................................................................................................................. 13
Europe .............................................................................................................................................................. 13
Asia ................................................................................................................................................................... 14
Australia ............................................................................................................................................................ 15
Africa................................................................................................................................................................. 15
Chemical Industry with Special Reference to Petro-chemicals ............................................................................ 15
America............................................................................................................................................................. 16
Europe .............................................................................................................................................................. 16
West Asia .......................................................................................................................................................... 16
India .................................................................................................................................................................. 17
Textile Industry ..................................................................................................................................................... 17

Factors affecting Location of Industries

The location of industry at a particular place is the result of a number of decisions taken at various levels. There
are certain geographical factors which facilitate this decision making. There are other factors which fall outside
the subject matter of geography. The validity or importance of a factor also changes with time and space.
Industries maximise profits by reducing costs. Therefore, industries should be located at points where the
production costs are minimum. Some of the factors influencing industrial locations are as under:
Access to Market
The existence of a market for manufactured goods is the most important factor in the location of industries.
‘Market’ means people who have a demand for these goods and also have the purchasing power (ability to
purchase) to be able to purchase from the sellers at a place. Many industries are located near large urban
centres because the concentration of population in those areas ensures readily available market. Remote areas
inhabited by a few people offer small markets.
The developed regions of Europe, North America, Japan and Australia provide large global markets as the
purchasing power of the people is very high. The densely populated regions of South and South-east Asia also
provide large markets. Some industries, such as aircraft manufacturing, have a global market. The arms industry
also has global markets.
Access to Raw Material

Raw material used by industries should be cheap and easy to transport. Raw materials are the basic
requirements for manufacturing industry. Some raw materials lose weight during processing but others do not.
Industries based on cheap, bulky and weight-losing material (ores) are located close to the sources of raw
material such as steel, sugar, and cement industries. Perishability is a vital factor for the industry to be located
closer to the source of the raw material. Agro-processing and dairy products are processed close to the sources
of farm produce or milk supply respectively.
Many industries do not require much of raw materials and these can be located anywhere independent of raw
material sources such as garment and electronic industries. There are some industries which are not wedded to
any particular raw material. Such industries are known as foot-loose industries.
With the expansion and development of means of transportation the role of raw materials in location of
industries has almost lost its significance. The establishment of iron and steel industry in Japan and cotton textile
industry in Liverpool prove the fact that the multi-nationals and countries with sufficient capital can manipulate
the means of transportation in their favour and obtain raw materials.
Access to Labour Supply

Labour supply is an important factor in the location of industries. Two aspects of labour are important for the
location of industry. First, the availability of cheap labour in large numbers and second, the level of their skills.
For labour intensive industries, cheap labour should be available. Skilled labour is costly but their efficiency and
skill compensate for the higher wages. Some industries are located at a particular place due to the availability of
skilled labour like electronic industry in Japan, glass industry in Ferozabad (Uttar Pradesh) and utensil industry in
Jagadhari and Moradabad.

Labour is more mobile than other factors of production. It can be moved from villages to towns, from towns to
metropolis, from one industry or place to another or even from one country to the other country. This mobility is
namely ascribed to differential wage rates in different situations.
Access to Sources of Energy

In the earlier phase of the industrial revolution, the industries were generally located near the source of energy
as they have fixed locations. Now, large scale generation of hydroelectric power and ability to transmit at high
voltage to far off places and proper distribution over larger areas through grid system have made it possible to
take the energy to any location. Thus the dependence of industries for their location on energy resources has
considerably reduced. However, some energy intensive industries such as aluminium industry are still located
near the energy sources.
Access to Transportation and Communication Facilities

Speedy and efficient transport facilities to carry raw materials to the factory and to move finished goods to the
market are essential for the development of industries. The cost of transport plays an important role in the
location of industrial units. Modern industry is inseparably tied to transportation systems. Improvements in
transportation led to integrated economic development and regional specialisation of manufacturing.
The means of transportation help in the development of industry. At the same time, after the location of
industries at a place, the means of transportation also develop very fast. The concentration of large industries
in the Great Lakes region has been caused by cheap means of water transportation provided by the lakes.
Almost all large industrial towns in Japan are ports. The cheap water transport has facilitated the development
and concentration of Jute mills in the Hoogly valley in India and large industrial towns in the Rhine valley of
Europe.
Government Policy
Sometimes Government adopt ‘regional policies’ to promote ‘balanced’ economic development and hence set
up industries in particular areas.
Access to Agglomeration Economies/Links between Industries

Many industries benefit from nearness to a leader-industry and other industries. These benefits are termed as
agglomeration economies. Savings are derived from the linkages which exist between different industries.
Other miscellaneous factors

Some other factors are crucial for the location of certain industries, for example, the cotton mills were
established earlier in the hinterland of Bombay because coastal location provided high humidity in the air. It
prevented the yarn from breaking. Now it is possible to maintain the required amount of humidity in the mills
with technological intervention. It is therefore, possible to establish spinning mills away from the coast.
Water is an important factor in industrial location. It is required in large quantities in cotton textile industry for
bleaching and in Iron and steel industry for cooling. It is possible, now, to carry water from one place to the
other through pipelines. In certain situations the demand of water is so large that it cannot be met through
transportation of water and such establishments are taken to the sources of water such as nuclear reactors.
The location of some industries is decided by institutional factors like historical, social and political decisions.
Location of industries in backward regions in order to reduce economic disparity and shifting of industries to the

interior parts of a country due to strategic reasons during war are examples of institutional decisions in the
location of industries.
So, the location of modem industries is not guided by a single factor due to its complex nature. All aspects
have to be considered and analysed before deciding location of industries.
Primary Activities
Primary activities are directly dependent on environment as these refer to utilisation of earth’s resources such
as land, water, vegetation, building materials and minerals. It, thus includes, hunting and gathering, pastoral
activities, fishing, forestry, agriculture, and mining and quarrying.
Hunting and Gathering

The earliest human beings depended on their immediate environment for their sustenance. They subsisted on:
(a) animals which they hunted; and (b) the edible plants which they gathered from forests in the vicinity.
Fig 1. Areas of Gathering
Gathering is practised in regions with harsh climatic conditions. It often involves primitive societies, which
extract, both plants and animals to satisfy their needs for food, shelter and clothing. This type of activity requires
a small amount of capital investment and operates at very low level of technology. The yield per person is very
low and little or no surplus is produced.
Gathering is practised in:
 High latitude zones which include northern Canada, northern Eurasia and southern Chile;

 Low latitude zones such as the Amazon Basin, tropical Africa, Northern fringe of Australia and the
interior parts of Southeast Asia.
In modern times some gathering is market oriented and has become commercial. Gatherers collect valuable
plants such as leaves, barks of trees and medicinal plants and after simple processing sell the products in the
market.
Pastoralism or Animal Rearing

At some stage in history, with the realisation that hunting is an unsustainable activity, human beings thought of
domestication of animals. People living in different climatic conditions selected and domesticated animals found
in those regions. Depending on the geographical factors, and technological development, animal rearing today is
practised either at the subsistence or at the commercial level.
Nomadic Herding
Nomadic herding or pastoral nomadism is a primitive subsistence activity, in which the herders rely on
animals for food, clothing, shelter, tools and transport. They move from one place to another along with their
livestock, depending on the amount and quality of pastures and water. A wide variety of animals is kept in
different regions. In tropical Africa, cattle are the most important livestock, while in Sahara and Asiatic deserts,
sheep, goats and camel are reared. In the mountainous areas of Tibet and Andes, yak and llamas and in the
Arctic and sub-Arctic areas, reindeer are the most important animals.
Pastoral nomadism is associated with three important regions. The core region extends from the Atlantic shores
of North Africa eastwards across the Arabian peninsula into Mongolia and Central China. The second region
extends over the tundra region of Eurasia. In the southern hemisphere there are small areas in South-West
Africa and on the island of Madagascar.
Commercial Livestock Rearing

Unlike nomadic herding, commercial livestock rearing is more organised and capital intensive. Commercial
livestock ranching is essentially associated with western cultures and is practised on permanent ranches. These
ranches cover large areas and are divided into a number of parcels, which are fenced to regulate the grazing.
When the grass of one parcel is grazed, animals are moved to another parcel. The number of animals in a
pasture is kept according to the carrying capacity of the pasture.
New Zealand, Australia, Argentina, Uruguay and United States of America are important countries where
commercial livestock rearing is practised.

Fig. 2 Areas of Nomadic Herding
Fig. 3 Areas of Commercial Livestock Rearing

Agriculture
Agriculture is practised under multiple combinations of physical and socio-economic conditions, which gives rise
to different types of agricultural systems. The following are the main agricultural systems:
Subsistence Agriculture
Subsistence agriculture is one in which the farming areas consume all, or nearly so, of the products locally
grown. It can be grouped in two categories — Primitive Subsistence Agriculture and Intensive Subsistence
Agriculture.
Primitive Subsistence Agriculture

Primitive subsistence agriculture or shifting cultivation is widely practised by many tribes in the tropics,
especially in Africa, south and Central America and South East Asia. The vegetation is usually cleared by fire,
and the ashes add to the fertility of the soil. Shifting cultivation is thus, also called slash and burn agriculture.
It is prevalent in tropical region in different names, e.g. Jhuming in North eastern states of India, Milpa in Central
America and Mexico and Ladang in Indonesia and Malaysia.
Fig. 4 Areas of Primitive Subsistence Agriculture
Intensive Subsistence Agriculture

This type of agriculture is largely found in densely populated regions of monsoon Asia. There are two types of
intensive subsistence agriculture:
1. Intensive subsistence agriculture dominated by wet paddy cultivation: This type of agriculture is
characterised by dominance of the rice crop. Land holdings are very small due to the high density of
population.

2. Intensive subsidence agriculture dominated by crops other than paddy: Due to the difference in relief,
climate, soil and some of the other geographical factors, it is not practical to grow paddy in many parts
of monsoon Asia. Wheat, soyabean, barley and sorghum are grown in northern China, Manchuria, North
Korea and North Japan. In India wheat is grown in western parts of the Indo-Gangetic plains and millets
are grown in dry parts of western and southern India.
Fig. 5 Areas of Intensive Subsistence Agriculture
Plantation Agriculture
Plantation agriculture as mentioned above was introduced by the Europeans in colonies situated in the tropics.
Some of the important plantation crops are tea, coffee, cocoa, rubber, cotton, oil palm, sugarcane, bananas and
pineapples. The characteristic features of this type of farming are large estates or plantations, large capital
investment, managerial and technical support, scientific methods of cultivation, single crop specialisation, cheap
labour, and a good system of transportation which links the estates to the factories and markets for the export
of the products.
The French established cocoa and coffee plantations in west Africa. The British set up large tea gardens in India
and Sri Lanka, rubber plantations in Malaysia and sugarcane and banana plantations in West Indies. Spanish and
Americans invested heavily in coconut and sugarcane plantations in the Philippines. The Dutch once had
monopoly over sugarcane plantation in Indonesia.
Extensive Commercial Grain Cultivation

Commercial grain cultivation is practised in the interior parts of semi-arid lands of the mid-latitudes. Wheat is
the principal crop, though other crops like corn, barley, oats and rye are also grown. This type of agriculture is
best developed in Eurasian steppes, the Canadian and American Prairies, the Pampas of Argentina, the Velds
of South Africa, the Australian Downs and the Canterbury Plains of New Zealand.

Fig 6. Areas of Extensive Commercial Grain Cultivation
Mixed Farming
Mixed farms are moderate in size and usually the crops associated with it are wheat, barley, oats, rye, maize,
fodder and root crops. Fodder crops are an important component of mixed farming. Equal emphasis is laid on
crop cultivation and animal husbandry. Animals like cattle, sheep, pigs and poultry provide the main income
along with crops.
This form of agriculture is found in the highly developed parts of the world, e.g. North-western Europe,
Eastern North America, parts of Eurasia and the temperate latitudes of Southern continents.
Dairy Farming
It is practised mainly near urban and industrial centres which provide neighbourhood market for fresh milk and
dairy products. The development of transportation, refrigeration, pasteurisation and other preservation
processes have increased the duration of storage of various dairy products.
There are three main regions of commercial dairy farming. The largest is North Western Europe the second is
Canada and the third belt includes South Eastern Australia, New Zealand and Tasmania.

Fig. 7 Areas of Mixed Farming
Fig. 8 Areas of Dairy Farming

Mediterranean Agriculture
Mediterranean agriculture is highly specialised commercial agriculture. It is practised in the countries on either
side of the Mediterranean Sea in Europe and in north Africa from Tunisia to Atlantic coast, southern California,
central Chile, south western parts of South Africa and south and south western parts of Australia. This region
is an important supplier of citrus fruits.
Viticulture or grape cultivation is a speciality of the Mediterranean region. Best quality wines in the world with
distinctive flavours are produced from high quality grapes in various countries of this region.
Market Gardening and Horticulture

Market gardening and horticulture specialise in the cultivation of high value crops such as vegetables, fruits and
flowers, solely for the urban markets. Farms are small and are located where there are good transportation links
with the urban centre where high income group of consumers is located.
This type of agriculture is well developed in densely populated industrial districts of north west Europe, north
eastern United States of America and the Mediterranean regions. The Netherlands specialises in growing
flowers and horticultural crops especially tulips, which are flown to all major cities of Europe.
Co-operative Farming
Co-operative societies help farmers, to procure all important inputs of farming, sell the products at the most
favourable terms and help in processing of quality products at cheaper rates. Co-operative movement originated
over a century ago and has been successful in many western European countries like Denmark, Netherlands,
Belgium, Sweden, Italy etc. In Denmark, the movement has been so successful that practically every farmer is a
member of a co-operative.
Collective Farming
The basic principal behind this type of farming is based on social ownership of the means of production and
collective labour. Collective farming or the model of Kolkhoz was introduced in erstwhile Soviet Union to
improve upon the inefficiency of the previous methods of agriculture and to boost agricultural production for
self-sufficiency.
The farmers pool in all their resources like land, livestock and labour. However, they are allowed to retain very
small plots to grow crops in order to meet their daily requirements. Yearly targets are set by the government and
the produce is also sold to the state at fixed prices. Produce in excess of the fixed amount is distributed among
the members or sold in the market. The farmers have to pay taxes on the farm produces, hired machinery etc.
This type of farming was introduced in former Soviet Union under the socialist regime which was adopted by
the socialist countries. After its collapse, these have already been modified.
Mining
The use of minerals in ancient times was largely confined to the making of tools, utensils and weapons. The
actual development of mining began with the industrial revolution and its importance is continuously increasing.
The profitability of mining operations depends on two main factors:
1. Physical factors include the size, grade and the mode of occurrence of the deposits.
2. Economic factors such as the demand for the mineral, technology available and used, capital to develop
infrastructure and the labour and transport costs.

The developed economies are retreating from mining, processing and refining stages of production due to high
labour costs, while the developing countries with large labour force and striving for higher standard of living are
becoming more important. Several countries of Africa and few of South America and Asia have over fifty per cent
of the earnings from minerals alone.
Manufacturing Activities
Manufacturing activities add value to natural resources by transforming raw materials into valuable products.
Manufacturing involves the application of power, mass production of identical products and specialised labour in
factory settings for the production of standardised commodities. Manufacturing may be done with modern
power and machinery or it may still be very primitive.
Some of the major manufacturing industries and their locations are discussed below.
Iron and Steel Industry

Iron and steel industry is Important in United States of America, Soviet Union, European countries, Australia
and India. Japan, South Africa, Brazil and Colombia are other Iron and steel producing countries. Continent
wise distribution can be discussed as under:
America
The Great Lakes region in United States of America is the leading iron and steel producing region. The good
quality coke is available from Pennsylvania. Iron ore is brought from the mines of Lake Superior region.
Limestone is obtained from the neighbourhood of Alpena located on the western coast of Lake Huron. Water is
available in plenty from the local rivers and lakes for cooling. This part of United States is densely populated
which ensures large supply of labour. The high density of population and development of iron and steel based
industries have created large market in this region. Pittsburgh and Youngtown to the east of the Great Lakes
and Chicago and Gary to its west are the major centres of iron and steel industries.
There is a great demand for iron and steel in the industrial complexes of Detroit, Toledo and Cleveland as well as
the rail industry of Chicago. The demand for iron ore is high in the industries located on the coasts of Lake Erie. It
is met from the mines of Lake Superior region and the Labrador mines. They are brought by ships through St.
Lawrence Seaway.
Iron and steel Industry has also developed in the Atlantic coastal region. Iron ore is imported from Venezuela,
Labrador and Chile as the coast location has facilitated the oceanic transport. Alabama is the third important
Iron and steel producing region. Birmingham is the most important iron and steel centre of this region.
The iron and steel industry in South America is located in Colombia, Venezuela and Brazil. In Colombia, coal is
available from Tunza district located north of Bogota, iron ore and limestone is available locally and hydro-
electric power is obtained from Toba Lake. In Venezuela, the iron and steel industry is based on the iron ore
from El Pao, Serra Bolivar and Dagiana Hills, coal and limestone from Nankol and hydroelectric power from
Caroni river. The iron and steel industry in Brazil developed after the Second World War. The main steel plants in
Brazil are located are located at Volta Redona, Montevarde and Santos. Chile is also an important steel
producing country of South America.
Europe
The Second World War created a situation before west European nations that they had to turn towards
cooperation rather than competing with each other. Six countries joined together to form a cooperative
community in 1952. France, Germany, Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg and Italy became its members. In

1973, United Kingdom, Ireland and Denmark also joined it. It is known as European Coal and Steel Community.
The major objective of the community is to provide facilities for the supply of iron ore and coal to the members
of the community without any hindrance. Earlier, iron and steel industry in Europe was closely linked with coal
mines but now some industries have moved to the port towns and some have been established near the iron ore
mines.
The iron and steel industry in Europe has developed in France-Belgium, Loraine (France) – Luxembourg – Saar
(Germany), Ruhr (Germany) and north, north-eastern and central parts of United Kingdom. Loraine has the
largest iron-ore reserve in Europe. Ruhr region has high quality coking coal. Rhine River and the canal network
developed in the region provide cheap water transport. Demand for iron and steel in the local industries is large
as most of the west European countries have high level of industrialisation.
In United Kingdom some iron and steel industries are located near the coal mines such as Birmingham. Some
are located near the iron ore mines such as Fordingham and some are located near the ports like Talbot. Other
iron and steel producing countries of Europe are Sweden, Poland and Czechoslovakia.
Iron and steel industry has developed in southern Ukraine which is based on the iron ore from Krivoy Rog and
Kerch peninsula, coal from Donetsk Basin (Donbas) and local manganese. The Ural region is another important
steel producing region of Russia. Iron ore in this region is obtained from Magnet Mountains, coal from Kuznetsk
Basin (Kuzbas) and Karaganda basin. Trans-Siberian railway provides surface transport. Sverdlovsk, Magnitogorsk
and Nizhny Tagil are major iron and steel centres. Besides these major regions, Iron and steel industry has also
been located in Kuzbas and Caucasus region.
Asia
In Asia, iron and steel industry has developed in Japan, China and India.
The iron and steel industry in Japan developed in response to the large demand in engineering, and ship-building
industry. This demand accounts for the rapid development of iron and steel industry in Japan in spite of the fact
that she neither had large Iron ore deposits nor coal reserves. Kyushu island of Japan has very limited coal
reserves. Japan imports large quantities of coke, iron ore, pig iron as well as scrap iron. The iron and steel
industry has been located in southern Honshu and northern Kyushu Islands.
The history of the development of iron and steel industry in China started in the post revolution period i.e. after
1949, though Japanese had established it at Anshan and Fushan in Manchuria earlier. Besides Manchuria,
Shanxi, Shenxi, Hobei and Shandong are the major iron and steel producing provinces.

Fig. 9 World- Iron and Steel industry
Three iron and steel plants were established in India before Independence. Two of these were located at
Jamshedpur and Kulti -Burnpur based on the iron ore, coal and manganese resources of Bihar, West Bengal and
Orissa. Mysore Steel Works at Bhadravati was established by exploiting the iron ore resources of Karnataka. In
India, iron ore reserves are located in Keonjhar, Mayurbhanj, Guru Mahisani, Badam Pahar, Bonai and
Noamundi. Coal is available from Jharia, Raniganj, Karnpura, Giridhih, Talchir, Singrauli and Korba. Manganese
is obtained from Bonai and limestone from Birmitrapur. The high density of population in eastern India
provides cheap labour. There is a dense network of rail and roads. Water is available from rivers. The industrial
hinterland of Calcutta has large demand for Iron and steel. This is why three Iron and steel plants i.e. Durgapur,
Rourkela and Bokaro, have been established in this region after independence. Bhilai was located in backward
tribal region in order to reduce the regional imbalance in economic development..
Australia
Australian Iron and steel industry is based on the coal found in the Hunter valley of New Castle. It is located on
the eastern coast. There is an iron and steel plant at Port Kembla in the south of Sydney.
Africa
Iron and steel industry has developed in Algeria, Egypt, Zimbabwe and South Africa. South Africa is the major
steel producing country in Africa. The industry at Vereeniging utilizes scrap iron and pig iron from Natal.
Chemical Industry with Special Reference to Petro-chemicals

Chemical industry is based on two types of raw materials: natural like minerals, coal, petroleum, salts, potash,
sulphur, limestone, gypsum and vegetable products and by products of other industries such as paper and pulp
industry, iron and steel industry and gas manufacturing industry. Major factor for the location of chemical
industry are availability of raw materials, cheaper means of transport for bulky materials, water supply,
sources for energy and demand of chemicals in other industries.

The major industry based on mineral oil is its refining. The oil refining technology was developed in United States
of America, Europe and former USSR. Earlier the refineries were generally located near the oil wells. The
petrochemical industry developed in Europe and United States of America after the Second World War. The
development of large tankers and pipelines facilitated the transportation of petroleum in bulk and this
provided favourable conditions for locating the refineries and petro-chemical industries near the markets as
well as ports.
America
Most of the petro-chemical complexes in North-America are located in the coastal regions. About 30 per cent
of the oil in United States of America is refined along the Gulf of Mexico coast and another 15 per cent is
refined on the Pacific Coast. The refineries located on the East Coast get crude oil from Venezuela and West
Asia. The refined oil is transported from the Gulf Coast to the eastern region through pipelines and to the west
by tankers. Petro-chemical complexes have developed in Philadelphia and Delaware in the eastern region and
at Chicago and Toledo in the Great Lakes region.
Los Angeles has a big petrochemical complex on the western coast of United States. In Canada, Montreal has a
large petro-chemical industry. The crude oil is brought from Portland and Maine through pipelines and by
tankers from Venezuela. The other important petrochemical complex in Canada is located at Sarnia in Ontario
province.
After the Second Wold War, a refinery was constructed in the Paraguayan Peninsula of Venezuela which receives
crude oil through pipelines from the wells located near Maracaibo Lake.
Europe
The petro-chemical complexes in Europe are located near the markets where these products are demanded. The
major complexes are located on the coasts of Southern North Sea and English Channel. Main centres are
Antwerp, Rotterdam, Southampton and the cities located in the lower Sein Valley. The petro-chemical
complexes of Germany are located in Ruhr region. The French refineries and petro-chemical complexes are
concentrated between Le Havre-Roven and Marseilles including Paris and Lyons. The first petro-chemical
complex in former Soviet Union was located at Baku and Grozny because the mineral oil was available from
the Caucasian oil fields. New petro - chemical complexes are generally located near the consumption centres.
Moscow, Volga, Ural and Soviet Central Asia are the main regions where new petro-chemical complexes have
been recently located.
West Asia
The largest refinery in West Asia is located at Abadan (Iran). West Asia is a large producer of petroleum but
there is little demand because the region is not industrially developed. Thus, most of the petrochemical
complexes are located on the coasts in order to facilitate export. Saudi Arabia has a large petro-chemical
complex at Ras Tanura while Mina-el-Ahmadi is the largest petro-chemical complex of Kuwait.

Fig. 10 World-chemical and petrochemical industries
India
The largest petro-chemical complex In India was established by Union Carbide at Trombay (Mumbai). A
petrochemical complex has been developed along with refinery at Koeli in Vadodra. Indian Petro Chemical
Corporation has been established under public sector. It has started a petrochemical complex at Jawahar Nagar
near Vadodara. Bongaigaon in Assam is another petro-chemical complex under the public sector. Haldia (West
Bengal) and Barauni (Bihar) have been established for petro-chemical processing.
Three large fertiliser complexes are being developed at Bijaipur, Sawai Madhopur and Jagdishpur by utilising
the gas brought through HBJ (Hazira-Bijaipur-Jagdishpur) pipelines. The Mathura refinery has started
diversification of products besides refining the oil.
Textile Industry
History of industrial development in Japan, India, Brazil and Egypt started with the development of the textile
industry. The raw material for textile industry is obtained from hair of animals and vegetation. Wool, silk, cotton
and flax etc. are raw materials derived from natural sources. Some raw materials for textile industry have been
developed by man using his technological and scientific knowledge e.g. nylon, rayon, terelene, terewool, etc.
The technology for manufacturing synthetic fibres has been developed by economically developed countries
and therefore, they have monopolised the production of these fibres.
United States of America is an important producer of synthetic fibres. Here this industry is located in eastern
Pennsylvania and mid-eastern Atlantic coastal region. Recently it has been developed in Virginia and
Tennessee states as they have plenty of water and energy resources, besides the reserves of coal. The major
synthetic fibre producing countries in Europe are Germany, United Kingdom, Italy, France, Netherlands,
Switzerland and Spain. These countries import the pulp from Norway, Sweden and Finland.
Japan like United States of America is an important producer of synthetic fibre. This industry is concentrated
along with the chemical industry in southern Honshu, Kyushu and Shikoku islands. The softwood from the

Taiga conical forest belt in Russia is an asset to the synthetic fibre industry. This industry is concentrated in the
western and mid-northern parts of Ural industrial region because this region lies at the meeting point of
chemical industry and the conical forest belt.
Fig. 11 World-textile industry


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GEOGRAPHY: 23
Human Development
Contents
Human Development ................................................................................................................................................. 2
Concept of Development and Indian aspects ........................................................................................................ 2
Measuring Human Development ........................................................................................................................... 2
Human Development Index (HDI) ...................................................................................................................... 2
Other Multi-dimensional measures of Human Development ................................................................................ 3
Inequality adjusted HDI (IHDI) ........................................................................................................................... 3
Gender Inequality Index (GII) ............................................................................................................................. 4
Multi-Dimensional Poverty Index (MPI) ............................................................................................................. 4
Human Development in India................................................................................................................................. 5
India Human Development Report 2011................................................................................................................ 6
Human Development Index................................................................................................................................ 6
Income Index ...................................................................................................................................................... 7
Education Index .................................................................................................................................................. 8
Health Index ....................................................................................................................................................... 9
Planning and Development .................................................................................................................................. 11

Human Development
Human development is a process of enlarging the range of people’s choices, increasing their opportunities for
education, health care, income and empowerment and covering the full range of human choices from a sound
physical environment to economic, social and political freedom.
Thus, enlarging the range of people’s choices is the most significant aspect of human development. People’s
choices may involve a host of other issues, but, living a long and healthy life, to be educated and have access to
resources needed for a decent standard of living including political freedom, guaranteed human rights and
personal self-respect, etc. are considered some of the non-negotiable aspects of the human development.
Concept of Development and Indian aspects

It is believed that “Development is freedom” which is often associated with modernisation, leisure, comfort and
affluence. In the present context, computerisation, industrialisation, efficient transport and communication
network, large education system, advanced and modern medical facilities, safety and security of individuals,
etc. are considered as the symbols of development. Every individual, community and government measures its
performance or levels of development in relation to the availability and access to some of these things. But, this
may be partial and one-sided view of development. It is often called the western or euro-centric view of
development. For a postcolonial country like India, colonisation, marginalisation, social discrimination and
regional disparity, etc. show the other face of development.
Thus, for India, development is a mixed bag of opportunities as well as neglect and deprivations. There are a few
areas like the metropolitan centres and other developed enclaves that have all the modern facilities available to
a small section of its population. At the other extreme of it, there are large rural areas and the slums in the
urban areas that do not have basic amenities like potable water, education and health infrastructure available to
majority of this population.
The situation is more alarming if one looks at the distribution of the development opportunities among
different sections of our society. It is a well-established fact that majority of the scheduled castes, scheduled
tribes, landless agricultural labourers, poor farmers and slums dwellers, etc. are the most marginalised lot. A
large segment of female population is the worst sufferers among all. It is also equally true that the relative as
well as absolute conditions of the majority of these marginalised sections have worsened with the development
happening over the years. Consequently, vast majority of people are compelled to live under abject poverty and
subhuman conditions.
Measuring Human Development

Most systematic effort towards measuring Human Development was the publication of the First Human
Development Report by United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) in 1990. Since then, UNDP has been
bringing out World Human Development Report every year. This report does not only define human
development, make amendments and changes its indicators but also ranks all the countries of the world based
on the calculated scores.
Human Development Index (HDI)

The first Human Development Report introduced a new way of measuring development by combining indicators
of life expectancy, educational attainment and income into a composite human development index, the HDI.
The breakthrough for the HDI was the creation of a single statistic which was to serve as a frame of reference for
both social and economic development. The HDI sets a minimum and a maximum for each dimension, called

goalposts, and then shows where each country stands in relation to these goalposts, expressed as a value
between 0 and 1.
Figure 1. Components of HDI
The education component of the HDI is measured by mean of years of schooling for adults aged 25 years and
expected years of schooling for children of school entering age. Mean years of schooling is estimated based on
educational attainment data from censuses and surveys available in the UNESCO Institute for Statistics database
and Barro and Lee (2010) methodology. Expected years of schooling estimates are based on enrolment by age at
all levels of education and population of official school age for each level of education. Expected years of
schooling is capped at 18 years. The education index is the geometric mean of two indices.
The decent standard of living component is measured by GNI per capita (PPP$). The HDI uses the logarithm of
income, to reflect the diminishing importance of income with increasing GNI. The life expectancy at birth
component of the HDI is calculated using a minimum value of 20 years and maximum value of 83.57 years. The
scores for the three HDI dimension indices are then aggregated into a composite index using geometric mean.
Given the imperfect nature of wealth as gauge of human development, the HDI offers a powerful alternative to
GDP and GNI for measuring the relative socio-economic progress at national and sub-national levels. Comparing
HDI and per capita income ranks of countries, regions or ethnic groups within countries highlights the
relationship between their material wealth on the one hand and their human development on the other.
Other Multi-dimensional measures of Human Development

To obtain a full picture of the evolution of human development, one must go beyond the dimensions in the HDI.
Significant aggregate progress in health, education and income is qualified by high and persistent inequality,
unsustainable production patterns and disempowerment of large groups of people around the world. In the
most notable innovations in the 20th anniversary year of Human Development Report, three new
multidimensional measures of inequality and poverty were introduced.
Inequality adjusted HDI (IHDI)

The 2010 Report introduced the Inequality-adjusted HDI (IHDI), a measure of the level of human development
of people in a society that accounts for inequality. Under perfect equality the IHDI is equal to the HDI, but falls
below the HDI when inequality rises. In this sense, the IHDI is the actual level of human development (taking into
account inequality), while the HDI can be viewed as an index of the potential human development that could be
achieved if there is no inequality.

The IHDI takes into account not only a country’s average human development, as measured by health, education
and income indicators, but also how it is distributed. IHDI accounts for inequalities in life expectancy, schooling
and income, by “discounting” each dimension’s average value according to its level of inequality. The difference
between the HDI and the IHDI measures the “loss” in potential human development due to inequality.
Gender Inequality Index (GII)

The disadvantages facing women and girls are a major source of inequality. All too often, women and girls are
discriminated against in health, education and the labour market — with negative repercussions for their
freedoms. The GII is unique in including educational attainment, economic and political participation and female-
specific health issues and in accounting for overlapping inequalities at the national level.
Figure 2. Components of GII
Like the IHDI, the GII captures the loss of achievement in key dimensions due to gender inequality. It ranges from
0 (no inequality in the included dimensions) to 1 (complete inequality). The GII increases when disadvantages
across dimensions are associated—that is, the more correlated the disparities between genders across
dimensions, the higher the index.
Multi-Dimensional Poverty Index (MPI)

The dimensions of poverty go far beyond inadequate income—to poor health and nutrition, low education and
skills, inadequate livelihoods, bad housing conditions, social exclusion and lack of participation. The
Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) complements money-based measures by considering multiple
deprivations and their overlap. The index identifies deprivations across the same three dimensions as
the HDI and shows the number of people who are multi-dimensionally poor and the number of deprivations with
which poor households typically contend.

Figure 3. Dimensions of MPI
Human Development in India

The Human Development Report of the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) for 2013, released on
Thursday, puts India’s HDI value for the last year at 0.554, placing it in the medium human development
category. India has been ranked 136 among 187 countries evaluated for human development index (HDI).
Figure 4. HDI progress of India
On the positive side, India’s HDI value went up from 0.345 to 0.554 between 1980 and 2012, an increase of 61
per cent or an average annual increase of 1.5 per cent. Life expectancy at birth increased by 10.5 years, mean
years of schooling by 2.5 years and expected years of schooling by 4.4 years. Importantly, the gross national
income (GNI) per capita went up 273 per cent, the report says.
There is a word of appreciation for India for its policies on internal conflicts. “India has shown that while
policing may be more effective in curbing violence in the short term, redistribution and overall development are
better strategies to prevent and contain civil unrest in the medium term,” the report says, referring to Operation
Green Hunt launched against Maoists, which has come under sharp criticism from human rights activists within
the country. The other initiatives that have been lauded are the right to education and the rural employment
guarantee scheme that provides up to 100 days of unskilled manual labour to eligible poor at a statutory
minimum wage. “This initiative [the job guarantee scheme] is promising because it provides access to income

and some insurance for the poor against the vagaries of seasonal work and affords individual the self-respect
and empowerment associated with work.”
Despite India’s progress, its HDI of 0.554 is below the average of 0.64 for countries in the medium human
development group, and of 0.558 for countries in South Asia. From South Asia, countries which are close to
India’s HDI rank and population size are Bangladesh and Pakistan with HDIs ranked 146 each. But the report
points out that the ranking masks inequality in the distribution of human development across the population.
Even on the Gender Inequality Index — India has been ranked 132nd among the 148 countries for which data is
available. In India, only 10.9 per cent of the parliamentary seats are held by women, and 26.6 per cent of adult
women have reached a secondary or higher level of education, compared with 50.4 per cent of their male
counterparts. For every 100,000 live births, 200 women die of causes related to pregnancy, and female
participation in the labour market is 29 per cent, compared with 80.7 per cent for men.
As for the Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI), India’s value averages out at 0.283, a little above Bangladesh’s
and Pakistan’s. The figures for evaluating MPI have been drawn from the 2005-06 survey, according to which
53.7 per cent of the population lived in multidimensional poverty, while an additional 16.4 per cent were
vulnerable to multiple deprivations.
The values of various indicators for India are:
1. Life expectancy at birth (Health) – 65.8 years

2. Mean years of schooling (Education) – 4.4 years
3. GNI per capita in PPP terms (Income) – 3285 dollars
4. Inequality adjusted HDI – 0.392
5. Gender Inequality Index – 0.610
6. Multi-Dimensional Poverty Index – 0.283
India Human Development Report 2011

The purpose of this report is to capture the progress in human development at the state level in India. In order
to do this, three indices are constructed—the Health Index, the Education Index, and the Income Index. The
Health Index is constructed using life expectancy at birth, which is indicative of a long and healthy life and is the
most comprehensive indicator of the state of health of the population.
To construct the Education Index, the two indicators used are ‘adjusted mean years of schooling’ and ‘literacy
rate for population 7 years and above’. These indicators are expected to reflect people’s ability to acquire
education and knowledge, which are important components of human development. To construct the Income
Index, the mean per capita expenditure (at 1999–2000 prices) weighted by the Gini coefficient of inequality of
consumption expenditure is taken for each state.
The findings of the report for different indicators are discussed as under:
Human Development Index

The states that perform better on health and education outcomes are also the states with higher HDI and thus
higher per capita income. Most of the states that are performing low on human development outcomes are
concentrated in the northern and central belt.

Figure 5. HDI across states (2007-08)
The highest HDI (0.79) is for Kerala, followed by Delhi and Himachal Pradesh. Fourteen states and the north-
eastern states (excluding Assam) have an HDI higher than the national average, that is, Andhra Pradesh,
Uttarakhand, West Bengal, Karnataka, Gujarat, Jammu & Kashmir, Haryana, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, the north-
eastern states excluding Assam, Punjab, Goa, Himachal Pradesh, Delhi, and Kerala. Eight states (Chhattisgarh,
Orissa, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Assam), again listed in ascending order,
have an HDI value below the national average of 0.47. Except for Rajasthan, these are also the states with a low
Income Index reflecting a lower standard of living.
Income Index
The lowest standard of living as highlighted by the Income Index is evident in the poorer states like Assam, Bihar,
Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, and Uttar Pradesh . These are also the states that have high
concentrations of the marginalized groups like SCs, STs, and Muslims.

Figure 6. Income Index across various states (2007-08)
These states have incomes below the national average, with Bihar having the lowest income per capita. This is
also reflected in the lowest monthly per capita consumption expenditure (MPCE) adjusted for inflation and
inequality for the state. Yet, what is worth highlighting is that these poorer states, despite low absolute incomes,
have witnessed high Net State Domestic Product (NSDP) growth rates (especially Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Orissa, and
Uttarakhand which had growth rates above 10 per cent per annum).
The change in the Income Index between 1999–2000 and 2007–8 is almost the same as the change in the HDI
over the same period for India (that is, 21 per cent).
Education Index
The Education Index, defined as the arithmetic mean of adjusted mean years of schooling index and literacy rate
index, has seen a very impressive improvement for all states. Education Index for India has improved by 28 per
cent between 1999 and 2000 and 2007–8, that is, much more than the Income Index..

Figure 6. Education Index across states
Even in the relatively poorer states like Assam, Chhattisgarh, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, and Uttarakhand the
Education Index is above 0.5. The north-eastern states have been good performers despite low levels of income.
This highlights the fact that income is not a necessary condition for improvement in educational outcomes
The improvement of 28.5 per cent in the Education Index during the period 1999–2000 to 2007–8 has driven the
HDI for the country upwards. Again, as with the Income Index, the improvement in the Education Index has been
the greatest in the educationally backward and poorer states of India—Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Orissa, Madhya
Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Bihar, Uttarakhand, and Jharkhand— listed here in ascending order of
the improvement in the Education Index. The improvement in the educationally backward states suggests a
strong trend of convergence across the states in terms of outputs and outcomes.
Health Index
The Health Index is defined in terms of life expectancy at birth since a higher life expectancy at birth reflects
better health outcomes for an individual.

Figure 7. Health Index across states
The improvement in the Health Index for India between 1999–2000 and 2007–8 was much lower than both the
Income Index and the Education Index. The improvement in the Health Index during the period 1999–2000 to
2007–8 (13 per cent) is well below the improvement in the overall HDI of the country. In other words, while the
Income Index has improved at the same rate as the HDI, and the Education Index by much more than the
improvement in the HDI, the Health Index has not shown any significant change.
There are already well-known cases of success in building an effective public health system in several states of
India (for example, Kerala and Tamil Nadu). With the best public health system in the country Kerala has the
highest life expectancy at birth. What is worth mentioning is that Bihar, the state that ranks the lowest in terms
of almost all human development indicators, has a life expectancy at birth at par with the national average.
Similarly, the relatively poorer state of Rajasthan performs marginally better than the national average. The
north-eastern states, excluding Assam, have a higher life expectancy at birth compared to the national average.
It is the states with the most serious health outcome indicators and the worst health process/input indicators,
which have shown the most improvement over this period, namely, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Orissa, and
Assam.
Overall the states’ policies play a crucial role in shaping the nature of the development process. How inclusive
the development process is for all the social groups residing in the state is a reflection of the state’s commitment

towards various dimensions of human welfare. This is supported by the success of social mobilization states like
Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and the north-eastern states, where strong state commitment resulted in the upliftment of
the backward castes such that their performance in health and education indicators is even better than the
upper castes in most of the other states.
Planning and Development

There are two approaches to planning, i.e. sectoral planning and regional planning. The sectoral planning means
formulation and implementation of the sets of schemes or programmes aimed at development of various
sectors of the economy such as agriculture, irrigation, manufacturing, power, construction, transport,
communication, social infrastructure and services.
There is no uniform economic development over space in any country. Some areas are more developed and
some lag behind. This uneven pattern of development over space necessitates that the planners have a spatial
perspective and draw the plans to reduce regional imbalance in development. This type of planning is termed as
regional planning.
In order to arrest the accentuation of regional and social disparities, the Planning Commission introduced the
‘target area’ and target group approaches to planning. Some of the examples of programmes directed towards
the development of target areas are Command Area Development Programme, Drought Prone Area
Development Programme, Desert Development Programme, Hill Area Development Programme, etc.


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GEOGRAPHY: 24
Summary: Human Development Report – 2014
Theme:
2013 The Rise of the South: Human Progress in a Diverse World
2014 Sustaining Human Progress: Reducing Vulnerability and Building Resilience
“Human progress is neither automatic nor inevitable”- Martin Luther King
What is HDR?
The Human Development Report (HDR) published by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), is an
annual report which measures of human development across the globe.
How is human development measured?
Human development is measured in terms of 5 indices:
1. Human Development Index

2. Inequality adjusted Human Development Index
3. Gender Inequality Index
4. Gender Development index
5. Multi-dimensional Poverty Index
Each Index has been explained as follows.
1. Human Development Index
Calculated in terms of 3 parameters:
1. To live a long and healthy life (Life expectancy at birth)

2. To be educated and knowledgeable (Mean years of schooling + Expected years of schooling)
3. To enjoy a decent standard of living (Per capita Gross National Income, Purchasing Power Parity
adjusted)
= ( × × )
HDI of some countries:

Very High Ranking High Ranking Medium Ranking Low Ranking countries
countries (≥0.800) countries (≥0.700) countries (>0.550)
1. Norway 57. Russia 107. Palestine 146. Pakistan

2. Australia 73. Sri Lanka 118. South Africa 169. Afghanistan
47. Croatia 79. Brazil 135. India 186. Congo
49. Argentina 83. Ukraine 136. Bhutan 187. Niger
91. China 142. Bangladesh
2014 vs 2013- A comparison for India:
Parameters (India) 2013 data 2012 data Global (2013)

HDI 0.586 0.554 0.702
HDI Ranking 135 136 -
Life expectancy at birth 66.4 65.8 years 70.8 years
Mean years of schooling 4.4 years 7.7 years
GNI per capita $ 5150 3285 13723
Points to note:
 India’s ranking has improved by 1.

 All other BRICS countries fare better than India
 Neighbours like Sri Lanka and Bangladesh, as well as a war-torn state like Palestine fare better than
India.
 A total of 187 countries have been ranked.
 Some countries have not been included In HDI report 2014- Somalia, North Korea are among them
Related Terms explained:
Life expectancy at birth: Number of years a newborn infant could expect to live if prevailing patterns of age-
specific mortality rates at the time of birth stay the same throughout the infant’s life.
Mean years of schooling: Average number of years of education received by people ages 25 and older, converted
from education attainment levels using official durations of each level.
Expected years of schooling: Number of years of schooling that a child of school entrance age can expect to
receive if prevailing patterns of age-specific enrolment rates persist throughout the child’s life.
Gross national income (GNI) per capita: Aggregate income of an economy generated by its production and its
ownership of factors of production, less the incomes paid for the use of factors of production owned by the rest
of the world, converted to international dollars using PPP rates, divided by midyear population
2. Inequality adjusted HDI
HDI value adjusted for inequalities in the three basic dimensions of human development
India’s ranking: Same rank, but HDI value is 0.418 (% difference over HDI=28.6)
Gini coefficient for India= 33.9
Quintile ratio: Ratio of the average income of the richest 20% of the population to the average income of the
poorest 20% of the population.

Palma ratio: Ratio of the richest 10% of the population’s share of gross national income (GNI) divided by the
poorest 40%’s share. Middle class incomes almost always account for about half of GNI and that the other half is
split between the richest 10% and poorest 40%, though their shares vary considerably across countries.
Gini coefficient: Measure of the deviation of the distribution of income among individuals or households within a
country from a perfectly equal distribution. A value of 0 represents absolute equality, a value of 100 absolute
inequality.
3. Gender Development Index
A composite measure reflecting disparity in human development achievements between women and men in
three dimensions—health, education and living standards
= ∶
Ranks of some countries:
1. Slovakia (GDI= 1.00)

2. Argentina
132. India (GDI= 0.828)
148. Afghanistan (lowest rank)
Points to note:
 It is distribution sensitive. Distribution sensitive means that the GDI takes into account not only the
average or general level of well-being and wealth within a given country, but focuses also on how this
wealth and well-being is distributed between different groups within society.
 The GDI cannot be used independently from the Human Development Index (HDI) score and so, it
cannot be used on its own as an indicator of gender-gaps.
 Introduced this year for the first time
 BRICS ranking- Russia> Brazil> China> South Africa> India
 While the overall gender gap is an 8% deficit for women, the income gap is shockingly high — per capita
income for men is more than double that for women.
 There are 16 countries where the female HDI is ≥ male HDI (includes Russian federation, Uruguay,
Ukraine)
4. Gender Inequality Index
A composite measure reflecting inequality in achievement between women and men in three dimensions:
reproductive health, empowerment and the labour market.
Range= 0-1 [0= zero inequality; 1=100% inequality]
Ranks of some countries:
1. Slovenia (0.021)
2. Switzerland
127. India
127. Pakistan

Maternal mortality ratio: Number of deaths due to pregnancy-related causes per 100,000 live births.
Adolescent birth rate: Number of births to women ages 15–19 per 1,000 women ages 15–19.
Labour force participation rate: Proportion of a country’s working-age population (ages 15 and older) that
engages in the labour market, either by working or actively looking for work, expressed as a percentage of the
working-age population.
Points to be noted:
 China> Russia> Brazil> South Africa

 In the 2010 Human Development Report, another alternative to the Gender-related Development Index
(GDI), namely, the Gender Inequality Index (GII) was proposed in order to address some of the
shortcomings of the GDI.
5. Multidimensional Poverty Index
Percentage of the population that is multi-dimensionally poor adjusted by the intensity of the deprivations.
MPI was developed in 2010 by Oxford Poverty & Human Development Initiative and the UNDP. It uses different
factors to determine poverty beyond income-based lists. It replaced the previous Human Poverty Index.
The index uses the same 3 dimensions as the HDI: health, education, and standard of living. These are measured
using ten indicators.
Dimension Indicators
1. Child Mortality
Health 2. Nutrition
3. Years of school
Education
4. Children enrolled
5. Cooking fuel
6. Toilet
7. Water
Living Standards
8. Electricity
9. Floor
10. Assets
= ×
H: Percentage of people who are MPI poor (incidence of poverty)

A: Average intensity of MPI poverty across the poor (%)
Country % population living in multidimensional poverty

India 55.3
China 6
Brazil 3.1
Points to be noted:
 Overall 2.2 billion people are either near or living in multi-dimensional poverty (suffering deprivations in
33.33% of weighted indicators).
 MPI is calculated for only 104 countries

 Both HDI and MPI has been criticized by economist such as Ratan Lal Basu for lack of
"Moral/Emotional/Spiritual Dimensions" of poverty. The same has been captured by "Global Happiness
Index" in which a country like Bhutan (which has dismal performance on other indicators) has been
ranked no.1.
Overall:
Slowdown in human development- Though human development levels continue to rise across the world, the
rate of this growth has slowed and the spread has been very uneven. It is a result of the lingering global
economic crisis that has caused a dip in income growth in Europe, Arab countries, and Central Asia.
HDI parameters- Life expectancy at birth has increased due to lower IMR and child mortality, fewer deaths due
to HIV/AIDS and better nutrition. Education levels have risen on stronger investments and political commitment.
Multidimensional poverty has been considerably reduced, though wide variation across countries and regions
remains.
Nearly 80% of the global population lack social protection, while 12% (842 million people) suffer from chronic
hunger – and nearly half of all workers across the world are in informal or precarious employment.
Inequality has declined in health access, remained constant in education but increased by two percentage points
with respect to income.
Vulnerability- “Vulnerability is not the same as poverty. It means not lack or want but defencelessness, insecurity
and exposure to risks, shocks and stress.” —Robert Chambers
The Report considers the way in which vulnerabilities change during our lives—by taking a ‘life cycle approach’.
Unlike more static models, this analysis suggests that children, adolescents and the elderly each face different
sets of risks which require targeted responses. Some periods of life are identified as particularly important: for
example, the first 1,000 days of a child’s life or the transition from school to work or from work to retirement.
Setbacks at these points can be particularly difficult to overcome and may have prolonged impacts.
Who is vulnerable to what and why?
Who To
what Why
Thepoor, informal
Economic shocks,
workers, socially Limited capabilities
health shocks
excluded
Women, people with Location, position in

Natural disasters,
disabilities, migrants, society, sensitive
climate change,
minorities, children, periods in the life
industrial hazards
the elderly, youth cycle
Low social cohesion,

Whole communities, unresponsive
Conflict, civil unrest
regions institutions, poor
governance

Although poverty is declining overall, almost 800 million people are at risk of falling back into poverty if setbacks
occur. The report notes that threats such as financial crises, fluctuations in food prices, natural disasters and
violent conflict significantly impede progress.
Resilience- At its core, resilience is about ensuring that state, community and global institutions work to
empower and protect people.
The report advocates for the universal provision of basic social services to enhance resilience. It refutes the
notion that only wealthy countries can afford to do this. Countries such as Republic of Korea, and developing
countries such as Costa Rica started putting in place measures of social insurance when their Gross Domestic
Product (GDP) per capita was lower than India’s and Pakistan’s now.

Responsive and accountable institutions of governance are critical to overcoming the sense of injustice,
vulnerability and exclusion that can fuel social discontent.
The report calls for “an international consensus on universal social protection” to be included in the post-2015
development goals agenda. The idea that everyone has the universal right to education and healthcare!
The report urges a three-fold policy path to get the world out of the morass it is stuck in: universal provision of
social services, stronger social protection and a return to 100% employment policies. All these would require a
strong and active role of the state.
With respect to India:
India has worked towards disaster management is reflected when cyclone Phailin struck in Oct 2013 and
advanced evacuation was possible. Thus reducing vulnerability due to natural disasters.
In 2013, India witnessed a historic transition from the famine conditions of 1943 to a legal commitment to
provide, at a very low cost, the minimum essential calories to over 75 percent of the population from home
grown food.
India’s MGNREGA is a promising employment initiative. A rarely heard criticism of the NREGA is that the easy
availability of work may discourage workers from moving to more-productive sectors of the economy, thus
harming longer term growth prospects.
Improving accountability through transparency measures such as India’s Right to Information Act can expose
corruption and graft and boost efficiency.
Persistent vulnerability is rooted in historic exclusions—women in patriarchal societies, Dalits in India encounter
discrimination and exclusion.
India’s failure to transition from primary to industry has to be remedied—jobs in business process outsourcing
are a boon for the balance of payments but hardly for mass employment.


VISIONIAS z™
www.visionias.in
GEOGRAPHY: 25
G. S. III – ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY
 Agricultural Marketing: Issues and Related Constraints
 Agricultural Transportation: Issues and Related Constraints
 e-Agriculture : e-Technology in The Aid of Farmers


Agricultural Marketing: Issues and Related Constraints
Contents
 Introduction
 Characteristics of Agricultural Product
 Importance and Objectives of Agricultural Marketing
 Facilities Needed for Farmer in Marketing
 Methods of Sale and Marketing Agencies
 Existing Systems of Agricultural Marketing in India
 Ideal Marketing System
 Principles of Scientific Marketing for Farmers
 Impact of Globalization: Contract Marketing
 Government Measures to Improve Agricultural Marketing
◦ Marketing surveys
◦ Rural Godown Scheme
◦ Grading and Standardization
◦ Marketing Research & Information Network
◦ AgmarkNet
◦ National Agricultural Market Atlas (NAMA)
◦ CCS National Institute Of Agricultural Marketing, Jaipur
◦ Terminal Market Complexes
◦ Organization of Regulated Markets
◦ Central Warehousing Corporation
◦ Directorate of Marketing and Inspection
◦ Government Purchases and Fixation of Support Prices
 Problems in Agricultural Marketing
 Suggestions to Improve Agricultural Marketing
 Conclusion
Introduction
The term agricultural marketing is composed of two words -agriculture and marketing. Agriculture, in the
broadest sense means activities aimed at the use of natural rural resources for human welfare, and marketing
connotes a series of activities involved in moving the goods from the point of production to the point of
consumption. Specification, the subject of agricultural marketing includes marketing functions, agencies,
channels, efficiency and cost, price spread and market integration, producer’s surplus etc. The agricultural
marketing system is a link between the farm and the non-farm sectors.
In India Agriculture was practiced formerly on a subsistence basis; the villages were self sufficient, people
exchanged their goods, and services within the village on a barter basis. With the development of means of
transport and storage facilities, agriculture has become commercial in character; the farmer grows those crops that
fetch a better price. Marketing of agricultural produce is considered as an integral part of agriculture, since an
agriculturist is encouraged to make more investment and to increase production. Thus there is an increasing
awareness that it is not enough to produce a crop or animal product; it must be marketed as well.
Agricultural marketing involves in its simplest form the buying and selling of agricultural produce. But, in modem
times, marketing of agricultural produce is different from that of olden days. In modem marketing, agricultural
produce has to undergo a series of transfers or exchanges from one hand to another before it finally reaches the
consumer.

The National Commission on Agriculture defined agricultural marketing as a process which starts with a decision
to produce a saleable farm commodity and it involves all aspects of market structure of system, both functional
and institutional, based on technical and economic considerations and includes pre and postharvest operations,
assembling, grading, storage, transportation and distribution. The Indian council of Agricultural Research defined
involvement of three important functions, namely (a) assembling (concentration) (b) preparation for consumption
(processing) and (c) distribution.
Characteristics of Agricultural Product
Agricultural products differ in nature and contents from industrial goods in the following respects.
 Agricultural products tend to be bulky and their weight and volume are great for their value in comparison
with many industrial goods.
 The demand on storage and transport facilities is heavier, and more specialized in case of agricultural
products than in the case of manufactured commodities.
 Agricultural commodities are comparatively more perishable than industrial goods. Although some crops
such as rice and paddy retain their quality for long time, most of the farm products are perishable and
cannot remain long on the way to the final consumer without suffering loss and deterioration in quality.
 There are certain agricultural products such as mangoes and grapes which are available only in their
seasons but this condition of seasonal availability is not found in the case of industrial goods.
 Agricultural produce is to be found scattered over a vast geographical area and as such its collection poses
a serious problem. But such is not condition in the case of industrial goods.
 There are various kinds and varieties in farm produce and so it is difficult to grade them.
 The farmers especially in countries like India have low holding-back. Therefore he has to sell his produce
immediately after the harvest at whatever price he can fetch because of his pressing needs.
 Finally, both demand and supply of agricultural products are inelastic. A bumper crop, without any
minimum guaranteed support price from the government may spell disaster for the farmer. Similarly the
farmer may not really be in a position to take advantage of shortages or deficit crop. These benefits may
pass on only to the middleman.
Importance and Objectives of Agricultural Marketing
The farmer has realized the importance of adopting new techniques of production and is making efforts for more
income and higher standards of living. As a consequence, the cropping pattern is no longer dictated by what he
needs for his own personal consumption but what is responsive to the market in terms of prices received by him.
While the trade is much organized the farmers are not Farmer is not conversant with the complexities of the
marketing system which is becoming more and more complicated. The cultivator is handicapped by several
disabilities as a seller. He sells his produce at an unfavourable place, time and price.
The objectives of an efficient marketing system are:

 To enable the primary producers to get the best possible returns,
 To provide facilities for lifting all produce, the farmers are willing, to sell at an incentive price,
 To reduce the price difference between the primary producer and ultimate consumer, and
 To make available all products of farm origin to consumers at reasonable price without impairing on the
quality of the produce.
Facilities Needed for Farmer in Marketing
In order to have best advantage in marketing of his agricultural produce the farmer should enjoy certain basic
facilities.
 He should have proper facilities for storing his goods.
 He should have holding capacity, in the sense, that he should be able to wait for times when he could get
better prices for his produce and not dispose of his stocks immediately after the harvest when the prices
are very low.
 He should have adequate and cheap transport facilities which could enable him to take his surplus produce
to the mandi rather than dispose it of in the village itself to the village money-lender-cum-merchant at low
prices.
 He should have clear information regarding the market conditions as well as about the ruling prices,
otherwise may be cheated. There should be organized and regulated markets where the farmer will not be
cheated by the "dalals" and "arhatiyas".
 The number of intermediaries should be as small as possible, so that the middleman's profits are reduced.
This increases the returns to the farmers.
Methods of Sale and Marketing Agencies
The marketing of agricultural produce is generally transacted in one of the following ways.
 Under cover or the Hatta System: - Under this system, the sale is effected by twisting or clasping
the fingers of the sellers agent under cover of a cloth. The cultivator is not taken into confidence until
the final bid is cleared.
 Open auction syste: - Under this system the agent invites bids for the produce and to the highest
bidder the produce is sold.
 Dara system:- Another related system is to keep the heaps of grains of different quantities and sell
them at fiat rates without indulging in weightment etc.
 Moghum sale:- Under this system, sale is based on the verbal understanding between buyers and
sellers and without mentioning the rate as it is understood that the buyers will pay the prevailing rate.
 Private agreement: - The seller may invite offers for his produce and may sell to one who might
have offered the highest price for the produce.
 Government purchase: - The government agencies lay down fixed prices for different qualities of
agriculture commodities. The sale is affected after a gradual processing for gradation and proper
weightment. This practice is also followed in co-operative and regulated markets.
 Marketing agencies:- The various agencies engaged in the marketing of agricultural produce can be
classified into two categories, viz., (i) government and quasi private agencies like the co-operative
societies and (ii) private agencies. A chain of middlemen may be found operating both in Government
and private agencies.
Existing Systems of Agricultural Marketing in India
The existing systems of agricultural marketing in India are as briefly described here: -
 Sale to moneylenders and traders:- A considerable part of the total produce is sold by the farmers to the
village traders and moneylenders. According to an estimate 85% of wheat, 75% of oil seeds in U.P., 90% of
jute in West Bengal and 60% of wheat, 70% of oil seeds and 35% of cotton in Punjab are sold by the farmers in
the villages themselves. Often the money lenders act as a commission agent of the wholesale trader.
 Hats and shanties:- Hats are village markets often held once or twice a week, while shanties are also village
markets held at longer intervals or on special occasions. The agents of the wholesale merchants, operating in
different mandies also visit these markets. Most of "hats" are very poorly equipped, are uncovered and lack
storage, drainage, and other facilities. It is important to observe that only small and marginal farmers sell their
produce in such markets. The big farmers with large surplus go to the larger wholesale markets.
 Mandies or wholesale markets:- One wholesale market often serves a number of villages and is generally
located in a city. In such mandies, business is carried on by arhatiyas. The farmers sell their produce to these
arhatiyas with the help of brokers, who are generally the agents of arhatiyas. Because of the malpractices of
these middlemen, problems of transporting the produce from villages to mandies, the small and marginal
farmers are hesitant of coming to these mandies. The arhatiyas of these mandies sell off the produce to the
retail merchants. However, paddy, cotton and oilseeds are sold off to the mills for processing. The marketing
system for sugarcane is different. The farmers sell their produce directly to the sugar mills.
 Co-operative marketing:- To improve the efficiency of the agricultural marketing and to save farmers from
the exploitation and malpractices of middlemen, emphasis has been laid on the development of co-operative
marketing societies. Such societies are formed by farmers to take advantage of collective bargaining. A
marketing society collects surplus from it members and sell it in the mandi collectively. This improves the
bargaining power of the members and they are able to obtain a better price for the produce. In addition to the
sale of produce, these societies also serve the members in a number of other ways.

Ideal Marketing System
The ideal marketing system is one that maximizes the long run welfare of society. To do this, it must be physically
efficient, otherwise the same output could be produced with fewer resources, and it must be electively efficient,
otherwise a change in allocation could increase the total welfare and where income distribution is not a
consideration.
For maximum physical efficiency, such basic physical functions as transportation, storage, and processing should
be carried on in such a way so as to achieve the highest output per unit of cost incurred on them. Similarly an ideal
marketing system must allocate agricultural products in time, space and form to intermediaries and consumers in
such proportions and at such prices as to ensure that no other allocation would make consumers better off. To
achieve this condition, prices throughout the marketing system must be efficient and must at the same time be
equal to the marginal costs of production and marginal consumer utility.
The following characteristics should exist in a good marketing system.

 There should not be any government interference in free and market transactions. The method of
intervention include, restrictions on food grain movements, restrictions on the quantity to be processed, or
on the construction of processing plant, price supports, rationing, price ceiling, entry of persons in the
trade, etc. When these conditions are violated, the inefficiency in the market system creeps in and
commodities pass into the black market. They are not then easily available at the fair prices.
 The marketing system should operate on the basis of the independent, but systematic and orderly,
decisions of the millions of the individual consumer and producers whose lives are affected by it.
 The marketing system should be capable of developing into an intricate and far-flung marketing system in
view of the rapid development of the urban industrial economy.
 The marketing system should bring demand and supply together and should establish equilibrium between
the two.
 The marketing system should be able to generate employment by ensuring the development of processing
industries and convincing the people to consume more processed foods, consistent with their tastes, habits
and income levels.
Principles of Scientific Marketing for Farmers
The tendency among the farmers to market their produce has been increasing. Production is complete only when
the produce is marketed at a price remunerative to the farmer. Increasing specialization in production of higher
marketable/ marketed surplus of the produce and alternative channels of marketing has increased the importance
of the marketing activity for the farmers. However, marketing activity should be guided by certain basic principles
which are briefly explained. The farmers can gain more if they follow the following principles of scientific
marketing: -
 Always bring the produce for sale after cleaning it: - Impurities, when present, lower the price offered by
the traders-buyers in the market. The fall in price is more than the extent of impurity present in the produce
would warrant. Clean produce attracts more buyers.
 Sell different qualities of products separately: - The produce of different varieties should be marketed
separately. It has been observed that when different varieties of products are marketed separately, the farmers
get a higher price because of the buyer’s preference for specific varieties.
 Sell the produce after grading it: - Graded produce is sold off quickly. The additional income generated by
the adoption of grading and standardization is more than the cost incurred in the process of grading and
standardization. This shows that there is an incentive for the farmers for the production of good quality
products.
 Keep abreast of market information: - Price information helps him to take decisions about when and where
to sell the produce, so that a better price may be obtained.
 Carry bags/packs of standard weights: - Farmers should weigh their produce and fill each bag with a fixed
quantity. Majority of the farmers do not weigh their produce before taking it for sale and suffer loss by way of
a possible malpractice in weighing, or they may have to make excess payments in transit (octroi, transport
costs, etc.).
 Avoid immediate post-harvest sales:- The prices of the produce touch the lowest level in the peak marketing
season. Farmers can get better prices by availing of warehouses facilities existing in their areas. Farmers can
meet their cash needs by pledging the warehouse receipt to nationalized banks.

 Patronize co-operative marketing societies:- Farmers can get better prices by sales through a cooperative and
marketing society and can avoid the possibility of being cheated. The cost of marketing particularly the
transportation cost for farmers having a small quantity of marketable surplus is minimized, for transportation is
arranged co-operatively by the society and the profit earned by the society is shared among its members.
 Sell the produce in regulated markets:- The farmers should take their produce for sale to the nearly regulated
markets rather than sell them in village or unregulated markets. In regulated markets marketing charges are on
very few items. They get the sales slips in the regulated markets, which show the quantity of the produce
marketed and the amount of charges deducted from the values of the produce. Sales slips protect farmers
against the malpractices of deliberate erroneous accounting or unauthorized deductions.
Impact of Globalization: Contract Marketing
The macro level changes due to the New Economic Policy have had a direct impact in the field of agricultural
marketing. So the impact of globalization has been highlighted here. As a result of globalization substantial
investments in new ventures are being made by national as well as international corporations. A number of foreign
companies are slated to enter the Indian market through collaborations with the well known Indian companies like
Eagle Agro-farms, Maxworth Orchards, etc. It is clear that the wholesaler in the fresh products market as well as
the processor will prefer contract marketing tie-ups with the farmers for sourcing his supply requirements.
The concept of contract farming is not new to India. Several years back, contract marketing was successfully tried
in respect of "Hima peas". 'MARKFED' of Punjab also operated a scheme of contract marketing for green peas,
Agrecotec proposes to setup country-wide retail network of shops for fresh fruit vegetable marketing. Direct
marketing to consumer is already being done by the Mother Dairy through its outlets in Delhi. The successful
integration of production and marketing under Apni mandi scheme in Punjab and the marketing managements of
'FRESH' in Hyderabad are clear signs that contract marketing is going to be increasingly resorted to in the years to
come. “Pepsi Foods" also an another example of contract farming of potatoes and tomatoes. Under this farming
farmers will be producing specific varieties or qualities tailored to meet the requirements of the processor or the
fresh produce market.
The potential benefits of the contract marketing are:-

 Producers can reduce the market risk,
 Post harvest losses can be reduced,
 Technology can be transferred to the producers,
 Contract serve as a security for increased access to credit by both producers and processors,
 Contract may create a greater sense of common interest among the producers and induce greater
involvement in group activities etc.
Common problems may be: -

 Volatility in market price,
 There is risk that the processors may manipulate the quality standards,
 Coordination problems may be there regarding delivery of inputs or produce,
 Processors may lack the competence or capacity to deliver the require technical assistance,
 Producers may become tied to a contract relationship by virtue of debt, specialization, or the
disappearance of other markets and may be unable to adjust their production activities to changing
conditions etc.
Many of these problems of contract farming will not arise where goodwill and credibility exist between the
farmers and the concerned company.
Government Measures to Improve Agricultural Marketing
Government of India has adopted a number of measures to improve agricultural marketing, the important ones
being - establishment of regulated markets, construction of warehouses, provision for grading, and standardization
of produce, Standardization of weight and measures, daily broadcasting of market prices of agricultural crops on
All India Radio, improvement of transport facilities, etc. These are as briefly described here : -
 Marketing surveys: - In the first place the government has undertaken marketing surveys of various

goods and has published these surveys. These surveys have brought out the various problems connected
with the marketing of goods and have made suggestions for their removal.
 Rural Godown Scheme: - The scheme of Rural Godowns has been formulated for creation of scientific
storage capacity with allied facilities in rural areas by encouraging private and cooperative sector to invest
in the creation of storage infrastructure in the country. The eligible promoters for construction of rural
godowns are individual farmers, group of farmers/ growers, partnership/ proprietary firms, NGO,
companies, corporations, cooperatives, Agricultural Produce Marketing Committees, Marketing Boards
and Agro Processing Corporations. Godowns built under the scheme should be structurally sound on
account of engineering considerations and functionally suitable to store the agricultural produce. The
general conditions for scientific construction will be as follows:
◦ The construction of godown should be as per Central Public Works Department/State Public Works
Department specifications or any other standard specifications laid down in this behalf.
◦ The godown should be properly ventilated, should have well fitted doors, windows and ventilators
and should be waterproof (control of moisture from floor, walls and roof etc.)
◦ The godown structure should have protection from rodents.
◦ The godown should have protection from birds (windows / ventilators with jali).
◦ The openings of godown such as doors, windows etc. should be designed in such a manner that the
godown can be sealed for effective fumigation etc.
◦ The godown complex should have an easy approach road, pucca internal roads, proper drainage,
arrangements for effective control against fire and theft and also have arrangements for easy loading
and unloading of stocks.
 Grading and Standardization: - The government has done much to grade and standardize many
agricultural goods. Under the Agricultural Produce (Grading and Marketing) Act the Government has set
up grading stations for commodities like ghee, flour, eggs, etc. The graded goods are stamped with the
seal of the Agricultural Marketing Department -AGMARK. The "Agmark" goods have a wider market
and command better prices.
 Marketing Research & Information Network: - This Central Sector Scheme was sanctioned by the
Ministry Of Agriculture in March, 2000. The objective of the scheme is to establish a nationwide
information network for speedy collection and dissemination of market data for its efficient and timely
utilization; to ensure flow of regular and reliable data to the producers, traders and consumers to derive
maximum advantage out of their sales and purchases, and to increase efficiency in marketing by effective
improvement in the existing market information system.The AGMARKNET portal is continuously being
enriched with other information related to agricultural marketing for the benefit of farmers and other
market users.
 AgmarkNet: - Agricultural Marketing ‘AgmarkNet’ is a unique live portal on agricultural commodities
anywhere in the world, technically supported by a high capacity Central server and the programming
capabilities of the NIC and the data is fed into the system in a decentralized mode through the voluntary
cooperation of mandi staff. This is acceptable since the aim of the network is to keep farmers and other
market functionaries informed of price and market related information. The portal is in public domain and
anybody can access information from the portal as per their requirement. The portal is becoming popular
as the information related to different aspects of marketing. The market information from the portal is
being broadcasted by various Television News Channels and published in News Papers for benefits of
farmers and other stakeholders. Efforts are also being made for dissemination of market information in
association with other service providers like IKSL, NOKIA and IIT, Kanpur (BSNL Telecom Center of
Excellence)etc. through SMS and voice mode to the farmers and other beneficiaries.
 National Agricultural Market Atlas (NAMA): - National Agricultural Market Atlas (NAMA) is an
offshoot of the AGMARKNET with an additional component of spatial data. It provides GIS web
interface to visualize the daily market scenario on National Map. Overlaying the above information with
the Road/Rail network makes it more meaningful and strengthens the decisions taken by the planner as
well as the farmer. It provides details about market functionaries, market infrastructure, etc. in the form of
map. The geographical distribution of the markets in conjunction with market parameters will be of
immense help both the monitoring authorities and the farming community.
 CCS National Institute Of Agricultural Marketing, Jaipur: - The National Institute of Agricultural
Marketing (NIAM) is a premier National level Institute set up by the Government of India in August 1988
to offer specialized Training, Research, Education and Consultancy in the field of Agricultural Marketing.
NIAM has been involved in collecting market based data for the project of National Agricultural

Marketing Atlas (NAMA) from different states by providing training, creating database of various
markets. The data has been collected with the co-operation of Officers and Staff of State Agricultural
Marketing Boards, Directorate of Agricultural Marketing, Department of Agriculture, Department of
Horticulture of various States.
 Terminal Market Complexes: - To encourage private sector investment in agriculture, the Union
ministry of agriculture is setting up terminal market complexes (TMCs), which are reducing wastage of
farm produce and thereby boosting supply. It provides facilities such as cleaning, sorting, packing,
storage, cold chain and transportation. It encourages participation of private enterprises which are selected
as promoters in the TMC project through competitive bidding and are eligible for subsidy. Private
enterprise can be any individual or consortium, while producers’ association can be farmer societies,
registered NGOs, etc and the TMC project are being implemented as a separate company to be registered
under the Companies Act, 1956.
 Organization of Regulated Markets: - Regulated markets have been organized with a view to protect
the farmers from the malpractices of sellers and brokers. The management of such markets is done by a
market committee which has nominees of the State Government, local bodies, arhatiyas, brokers and
farmers. Thus all interests are represented on the committee. These committees are appointed by the
Government for a specified period of time. Important functions performed by the committees can be
summarized as follows.
▪ Fixation of charges for weighing, brokerages etc.,
▪ Prevention of unauthorized deductions, underhand dealings, and wrong practices by the arhatiyas,
▪ Enforcing the use of standardized weights,
▪ Providing up to date and reliable market information to the farmers, and
▪ Settling of disputes among the parties arising out of market operations.
 Central Warehousing Corporation: - The Central Warehousing Corporation was set up in 1957 with the
purpose of constructing and running godowns and warehouses for the storage of agricultural produce. The
states has set-up the State Warehousing Corporations with the same purpose. At present the Food
Corporation is constructing its own network of godowns in different parts of the country.
 Directorate of Marketing and Inspection: - The directorate was set up by the Government of India to
co-ordinate the agricultural marketing of various agencies and to advise the Central and State
Governments on the problems of agricultural marketing. Activities of this directorate includes the
following:-
▪ Promotion of grading and standardization of agricultural and allied commodities;
▪ Statutory regulation of markets and market practices;
▪ Training of personnel;
▪ Market extension;
▪ Market research, survey and planning and
▪ Administration of old storage order, 1980 and meat food products order, 1973.
 Government Purchases and Fixation of Support Prices:- In addition to the measures mentioned above,
the Government also announces minimum support price for various agricultural commodities from time to
time in a bid to ensure fair returns to the farmers. These prices are fixed in accordance with the
recommendations of the Agricultural, Price Commission. If the prices start falling below the declared
level (say, as a result of glut in the market), the Government agencies like the Food Corporation of India
intervene in the market to make direct purchase from the farmers at the support prices. These purchases
are sold off by the Government at reasonable price through the public distribution system.
Problems in Agricultural Marketing
Indian system of agricultural marketing suffers from a number of defects. As a consequence, the Indian farmer is
deprived of a fair price for his produce. The main defects of the agricultural marketing system are discussed here:-
 Improper warehouses: - There is an absence of proper warehousing facilities in the villages. Therefore,
the farmer is compelled to store his products in pits, mud-vessels, "Kutcha" storehouses, etc. These
unscientific methods of storing lead to considerable wastage. Approximately 1.5% of the produce gets
rotten and becomes unfit for human consumption. Due to this reason supply in the village market
increases substantially and the farmers are not able to get a fair price for their produce. The setting up of
Central Warehousing Corporation and State Warehousing Corporation has improved the situation to some
extent.
 Lack of grading and standardization: - Different varieties of agricultural produce are still not graded
properly. The practice usually prevalent is the one known as "dara" sales wherein heap of all qualities of
produce are sold in one common lot thus the farmer producing better qualities is not assured of a better
price. Hence there is no incentive to use better seeds and produce better varieties.
 Inadequate transport facilities: - Transport facilities are highly inadequate in India. Only a small
number of villages are joined by railways and pucca roads to mandies. Produce has to be carried on slow
moving transport vehicles like bullock carts. Obviously such means of transport cannot be used to carry
produce to far-off places and the farmer has to dump his produce in nearby markets even if the price
obtained in these markets is considerably low. This is even truer with perishable commodities.
 Presence of a large number of middlemen: - The field of agricultural marketing is viewed as a complex
process and it involves a large number of intermediaries handling a variety of agricultural commodities,
which are characterized by seasonality, bulkiness, perishability, etc. The prevalence of these
intermediaries varies with the commodities and the marketing channels of the products. Because of the
intervention of many middlemen, the producer’s share in consumer’s area is reduced.
 Malpractices in unregulated markets: - Even now the number of unregulated markets in the country is
substantially large. Arhatiyas and brokers, taking advantage of the ignorance, and illiteracy of the farmers,
use unfair means to cheat them. The farmers are required to pay arhat (pledging charge) to the arhatiyas,
"tulaii" (weight charge) for weighing the produce, "palledari" to unload the bullock-carts and for doing
other miscellaneous types of allied works, "garda" for impurities in the produce, and a number of other
undefined and unspecified charges. Another malpractice in the mandies relates to the use of wrong
weights and measures in the regulated markets. Wrong weights continue to be used in some unregulated
markets with the object of cheating the farmers.
 Inadequate market information: - It is often not possible for the farmers to obtain information on exact
market prices in different markets. So, they accept whatever price the traders offer to them. With a view to
tackle this problem the government is using the radio and television media to broadcast market prices
regularly. The news papers also keep the farmers posted with the latest changes in prices. However the
price quotations are sometimes not reliable and sometimes have a great time-lag. The trader generally
offers less than the price quoted by the government news media.
 Inadequate credit facilities: - Indian farmer, being poor, tries to sell off the produce immediately after
the crop is harvested though prices at that time are very low. The safeguard of the farmer from such
"forced sales" is to provide him credit so that he can wait for better times and better prices. Since such
credit facilities are not available, the farmers are forced to take loans from money lenders, while agreeing
to pledge their produce to them at less than market prices. The co-operative marketing societies have
generally catered to the needs of the large farmers and the small farmers are left at the mercy of the money
lenders.
 Small and scattered holding: - The agricultural holdings are very small and scattered throughout the
country, as a result of which the marketable surplus generated is very meagre. It is not an easy task
organizing how the goods can be assembled for efficient marketing. Moreover there are many varieties of
particular crops and this poses problems in pricing.
 Forced sales: - The financial obligations committed during production force farmers to dispose the
commodity immediately after the harvest though the prices are very low. Such forced sales or distress
sales will keep the farmer in vicious cycle of poverty. Report has it that the farmer, in general, sells his
produce at an unfavourable place and at an unfavourable time and usually he gets unfavourable terms.
 Technological development problems in farm production: - Evidence has it that technological change
in performing certain farm operations brought in new problems in agricultural marketing. For example,
paddy harvesters are identified to increase the moisture content problem in paddy; mechanical picking of
cotton associated with the problem of mixing trash with cotton; potato diggers are found to cause cuts on
the potato; sugarcane harvesters effects the problem of trash mix with the cane, etc. These problems lead
to the reduction of price for the farm products. Unless corrective measures are affected, the production
technologies accentuate the marketing problems.
 Poor handling, packing, packaging, and processing facilities: - For efficient and orderly marketing of
agricultural products, careful handling and packing are required. Present packing and handling are
inadequate. For instance, many times we see rough and careless treatment in the packing and initial
handling of fruits and vegetables. Green vegetables are packed in heavy sacks which will be heated up
quickly at the centre, wilt and rot soon. Workers or passengers are allowed to ride on top of a load of
vegetables, which will result in physical damage. Careless handling of fruits and insanitary handling of
the produce are other problems. Poor handling and packing expose the products to substantial physical
damage and quality deterioration. If there are no processing facilities, say, for tomatoes, it means all the
harvested crops must be sold within a given time and because there are packaging problems, quite a
substantial part of the produce may be lost before getting to the market. Not only do these losses cut down
the supply of products reaching the consumers, but also raise the price of the remaining portion, which
must bear all costs.
 Growth of urban centres: - The growth of urban centres creates more marketing problems, concerned
with inadequate supply to meet the increase in size; the need to create new markets and storage problems.
 Communication problem: - One of the key elements of efficient agricultural marketing system is the
availability of proper communication infrastructure. Rural areas are inadequately placed with reference to
posts, telegraphs and telephone. The literacy rate being low among the farmers, it poses difficulty of the
communication tasks.
 Lack of farmer's organization: - The farmers are scattered over a wide area without any common
organization. In the absence of such organization, farmers do not get anybody to guide them and protect
their interests. On the other hand, traders are an organized body. Thus, the marketing system, therefore,
constitutes unorganized farming community on one side and organized and powerful traders on the other
side. Under such situations, farmers will be generally exploited and do not get remunerative prices for
their produce.
 Inadequate research on marketing: - Until recently, all efforts have been geared towards producing
more without thinking about how to market them. There is need to know about new technologies in food
storage and preservation. There is also need for research on consumer demands and preferences, handling
and packaging.
 Problems caused by Globalization: - The globalization has brought drastic changes in India across all
sectors and it is more so on agriculture, farmers and made a deep impact on agricultural marketing. It is
basically because of majority of Indians are farmers. It has brought several challenges and threats like
uncertainty, turbulence, competitiveness, apart from compelling them to adapt to changes arising out of
technologies. If it is the dark cloud there is silver lining like having excellent export opportunities for our
agricultural products to the outside world.
Suggestions to Improve Agricultural Marketing
Improving the marketing system of agricultural products would help the farmer to better his economy. The
following are suggested measures that could reflect an improved agricultural marketing system:
 Establishment of More Regulated Markets: - A regulated market is one, which aims at the elimination
of the unhealthy and unscrupulous practices, reducing marketing charges and providing facilities to
producers. Under the regulated markets, its management should be vested with market committees in
which the members would be producers, traders, officials of the marketing societies, officials of
agricultural and animal husbandry etc. The institute should be self-financed, statutory and autonomous.
Funds would be raised through licensing fees and market fees on the notified agricultural produce
transacted in the premises of the market yard. The regulated market however has the following benefits:
◦ Farmers are encouraged to bring their produce directly to the markets.
◦ Farmers are protected from the exploitation of market functionaries.
◦ Farmers are ensured better prices for their produce.
◦ Farmers have access to up-to-date market information.
◦ The marketable surplus of the farmers will be increased.
◦ Marketing costs are lowered and producers share will be increased.
 Improvement in Standardization and Grading: - Standard specifications and grading should be
designed to be useful to as many producers, traders and consumers as possible i.e., standards should
reflect market needs and wants. One grade should have the same implications to producers, traders and
consumers in the quality of the product. It must have mutually acceptable description. They should reflect
commodity characteristics that all types of buyers recognize. The grading should be simple, clear and easy
to understand.
 Improvement in Handling and Packing: - This refers to the adoption of new techniques for the physical
handling of commodities throughout the various phases of marketing, for instance, the use of cold storage
(mechanical refrigeration) in handling of perishables, new methods of packing etc. The most appropriate
handling and suitable containers among the available ones are meant to use against dust, heat, rain, flies
etc., to prevent considerable physical losses and quality deterioration.
 Provision of Storage Facilities: - Reduction of physical damage and quality deterioration in the products
can be brought about through the application of the scientific techniques and provision of appropriate
storage facilities depending on the nature and characteristics of products and the climatic conditions of an
area. To this effect, more licensed warehouse are required. A licensed warehouse has the following
benefits:
◦ Reduces the wastage in storage of various commodities by providing scientific storage facilities
◦ Assists the government in orderly marketing of agricultural commodities by introducing standard
grade and specifications
◦ Issues warehouse receipts, a negotiable instrument in which commercial banks advance finance to the
producers and dealers
◦ Assists government in the scheme of price support operations.
However, there would be procedures for storage which are not too bureaucratic. The depositor intending
to store the produce in the warehouse would have to present a written requisition in the application
prescribed by the warehouse. The commodity meant for storage will be properly packed and delivered at
the warehouse. The depositor would have to disclose all details of the commodity including the market
value in the application form. The commodity brought for storage will be graded and weighed by trained
technical personnel before the commodity can be stored. Different storage charges would also apply for
different commodities and the stocks offered for storage will be insured against possible risks of fire, theft
and floods, strikes and civil commotion.
 Improvement in Transport Facilities: - Link-up and associated road development is sine qua non for the
success of market structure. The availability of efficient transportation encourages the farmers to the
markets of their option to derive the price benefits. Rural roads particularly are in bad state during all
seasons and more so during rainy season. Investment on roads should be given top priority. Also another
problem is that perishables cannot be transported in closed wagons hence there is a need to provide
necessary ventilation in whichever means they are to be transported.
 Market Information: - As such we have newspapers, price bulletins, reports of the government agencies
etc., which provide market information. This information would be much more useful if an educational
programme is made available to analyse and interpret the information at the markets. The raw data no
doubt provides valuable information but skilful interpretation makes it useful to the farmers.
 Market Research: - Market research can be defined as the study of consumer demand by a firm so that it
may expand its output and market its product. It centres on consumer's needs, preferences, impressions of
a product, accessibility of markets, efficiency of marketing etc. Marketing research needs to be given top
priority to improve up on the marketing system.
 Market Extension: - This involves the dissemination of needed information on marketing to producers.
The farmers will be advised on consumer preferences, grading, packaging, transport, etc., in order to help
them to secure better returns.
 Provision of Agricultural Marketing Training to Farmers: - Provision of training is of utmost
importance in view of the malpractices resorted to by various market functionaries. The farmer needs to
be trained in product planning i.e. crops and varieties to be grown, preparation of produce of produce for
marketing, malpractices and rules and regulations, market information, promotion of group marketing,
etc.
 Promoting Cooperative Marketing: - Cooperative marketing is the organized sale of farm products on a
non-profit basis in the interests of the individual producer. Cooperative marketing are organized by
farmers themselves and the profits are distributed among the farmer-members based on the quantity of the
produce marketed by them.
The agricultural marketing system should basically ensure that the producer is encouraged to increase
production, besides assuring the farmer remunerative prices for his produce and supplying the
commodities to the customers at reasonable prices. In view of this, cooperative marketing societies should
be established for meeting the requirements of the farmer. The benefits of cooperative marketing include:
▪ Make arrangement for the sale of produce of the members
▪ Provides credit facilities to the members on the security of agricultural produce
▪ Provide grading facilities, which would result in better price
▪ Make arrangement for scientific storage of the member’s produce
▪ Arrange the supply off inputs required by the farmers
▪ Undertake the system of pooling the produce of the members to enhance the bargaining power
through unity of action

▪ Arrange for the export of the produce to enable the farmers get better returns
▪ Act as an agent of the government in procurement of food-grains, etc.
 Provisions for Cold Storage Facilities and Refrigerated Transport: - For perishable commodities like
fruits and vegetables, quality losses are enormous and hence it would be necessary to take measures and
devise means or methods of controlling and minimizing losses. Preservation is, thus, a necessary adjunct
of production and a vital link between production and consumption. Cold storage is the most important for
the proper marketing of horticultural produce, because it had a definite season of production and the
quality of the produce deteriorates quickly after harvest. Most fruits and vegetables losses moisture to the
surrounding air almost any time in the humidity of the air is less than saturated. It is possible to maintain
high humidity of the 80 – 95 per cent in proper cold storages and hence refrigeration is also beneficial in
reducing moisture losses. Refrigerated transport for perishables needs to be provided during their
movement in marketing channels. Besides road transport, railway wagons should also be suitably
modified for transportation of perishables.
 Development of Physical Market: - Physical markets handling fruits and vegetables suffer from
operational and management inadequacies. A country level plan to identify markets of national
importance for fruits and vegetables and provision of need-based infrastructure from export point of view
in all these markets is imperative.
Conclusion
There is no doubt that in any marketing there is a motive towards profit involved and at the same time the
marketing is to be based on certain values, principles and philosophies such as offering just and fair prices to the
farmers who toil hard to till. Bringing necessary reforms coupled with proper price discovery mechanism through
regulated market system will help streamline and strengthen the agricultural marketing.
In order to avoid isolation of small-scale farmers from the benefits of agricultural produce they need to be
integrated and informed with the market knowledge like fluctuations, demand and supply concepts which are the
core of economy. Marketing of agriculture can be made effective if it is looked from the collective and integrative
efforts from various quarters by addressing to farmers, middlemen, researchers and administrators. It is high time
we brought out significant strategies in agricultural marketing with innovative and creative approaches to bring
fruits of labour to the farmers.
Agricultural Transportation: Issues and Related Constraints

Contents
 Introduction
 Role of Intermediate Means of Transport in Agriculture
 Effect of Markets and Storage Facilities on Agricultural Transportation
 Transportation Cost of Agricultural Produce and Farmer's Income
 Transportation Problems and Road Network
 Problems of Road Transport in India
 Special Problems in the Construction of Rural Roads
 Measures Taken for Improving Rural Road Infrastructure by Government
 Suggestions for Better Rural Road Network
 Conclusion
Introduction
An efficient transport system is critically important to efficient agricultural marketing. If transport services are
infrequent, of poor quality or are expensive then farmers will be at disadvantage when they attempt to sell their
crops. An expensive service will naturally lead to low farm gate prices (the net price the farmer receives from
selling his produce). Seasonally impassable roads or slow and infrequent transport services, coupled with poor
storage, can lead to losses as certain crops (e.g. milk, fresh vegetables, tea) deteriorate quickly over time. If the
journey to market is made over rough roads then other crops (e.g. bananas, mangoes) may also suffer losses from
bruising; this will also result in lower prices to the farmer.
Agriculture is best served by consistent high urban, and international, demand. This is best brought about by an
efficient, high volume, transport and marketing system where the transporting and marketing unit costs are low. If
the margin between what the farmer receives from the sale of his produce and what the urban consumer pays for
his produce is high then the effective demand transferred to the farmer will be correspondingly be reduced.
Similarly if internal transport costs in a country are particularly high then the scope for agricultural exports will
also suffer in comparison with other more efficient countries.
The pattern of agricultural marketing is strongly influenced by the nature of transport services. Many developing
countries suffer from monopolistic, low volume and high cost transport and marketing systems. Economies of
scale are present in both transport and marketing operations. In the following we will consider transport costs, the
impact of roads on rural development, access to markets and the potential use of intermediate means of transport.
Role of Intermediate Means of Transport in Agriculture
Intermediate Means of Transport or IMTs includes wheelbarrows, bicycles, rickshaws, various animal carts and
wagons, motorcycles, motorized three-wheelers, and two-wheel tractors that fill the gap between more expensive
motor vehicles and tedious human effort. Intermediate means of transport IMTs can play a useful role in
agricultural marketing. Walking, the dominant mode of on-farm transport, can restrict any increase in agricultural
production. IMT can improve the efficiency of on-farm agricultural transports by reducing transport costs and
time. The effects on agricultural production can be manifold:
 Cultivation of bigger areas
 Utilization of more fertile, but remote, soils
 Production of heavier corps
 Increased utilization of fertilizer and manure
 Reduced pest damage and spoilage at crop harvest time
 Reduction of transport time, partly used for income generation
 Reduced effort and drudgery involved in human porterage
 Spill-over effects if animals are used for ploughing and transport
Thus, IMT enable the farmers to respond better to markets by augmenting or changing their production.
Additionally, they reduce losses, save transport costs and time. If markets are within walking distance then head
loading is important. Transport efficiency can be significantly increased by improvement of footpaths or the use of
IMT. If markets are more than half a day's non-motorized travel, a multimodal transport system is a cost-effective
solution. Trucks are unbeatable on long distances, good roads and fully loaded, and IMT operate more efficiently
on short distances with small loads and on bad roads making a multimodal approach the best solution for rural
transport problems.
Effect of Markets and Storage Facilities on Agricultural Transportation
The presence of markets and storage facilities play an important role in affecting choice of vehicle. Markets and
storage facilities both provide the same role of acting as a place where agricultural produce can be amalgamated.
This may be for the purpose of immediate sale or for transportation to the next destination. Access to markets and
storage facilities therefore affect vehicle choice in two main ways.
Firstly, the ease of access to these facilities, whether in terms of distance or ability to use the facilities, will dictate
the farmer’s decision on which vehicle to use. For example, if the storage facility is close he may decide to buy a

non-motorised vehicle which would have been of no use if the facility was beyond a certain distance. Similarly, if
once the farmer had reached the facility he was unable to use it either because of its expense or because of
exclusionist type practises, the need for a vehicle becomes redundant, and the farmer’s produce may as well be
sold to the village trader. The farmer will only demand a more advanced vehicle if it is the perception that the
vehicle will enable an effective increase in farm gate prices.
Secondly, where goods are amalgamated it means that the density of demand for vehicle services increases. The
density of demand is of vital importance in determining vehicle choice. The larger the demand the more an
efficient and cost effective vehicle can be justified and hence the unitary costs of transport are reduced. The
existence of markets and storage facilities are important at any level. For example, at the village level a small
grain store may be able to accumulate enough demand from all the farmers to justify the use of a donkey cart for
transportation to market. Without the store individual farmers may only be able to justify head loading their
surplus produce to market. Similarly, at the district level a market could attract city traders who bring large trucks
to transport the produce bought at the market in bulk.
The ease with which farmers and traders have access to markets and storage facilities will be reflected in their
distribution costs (transport and storage). If distribution costs are low this will effectively increase farm gate prices
which will give farmers the incentive to increase production.
Transportation Cost of Agricultural Produce and Farmer's Income
Cost of transportation of agricultural produce from the farm sites to the market has a great impact on production
and income of farmers. This is because transport charges on agricultural produce vary with type of crops, the
efficiency of the transport and distance travelled. A significant proportion of the farmer's income had gone to
transportation and this is as a result of bad roads in these areas. High cost of transportation would translate to high
selling price and if the price is too high when compared with other farmers from other areas, customers will not
buy and this may result to selling at a loss.
The importance of an efficient and competitive marketing system has been stressed as a complement to rural
transport services (RTS) and infrastructure in promoting development. However, the presence of markets in them
also constitutes a means by which the effective demand for transport can be increased. A market acts as a point
where goods and people are amalgamated together and thereby concentrating the demand for transport. Where
populations are dispersed markets are also likely to be dispersed with long average distances to market and people
less likely to make the trip. This is an important consideration for the demand for Intermediate means of transports
where, if distances become too large, an Intermediate means of transport may not be viable.
In addition, one of the most effective ways that farmers have of getting the best price for their produce is for them
to sell it themselves directly to final consumers at rural or urban markets, and thus bypass the normal marketing
system. Although farmers do not have the economies of scale of travelling wholesalers it is often recognised by
urban dwellers that the keenest prices are often provided by the farmers. Farmers bringing their own produce to
market represent a very important way of limiting the power of the marketing cartels. Farmers rely on travelling
wholesalers, traders, parastatals or large private marketing companies they all reduce the farmers bargaining
power, and critically, it reduces demand for transport services and the supply of vehicles available for rural people.
There is usually little support by the authorities for ‘unofficial’ trading and farmers are frequently harassed as they
attempt to sell.
Transportation Problems and Road Network
Farmers face various transportation problems in the process of transporting their produce from the farm to their
houses and markets. These problems included:
 Bad roads,
 High cost of transportation,
 Irregularity of vehicles,
 Insufficiency of vehicles,
 Insufficient means of transportation and
 Long distance from farm to their houses as well as markets.
Road network plays main role among them. This is because it is the major means of transporting agricultural
produce from the farms to the markets. Road transport has both positive and negative impact on agricultural
development in India.
The impacts of bad road infrastructure on agricultural output and productivity are following: -
 The agricultural sector accounts for a large share of gross domestic product. Poverty is concentrated in
rural areas. The relatively low levels of road infrastructure and long average travel time’s result in high
transaction costs for sales of agricultural inputs and outputs, and this limits agricultural productivity and
growth.
 Many farmers are reluctant to grow a marketable surplus second crop because it cannot be sold or because
the difficulty and expense of transport significantly reduces the returns to labour.
 Agricultural productivity will be low and there is a lack of innovation because extension information and
inputs do not reach the farmers.
 Rural people often are too poor to own their own motorized vehicles and depend on public transport to
gain access to locations outside their communities. When rural roads deteriorate public transport becomes
more expensive and transport operators eventually decide to stop their business.
 Some of the variables that determine the level of development in a given environment are easy
accessibility and mobility.
 A strong relationship between road transportation, underdevelopment and rurality has been identified by
various researches.
 When the distance of farm to the market is far and the road is rough perishable crops may be destroyed
and farmers may run at a loss.
 With improved roads, transport cost savings occur both through lower costs of existing traffic and lower
costs of generated and attracted traffic. The assumption is that traffic will grow as a result of road
improvements. A deterioration of the road network on the other hand will gradually reduce traffic levels.
Moreover the unit transport cost will increase.
 When the roads become impassable, there will be a shift to less-effective modes of transport, replacing
motorized transport by more costly non-motorized transport. The move to non-motorised transport often
implies that a lot of transport simply ceases to take place. If motorised transport is not available, bulky
goods can only be transported for short sections.
 By the reduction in competition in the transport sector due to lower traffic levels, results in the increased
cost of transport and that is passed to the farming households.
 A well maintained road network keeps input and transport prices down and, hence, production costs lower
and can lead to improved livelihoods through higher incomes.
 The quality and density of the rural road network makes a significant difference in the cost of agricultural
inputs, the quality and value of outputs as well as the delivery of extension services.
Problems of Road Transport in India
Road transport of the country is facing a number of problems. Some of these problems are discussed below:
 Most of the Indian roads are unsurfaced (42.65%) and are not suitable for use of vehicular traffic. The poor
maintenance of the roads aggravates the problem especially in the rainy season. According to one estimate
there is about per year loss of Rs. 200 crores on the wear and tear of the vehicles due to poor quality of roads.
Less than 0.1 percent of the national income is spent on the maintenance of roads in India.
 Sixty percent of villages are without roads in India. It adversely affects our agriculture and rural economy.
 There is heavy tax burden on motor transport in India. There are multiple check-posts, toll tax and octoroon
duties collection points on the roads which bring down the speed of the traffic and waste time. Rate of road
taxes vary from state to state and interstate permits are difficult to obtain.
 Way side amenities like repair shops, first aid centers, telephones, clean toilets, restaurants, rest places are
lacking along the Indian roads. There is very little attention on road safety and traffic laws are wilfully violated.
 There is little co-operation and coordination among different states with regard to motor transport. As such,
motor transport faces lot of difficulties.
 According to 'Road Transport Reorganization Committee', 90 per cent of the operators are small operators
owning five vehicles or less. Owing to this small number, satisfactory and efficient service is not being
provided to the people.
 Due to high prices of petroleum products and diesel operational costs of road transport are rising and making
the mode of transport more costly.
 Most of the drivers on the roads are unskilled and untrained.
 One major problem on the Indian roads is the mixing of traffic. Same road is used by high speed cars, trucks,
two wheelers, tractors, animal driven carts, cyclists and even by animals. Even highways are not free from this
malady. This increases traffic time, congestion and pollution and road accidents.
 In India, roads are not well-maintained as there are no timely repairs. It causes discomfort and quick
depreciation of vehicles.
 There is very little participation of private sector in road development in India because of long gestation period
and low-returns. The legislative framework for private investment in roads is also not satisfactory. The road
engineering and construction are yet to gear themselves up to meet the challenges of the future.
 There has been no stability in policy relating to highway development in the country. It has changed with the
change of government. There are a number of agencies which look after the construction and maintenance of
different types of roads. Since there is no co-ordination between these agencies their decisions are often
conflicting and contradictory.
Special Problems in the Construction of Rural Roads
Rural roads constitute a special category of roads as regards the type of materials used and construction techniques
employed, as compared with roads forming the highway network. As a result, the construction and maintenance
problems involved in keeping the rural road network at a satisfactory level of serviceability are of a different
quantum and type. Some of these problems are:-
 Rural roads are generally built up in stages, extending over a number of years. This practice arises from
the inadequate availability of finances, as well as from the fact that the traffic is likely to increase after an
initial road link is established, thereby necessitating an upgradation of the pavement.
 One important and significant feature pertaining to the construction of rural roads is the emphasis placed
on the utilisation of the local materials, both soil and stone aggregates in the various layers of the
pavement. This necessitates that such materials to be utilized after careful evaluation of their properties
and affecting the needed improvements by blending or the use of additives as may be required.
 The construction of rural roads is handled by a number of different agencies, varying from state to state.
Within the same state different agencies might be building rural roads in different districts.
 The level of expertise available shows great variation from department to department, and it is not unusual
to find that trained personnel are not available in the executing department to plan, design and construct a
rural road that makes optimal use of the material and financial resources available and build a material
and financial resources available manual labour is resorted to, to the maximum extent, since providing
employment to the local population also forms one of the essential objectives of the various rural
development programmes.
 Rural labour generally does not have the necessary skills associated with the different phases of road

construction, nor is any training imparted to them before inducting them into the construction programme.
Employment on such construction works is viewed, rather mistakenly, as a relief measure lesson the
problem of rural employment. The consequence of such thinking is a finished product of poor quality, i.e.,
an improperly built road that has only frittered away the meagre resources.
 The lack of adequate quality in the inputs, human as well as material, results in a faster deterioration of
the serviceability to a lower than the tolerable level. In turn, these results in greater demands on
maintenance, viz, more frequent repairs, involving additional deployment of manpower and materials, all
adding upto higher spending on maintenance. If money for maintenance is short, final result will be the
deterioration of the roadway leading to the loss of initial capital investment itself.
Measures Taken for Improving Rural Road Infrastructure by Government
Rural roads connect villages giving access to rural population to the National Highways through Major District
Roads and State Highways. Around 59 per cent of the total road length is accounted by rural roads largely built
under Jawahar Rojgar Yojna. These roads are of limited value from the point of view of movement of heavy
traffic. Some of the government's measures to improve rural road infrastructure are as follows:-
 Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY) was launched on 25th December 2000 as a fully funded
Centrally Sponsored Scheme to provide all weather road connectivity in rural areas of the country. The
programme envisages connecting all habitations with a population of 500 persons and above in the plain
areas and 250 persons and above in hill States, the tribal and the desert areas.
 The District Rural Roads Plans (DRRPs) have been developed for all the districts of the country and Core
Network has been drawn out of the DRRP to provide for at least a single connectivity to every target
habitation. This planning exercise has been carried out with full involvement of the three tier Panchayati
Raj Institutions.
 Large scale revision of Rural Roads Manual were carried out by IRC at the special intervention of
Ministry of Rural Development. This Manual has established the standards for construction of Rural
Roads.
 A three tier quality mechanism has been operationalised to ensure quality of road works during
construction.
 There is a provision of two bills of quantities, one for construction and another for routine maintenance on
lump-sum basis amount every year for 5 years and the contactor is required to offer not only for
construction but also for maintenance separately. This helps in delivery of better quality roads because if
the quality of road is compromised by the contractor during construction, much more money would be
required during the routine maintenance rendering the contract uneconomical for the contractor.
 A web based online monitoring, management and accounting system has been developed under the
PMGSY. The online system and website is being managed and maintained in collaboration with NIC and
CDAC.
 The Central Government has created a dedicated fund, called Central Road Fund through collection of
cess from petrol and diesel. Presently, Rs. 2/- per litre is collected as cess on petrol and High Speed Diesel
(HSD) Oil. The fund is distributed for development and maintenance of National Highways, State Roads
and Rural Roads.
 Special construction technology to tackle the construction of roads in the hilly regions would be adopted
to ensure quality roads within a specific time frame.
 Promoting participation of private operators on non viable semi urban/rural routes through favourable
policy regime. This could be achieved through following options:-
◦ Auctioning of combination of routes (which are a mix of profitable and non viable routes) to private
operator(s) so as to enable them to compensate their losses on account of operation of non viable
routes;
◦ Offering non viable routes to bidder asking for lowest subsidy/financial support;

◦ Subjecting non viable routes to lower rates of taxation or permit fees and;
◦ Allowing alternate competing modes of passenger road transport.
Suggestions for Better Rural Road Network
It is essential that for quick development of rural road network concerted effort is required during planning which
should begin at gross root level by associating the concerned village folk and by convincing them that appropriate
quality of road constructed with appropriate technology would meet their requirement and this would be
maintained and upgraded with their association. All possible resources should be mobilized for raising the
necessary funds. Some of the possible suggestions are:-
 A feeling has to be created in rural people that they are getting or building an asset for themselves and
future generation instead of having a feeling that government is building a road and that the major
beneficiaries are the government agencies or the contractor. In other words they should have feeling of
belonging instead of detachment.
 If Villagers are made aware about their minimum needs and assured that all assistance will be
forthcoming for proper maintenance and continuous upgrading of the road with time and need, they will
have a cooperative attitude and would assist in many ways during the initial construction, or subsequent
maintenance.
 Land consolidation work can be taken up simultaneously to planning. The land for access road along with
raising of the track and proper drainage of the village should also be considered with other facilities for
the village during land consolidation. The land for access road on embankment may be considered similar
to land reserved for Panchayat land and other common facilities to the village.
 In some cases the village get submerged by the flood of a nearby river. In that case protection of village
by bunds/dykes can be considered and these “bunds” will also provide access roads on embankment. But
the drainage of village has to be adequately planned in these cases otherwise any opening in the ‘bund’ for
cross drainage works, may flood the village by back flow when water level is higher on the other side.
 The quality of road to be constructed has to be planned and will depend upon the subgrade soil properties,
level of water table, quantity and quality of anticipated traffic and level of maintenance to be provided.
The simplest and first stage of road construction is a properly cambered formation, with reasonable
shoulder width and drainage system.
 The road construction work can be taken up in lean farming period, where by free (if managed) or cheap
labour could be available. Similarly the timely maintenance of rural roads is essential. This is from the
consideration that once damage starts in rural earthen roads it will develop at a much faster pace
compared to higher grade roads. Any neglect will totally undo the assets created in past and instead of
upgrading at a later date, only in first stage construction has to be repeated every time afresh. The standard
of road should be continuously raised and adequately maintained over the future years.
 At least some part of land revenue collected from the villages could be ploughed back for their
development and a minimum percentage of land revenue should be earmarked for rural roads also.
 Another source of raising fund for the rural road development could be, levying a sort of a cess on the
saleable produce. This could be collected from the farmers at the market place, sugar mills, rice mills, etc.
Many market places (Mandies) do levy a cess on the parked vehicles and produce sold, for the
development of market place and for the facilities provided. Even the private wholesale dealers charge
commission over the sale. At present most to the farm produce is purchased by the governmental agencies
and the price offered s according to the rates fixed by the government, thus the cess to be collected may
form a part of the price offered. The cess collected from market place may be distributed amongst the
villages feeding the market place.
 Village Panchayats can also collect a type of ‘Road Tax’ from the vehicles in the village. The rates could
be different for different types of vehicles.
 A toll tax can be collected by panchayat from the vehicles visiting the village.

 Banks can also be asked to liberalize their policy and should consider advancing loans to villages at
nominal interest for construction of rural roads providing access to the village which would not involve
greater risks than that of existing procedure of advancing loans to artisans, etc. for setting up their shop,
workshop etc. for increasing the income.
 Industrial houses, commercial undertakings, banks etc. can also be asked to adopt villages for upliftment.
Villages selected should be similar to selection of poor families in a village or district for their upliftment.
These families are given some fund for raising their means of livelihood.
 The government can also provide matching grant to the funds raised by Panchayat by tax collection,
donation, etc. for access road construction to backward villages.
 By proper training and motivation of the personnel involved in the construction and maintenance of these,
as well as increasingly adopting appropriate technological methods that have been developed, better rural
roads can be built.
Conclusion
Transport plays a significant role in the structure of food production and marketing and that easy transport to
market can make all the difference in the level of rural incomes. An improved transportation will encourage
farmers to work harder in the rural areas for increased production, add value to their products, reduce spoilage and
wastage, empower the farmers as well as having positive impact on the productivity, income, employment level
and reduce poverty level in the rural areas. Finally, transport is also seen as a facilitating factor in the mobilisation
of the farmers and other allied workers in the overall national development of the nations.
e-Agriculture: e-Technology in The Aid of Farmers

Contents
 Introduction
 Information Technology and its Components
 Role of IT in Agriculture
 e-Agriculture Ecosystem
 ICT Initiatives for Agricultural Development in India by Various Agencies
 Case Studies
◦ Agropedia
◦ e-Choupal
◦ Kissan Kerala
◦ AgmarkNet
◦ eMojani
◦ Agri - Subsidy
◦ Kisan Call Centers
◦ National e-Governance Plan in Agriculture (NeGP-A)
◦ Bhoomi
◦ TARAhaat
◦ Warana Wired Villages
◦ Dairy Information Services Kiosk
◦ GramSampark
◦ Digital Gangetic Plane
◦ Gyandoot
 IT and Indian Agriculture in the Future
 Constraints and Remedies for Effective Dissemination
 Conclusion

Introduction
E-Agriculture is an emerging field for enhancing sustainable agriculture and food security through improved processes for
knowledge access and exchange using information and communication technologies (ICT).
Agriculture is one of the most important sectors in India, and could benefit tremendously with the applications of ICTs
especially in bringing changes to socio-economic conditions of poor in backward areas. Agriculture constitutes a major
livelihoods sector and most of the rural poor depend on rain-fed agriculture and fragile forests for their livelihoods. Farmers
in rural areas have to deal with failed crops and animal illness frequently and due to limited communication facilities,
solutions to their problems remain out of reach.
The service role of ICTs can enhance rural community’s opportunities by improving their access to market information and
lower transaction costs for poor farmers and traders. Though India has a strong and fast growing IT industry, access to ICTs
remains very low particularly in rural areas. The present indicators of IT penetration in Indian society are far from
satisfactory.
The National Policy for Farmers emphasizes the use of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) at village level for
reaching out to the farmers with the correct advisories and requisite information. The available satellite data relating to
weather news, long-term and short-term weather forecast, production information, market prices policy developments
pertaining to agriculture, apart from the number of advisory services in public or private domain that disseminate information
should be utilized adequately.
Information Technology and its Components
Induction of IT as a strategic tool for agricultural development and welfare of rural India requires that the necessary IT
infrastructure is in place. The rapid changes and downward trend in prices in various components of IT makes it feasible to
target at a large scale IT penetration into rural India. Some of the broad factors to be noted with respect to various
components of IT are listed below:
 Input Devices: Radical improvements are witnessed with respect to the means of communication by human beings
with computers such as key boards, mouse devices, scanners. The advent of touch screen monitors that allow users
to give input to computers by touching on the appropriate location of the monitor has made it possible to develop
user-friendly interface for farmers which is easy, intuitive, circumvents language barrier and at the same time
provides a relaxed environment to the users. The present day digital cameras make it possible to capture and store
good quality graphics and large video clips. The small size and low weight of these digital cameras, which are
increasingly becoming affordable, open up the possibilities of providing computer based demonstration clips to
educate the farmers. The digital cameras can also be used to upload plant stress related images, movie clips which
can facilitate an expert residing at a far of location to quickly recommend a solution.
 Output Devices: Monitor screens, printers & plotters, data projectors support high resolution and good quality
output. The qualities of these output devices have the potential of generating renewed interest in the farmers in using
IT based services. The light weight portable data projectors can be easily carried by the agricultural extension
personnel for serving larger audience. Similarly, speakers can also be attached to the computers to incorporate voice
based trainings for farmers.
 Processors: The processing speeds of computers have gone up. At present high speed processorsare available which
makes it possible to undertake substantial processing of data at the client side.
 Storage Devices: 80GB and even higher hard disk drives have become common in PC range of computers. This
makes it possible to store substantial information at the local level which facilitates faster access. Similarly, high
capacity pen drives, CDs make it possible to transfer large volumes of data to locations which cannot be connected
to networks immediately. These storage devices are also used for backup of crucial data. As a precaution, many
corporate store their backups at locations away from the place of work.
 Software: Various operating systems are available which act as interface between the user and the machine. The
graphic user interface (GUI) has become an accepted prerequisite for end users. Application software which can
support complex user requirements are available. Of the shelf solutions for office automation packages, groupware
applications, complex database solutions, communication products, solutions based on remote sensing &
geographical information systems are available. In addition, solutions based on some or all of these are also readily
available. The present downward trend in the IT industry provides an opportunity get customised application for any
specific task developed at an affordable price. Rapid Application Development and Deployment (RADD) is a
popular model for quick development and deployment of applications. Development environment itself is simplified
with tools that quicken the pace of software specialists. Project management and monitoring software are available
that facilitate efficient execution of large and complex applications that are required for rural India.
 Networking Devices: The capacity of modems, used to convert the data from digital to analog and vice versa, which
are popularly employed to use telephone lines have increased. Internal modems are available integrated into the

computer so that they are not exposed to outside environment. The capacities of other networking devices such as
routers have also gone up which makes it possible to create large networks with smooth data transmission.
 Transmission Media: The media through which the data transfer takes place has also undergone revolutionary
change. Telephone lines are still the popular source in India although the reliability and low bandwidth are still
major issues. High capacity cables, optical fibre, radio, wireless local loops, satellite transmission and various
solutions based on a combination of these are already being used in many parts of the country.
 Other Accessories: Uninterrupted Power Supply (UPS) devices are crucial to ensure the durability of the IT
equipment as well as provide backup mechanisms. The potential of solar power packs to provide a feasible solution
to shortage of power in the rural areas needs to be exploited.
Role of IT in Agriculture
Applications of IT in support of agricultural and rural development fall into five main areas. These are:
 Economic development of agricultural producers;
 Community development;
 Research and education;
 Small and medium enterprises development; and
 Media networks.
Precision farming, popular in developed countries, extensively uses IT to make direct contribution to agricultural
productivity. The techniques of remote sensing using satellite technologies, geographical information systems, agronomy and
soil sciences are used to increase the agricultural output. This approach is capital intensive and useful where large tracts of
land are involved. Consequently it is more suitable for farming taken up on corporate lines.
The indirect benefits of IT in empowering Indian farmer are significant and remain to be exploited. The Indian farmer
urgently requires timely and reliable sources of information inputs for taking decisions. At present, the farmer depends on
trickling down of decision inputs from conventional sources which are slow and unreliable. The changing environment faced
by Indian farmers makes information not merely useful, but necessary to remain competitive.
Here are some agricultural development services that can be provided in the developing world using ICT:
 Online services for information, education and training, monitoring and consultation, diagnosis and monitoring, and
transaction and processing;
 E-commerce for direct linkages between local producers, traders, retailers and suppliers;
 The facilitation of interaction among researchers, extension (knowledge) workers, and farmers;
 Question-and-answer services where experts respond to queries on specialised subjects ICT services to block- and
district-level developmental officials for greater efficiency in delivering services for overall agricultural
development;
 Up-to-date information, supplied to farmers as early as possible, about subjects such as packages of practices, market
information, weather forecasting, input supplies, credit availability, etc.;
 Creation of databases with details of the resources of local villages and villagers, site-specific Information systems,
expert systems, etc.;
 Provision of early warning systems about disease/ pest problems, information regarding rural development
programmes and crop insurances, postharvest technology, etc.;
 Facilitation of land records and online registration services;
 Improved marketing of milk and milk products;
 Services providing information to farmers regarding farm business and management;
 Increased efficiency and productivity of cooperative societies through the computer communication network and the
latest database technology;
 Tele-education for farmers;
 Websites established by agricultural research institutes, making the latest information available to extension
(knowledge) workers and obtaining their feedback.
E-Agriculture Ecosystem
E-Agriculture initiatives bring together a wide array of local and regional stakeholders to form a mutually beneficial value
chain:-
 Grameen Intel and other social businesses: Information and expertise, consulting services, technology, and
programs to reach rural and impoverished markets.
 Governments and multilateral development agencies: Program support to enable and increase rural outreach,
improve food security, create jobs, and develop partner-ships with local businesses and community organizations.
 Banks and other financial institutions: Credit, capital, and other financial instruments (crop insurance, subsidies,
etc.) for entrepreneurs and farmers.
 Universities and agriculture extension systems: Technology to strengthen extension systems; advice and technical
support for farming communities; training and capacity-building for entrepreneurs; research and development
projects designed to solve problems faced by farming communities.
 Supply chain (e.g., suppliers, commodity markets, aggregators): Best-of-class products and services for farmers
that improve returns to all stakeholders, including farmers.
 Technology companies: Internet connectivity, hardware, and software solutions that create access to new markets,
value chains, and business models.
 Community organizations (e.g., farmer cooperatives, rural telecenters, government and NGO-run agriculture
service centers): Help entrepreneurs; provide grassroots agriculture domain and business support, and enable
programs to scale efficiently.
ICT Initiatives for Agricultural Development in India by Various Agencies
Some initiatives in India that use ICT for agricultural development are:
 Gyandoot project (Madhya Pradesh);
 Warana Wired Village project (Maharashtra);
 Information Village project of the M S Swaminathan Research Foundation (MSSRF) (Pondicherry);
 iKisan project of the Nagarjuna group of companies (Andhra Pradesh);
 Automated Milk Collection Centres of Amul dairy cooperatives (Gujarat);
 Land Record Computerisation (Bhoomi) (Karnataka);
 Computer-Aided Online Registration Department (Andhra Pradesh);
 Online Marketing and CAD in Northern Karnataka (Karnataka);
 Knowledge Network for Grass Root Innovations-Society for Research and Initiatives (SRISTI) (Gujarat);
 Application of Satellite Communication for Training Field Extension Workers in Rural Areas (Indian Space
Research Organisation);
In addition to the above, a few non-governmental organisations (NGOs) have initiated ICT projects such as:
 Tarahaat.com by Development Alternatives (Uttar Pradesh and Punjab);
 Mahitiz-samuha (Karnataka);
 VOICES – Madhyam Communications (Karnataka);
 Centre for Alternative Agriculture Media (CAAM);
Some exclusive agricultural portals are also available, such as:

 haritgyan.com
 krishiworld.net
 toeholdindia.com
 agriwatch.com
 itc's soyachoupal.com
 acquachoupal.com
 plantersnet.com
Case Studies
These are some of the few examples of ICT enabled services for Indian farmers:-
Agropedia
 Agropedia is a peer-group tool for interaction among the farmers.
 This is a comprehensive, integrated model for digitalized content of agricultural domain. This e-initiative intends to
bring together a community through ICT enabled knowledge creating and organising platform with an attempt to
leverage the current agricultural extension system.
 IIT Kanpur (agropedia platform), IIT Bombay and IIITM Kerala (multi-model delivery) are the three key partner
organizations who are in charge of different projects and responsibilities along with ICRISAT- Hyderabad,
NAARM- Hyderabad, GBPUAT- Pantnagar, UAS- Raichur under the aegis of the National Agricultural Innovation
Project (NAIP).
 ICRISAT is the consortium leader, which is responsible for the outputs and deliverables.
 Agropedia has been labelled as one stop solution for the Indian agro-sphere. Defining and developing the

Knowledge-Model for understanding of the crop has been done first time ever in the world in order to accumulate
codified and approved information about the crops with the support of Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO),
Rome.
 These models are essentially the structural representation by using symbols for tagging a particular piece of
information and relationships between them. Following this, Chickpea, Pigeon pea, Sorghum and Groundnut.
 Knowledge-Models are developed at ICRISAT, Wheat, Sugarcane, Litchi and Vegetable pea are developed at
GBPUAT and Rice is developed at IITK.
e-Choupal
 e-Choupal is an initiative from ITC's Agri Business Division to face the challenges of India's agricultural
uncertainty.
 Indian agriculture is characterised by fragmented farms, weak infrastructure and the involvement of numerous
intermediaries. e-Choupal aims at bringing out the Indian farmers from vicious circle of low risk taking ability.
 To increase the competitiveness of the Indian agricultural sector and enhance productivity, ITC has developed this
market-led business model. It is assumed and expected that a growth in rural incomes will also result in the overall
growth of Indian economy.
 e-Choupal operates in three layers. This three-layered infrastructure allows ITC to provide a complete end-to-end
solution to suit the needs of both the farmers and consumers at village as well as in global level.
 The first layer consists of ICT kiosks (Village Level) with internet access, managed by an ITC trained local farmer
called the Sancalak. The second layer is known as hubs managed by the traditional intermediary who has local
knowledge /skills called Samyojak. The final layer is a network of companies (consumers of farmers products and
providers of products and services to the farmers) orchestrated by ITC is known as Choupal Sagar, which has a pan-
Indian presence.
 With this model, ITC is able to deliver the same benefits as vertical integration does in matured agricultural
economies like USA.
 e-Choupal is the largest initiative among all Internet-based programmes in rural India. It reaches to over 4 million
farmers of more than 400000 villages through 6500 kiosks. It operates across ten states, namely Madhya Pradesh,
Haryana, Uttarakhand, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Kerala and Tamil Nadu
in the cultivation of soybeans, coffee, wheat, rice, pulses, and shrimp.
Kissan Kerala
 Kissan Kerala is an Agriculture Information Services system to provide information and advisory to the farmers of
Kerala. This is accessible by all concerned anytime in the day and from any parts of the state.
 The objective of this programme is to empower the farmers by providing them useful information and required
knowledge; this would lead the farmers to take better decision.
 To disseminate the message and to answer farmer’s queries, various channels are used like Television, Internet,
Telephone, and Mobile. The farmers are free to choose any medium of their choice.
 The quintessential feature of this ICT enabled service delivery model is to ensure that the farmers get the expert's
assistance on time and agricultural organisations provide necessary help to the farmers.
 This has helped the cultivators to better the crop production, enhanced crop protection, value addition to the existing
practices, opening up new avenues and improves the overall life of the farming community.
 Children, Youth, women, men and seniors are the target group of this programme, who are somewhat related to the
agricultural activities.
 Kissan Kerala focuses on five broad areas.
◦ Online Agri advisory service : Portal based online Advisory services for the farmers (www.kissankerala.net)
◦ Kissan Krishideepam : Agriculture based weekly Television program in vernacular language
◦ Online Agri video Channel : In collaboration with the You Tube, online agricultural video channel was brought
in the country
◦ Tele Advisory Services : Farmers are just a call away from getting solutions to their problems. AQ dedicated
phone number is there to address their need
◦ The mobile based Agri Advisory services: Through text, voice or video message, farmers can get their answers
on mobile phones
AgmarkNet
 In order to bring the farmers in a better bargaining position and to promote a culture of good agricultural marketing
practices in the country, Directorate of Marketing and Inspection (DMI) , Ministry of Agriculture has embarked
upon an ICT Project – NICNET based Agricultural Marketing Information System Network (AGMARKNET ) as
part of the Central Sector Scheme : “Marketing Research and Information Network”.
 Objectives:
◦ To establish a nation-wide information network for speedy collection and dissemination of market information
and data for its efficient and timely utilization.
◦ To facilitate collection and dissemination of information related to better price realization by the farmers by
facilitating:
▪ Market related information such as market fee, market charges, costs, method of sale, payment, weighment,
handling, market functionaries, development programmes, market laws, dispute settlement mechanism,
composition of Market Committees, income and expenditure, etc.;
▪ Price-related information such as minimum, maximum and modal prices of varieties and qualities
transacted, total arrivals and dispatches with destination, marketing costs and margins, etc.;
▪ Infrastructure related information comprising facilities and services available to the farmers with regard to
storage and warehousing, cold storage, direct markets, contract farming, buy-back arrangements, grading,
re-handling and repacking etc.;
▪ Promotion related information covering accepted standards and grades, labelling, sanitary and phyto-
sanitary requirements, pledge finance, marketing credit and new opportunities available in respect of better
marketing;
◦ To sensitize and orient farmers to respond to new challenges in agricultural marketing by using ICT as a vehicle
of extension.
◦ To improve efficiency in agricultural marketing through regular training and extension for reaching region-
specific farmers in their own language.
◦ To provide assistance for marketing research to generate marketing information for its dissemination to farmers
and other marketing functionaries at grass-root level to create an ambience of good marketing practices in the
country.
 Under the project, 199 market nodes are computerized and are reporting daily prices of commodities reaching these
markets noted. The training to the officials of the department has been conducted.
eMojani
 eMojani is a software to distributed to land and city survey offices.
 One can now apply online for his request for measuring his land. All Fees are calculated and displayed by the
application.
 The application allocates the cases to registered Measurement Surveyors of the department. Now the system decides
the Surveyors for doing the measurement and not the individual from the department.
 The application generates the necessary Challan’s, Receipts and prints the Date of Measurement, Name of Surveyors
for doing the measurement along with their contact details.
 This application has been implemented throughout the state. Department has banned the manual maintenance of
Measurement case register. Manual applications are no more accepted.
 The manual calculation of the fees and assigning the cases to the individual Surveyors has been stopped.
 The eMojani Application is Integrated with Govt. Receipts and Accounts System (GRAS) for on line transfer and
accounting of citizen payments towards various fees. The application has been awarded with the “eGovernance
Public Jury Award by the State Government” for the year 2012.
Agri - Subsidy
 An online application that automates the subsidy distribution operation under various schemes of Agriculture
department.
 The application is entered online from block level, forwarded to district office Online & the same is sanctioned at
District level Online.
 While sanctioning the subsidy, it is taken care that necessary funds are available at district office that was allocated
from state level office.
 The subsidies are granted for 11 different schemes of central & state.
 The details of payment of subsidy are also entered online & SMS is sent to the farmer on every event of his
application. Various kinds of reports are available for monitoring and evaluation of the project.
Kisan Call Centers

 The Kisan Call Centre (KCC) initiative aims to provide information to the farming community through toll-free
telephone lines.
 Under this project, call centre facilities have been extended to the farmers through call centres located in different
states so that farmers can get the information in their own language.
 Recently KCCs have been further revamped by consolidation and appointing a new service provider for KCC to set
up state of the art KCCs at 14 identified locations.

National e-Governance Plan in Agriculture (NeGP-A)
 The Mission Mode Project has been introduced during last phase of the 11th plan to achieve rapid development of
agriculture in India through the use of ICT for ensuring timely access to agriculture related information for the
farmers of the country.
 There are a number of current IT initiatives/schemes undertaken or implemented by DAC which are aimed at
providing information to the farmers on various activities in the agriculture value chain.
 These initiatives will be integrated so that farmers would be able to make proper and timely use of the available
information.
 Such information is intended to be provided to farmers through multiple channels including Common Service
Centers, Internet Kiosks and SMSs. 12 clusters of services have been identified and the project has been sanctioned
for implementation in 7 States i.e. Assam, Himachal Pradesh, Karnataka, Jharkhand, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh and
Maharashtra.
 The services include Information on Pesticides, Fertilizers & Seeds, Soil Health; Information on crops, farm
machinery, training and Good Agricultural Practices (GAPs); Weather advisories; Information on prices, arrivals,
procurement points, and providing interaction platform; Electronic certification for exports & import; Information on
marketing infrastructure; Monitoring implementation / evaluation of schemes & program; Information on fishery
inputs; Information on irrigation infrastructure; Drought Relief and Management; Livestock Management.
Bhoomi
 The land records management system is the first e-Governance project successfully implemented for the benefits of
the common man, jointly by the Government of Karnataka & NIC Karnataka.
 It has been providing service to more than 70 lakh farmers of Karnataka since the last five years.
 BHOOMI has become the model for replication in many other States. It has received wide spread recognition from
the public and also won the international award, Silver of CAPAM 2002.
 Salient features are Kiosk setup in each taluk to issue the land records documents to public on demand, Finger print
(Bio-metrics) authentication to ensure fool proof system, PKI enabled BHOOMI & integration with Sub-Registrar's
data, Mutation requests processed on First-in First-out Basis.
TARAhaat
 This project, named "TARAhaat" after the all-purpose haat (meaning a village bazaar), comprises a commercially
viable model for bringing relevant information, products and services via the Internet to the unserved rural market of
India from which an estimated 50% of the national income is derived.
 TARAhaat combines a mother portal, TARAhaat.com, supported by franchised networks of village cybercafes and
delivery systems to provide a full range of services its clients.
Warana Wired Villages

 The key objective of the project has been to utilise IT to increase the efficiency and productivity of the existing sugar
cane cooperative enterprises by setting up of a state-of-the-art computer communications network.
 This provides agricultural, medical, and educational information in the local language to villages around Warana
Nagar in the Kolhapur and Sangli Districts of Maharashtra.
Dairy Information Services Kiosk

 The DISK application targeted at the booming dairy sector has been tested for two milk collection societies by the
Indian Institute of Management Ahmedabad’s e-governance center.
 The project consists of two basic components—an application running at the rural milk collection society that could
be provided Internet connectivity and a portal at the district level serving transactional and information needs of all
members.
 DISK has helped in the automation of the milk buying process at 2,500 rural milk collection societies and has been
tested in two co-operative villages of Amul dairy in Kheda district.
 Software called AkashGanga has been developed with special features to enable speedier collection of milk and
faster disbursement of payments to dairy farmers.
GramSampark
 ‘Gramsampark’ is a flagship ICT product of the state of Madhya Pradesh.
 A complete database of available resources, basic amenities, beneficiaries of government programmes and public
grievances in all the
 51,000 villages of Madhya Pradesh can be obtained by accessing the website.
 Gramsampark has three sections-Gram Paridrashya (village scenario), Samasya Nivaran (grievance redress) and
Gram Prahari (village sentinel). An eleven-point monitoring system has been put in place whereby programmes are
monitored village-wise every month.
 Four more programmes are under the monitoring system, which includes untouchability-eradication, women’s
empowerment, water conservation and campaigns for sanitation.
Digital Gangetic Plane

 One of the first few long-distance Wi-Fi projects in the world, the Digital Gangetic Plane (DGP) connects few
villages in Uttar Pradesh to internet using wireless network.
 Media Lab Asia (MLA) and Indian Institute of Technology (IIT), Kanpur started creating the DGP wireless network.
 The even terrain of Gangetic plain allows unhindered line-of-sight signal transmission for wireless networks despite
the presence of tall telecom or power supply towers.
 Applications developed intervene on education, health and livelihoods.
 Bimari Jankari or disease information portal offers healthcare information in Hindi.
 Digital Mandiis a one-stop agro-commodities prices shop for rural farming communities.
 The portal serves as agricultural knowledge base in Hindi.
 DGP is largely limited by its approach of being a technological research focused on innovation, experimentation and
deployment of Wi-Fi enabled internet connectivity.
Gyandoot
 Gyandoot is a rural infokiosk-based e-governance service delivery model initiated by the state government of
Madhya Pradesh in Dhar district.
 The project aims to create a cost-effective, sustainable and replicable rural internet delivery model for improving
government services for the poor, involving citizen’s cooperatives, government and the community.
IT and Indian Agriculture in the Future
Technologically it is possible to develop suitable systems, as outlined in the previous sections, to cater to the information
needs of Indian farmer. User friendly systems, particularly with content in local languages, can generate interest in the
farmers and others working at the grassroots. It is possible to create dedicated networks or harnesses the powers of Internet to
make these services are available to all parts of the country.
The task of creating application packages and databases to cater to complete spectrum of Indian agriculture is a giant task.
The Long Term Agriculture Policy provides an exhaustive list of all the areas that are to be covered. This can be taken as a
guiding list to evolve design and develop suitable systems catering to each of the specified areas. Our country has the
advantage of having a large number of specialised institutions in place catering to various aspects of Indian agriculture. These
institutions can play a crucial role in designing the necessary applications & databases and services. This will facilitate
modularisation of the task, better control and help in achieving quick results. As it is, several institutions have already
developed systems related to their area of specialisation. For quick results, it may be useful to get the applications outsourced
to software companies in India. This will facilitate quick deployment of applications and provide boost to the software
industry in India. In order to avoid duplication of efforts, it may be useful to consider promoting a coordinating agency which
will have an advisory role to play in evolving standard interface for users, broad design and monitoring of the progress.
In the post WTO regime, it is suggested that it is useful to focus more on some agricultural products to maintain an
unquestionable competitive advantage for exports. This will call for urgent measures to introduce state of the art technologies
such as remote sensing, geographical information systems (GIS), bio-engineering, etc. India has made rapid strides in satellite
technologies. It is possible to effectively monitor agricultural performance using remote sensing and GIS applications. This
will not only help in planning, advising and monitoring the status of the crops but also will help in responding quickly to crop
stress conditions and natural calamities. Challenges of crop stress, soil problems, natural disasters can be tackled effectively
through these technologies. A beginning in precision farming can be encouraged in larger tracts of land in which export
potential can be tilted in our country’s favour.
While developing these systems it is necessary to appreciate that major audience that is targeted is not comfortable with
computers. This places premium on user friendliness and it may be useful to consider touch screen technologies to improve
user comfort levels. It is often observed that touch screen kiosks, with their intuitive approach, provide a means for quick
learning and higher participation. It is also necessary to provide as much content as possible in local languages.
Once the required application packages & databases are in place, a major challenge is with respect to dissemination of the
information. The Krishi Vigyan Kendras, NGOs and cooperative societies may be used to set up information kiosks. Private
enterprise is also required to be drawn into these activities. These kiosks should provide information on other areas of interest
such as education, information for which people have to travel distances such as those related to the government, courts, etc.

Facilities for email, raising queries to experts, uploading digital clips to draw the attention of experts to location specific
problems can be envisaged.
Constraints and Remedies for Effective Dissemination
Educating and catering to the information needs of farmers across nearly seven lakh villages in India indeed sounds
unrealistic as this would require immense financial investment. A one-time major investment in establishing communication
technologies in the required places restricts the government’s objective of covering more people regularly because of
insufficient power availability in rural areas, poor ICT infrastructure, ICT illiteracy, non-availability of timely relevant
content, non-integration of services, poor advisory services and lack of localization, and in particular non availability of
agricultural information kiosks/ knowledge centers at the grass root level.
Some of the major constraints delaying the spread of e-revolution to rural India are listed below:
 Haphazard development: It is observed that some initiatives have already been made to provide IT based services
to rural community. However, duplication of efforts are witnessed as most of the services revolve around limited
subjects. Keeping in view the giant task involved, it is necessary to form a coordination mechanism to strive for a
concerted effort to support farming community in the country. Such a coordination agency may only have advisory
powers such as user interface, broad design, delivery mechanism of the content and standards for setting up kiosks.
 User friendliness: The success of this strategy depends on the ease with which rural population can use the content.
This will require intuitive graphics based presentation. Touch screen kiosks are required to be set up to encourage
greater participation.
 Awareness about the Benefits of ICT: Farmers sometimes become averse to adopting technology as they think that
it might result in their losing their traditional methods of cropping practices. They simply do not want to use such
systems, even if the cost incurred is negligible. Therefore, the attitude and mindset of farmers needs to be changed
first. There is a need to win their confidence and create awareness about the benefits of ICT in agriculture.
 Local languages: Regional language fonts and mechanisms for synchronisation of the content provides a challenge
that needs to be met with careful planning.
 Restrictions: Information content based on remote sensing and geographical information systems can provide
timely alerts to the farmers and also improve the efficiency of administration. These applications can have a major
impact on the farmers and help them to appreciate the potential of information technology. However, government’s
map restriction policies often threaten to stifle the optimal utilisation of these tools.
 Power Supply: In most of the rural India, power supply is not available for long hours. This will reduce the
usefulness of the intended services. Since almost entire country receives sunshine for most part of the year, it is
useful to explore solar power packs for UPS as well as for supply of power. The Ministry of Non-conventional
Energy Sources may pay special attention in this area which can be a major contributor to the growth of IT in
villages.
 Connectivity: Despite the phenomenal progress made in the recent years, the connectivity to rural areas still requires
to be improved. Reliable connectivity is a prerequisite for a successful penetration of IT into rural areas. Many
private ISPs are setting up large networks connecting many major towns and cities. Since some of these networks
pass through rural areas, it is possible to provide connectivity to a large number of villages. Several technologies
exist that can be utilised for connecting rural areas. Cable network is a possible medium for providing the last mile
connectivity to villages.
 Bandwidth: Even in areas where telephone and other communication services exist, the available bandwidth is a
major constraint. Since internet based rural services require substantial use of graphics, low bandwidth is one of the
major limitations in providing effective e-services to farmers. As already stated, networks with high bandwidth are
being set up by several companies passing through rural segments which can be utilised. Until this materialises, a
two pronged strategy of storing static information at the kiosks and providing dynamic information from remote
locations can be examined. The graphic oriented content which does not change frequently, such as, demonstration
clips for farmers, can be stored on the local drives at the kiosks and arrange for periodic updation of this information
over the network during non-peak hours. The dynamic information which changes more frequently can be accessed
from remote locations to obtain the latest status.
 Dissemination Points: Mass deployment of information kiosks is critical for effective use of the Internet based
content and services. In order to ensure that the information kiosks are economically feasible, it is necessary to make
the proposition sustainable and viable. This requires a major focus on a viable revenue model for such kiosks. In the
new information era, the kiosks should be designed to become electronic super markets that can, in addition to being
information sources, handle other services of use to the people living in rural areas. The revenue available through
such sources can make a kiosk attractive for prospective investors. The Government can provide finance facilities to
unemployed rural agricultural graduates who can be expected to have greater commitment and at the same time act
as an efficient interface for less educated rural visitors. The objective should be to transform rural information kiosks
into ‘clicks and mortar’ gateway to rural India for ‘Bricks and mortar’ industry. Some of the sources that can
generate revenue for rural kiosks are :
◦ Distance Education: A large number of people travel substantial distances to attend educational courses. It is
possible to set up virtual classrooms right in their villages.
◦ Training: People living in rural areas require training and a means for upgrading their skills in their area of
work. It is possible to provide quality education right at their door steps with facilities for online interaction with
experts. For example, a village teacher or a paramedical staff can keep abreast latest developments without
disturbing his/her routine. Similarly, training can be imparted on various aspects of agriculture such as correct
practices, irrigation practices, efficient utilisation of tools used in farming such as tractors.
◦ Insurance: The advent of private players into insurance has brought about advanced IT systems that can render
services over networks. The kiosks can be insurance agents for insurance firms which, in turn, can compensate
the kiosk operators for online transactions for new business as well as maintaining the old.
◦ Local Agent: Many companies have difficulty in working out logistics for their supplies to rural outlets. A rural
kiosk can act as conduit for such ‘bricks and mortar’ companies. This has the potential of transforming a rural
kiosk into a profitable venture.
◦ Rural Post Office: The kiosks can facilitate sending and receiving emails, facilitate ‘chats’ with experts.
Several successful rural kiosks are already available in many states which run essentially on this model.
◦ E-Governance: Rural kiosks are the stepping stones for effective implementation of e-governance. Details
related to central / state / local governments, formats and procedures, status verification such as case listings in
courts, filing of applications in electronic format where admissible, etc. are some of the areas where kiosks can
be of major use.
◦ Online Examinations: Online certification examinations are ‘in things’ with many organisations and
certification agencies. Many people are forced to stay at metros to take the examinations. Eventually it should be
possible to conduct these examinations through the rural kiosks.
 Stake Holders: At present, several initiatives have been taken in the form of websites / portals targeting rural India.
These are at best sketchy information sources catering to pockets of rural India. It is to be noted that strong inter-
linkages exist within entire rural India and concerted and coordinated effort is required for carrying the benefits of IT
to rural India. The magnitude of the task is such that no single institution or organisation can accomplish it. It is
necessary for stake holders in rural India, such as fertiliser industry, to come together to provide adequate thrust to
the effort initially. The fertiliser industry distributes more than 15 million tonnes of nutrients per annum in the
country involving complex production, logistics and storage operations. A small savings made possible through
better management of information up to the point of delivery to farmers can mean significant savings. The success of
e-powering Indian agriculture is high if fertiliser industry makes a concerted and coordinated effort to set up
Business to Business (B-B) market place with dealer / cooperative networks. The consumer industry also benefits
from efficient operations in rural India. The corporate India may be willing to participate in a joint effort that proves
beneficial to them as well as the rural India. The Government of India may, as outlined above, initiate a coordinating
agency where various stake holders can join hands to spread e-culture to rural India and at the same time benefit
from efficient operations.
Conclusion
The Indian farmer and those who are working for their welfare need to be e-powered to face the emerging scenario of
complete or partial deregulation & reduction in government protection, opening up of agricultural markets, fluctuations in
agricultural environment and to exploit possible opportunities for exports. The quality of rural life can also be improved by
quality information inputs which provide better decision making abilities. IT can play a major role in facilitating the process
of transformation of rural India to meet these challenges and to remove the fast growing digital devides.
The rapid changes in the field of information technology make it possible to develop and disseminate required electronic
services to rural India. The existing bottlenecks in undertaking the tasks need to be addressed immediately. A national
strategy needs to be drawn for spearheading IT penetration to rural India. A national coordinating agency with an advisory
role can act as a catalyst in the process.
No single institution or organisation alone can succeed in the task of e-powering farmers and rural India. At the same time,
scattered and half hearted attempts cannot be successful in meeting the objective. Industries with major stake in villages, such
as fertiliser sector, should come together to provide the initial impetus. The success of any IT based service to rural India
hinges on evolving a proper revenue model for the dissemination points. The information kiosks can draw revenue from the
industry by providing and disseminating required services. Once these dissemination points prove to be economically viable,
the IT revolution in rural India will require no crusaders.


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Seasonal Changes and their Effects on Temperature

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Origin of the universe

Stages in Big Bang Theory

Evidences in support of Big Bang Theory

The Units of Measuring distances in the Universe

Our Own Galaxy: The Milky Way N

Birth and Evolution of a Star

Formation of a Star from Protostar

Final Stages of a Star̛ s Life

The Solar System

1. Mercury (Budha): it is nearest to the sun.

IAU new definition of planet

Planets and dwarf planets of our solar system (Milky Way)

The common features of the terrestrial planets are:

1. They have a thin, rocky crust.

The common features of the Jovian planets are:

1. They are all gaseous bodies (made of gases)

Solar System Fact Sheet N

Satellites (or Moons)

Earth’s moon key points-

The Shape of the Earth

Evidence of the earth’s Sphericity

6. Magellan’s circumnavigation in 1520 proved that the Earth is spherical in shape. N

Origin of Life on Earth

The Earth’s Movement N

Day and Night

The Earth’s Revolution

Varying Lengths of Day and Night

The Altitude of the Midday Sun

Seasonal Changes and their Effects on Temperature N

Dawn and Twilight

The Diamond Ring Effect is a visual phenomenon that occurs N

The Geographical Grid- Latitude and Longitude

Latitude and Longitude

Longitude and Time

Standard Time and Time Zones

Geological Time Scale

Eons Era Period Epoch Age/Years Life/ Major Events

Proterozoic Pre- Cambrian 570 - 2,500 Million Soft-bodied arthropods

Origin of 5,000 - 5,000 Million Origin of the sun

1. Gliese 581g (UPSC 2011/2 Marks)

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(a) Artificial sources such as temperature, pressure and density.

Fig 1: Temperature profile of the inner Earth

i. Radioactive disintegration within rocks which liberates heat

8) Evidence from Theories

Body Waves Surface Waves N

Fig4: Shadow Zones Fig 5: Earthquake

Structure of the Earth’s Interior N

Its two main parts are: N

Fig 7: Earth Crust

Fig 8: The Discontinuities

Name of the Layer Chemical Composition Depth Density Physical Property

5. lower mantle (660–

Crust and Mantle vs. Lithosphere and Asthenosphere

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