Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
Morphology
Anatomy Chemistry Chromosomes Semantides
Popularity
Today:
Combined
/total
evidence
approach
Time
SOURCES OF TAXONOMIC INFORMATION
• Any data that show differences from species to species are of taxonomic significance
• Forms part of taxonomic evidence
• Wide range of information from different sources should be utilised to obtain natural
classification systems
• Characters selected are those that are easily observed and which show promise of
being reliable and discriminating in taxon delimitation
• Traditionally morphological characters used as they are easy to observe, even in
pressed material
• Forms the basis of virtually all classification systems
• Still most common feature used
Macromorphology:
Reproductive morphology:
Chromosome number:
• Number of chromosomes in all individuals of a species
normally constant and closely related species of same
genus usually have same number. Thus a conservative
character and useful and subfamilial, tribal and generic
levels
• Mitotic counts (in sporophytic tissue) diploid number
(2n) of chromosomes given
• Meiotic counts (and mitotic counts in gametophytic
tissue) haploid number (n) given
• Chromosomes often occur in multiples of each other –
polyploidy. Known as diploids, tetraploids, hexaploids,
etc.
• Basic set of chromosomes which transfers genetic
information known as the base number or basic
chromosome number
• Euploidy – when ploidy levels form multiples of each
other, e.g. 2n=14, 28, 42, 56, 70
• Aneuploidy – when there is a loss or gain of one or
more chromosomes
SOURCES OF TAXONOMIC INFORMATION
Chromosome structure:
• Position of centromeres: metacentric – middle;
acrocentric – near one point; telocentric - terminal
• Size: relative sizes rather than absolute size
• Secondary thickenings (satellites): presence of satellites
important (may be confused for extra chromosomes
• Appearance of basic set of chromosomes under light
microscope at metaphase – karyotype
• Represented schematically by ideograms or karyograms
Chromosome behaviour:
• Pairing and migration of chromosomes during meiosis is
studied, especially for occurrences of deviating
behaviour
• Study of pairing behaviour (genome analysis) is most
important aid in cytogenetics (study of the role of
chromosomes in heredity)
• Chromosomes studies in any rapidly dividing cells
• Mitosis – meristems of stem buds and root tips
• Meiosis – spore mother cells in anthers of young flower
buds
SOURCES OF TAXONOMIC INFORMATION
Reproductive Biology:
Breeding systems of a plant is the manner, pattern and degree to which it interbreeds
with plants of the same taxon or of different taxa
Ideal species:
• One with which no taxonomic problems are experienced – it is thus clearly delimited
and there is no gradual transition to other species
• Such species mostly genetically isolated and interbreeding does not occur. Species is
the basic unit in taxonomy but no agreement about the degree of variation
permissible within a species
SOURCES OF TAXONOMIC INFORMATION
2. Groups of plants:
• Dioecious – male plants and female plants
• Androdioecious – bisexual plants and male plants
• Gynodioecious – bisexual and female plants
• Polygadioecious – bisexual plants, male plants and female plants
Primary metabolites:
• Only one group of importance, the carotenoids. Pigments in all photosynthetic
tissues. Of limited taxonomic value in higher plants because show virtually no
variation. Great taxonomic value in algae
Secondary metabolites:
• Terpenoids: group of compounds of which the structure is based on the uniting of
isoprene units (C6H8), e.g. hemiterpenes, monoterpines, sesquiterpenes etc. Form
part of oils, vitamins, hormones and other substances
SOURCES OF TAXONOMIC INFORMATION
• Phenolic compounds: group of compounds of which structure contains at least one
phenolic function. Largest group of phenolic compounds the flavonoids with a specific
C15 skeleton. Types:
• Flavones – basic type from which most others are derived
• Flavanones – differ from flavones in absence of double bond in the 2,3 position
• Isoflavones and isoflavonoids – isoflavones isomers of flavones with -ring in 3-
position rather than in the 2-position. Isoflavonoids are isoflavones of which double
bond in the 2,3-position is saturated
• Flavonols – differ from flavones in the absence of an OH-group in the 3-position
• Anthocyanidins – red, purple and pink pigments which normally occur in nature as
glycosides with glucose, galactose, arabinose and various sugars. The glycosides are
called anthocyanins and after removal of the sugar anthocyanidins. Colour influenced
by methyl groups (red effect), phenolic groups (blue effect) and pH of sell sap (acid-
red, alkaline-blue)
• Betacyanins – group of compounds (pigments) which occur in cell sap of red beet and
other plants. Contain N. Limited to only 8 families
• Carbohydrates and polysaccharides – structural and nutritional function. Limited
taxonomic importance
• Glycosides – organic compounds with reduced group of a sugar bound to an alcoholic
or phenolic hydroxyl group of a second molecule. Wide variety with divergent
taxonomic applications
• Alkaloids – basic, nitrogen-containing substances which are know for their toxic and
medicinal properties. Largest single class of secondary metabolites and thousands of
compounds known
SOURCES OF TAXONOMIC INFORMATION
Semantides – information carrying molecules (DNA, RNA, proteins)
• Theoretically should lead to perfect classification system, because genetic information
used directly but there are practical problems which are rapidly being overcome by
improved methods
• Proteins, especially enzymes, generally studied as taxonomic characters
• DNA sequencing (chloroplast and nuclear DNA) an important tool for taxonomists and
improved insights at all taxonomic levels
DNA barcoding:
• use of short, highly informative DNA regions to discriminate between species
• world-wide effort on DNA barcoding over last few years (CBOL established 2004)
• two chloroplast regions, matK and rbcL, now used as standard barcodes for land
plants – proposed by CBOL Plant Working Group (2009)
Three methods used to study proteins
• Serology – extract containing proteins injected into test animal and antibodies
extracted from animal’s blood as antiserum and this may now be used to text extracts
from other plants
• Electrophoresis – separation takes place by means of the amphiteric properties of
proteins (that they are positively or negatively charged depending on the pH of the
medium. Proteins move through a gel (starch or acrylamide) at different velocities
over an electric gradient
• Amino acid sequencing – modern development in which pure proteins are identified at
the molecular level. Polypeptide chains broken off and the amino acids which come
free are identified chromatographically one by one
SOURCES OF TAXONOMIC INFORMATION
DNA sequencing
• Used to study the sequence of basis in a selected part of
the genome (chloroplast or nuclear or mitochondrial). After
extraction from the cells of fresh or dried plant material
primers are used to select a specified piece of DNA which is
amplified used polymerase chain reactions (PCR).
Sequence data is aligned into a matrix which is analysed
using phylogenetic computer packages
?
Unknown species Extraction and sequencing
BOLD
DNA sequence for rbcL or matK
AAGTGTTGGATTCAAAGCTGGTGTTAAAGAGTACAAATTGACTTATTATACTCCTGAATACGAAACCAAA
GATACTGATATCTTGGCAGCATTCCGAGTAACTCCTCAACCTGGAGTTCCACCCGAAGAAGCAGGGGCTG
CGGTAGCTGCTGAATCTTCTACTGGTACATGGACAACTGTGTGGACCGATGGACTTACCAGCCTTGATCG
TTACAAAGGGCGATGCTACCACATCGAGCCCGTTCCTGGAGAAGAAGATCAATATATTGCTTATGTAGCT
TACCCCTTAGACCTTTTTGAAGAAGGTTCTGTTACTAACATGTTTACTTCCATTGTAGGTAATGTATTTG
GGTTCAAAGCCCTACGCGCTCTACGTCTGGAAGATTTGCGAATCCCTACGGCTTATATTAAAACCTTCCA
AGGCCCGCCTCATGGGATCCAGGTTGAGAGAGATAAATTGAACAAATATGGTCGTCCCCTGTTGGGATGT
ACTATTAAACCTAAATTGGGGTTATCCGCTAAAAACTACGGTAGGGCATGTTATGAATGTCTTCGTGGTG
GACTTGATTTTACCAAAGATGATGAAAACGTGAACTCCCAACCGTTTATGCGTTGGAGAGATCGTTTCTT
ATTTTGTGCCGAAGCAATTTATAAAGCACAGGCTGAAACCGGTGAAATCAAAGGGCATTACTTGAATGCT
ACTGCAGGTACATGCGAAGAAATGATGAAAAGAGCTATATTTGCTAGAGAATTGGGAGTTCCTATCGTAA
TGCATGACTACTTAACAGGGGGATTCACTGCAAATACTAGCTTGGCTCATTATTGCCGAGATAATGGCCT
ACTTCTGCACATCCACCGTGCAATGCACGCAGTTATTGATAGACAGAAGAATCATGGTATCCACTTCCGC
GTACTAGCTAAAGCGTTACGTATGTCTGGTGGAGATCATATTCACTCTGGTACCGTAGTAGGTAAACTTG
AAGGGGAAAGAGACATCACTTTGGGCTTTGTTGATTTACTGCGTGATGATTTTATTGAAAAAGATCGAAG
TCGCGGTATTTATTTCACTCAAGATTGGGTCTCTCTACCAGGTGTTCTGCCGGTGGCTTCAGGGGGTATT
CACGTTTGGCACATGCCCGCTCTGACCGAGATCTTTGGGGATGATTCTGTACTACAGTTTGGTGGAGGAA
CTTTAGGACACCCTTGGGGTAATGCACCAGGTGCCGTAGCGAATCGAGTAGCTCTAGAAGCATGTGTACA
AGCTCGTAATGAAGGGCGCGATCTTGCTCTTGAGGGTAATGAAATTATCCGTGAGGCTAGCAAATGGAGT
CCTGAACTGGCTGCTGCTTGTGAGGTATGGAAGGAGATCAGATTTAATTTTAAAGCAGTGGATACTTTGG AT