PRISCILLA S.

MACANSANTOS

The existing literature of the Philippine ethnic groups at the time of conquest and
conversion into Christianity was mainly oral, consisting of epics, legends, songs, riddles,
and proverbs. The conquistador, especially its ecclesiastical arm, destroyed whatever
written literature he could find, and hence rendered the system of writing (e.g.,
the Tagalog syllabary) inoperable. Among the only native systems of writing that have
survived are the syllabaries of the Mindoro Mangyans and the Tagbanua of Palawan.

The Spanish colonial strategy was to undermine the native oral tradition by
substituting for it the story of the Passion of Christ (Lumbera, p. 14). Although Christ was
by no means war-like or sexually attractive as many of the heroes of the oral epic tradition,
the appeal of the Jesus myth inhered in the protagonist’s superior magic: by promising
eternal life for everyone, he democratized the power to rise above death. It is to be
emphasized, however, that the native tradition survived and even flourished in areas
inaccessible to the colonial power. Moreover, the tardiness and the lack of assiduity of
the colonial administration in making a public educational system work meant the survival
of oral tradition, or what was left of it, among the conquered tribes.

The church authorities adopted a policy of spreading the Church doctrines by

communicating to the native (pejoratively called Indio) in his own language. Doctrina
Christiana (1593), the first book to be printed in the Philippines, was a prayerbook written
in Spanish with an accompanying Tagalog translation. It was, however, for the exclusive
use of the missionaries who invariably read them aloud to the unlettered Indio
catechumens (Medina), who were to rely mainly on their memory. But the task of
translating religious instructional materials obliged the Spanish missionaries to take a
most practical step, that of employing native speakers as translators. Eventually, the
native translator learned to read and write both in Spanish and his native language.

This development marked the beginning of Indio literacy and thus spurred the
creation of the first written literary native text by the native. These writers,
called ladinos because of their fluency in both Spanish and Tagalog (Medina, pp. 55-56),
published their work, mainly devotional poetry, in the first decade of the 17th century.
Among the earliest writers of note were Francisco de San Jose and Francisco
Bagongbata (Medina). But by far the most gifted of these native poet-translators was
Gaspar Aquino de Belen (Lumbera, p.14). Mahal Na Pasion ni Jesu Christo, a Tagalog
poem based on Christ’s passion, was published in 1704. This long poem, original and
folksy in its rendition of a humanized, indeed, a nativized Jesus, is a milestone in the
history of Philippine letters. Ironically — and perhaps just because of its profound
influence on the popular imagination — as artifact it marks the beginning of the end of the
old mythological culture and a conversion to the new paradigm introduced by the colonial
power.

Until the 19th century, the printing presses were owned and managed by the religious
orders (Lumbera, p.13). Thus, religious themes dominated the culture of the Christianized
majority. But the native oral literature, whether secular or mythico-religious continued.
Even among the Christianized ethnic groups, the oral tradition persisted in such forms as
legends, sayings, wedding songs such as the balayan and parlor theater such as
theduplo (Medina, p. 32).

In the 18th century, secular literature from Spain in the form of medieval ballads
inspired the native poetic-drama form called the komedya, later to be called moro-
moro because these often dealt with the theme of Christians triumphing over Moslems
(Lumbera, p. 15).

Jose de la Cruz (1746 – 1829) was the foremost exponent of the komedya during his
time. A poet of prodigious output and urbane style, de la Cruz marks a turning point in
that his elevated diction distinguishes his work from folk idiom (as for instance, that of
Gaspar Aquino de Belen). Yet his appeal to the non-literate was universal. The popularity
of the dramatic form, of which he was a master, was due to it being experienced as
performance both by the lettered minority and the illiterate but genuinely appreciative
majority.

Francisco Baltazar (1788 – 1862), popularly called Balagtas, is the acknowledged

master of traditional Tagalog poetry. Of peasant origins, he left his hometown in Bigaa,
Bulacan for Manila, with a strong determination to improve his lot through education. To
support his studies, he worked as a domestic servant in Tondo. He steeped himself in
classical studies in schools of prestige in the capital.

Great social and political changes in the world worked together to make Balagtas’
career as poet possible. The industrial revolution had caused a great movement of
commerce in the globe, creating wealth and the opportunity for material improvement in
the life of the working classes. With these great material changes, social values were
transformed, allowing greater social mobility. In short, he was a child of the global
bourgeois revolution. Liberal ideas, in time, broke class — and, in the Philippines — even
racial barriers (Medina). The word Filipino, which used to refer to a restricted group (i.e.,
Spaniards born in the Philippines) expanded to include not only the acculturated wealthy
Chinese mestizo but also the acculturated Indio (Medina). Balagtas was one of the
first Indios to become a Filipino.

But the crucial element in Balagtas’ unique genius is that, being caught between two
cultures (the native and the colonial/classical), he could switch codes (or was perceived
by his compatriot audience to be switching codes), provide insight and information to his
oppressed compatriots in the very style and guise of a tradition provided him by a foreign
(and oppressive) culture. His narrative poem Florante at Laura written in sublime
Tagalog, is about tyranny in Albanya, but it is also perceived to be about tyranny in his
Filipino homeland (Lumbera).

Despite the foreign influence, however, he remained true to his native traditions. His
verse plays were performed to the motley crowd. His poems were sung by the literate for
the benefit of the unlettered. The metrical regularity and rhyme performed their age-old
mnemonic function, despite and because of the introduction of printing.
 Printing overtook tradition. The printed page, by itself, became the mnemonic device,
the stage set for the development of prose. The first Filipino novel was Ninay, written in
Spanish by Pedro Paterno, a Philippine-bornilustrado (Medina p. 93). Following the
sentimental style of his first book Sampaguitas (a collection of poems in Spanish), the
novel endeavored to highlight the endearingly unique qualities of Filipinos.

National Hero Jose Rizal (1861 – 1896) chose the realistic novel as his medium.
Choosing Spanish over Tagalog meant challenging the oppressors on the latter’s own
turf. By writing in prose, Rizal also cut his ties with the Balagtas tradition of the figurative
indirection which veiled the supposed subversiveness of many writings at that time.

Rizal’s two novels, the Noli Me Tangere and its sequel El Filibusterismo, chronicle
the life and ultimate death of Ibarra, a Filipino educated abroad, who attempts to reform
his country through education. At the conclusion of the Noli, his efforts end in near-death
and exile from his country. In the Filibusterismo, he returns after reinventing himself as
Simoun, the wealthy jeweler, and hastens social decay by further corrupting the social
fabric till the oppressed react violently to overthrow the system. But the insurrection is
foiled and Simoun suffers a violent death.

In a sense, Rizal’s novels and patriotic poems were the inevitable conclusion to the
campaign for liberal reforms known as the Propaganda Movement, waged by Graciano
Lopez Jaena, and M.H. del Pilar. The two novels so vividly portrayed corruption and
oppression that despite the lack of any clear advocacy, they served to instill the conviction
that there could be no solution to the social ills but a violent one.

Following closely on the failed reformist movement, and on Rizal’s novels, was the
Philippine revolution headed by Andres Bonifacio (1863 – 1897). His closest aide, the
college-bred Emilio Jacinto (1875 – 1899), was the revolutionary organization’s
ideologue. Both were admirers of Rizal, and like Rizal, both were writers and social critics
profoundly influenced by the liberal ideas of the French enlightenment, about human
dignity. Bonifacio’s most important work are his poems, the most well-known being Pag-
Ibig Sa Tinubuang Lupa. Jacinto wrote political essays expressed in the language of the
folk. Significantly, although either writer could have written in Spanish (Bonifacio, for
instance, wrote a Tagalog translation of Rizal’s Ultimo Adios), both chose to communicate
to their fellowmen in their own native language.

The figure of Rizal dominates Philippine literature until the present day. Liberalism
led to education of the native and the ascendancy of Spanish. But Spanish was
undermined by the very ideas of liberation that it helped spread, and its decline led to
nativism and a renaissance of literature in the native languages.

The turn of the century witnessed not only the Philippine revolution but a quieter
though no less significant outbreak. The educated women of the period produced
significant poetry. Gregoria de Jesus, wife of Andres Bonifacio, wrote notable Tagalog
poetry. Meanwhile, in Vigan of the Ilocano North, Leona Florentino, by her poetry, became
the foremost Ilocano writer of her time.
DR. LILIA QUINDOZA-SANTIAGO

Philippine literary production during the American Period in the Philippines was
spurred by two significant developments in education and culture. One is the introduction
of free public instruction for all children of school age and two, the use of English as
medium of instruction in all levels of education in public schools.

Free public education made knowledge and information accessible to a greater

number of Filipinos. Those who availed of this education through college were able to
improve their social status and joined a good number of educated masses who became
part of the country’s middle class.

The use of English as medium of instruction introduced Filipinos to Anglo-American

modes of thought, culture and life ways that would be embedded not only in the literature
produced but also in the psyche of the country’s educated class. It was this educated
class that would be the wellspring of a vibrant Philippine Literature in English.

Philippine literature in English, as a direct result of American colonization of the

country, could not escape being imitative of American models of writing especially during
its period of apprenticeship. The poetry written by early poets manifested studied attempts
at versification as in the following poem which is proof of the poet’s rather elementary
exercise in the English language:

Vacation days at last are here,

And we have time for fun so dear,
All boys and girls do gladly cheer,
This welcomed season of the year.
In early June in school we’ll meet;
A harder task shall we complete
And if we fail we must repeat
That self same task without retreat.
We simply rest to come again
To school where boys and girls obtain
The Creator’s gift to men
Whose sanguine hopes in us remain.
Vacation means a time for play
For young and old in night and day
My wish for all is to be gay,
And evil none lead you astray

– Juan F. Salazar

Philippines Free Press, May 9, 1909

The poem was anthologized in the first collection of poetry in English, Filipino
Poetry, edited by Rodolfo Dato (1909 – 1924). Among the poets featured in this anthology
were Proceso Sebastian Maximo Kalaw, Fernando Maramag, Leopoldo Uichanco, Jose
Ledesma, Vicente Callao, Santiago Sevilla, Bernardo Garcia, Francisco Africa, Pablo
Anzures, Carlos P. Romulo, Francisco Tonogbanua, Juan Pastrana, Maria Agoncillo, Paz
Marquez Benitez, Luis Dato and many others. Another anthology, The English
German Anthology of Poetsedited by Pablo Laslo was published and covered poets
published from 1924-1934 among whom were Teofilo D. Agcaoili, Aurelio Alvero, Horacio
de la Costa, Amador T. Daguio, Salvador P. Lopez, Angela Manalang Gloria, Trinidad
Tarrosa, Abelardo Subido and Jose Garcia Villa, among others. A third pre-war collection
of poetry was edited by Carlos Bulosan, Chorus for America: Six Philippine Poets. The
six poets in this collection were Jose Garcia Villa, Rafael Zulueta da Costa, Rodrigo T.
Feria, C.B. Rigor, Cecilio Baroga and Carlos Bulosan.

In fiction, the period of apprenticeship in literary writing in English is marked by

imitation of the style of storytelling and strict adherence to the craft of the short story as
practiced by popular American fictionists. Early short story writers in English were often
dubbed as the Andersons or Saroyans or the Hemingways of Philippine letters. Leopoldo
Yabes in his study of the Philippine short story in English from 1925 to 1955 points to
these models of American fiction exerting profound influence on the early writings of story
writers like Francisco Arcellana, A.E. Litiatco, Paz Latorena. .

When the University of the Philippines was founded in 1908, an elite group of writers
in English began to exert influence among the culturati. The U.P. Writers Club founded in
1926, had stated that one of its aims was to enhance and propagate the “language of
Shakespeare.” In 1925, Paz Marquez Benitez short story, “Dead Stars” was published
and was made the landmark of the maturity of the Filipino writer in English. Soon after
Benitez, short story writers began publishing stories no longer imitative of American
models. Thus, story writers like Icasiano Calalang, A.E. Litiatco, Arturo Rotor, Lydia
Villanueva, Paz Latorena , Manuel Arguilla began publishing stories manifesting both
skilled use of the language and a keen Filipino sensibility.

This combination of writing in a borrowed tongue while dwelling on Filipino customs

and traditions earmarked the literary output of major Filipino fictionists in English during
the American period. Thus, the major novels of the period, such as the Filipino Rebel,
by Maximo Kalaw, and His Native Soil by Juan C. Laya, are discourses on cultural
identity, nationhood and being Filipino done in the English language. Stories such
as “How My Brother Leon Brought Home a Wife” by Manuel Arguilla scanned the
scenery as well as the folkways of Ilocandia while N.V. M. Gonzales’s novels and stories
such as “Children of the Ash Covered Loam,” present the panorama of Mindoro, in all
its customs and traditions while configuring its characters in the human dilemma of
nostalgia and poverty. Apart from Arguilla and Gonzales, noted fictionists during the
period included Francisco Arcellana, whom Jose Garcia Villa lauded as a “genius”
storyteller, Consorcio Borje, Aida Rivera, Conrado Pedroche, Amador Daguio, Sinai
Hamada, Hernando Ocampo, Fernando Maria Guerrero. Jose Garcia Villa himself wrote
several short stories but devoted most of his time to poetry.
 In 1936, when the Philippine Writers League was organized, Filipino writers in
English began discussing the value of literature in society. Initiated and led by Salvador
P. Lopez, whose essays on Literature and Societyprovoked debates, the discussion
centered on proletarian literature, i.e., engaged or committed literature versus the art for
art’s sake literary orientation. But this discussion curiously left out the issue of colonialism
and colonial literature and the whole place of literary writing in English under a colonial
set-up that was the Philippines then.

With Salvador P. Lopez, the essay in English gained the upper hand in day to day
discourse on politics and governance. Polemicists who used to write in Spanish like Claro
M. Recto, slowly started using English in the discussion of current events even as
newspaper dailies moved away from Spanish reporting into English. Among the
essayists, Federico Mangahas had an easy facility with the language and the essay as
genre. Other noted essayists during the period were Fernando Maramag, Carlos P.
Romulo , Conrado Ramirez.

On the other hand, the flowering of a vibrant literary tradition due to historical events
did not altogether hamper literary production in the native or indigenous languages. In
fact, the early period of the 20th century was remarkable for the significant literary output
of all major languages in the various literary genre.

It was during the early American period that seditious plays, using the form of the
zarsuwela, were mounted. Zarsuwelistas Juan Abad, Aurelio Tolentino ,Juan Matapang
Cruz. Juan Crisostomo Sotto mounted the classics like Tanikalang Ginto, Kahapon,
Ngayon at Bukas and Hindi Ako Patay, all directed against the American imperialists.
Patricio Mariano’s Anak ng Dagat and Severino Reyes’s Walang Sugat are equally
remarkable zarsuwelas staged during the period.

On the eve of World War II, Wilfredo Maria Guerrero would gain dominance in theatre
through his one-act plays which he toured through his “mobile theatre”. Thus, Wanted a
Chaperone and The Forsaken Housebecame very popular in campuses throughout the
archipelago.

The novel in Tagalog, Iloko, Hiligaynon and Sugbuanon also developed during the
period aided largely by the steady publication of weekly magazines like
the Liwayway, Bannawag and Bisaya which serialized the novels.

Among the early Tagalog novelists of the 20th century were Ishmael Amado,
Valeriano Hernandez Peña, Faustino Aguilar, Lope K. Santos and Lazaro Francisco.

Ishmael Amado’s Bulalakaw ng Pag-asa published in 1909 was one of the earliest
novels that dealt with the theme of American imperialism in the Philippines. The novel,
however, was not released from the printing press until 1916, at which time, the author,
by his own admission and after having been sent as a pensionado to the U.S., had other
ideas apart from those he wrote in the novel.
 Valeriano Hernandez Peña’s Nena at Neneng narrates the story of two women who
happened to be best of friends as they cope with their relationships with the men in their
lives. Nena succeeds in her married life while Neneng suffers from a stormy marriage
because of her jealous husband.

Faustino Aguilar published Pinaglahuan, a love triangle set in the early years of the
century when the worker’s movement was being formed. The novel’s hero, Luis
Gatbuhay, is a worker in a printery who isimprisoned for a false accusation and loses
his love, Danding, to his rival Rojalde, son of a wealthy capitalist. Lope K. Santos, Banaag
at Sikat has almost the same theme and motif as the hero of the novel, Delfin, also falls
in love with a rich woman, daughter of a wealthy landlord. The love story of course is set
also within the background of development of the worker’s trade union movement and
throughout the novel, Santos engages the readers in lengthy treatises and discourses on
socialism and capitalism. Many other Tagalog novelists wrote on variations of the same
theme, i.e., the interplay of fate, love and social justice. Among these writers are Inigo Ed
Regalado, Roman Reyes, Fausto J. Galauran, Susana de Guzman, Rosario de Guzman-
Lingat, Lazaro Francisco, Hilaria Labog, Rosalia Aguinaldo, Amado V. Hernandez. Many
of these writers were able to produce three or more novels as Soledad Reyes would bear
out in her book which is the result of her dissertation, Ang Nobelang Tagalog (1979).

Among the Iloko writers, noted novelists were Leon Pichay, who was also the
region’s poet laureate then, Hermogenes Belen, and Mena Pecson Crisologo
whose Mining wenno Ayat ti Kararwa is considered to be the Iloko version of a Noli me
Tangere.

In the Visayas, Magdalena Jalandoni and Ramon Muzones would lead most writers
in writing the novels that dwelt on the themes of love, courtship, life in the farmlands, and
other social upheavals of the period. Marcel Navarra wrote stories and novels in
Sugbuhanon.

Poetry in all languages continued to flourish in all regions of the country during the
American period. The Tagalogs, hailing Francisco F. Balagtas as the nation’s foremost
poet invented the balagtasan in his honor. Thebalagtasan is a debate in verse, a poetical
joust done almost spontaneously between protagonists who debate over the pros and
cons of an issue.

The first balagtasan was held in March 1924 at the Instituto de Mujeres, with Jose
Corazon de Jesus and Florentino Collantes as rivals, bubuyog (bee) and paru-paro
(butterfly) aiming for the love of kampupot (jasmine). It was during this balagtasan that
Jose Corazon de Jesus, known as Huseng Batute, emerged triumphant to become the
first king of the Balagtasan. Jose Corazon de Jesus was the finest master of the genre.
He was later followed by balagtasistas, Emilio Mar Antonio and Crescenciano Marquez,
who also became King of the Balagtasan in their own time.

As Huseng Batute, de Jesus also produced the finest poems and lyrics during the
period. His debates with Amado V. Hernandez on the political issue of independence from
America and nationhood were mostly done in verse and are testament to the vitality of
Tagalog poetry during the era. Lope K. Santos, epic poem, Ang Panggingera is also
proof of how poets of the period have come to master the language to be able to translate
it into effective poetry.

The balagtasan would be echoed as a poetical fiesta and would be duplicated in the
Ilocos as thebukanegan, in honor of Pedro Bukaneg, the supposed transcriber of the
epic, Biag ni Lam-ang; and theCrissottan, in Pampanga, in honor of the esteemed poet
of the Pampango, Juan Crisostomo Sotto.

In 1932, Alejandro G. Abadilla , armed with new criticism and an orientation on

modernist poetry would taunt traditional Tagalog poetics with the publication of his poem,
“Ako ang Daigdig.” Abadilla’s poetry began the era of modernism in Tagalog poetry, a
departure from the traditional rhymed, measured and orally recited poems. Modernist
poetry which utilized free or blank verses was intended more for silent reading than oral
delivery.

Noted poets in Tagalog during the American period were Julian Cruz Balmaceda,
Florentino Collantes, Pedro Gatmaitan, Jose Corazon de Jesus, Benigno Ramos, Inigo
Ed. Regalado, Ildefonso Santos, Lope K. Santos, Aniceto Silvestre, Emilio Mar. Antonio
, Alejandro Abadilla and Teodoro Agoncillo.

Like the writers in English who formed themselves into organizations, Tagalog
writers also formed the Ilaw at Panitik, and held discussions and workshops on the value
of literature in society. Benigno Ramos, was one of the most politicized poets of the period
as he aligned himself with the peasants of the Sakdal Movement.

Fiction in Tagalog as well as in the other languages of the regions developed

alongside the novel. Most fictionists are also novelists. Brigido Batungbakal , Macario
Pineda and other writers chose to dwell on the vicissitudes of life in a changing rural
landscape. Deogracias Del Rosario on the other hand, chose the city and the emerging
social elite as subjects of his stories. He is considered the father of the modern short story
in Tagalog

Among the more popular fictionists who emerged during the period are two women
writers, Liwayway Arceo and Genoveva Edroza Matute, considered forerunners in the
use of “light” fiction, a kind of story telling that uses language through poignant rendition.
Genoveva Edroza Matute’s “Ako’y Isang Tinig” and Liwayway Arceo’s “Uhaw
ang Tigang na Lupa” have been used as models of fine writing in Filipino by teachers
of composition throughout the school system.

Teodoro Agoncillo’s anthology 25 Pinakamahusay na Maiikling Kuwento

(1945) included the foremost writers of fiction in the pre-war era.

The separate, yet parallel developments of Philippine literature in English and those
in Tagalog and other languages of the archipelago during the American period only prove
 that literature and writing in whatever language and in whatever climate are able to survive
mainly through the active imagination of writers. Apparently, what was lacking during the
period was for the writers in the various languages to come together, share experiences
and come to a conclusion on the elements that constitute good writing in the Philippines.

The Five Main Genres of Literature

written by: Haley Drucker • edited by: Laurie Patsalides • updated: 5/27/2014

Literature is a broad term that encompasses almost everything we read, see, and hear. It helps to be able to break it down
into categories, for ease of understanding and analysis. Here are 5 genres of literature commonly taught in the classroom,
with explanations and examples.

 Categorizing Literature

Back in ancient Greece, literature was divided into two main categories: tragedy and
comedy. Nowadays the list of possible types and genres of literature can seem endless. But it is still possible to narrow
down the vast amount of literature available into a few basic groups.

The five genres of literature students should be familiar with are Poetry, Drama, Prose, Nonfiction, and Media—each of
which is explained in more detail below. You’ll see some overlap between genres; for example prose is a broader term
that includes both drama and non-fiction. At the end of this article we’ll also touch on a couple of narrower but still
important literary categories.

 Poetry
This is often considered the oldest form of literature. Before writing was invented, oral stories were commonly put into
some sort of poetic form to make them easier to remember and recite. Poetry today is usually written down, but is still
sometimes performed.

A lot of people think of rhymes and counting syllables and lines when they think of poetry, and some poems certainly
follow strict forms. But other types of poetry are so free-form that they lack any rhymes or common patterns. There are
even kinds of poetry that cross genre lines, such as prose poetry. In general, though, a text is a poem when it has some
sort of meter or rhythm, and when it focuses on the way the syllables, words, and phrases sound when put together.
Poems are heavy in imagery and metaphor, and are often made up of fragments and phrases rather than complete,
grammatically correct sentences. And poetry is nearly always written in stanzas and lines, creating a unique look on the
page.

Poetry as experienced in the classroom is usually one of three types. There are the shorter, more modern poems,
spanning anything from a few lines to a few pages. Often these are collected in books of poems by a single author or by a
variety of writers. Edgar Allen Poe’s “The Raven," is one of the most commonly taught poems of this type. Then there are
the classical, formulaic poems of Shakespeare’s time, such as the blank verse and the sonnet. And finally there are the
 ancient, epic poems transcribed from oral stories. These long, complex poems resemble novels, such as Homer’s The
Iliad and The Odyssey.

 Prose
Once you know what poetry is, it’s easy to define prose. Prose can be defined as any kind of written text that isn’t poetry
(which means drama, discussed below, is technically a type of prose). The most typical varieties of prose are novels and
short stories, while other types include letters, diaries, journals, and non-fiction (also discussed below). Prose is written
in complete sentences and organized in paragraphs. Instead of focusing on sound, which is what poetry does, prose tends
to focus on plot and characters.

Prose is the type of literature read most often in English classrooms. Any novel or short story falls into this category,
from Jane Eyre to Twilight and from “A Sound of Thunder" to “The Crucible." Like poetry, prose is broken down into a
large number of other sub-genres. Some of these genres revolve around the structure of the text, such as novellas,
biographies, and memoirs, and others are based on the subject matter, like romances, fantasies, and mysteries.

 Drama
Any text meant to be performed rather than read can be considered drama (unless it’s a poem meant to be performed, of
course). In layman’s terms, dramas are usually called plays. When written down the bulk of a drama is dialogue, with
periodic stage directions such as “he looks away angrily." Of all the genres of literature discussed in this article, drama is
the one given the least time in most classrooms. And often when drama is taught, it’s only read the same way you might
read a novel. Since dramas are meant to be acted out in front of an audience, it’s hard to fully appreciate them when
looking only at pages of text. Students respond best to dramas, and grasp their mechanics more fully, when exposed to
film or theater versions or encouraged to read aloud or act out scenes during class.
The dramas most commonly taught in classrooms are definitely those written by the bard. Shakespeare’s plays are
challenging, but rewarding when approached with a little effort and a critical mindset. Popular choices from his repertoire
include Hamlet, Taming of the Shrew, and Romeo and Juliet, among others. Older Greek plays are also taught fairly often,
especially Sophocles’ Antigone. And any good drama unit should include more modern plays for comparison, such as
Arthur Miller’s Death of a Salesman.

 Non-Fiction
Poetry and drama both belong to the broader category of fiction—texts that feature events and characters that have been
made up. Then there is non-fiction, a vast category that is a type of prose and includes many different sub-genres. Non-
fiction can be creative, such as the personal essay, or factual, such as the scientific paper. Sometimes the purpose of non-
fiction is to tell a story (hence the autobiography), but most of the time the purpose is to pass on information and educate
the reader about certain facts, ideas, and/or issues.

Some genres of non-fiction include histories, textbooks, travel books, newspapers, self-help books, and literary criticism.
A full list of non-fiction types would be at least as long as this entire article. But the varieties most often used in the
classroom are textbooks, literary criticism, and essays of various sorts. Most of what students practice writing in the
classroom is the non-fiction essay, from factual to personal to persuasive. And non-fiction is often used to support and
expand students’ understanding of fiction texts—after reading Hamlet students might read critical articles about the play
and historical information about the time period and/or the life of Shakespeare.

 Media
The newest type of literature that has been defined as a distinct genre is media. This categorization was created to
encompass the many new and important kinds of texts in our society today, such as movies and films, websites,
commercials, billboards, and radio programs. Any work that doesn’t exist primarily as a written text can probably be
considered media, particularly if it relies on recently developed technologies. Media literature can serve a wide variety
of purposes—among other things it can educate, entertain, advertise, and/or persuade.

More and more educators are coming to recognize the importance of teaching media in the classroom. Students are likely
to be exposed to far more of this type of literature than anything else throughout their lives, so it makes sense to teach
them how to be critical and active consumers of media. Internet literacy is a growing field, for example, since the skills
required to understand and use online information differ in important ways from the skills required to analyze printed
information. Teaching media literacy is also a great way for educators to help students become participants in their own
culture, through lessons on creating their own websites or home movies or commercials.

LITERATURE DEFINED

Literature are written works collectively, especially those of enduring importance,

exhibiting creative imagination and artistic skill (Funk and Wagnalls).
Literature comes from the Latin word literature meaning writing; literatus which
means learning; and thus is literate for learned.

It is both oral and written work characterized by expressive or imaginative writing,

nobility of thoughts, universality and timeliness.
The best way to understand human nature fully and to know a nation completely is to
study literature.
Literature appeals to man’s higher nature and its needs–emotional, spiritual,
intellectual and creative. Like all other forms of art, literature entertains and gives
pleasure; it fires the imagination and arouses noble emotions and it enriches man by
enabling him to reflect on life by filling him new ideas.

STANDARDS OF GOOD LITERATURE

Artistry
Intellectual value
Suggestiveness
Spiritual value
Permanence
Universality

VALUE OF LITERATURE

Literture nourishes our emotional lives.

Literature broadens our perpectives on the world.
The study of literature engages you in the kinds of problem solving important win a
variety of fields, from philosophy to science and technology.
One of the purposes of a college introduction to literature is to cultivate the analytic
skills necessary for reading well.

TWO MAIN DIVISIONS OF LITERATURE

POETRY
Like all other literary types, poetry presents a “heightened awareness of reality,” but it
is poetry that features “language charged to the nth degree.” By that Paul Engle meant
that poetry maximizes the power of language and transmits an intensified artistic
experience–chiefly through suggestion, figurative language, imagery, condensation,
and sound.

To Robert Frost, poetry is the “only permissible way of saying one thing and meaning
another.” Whatever the poem wants to say, it expresses in a manner that appears to be
“the only right way of saying it in the context of the realities it has started with”
(Cirilo Bautista). In poetry the words are so well-arranged such that one delights in
repeating the lines–there appears to be no other way of saying them. Just by the sound
alone, one derives pleasure from a poem. Apart from the idea one derives from poetry,
one then also goes through an experience wrought by the language, music, and
imagery that interlock in a poem, such that one recites the lines over and over to savor
the poetic experience. The content (what the poem says)and form (how the poem
expresses its main idea) of the poem have become one.

PROSE
Prose drama-a drama in prose form. It consists entirely of dialogues in prose, and is
meant to be acted on stage.

Essay-a short literary composition which is expository in nature. The author shares
some of his thoughts, feelings, experiences or observations on some aspects of life
that has interested him.

Prose fiction:

Novel-a long fictitious narrative with a complicated plot. It may have a main plot and
one or more subplots that develop with the main plot. Characters and actions
representative of the real life of past or present times are portrayed in a plot. It is made
up of chapters.

Short story-a fictitious narrative compressed into one unit of time, place, and action. It
deals with a single character interest, a single emotion or series of emotions called
forth by a single situation. It is distinguished from the novel by its compression.

ELEMENTS OF FICTION
Characters-are the representation of a human being; persons involved in a conflict.

Round character-is a dynamic character who recognized changes in the circumstances;

is fully developed character, with many traits shown in the story.
Flat character-also known as the stock or the stereotype character who does not grow
and develop; a flat character is not fully developed and do not undergo changes.

protagonist-the main character

antagonist-a foil to the character

2. Setting-the locale and period in which the events occur. A stoyr must take place in
space, time, and therefore must have setting. But the importance of setting varies
greatly from story to story. The setting gives immediacy to the story, can lend
atmosphere to a story and can enter directly to the meaning of a story.

3. Conflict-the struggle of complication involving the characters; the opposition of

persons or forces upon which the action depends in drama and fiction.
Internal Conflict-occurs when the protagonist struggles within himself or herself; the
protagonist is pulled by two courses of action or by differing emotions.

Interpersonal conflict-pits the protagonist against someone else.

External conflict-person against society

4. Point of View- the writer’s feeling and attitude toward his/her subject; determines
who tells the story; it identifies the narrator of the story.

CLASSIFICATION:
First person- the narrator uses the pronoun “I.” S/he could be a participant or a
character in his own work; the narrator maybe the protagonist, an observer, a minor
character, or the writer himself/herself.
Third person- the writer is mereky an observer and uses pronoun in the third person.
Omniscient-the narrator sees all; s/he can see into the minds of characters and evne
report everyone’s innermost thoughts.

5. Tone/Mood- the attitude or mixture of attitude taken by the writer toward his work.

6. Symbolism- stand for something other than themselves, they bring to mind not theri
won concrete qualities, but the idea or obstruction that is associated with them.

7. Theme- the author’s comment regarding the subject

8. Plot-a causally related sequence of events; what

happens as a result of the main coinflict is presented in a structured format; is the
sequence of events which involves the character in conflict.
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