INTRODUCTION TO CRIMINOLOGY

What is CRIMINOLOGY?

In its broadest sense, criminology is entire body of knowledge regarding, crimes, criminals and the effort of
society to prevent and repress them.
In a narrower sense, criminology is the scientific study of crimes and criminals.

This scientific study is extended only on three basic lines:

1. Investigation of the nature of criminal law and its administration;

2. Analysis of the causation of crimes and the behavior of criminals; and
3. Study of the control of crimes and the rehabilitation of offenders (criminals)

Criminology is the scientific approach to studying criminal behavior. In their classic definition, criminologist
Edwin Sutherland and Donald Cressey state:Criminology is the body of knowledge regarding crime as a social
phenomenon. It includes within its scope the processes of making laws. The objective of criminology is the
development of a body of general and verified principles and other types of knowledge regarding this process of law,
crime, and treatments.

Criminology is a body of knowledge regarding delinquency and crime as a social phenomenon (Tradio,
1999). It may also refer to the study of crimes and criminals and the attempt of analyzing scientifically their causes
and control and the treatment of criminals.

Criminology is a multidisciplinary study of crimes (Bartol, 1995). This means that many disciplines are
involved in the collection of knowledge about criminal action, including, psychology, sociology, anthropology, biology,
neurology, political science and economics. But over the years, sociology, psychology, and psychiatry have
dominated the study of crime.
a. Sociology – (Sociological Criminology) – the study of crime focused on the group of people and society as
a whole. It is primarily based on the examination of the relationship of demographic and group variables to
crime. Variables such as socioeconomic status, interpersonal relationships, age, race, gender, and cultural
groups of people are probed in relation to the environmental factors that are most conducive to criminal
action, such as time, place, and circumstances surrounding the crime.
b. Psychology- (Psychological Criminology) – the science of behavior and mental processes of the criminal. It
is focused on the individual criminal behavior-how it is acquired, evoked, maintained, and modified. Both the
environmental and personality influences are considered, along with the mental processes that mediate the
behavior.
c. Psychiatry – (Psychiatric Criminology) the science that deals with the study of crime through forensic
psychiatry, the study of criminal behavior in terms of motives and drives that strongly relies on the individual.
Psychoanalytic Theory – Sigmund Freud – traditional view). It also explains that criminals are acting out of
uncontrollable animalistic, unconscious, or biological urges (modern view).

A Brief History of Criminology

The scientific study of crime and criminality is a relatively recent development. Although written criminal
codes have existed for thousands of years, these restricted to defining crime and setting punishments. What
motivated people to violate the law remained a matter for conjecture. During the middle Ages (1200 – 1600)
superstition and fear of satanic possession dominated thinking. People who violated social norms or religious
practices were believed to be witches or possessed by demons. The prescribed method for dealing with the
possessed was burning at the stake, a practice that survived into the seventeenth century. It was also commonly
believed that some families produced offspring who were unsound or unstable and that social misfits were inherently
damaged by reason of their “ inferior blood.” It was common practice to use cruel tortures to extract confessions, and
those convicted of violent of theft crimes suffered extremely harsh penalties including whipping, branding, maiming,
and execution.

VARIOUS STUDIES AND SCIENCES RELATED TO CRIMINOLOGY

1. Study of law
2. Science of medicine, chemistry, and psychology
3. Religion
4. Education
5. Social work involving sociology
 6. Public administration

Similarly, criminology includes the activities of the following offices and agencies of the government:
1. Legislative bodies and lawmakers
2. Law enforcement agencies
3. Courts and prosecution arms of government
4. Educational institution arms of government
5. Correctional institutions
6. Public charitable and social agencies
7. Public welfare agencies

And among the private sector whose work is related to criminology are the Following:
1. The family and the home
2. Church and religion
3. Private charitable
4. Civic clubs, and organizations
5. Print media, newspaper, radio and television
6. Private schools and colleges and others

NATURE OF CRIMINOLOGY
Generally, criminology cannot be considered a science because it has not yet acquired universal validity and
acceptance. It is not stable and it varies from one time and place to another. However, considering that the science is
the systematic and objective study of social phenomenon and other bodies of knowledge, criminology is a science in
itself when applied to law enforcement and prevention of crimes under the following nature:
1. It is an applied science – in the study of the causes of crimes, anthropology, psychology, sociology
and other natural sciences may be applied. While in crime detection, chemistry, medicine, physics,
mathematics, ballistics, polygraphy, legal medicine, questioned document examination may be utilized.
This is called instrumentation.
2. It is a social science – in as much as crime is social creation that it exists in a society being a social
phenomenon, its study must be considered a part of social science.
3. It is dynamic – criminology changes as social condition changes. It is concomitant with the
advancement of other sciences that have been applied to it.
4. It is nationalistic – the study of crimes must be in relation with the existing criminal law within a
territory or country. Finally, the question as to whether an act is crime is dependent on the criminal law
of state. It follows therefore, that the causes of crime must be determined from its social needs and
standards.

Object of Interest in Criminology

The four major object of interest in criminology are crimes (criminal acts), criminals (perpetrator of crime),
criminal behavior and the study of victims.
Other interests in criminology such as criminal detection, treatment of criminals and the criminal law
discussed in the chapter of this book.

CRIME defined
In as much as the definition of crime is concerned, many field of study like law, sociology and psychology
have their respective emphasis on what crime is.

Crime may be defined as:

1. An act or omission in violation of a criminal law in its legal point.
2. An anti-social act; an act that is injurious, detrimental or harmful to the norms of society; they are the
unacceptable acts in its social definition.
3. Psychologically, crime is an act, which is considered undesirable due to behavioral maladjustment of the
offender acts that are caused by maladaptive or abnormal behaviors.

Crime-is also a generic name that refers to offense, felony and delinquency or misdemeanor.
Offense – is an act or omission that is punishable by special laws (a special law is a statute enacted by
Congress, penal in character, which is not an amendment to the Revised Penal Code) such as Republic Acts,
Presidential Decrees, Executive Orders, Memorandum Circulars, Ordinances and Rules and Regulations (Reyes,
2008)
Felony - is an act or omission that is punishable by the Revised Penal Code, the criminal law in the
Philippines (Reyes, 2008).
 Delinquency/Misdemeanor – acts that are in violation of simple rules and regulations usually referring to
acts committed by minor offenders.

SCOPE OF THE STUDY OF CRIMINOLOGY

Criminology is a broad field of study of crimes and criminals. It covers several principal areas or divisions
(Tradio, 1999), which are:
1. Criminal Behavior or Criminal Etiology – the scientific analysis of the causes of crime;
2. Sociology of Law – the study of law and its application;
3. Penology or correction – the study that deals with punishment and the treatment of criminals;
4. Criminalistics or Forensic Science – one more area of concern in crime detection and investigation.

Criminalistics is included as division in criminology because Criminologist are also engaged in studying criminal
things, the analysis of physical evidences taken from the crime scene left behind by a criminal perpetrator.
Furthermore, the following are included in the study of criminology:
1. Study of the origin and development of criminal law and penal law.
2. Study of the causes of crimes and development of criminals.
3. Study of the different factors that enhance the development of criminal behavior such as:
a. Criminal Demography – Study of the relationship between criminality and population.
b. Criminal Epidiomology – Study of the relationship between environment and criminality.
c. Criminal Ecology – Study of criminality in relation to spatial distribution in a community.
d. Criminal Physical Anthropology – Study of criminality in relation to physical constitution of
men.
e. Criminal Psychology – Study of human behavior in relation to criminality.
f. Criminal Psychiatry – Study of human mind in relation to criminality.
g. Victimology – Study of the role of the victim in the commission of a crime.

Importance of Studying Criminology

Studying crime is very important. In fact, interesting crime has always been high (Bartol, 1995). However,
understanding why it occurs and what to do about it has always been a problem. The offer of simple solutions for
obliterating crime is not enough because of its complexities. But understanding crime as a complex phenomenon can
be:
1. a source of philosophy of life – The knowledge derived from studying crime is a good foundation for an
individual’s philosophy and lifestyle;
2. a background for a profession or for social service;
3. because criminals are legitimate objects of interest. They should be understood in order to know how to
control them;
4. because crime is a costly problem. The value of property lost, medical expenses, insurance, moving
costs, and intangible cost of pain and suffering is too high as a result of victimization.

Purposes of Studying Criminology

Studying criminology is aimed towards the following:
1. The primary aim is to prevent the crime problem.
2. To understand crimes and criminals which are basic to knowing the actions to be done to prevent them.
3. To prepare for a career in law enforcement and scientific crime detection.
4. To develop an understanding of the constitutional guarantees and due process of law in the administration
of justice.
5. To foster a higher concept of citizenry and leadership together with an understanding of one moral and legal
responsibilities to his fellowmen, his community and the nation.

Study of the various processes and measures accepted by society in cases of violation of criminal law such
as:
a. The detection and investigation of crimes
b. The arrest and apprehension of criminals
c. The prosecution and conviction of the criminal in a judicial proceedings
d. The imprisonment, correction and rehabilitation of criminal convicted of
a crime.
e. The enforcement of laws, decrees, rules and regulation.
f. The administration of the police and other law enforcement agencies.
g. Maintenance of recreational facilities and other auxiliary services to
prevent the development of crimes and criminal behavior.

SOME OF THE MAJOR AREAS OF STUDIES IN CRIMINOLOGY:

 1. Dactyloscopy – The science of fingerprinting.
2. Police Photography – The black and white photograph
3. Polygraphy – Science of lie detection examination
4. Ballistics – Study of firearms and bullets
5. Questioned Document Examination –Study of disputed documents.
6. Penology –Jail management and prison administration
7. Police supervision and administration.
8. Investigation and detection of crimes
9. Industrial security management
10. Traffic accident investigation and others

SOME OPPORTUNITIES OF GRADUATES OF CRIMINOLOGY:

1. In the enforcement braches of the government particularly in the civilian and military police agencies.
2. In the management and administration of security agencies of commercial and industrial
establishments.
3. Questioned document examiners of police agencies or signature verifier of any banks and other
financial institution.
4. As custodian or correctional officers of penitentiaries or penal colonies.
5. Rehabilitation officers or correctional institution for juvenile delinquent.
6. Laboratory technicians and experts in police laboratories.
7. Crimes research and prevention program officer.

FUNDAMENTAL STUDY OF CRIMINAL LAW

What is Criminal Law?

Criminal or penal law is that branch of public law, which defines crimes, treat of their nature, and provides
for their punishment.

NOTE: The Revised Penal Code is the book that contains the Philippine Criminal Law and likewise, it is embodied in
a different special laws and decrees which are penal nature.

PRINCIPAL PARTS OF REVISED PENAL CODE

1. Articles 1 to 20 – Principles affecting liability.
2. Articles 21 to 113 – Provisions on penalties including criminal and civil liability.
3. Articles 114 to 367 – Felonies defined under different titles.

CHARACTERISTICS OF CRIMINAL LAW

1. It is general in application
The provisions of the criminal or penal law must be applied equally to all persons within the territory
irrespective of sex, race, nationality and other personal circumstances, its certain exceptions such as:
a. Heads of state or country
b. Foreign diplomats, ambassadors who are duly accredited to a country.
c. Foreign troops permitted to march within a territory.
2. It is territorial in character
As a part of the right of a state to self-preservation, each independent country has the right to promulgate
laws enforceable within its territorial application and by the operation of international law of the nation. In the
Philippines, the Revised Penal Code is applicable only to the areas within the Philippine territorial jurisdiction such as:
a. Philippine Archipelago – this includes all islands that compromise the Philippines.
b. Atmosphere – The space above those islands.
c. Interior Water – All bodies of water that connect all islands such as bays, rivers and streams.
d. Maritime Zone – The three (3) mile limit beyond pour shore measured at low tide.
Exceptions to the territorial character of the Revised Penal Code:
The Revised Penal Code shall be applicable to all cases committed outside the Philippine territorial
jurisdiction under the following circumstances – Article 2. RPC:
a. Should commit an offense which on a Philippine ship or airship;
b. Should forge or counterfeit any coin or currency note of the Philippine Island or obligations and
securities issued by the government of the Philippine Island;
c. Should be liable for acts connected with the introduction into this islands of the obligations and
securities mentioned in the preceding number;
d. While being a public officer or employee, should commit an offense in the exercise of their functions;
e. Should commit any of the crimes against national security and law of nations, defined in Title One of
Book Two of this Code (RPC).
 On the other hand, even if the crimes or felonies are committed within Philippine territory, the Revised Penal
Code is not applicable under the following conditions by reason of:
a. Provisions of treaty such as Philippine – United States Bases Agreement;
b. Operation of International Law under the principle of Reciprocity.
3. It is specific and definite
Criminal law must give a strict definition of a specific act which constitutes an offense. Where there is doubt
as to whether a definition embodied in the Revised Penal Code applies to the accused or not, the judge is obligated
to decide the case in favor of the accused. Criminal Law must be construed liberally in favor of the and strictly against
the state.
4. It is uniform in application
An act describes a crime no matter who committed it, whether committed in the Philippines and whenever
committed. No exception must be made as to the criminal liability. The definition of crimes together with the
corresponding punishment must be uniformly constructed, although they may be differential enforcement of a give,
specific provision of the penal law.
5. It must be prospective
No person can be punished for his act, which at the time he did it is not yet punishable by law, however,
penal laws may be given retroactive effect when it is favorable to the accused, which is not habitual delinquent. (Art
22,REC)
6. There must be a penal sanction or punishment
Penal sanction is the most essential part of the definition of a crime .If there is no penalty to a prohibited act,
its enforcement will almost be impossible. The penalty is acting as deterrence, retribution and as a measure of self-
defense of the state to protect society from the threat and wrong inflicted by the criminal.

TWO IMPORTANT THEORIES IN CRIMINAL LAW

1. The Classical Theory
Characteristics:
a) The basis of criminal liability is human free will and the purpose of the penalty is retribution.
b) That man is essentially of a moral creature with an absolutely free will to choose between good and
evil, thereby placing more stress upon the effect or result of the felonious act than upon the man,
the criminal himself.
c) It has endeavored to establish a mechanical and direct proportion between crime and penalty
d) There is a scant regard to the human element
2. The Positivist Theory:
Characteristics:
a) The man is subdued occasionally by a strange and morbid phenomenon, which constrains him to
do wrong, in spite of or contrary to his violation.
b) That crime is essentially a social and natural phenomenon, and as such it cannot be treated and
checked by the application of abstract principles of law and jurisprudence nor by the imposition of
punishment, fixed and determined a prior, but rather through the enforcement of individual
measures in each particular case after a thorough personal and individual investigation conducted
by competent body of psychiatrists and social scientists.
SOME THEORIES AS TO THE ORIGIN OF CRIMINAL LAW
1. That criminal law originated from private wrong or tort.
2. That criminal law originated from national processes of a unified society.
3. The criminal law originated from the development of customs, usage and traditions.
4. That criminal originated from conflict of interest of different social groups.

STUDY OF FELONIES AND CRIMES

Crimes and Felonies Defined

Crime is defined as an act committed or omitted violated of a public law forbidding or commanding it.
Crime is also defined as an act that violates the law of the law of nation.
Felonies are acts and omissions punishable by law. They are committed not only by means of deceit (dolo)
but also by means of fault (culpa) (Art. 3. RPC).
ELEMENTS OF FELONY
1. There must be an act or omission.
2. The act of omission must be voluntary.
3. It must punishable by law.

LEGAL CLASSIFICATION OF CRIMES OR FELONIES

1. As to manner crimes are committed
a. By means of dolo or deceit – When the act was done with deliberate intent.
 Requisites of an Intentional Felony:
1. The offender must have FREEDOM;
2. The offender must have INTELLIGENCE; and
3. The offender must have INTENT while doing the act or omitting to do the act.
b. By means of culpa or fault – When the wrongly act from imprudence, negligence, lack of foresight or
lack of skill.
Requisites of Culpa:
1. The offender must have FREEDOM while doing the act or omitting to do the act;
2. The offender must have INTELLIGENCE while doing the act or omitting to do the act; and
3.The offender is IMPRUDENT, NEGLIGENT or LACKS OF FORESIGHT or SKILL while doing the act or
omitting to do the act.
2. As to the stages in the commission of crime:
a. Attempted crimes – When the offender commences the commission of felony directly by overt acts and does
not perform all the acts of execution, which could produce the felony by reason of some causes or accident other
than his own spontaneous resistance.
b. Frustrated crimes – When the offender performed all the acts of execution which will produce the felony, as a
consequence but which nevertheless, do not produce the felony be reason of causes independent of the will of
the perpetrator.
c. Consummated crime – When all the elements necessary for its execution and accomplishments are all
present.
3. As to the plurality of crimes:
a. Simple crimes – When a single act constitutes only one offense.
b. Complex crimes – When a single act constitutes two or more grave felonies or when an offense is necessary
means for committing the other.
4. As to the gravity of penalty or offense:
a. Grave Felonies – Those which the law attaches the capital punishment or afflictive penalties.
b. Less grave felonies – Those which the law punishes with penalties which are correctional in nature.
c. Light Felonies – Those infractions law for the commission of which the penalty of arrest to mayor or fine not
exceeding 200 pesos are imposed.
5. As to the basis of criminal act:
a. Crimes against persons such as murder, homicide, etc.
b. Crimes against property such as theft, robbery, etc.
c. Crimes against chastity as seduction.
d. Crimes against public order such as rebellion.

CRIMINOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION OF CRIMES

As to the result of crimes:
Acquisitive Crime – When the offender acquires something as consequence of his criminal act.
Extinctive Crime – When the result of a criminal act is destructive.
As to the time or period committed:
Seasonal Crime – Those committed only during a certain period of the year like violation of tax law.
Situational Crimes – Those committed only when given the situation conducive to its commission.
As to the length of the committed:
a) Static Crimes – Those committed in only one place.
b) Continuing Crimes – Those that can be committed in several places.
As to the use of mental faculties:
a) Rational Crimes – Those committed with intentional and offender is in full possession of his sanity.
b) Irrational Crimes – Those committed by persons who do not know the nature and quality of his act on
the account of the disease of the mind.
As to the type of offender:
a) White Collar Crimes – Those committed by person of respectability and of upper socio- economic class
in the course of their occupation activities. Ex. Adulteration of food by manufacturer.
b) Blue Collar Crimes – Those committed by ordinary professional criminal to maintain their livelihood.
As to the standard of living of the criminals:
a) Crimes of the upper world – falsification cases
b) Crimes of the underworld – bag snatching

Episodic and instant crimes

Episodic crimes are serial crimes, they are committed by means of series of act within a lengthy space of
time. Instant crimes are those that are committed he shortest possible time.

Crimes by Imitation and Crimes by Passion

 Crimes by imitation are crimes committed by merely duplication of what was done by others. Crimes by
Passion are crimes committed because of the fit of great emotions.

Services Crimes
Service Crimes refers to crimes committed through rendition of a service to satisfy desire of another.

Legal Classification of Crimes

Under the law, crimes are classified as:
1. Crimes Against National Security and the Law of Nations.
Example - Treason, Espionage, Piracy
2. Crimes Against the Fundamental Law of the State.
Example – Arbitrary Detention, Violation of Domicile
3. Crimes Against Public Order.
Example-Rebellion, Sedition, Coup d’tat
4. Crimes Against Public Interest.
Example – Forgery, Falsification, Fraud
5. Crimes Against Public Morals.
Example – Gambling and betting, offenses against decency and good customs like scandals, obscenity,
vagrancy, and prostitution
6. Crimes Committed by Public Officers.
Example – Malfeasance and Misfeasance
7. Crimes Against Person
Example – Murder, Rape, Physical Injuries
8. Crimes Against Properties
Example – Robbery, Theft
9. Crimes Against Personal Liberty and Security
Example – Illegal Detention, Kidnapping, Trespass to Dwelling, Threat and Coercion
10. Crimes Against Chastity.
Example – Concubinage, Adultery, Seduction, Abduction, Acts of Lasciviousness
11. Crimes Against Honor.
Example – Libel, Oral Defamation
12. Quasi – Offenses or Criminal Negligence
Example – Imprudence and Negligence
WHEN DOES CRIME EXIST?
In the legal viewpoint of view, crime exist when the person has been proven guilty by the court. The main
objective to this is a terrific morality of cases between the times a crime has been reported up to the time a verdict of
conviction is made by the court.
In the scientific point of view, crime exits when it is reported. This is more realistic but not all reported
cases are with the sound basis of true happening. Some of them are also unfounded.

SOME DISTINCTIONS
Between Crime and Sin:
1. Crime is an act or omission against the penal law of state while sin is an act or omission against the spiritual or
divine law.
2. Upon conviction for a criminal act, the penalty is imposed during the lifetime of the person, while the penalty for
sinful act is imposed in the life thereafter.
3. Crime is nationalistic while immorality is regionalistic.

WHY MEMBERS OF SOCIETY BE INTERESTED IN CRIME?

1. Crime is Pervasive – Almost all members of a free society are once upon a time a victim or an offender of a
criminal acts. Crime as an associate of society affects almost all people- regardless of age, sex, race, nationality,
religion, financial condition, education and other personal circumstances.
2. Crime is expensive – The government and private sector spend an enormous amount of money for crime
detection, prosecution, correction and prevention. Those expenses are the following:
a. Direct Expenses – Those spent by the government or private section for the maintenance or police security guards
for crime detection, prosecution and judiciary, support of prison system.
b. Indirect Expenses – Those expenses utilized to prevent the commission of crimes like the constitution of window
grills, fences, gate, purchase of door locks and safety vaults, hiring of watchmen, feeding of watchdogs, etc.
c. Crime is Destructive – Many live have been lost because of crimes like murder, homicide and other violent deaths.
Properties have been lost or destroyed on the account of robbery, theft and arson.
d. Crime is Reflective – Crime rate or incidence in a given locality is reflective of the effectiveness of the social
defenses employed by the people – primarily that of the police system.
e. Crime is Progressive – The progressive increase in the volume of crime is on account of the ever-increasing
population. The ever increasing ate and their technique shows the progressive thinking of the society for
advancement.

ADVANTAGES OF THE EXISTED OF CRIME

1. It promotes solidarity of the people – Members of the community offer they’re all out assistance to establish a
strong front against crime. Family ties becomes stronger, groups become more united and solidified to fight members
organize to free themselves from the lawlessness and crimes.
2. It prevents Morality from going to the extreme – Penal laws are the safeguard or our morality. They provide
penalty when morality becomes low and this serves as a notice to society that something has to be done at one to
prevent morality from going to the extremes.
3. It is a notification of maladjustment – Whenever a person violates criminal laws, it is a proof that his action is not
within the accepted norm in a society. Crime is a symptom of social disorganization just as fever or pain is proof that
a person is sick.

STUDY OF CRIMINALS
What is a Criminal?
In the legal sense, a criminal is any person who has been found to have committed a wrongful act in the
course of the standard judicial processes. They must be a final verdict of his guilt.
In the criminological sense, a person is already considered a criminal the moment he committed any anti –
social act.

DISTINCTION BETWEEN CRIMINAL AND DELINQUENT

A criminal is a person who has violated the penal law and has been found guilty of the crime charges upon
observing of the standard judicial procedure an act not in conformity with the norms of society.
Examples of Delinquency:
1. Waywardness of children
2. Street corner gang
3. Children out of parental control
4. School dropout without justifiable reasons

GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF CRIMINAL

1. Criminals classified on the basis of etiology:
a) Acute Criminals – Persons who violate criminal law because of the impulse of the moment, fit of passion or
anger or spell or extreme jealousy
b) Chronic Criminals – Persons who acted in consonance with deliberated thinking, such as:
1. Neurotic Criminals – Persons whose actions arise from intra-psychic conflict between the social and anti-
social components of his personality. Example: Kleptomania.
2. Normal Criminal -Person whose psychic organization resembles that of normal individuals except that he
himself with criminal prototype.
3. Criminality – Caused by an organic pathological process.
2. Criminals Classified on the basis of behavioral system:
a. Ordinary Criminals – The lowest from of criminal career. They engage only on conventional crimes which
require limited skill. They lack organization to avoid arrest and conviction.
b. Organized Criminals – These criminals has a high degree of organization to enable them to commit crimes
without being detected and committed to specialized activities, which can be operated in large-scale business.
Force, violence, intimidation and bribery are used to gain and maintain control over economic activities.
c. Professional Criminals – They are highly skilled and able to obtain considerable amount of money without
being detected because of organization and contract with other professional criminals. These offenders are
always able to escape conviction. They specialize in crimes, which require skill rather than violence such as
confidential games, pick-pocketing, shoplifting, sneak thievery, counterfeiting and others.
3. Criminals Classified on the basis of activities:
a. Professional Criminals – Those who earn their living through criminal activities.
b. Accidental Criminals – Those who commit criminal acts as result of unanticipated circumstances.
c. Habitual Criminals – Those who continue to commit criminal acts for such diverse reason due to deficiency of
intelligence and lack of self control.
d. Situational Criminals – Those who are actually not criminals but constantly in trouble with legal authorities
because they commit robberies, larcenies, and embezzlement, which are intermixed with, legitimate economic
activities.
4. Criminal Classified on the basis of mental attitudes:
a. Active aggressive-those who commit crime in an impulsive manner usually due to the aggrieve behavior of
the offender. Such attitude is clearly shown in crimes of passion, revenge or resentments.
 b. Passive inadequate criminals- those who commit crimes because they are pushed to it by inducement, by
rewards of promise without considering its consequence. They are called ulukan
c. Socialized delinquents – those who are normal in their behavior of but merely defective in their socialization
processes. To this group belongs the educated respectable member of society who may turn criminal on account
of the situation they are involved.

APPROACHES AND THEORIES OF CRIME

In general, the approaches in the study of crime are: 1) subjective approach, 2) objective approach and 3)
the contemporary approach.
SUJECTIVE APPROACHES
It deals mainly on the biological explanation of crimes, focused on the forms of abnormalities that exist in the
individual criminal before, during and after the commission of the crime (Tradio, 1999). This approach covered the
following:
1. Anthropological Approach – the study on the physical characteristics of an individual offender with non-
offenders in the attempt to discover differences covering criminal behavior (Hooton).
2. Medical Approach – the application of medical examinations on the individual criminal explain the mental
and physical condition of the individual prior and after the commission of the crime (Positivist).
3. Biological Approach – the evaluation of generic influences to criminal behavior. It is noted that heredity is one
force pushing the criminal to crime (Positivist).
4. Physiological Approach - the study on the nature of human being concerning his physical needs in order to
satisfy his wants. It explains that the deprivation of the physical body on the basic needs is an importance
determiner of the commission of crime (Maslow).
5. Psychological Approach – is concerned about the deprivation of the psychological needs of man, which
constitute the development of deviations of normal behavior resulting to unpleasant emotions (Freu, Maslow).
6. Psychiatric Approach – the explanation of crime through diagnosis as a cause of the criminal behavior
(Positivist).
7. Psychoanalytic Approach – the explanation of crimes based on the Freudian Theory, which traces behavior.
They are the deviation of the repression of the basic drives (Freud).
OBJECTIVE APPROACHES
The objective approaches deal on the study of groups, social process and institutions as influences to
behavior. They are primarily derived from social sciences (Tradio, 1999). Under this are:
1. Geographical Approach – this approach considers to topography, natural resources, geographical location,
and climate lead an individual to commit crime (Quetelet).
2. Ecological Approach – it is concerned with the biotic grouping of men resulting to migration, competition,
social discrimination, division of labor and social conflict as factors to crime (Park).
3. Economic Approach – it deals with the explanation of crime concerning financial security of inadequacy
and other necessities to support life as factors to criminality (Merton).

CONTEMPORARY APPROACHES
Modern days put emphasis on scientific modes of explaining crime and criminal behavior. This approach is
focused on the psychoanalytical, psychiatric and sociological explanatory perspective that merges concepts drawn
from different sources (Schmalleger, 1997).

THEORIES OF CRIME
The formal development of criminology as a field of discipline is recent, but the ideas of people were
lawyers, doctors, philosophers, psychologists, and sociologists whose primary interest was reforming the criminal
law, not in creating a science of criminal behavior, Nevertheless, their contributions to criminology are immerse, and
for an adequate understanding of current criminological theories, some familiarity with these earlier approaches is
essential.

Theory Causes Policy

1. Biochemistry Heredity, vitamin deficiency, allergy, Isolation, treatment
allergy, tumor, toxins, brain
dysfunction, hormonal imbalance
2. Psychology Low intelligence, psychopathy, Treatment, counseling
stress
3. Ecology Disorganized neighborhoods Community empowerment
4. Strain Economic goal blockage Increased opportunities
5. Learning Imitation, reinforcement schedules More effective negative
reinforcement, more use of positive
 reinforcement
6. Control Socialization, low self-control Child-rearing, social bonds
7. Labeling Shunning, identity immersion Nonintervention, reintegration
8.Conflict Power differentials, competition Increased equality
9. Radical Class struggle, capitalism Praxis, socialism
10.Left Realism Predatory relationships More effective police protection
11.Peacemaking Inner suffering and turmoil Spiritual rejuvenation
12.Feminist Gender inequity, patriarchy End sex discrimination
13. Postmodern Hierarchical privileges and language More informal social control

EARLY BEGINNINGS
The Demonological Theory
Before the development of more scientific theories of criminal behavior, one of the most popular
explanations was Demonology (Hagan, 1990).
According to this explanation, individuals were thought to be possessed by good or evil spirits, which caused
good or evil behavior. The theory maintains that criminal behavior was believed to be the result of evil spirits and
demons something of natural force that controls his/ behavior. Centuries ago, guilt and innocent were established by
a variety of procedures that presumably called forth the supernatural allies of the accused. The accused were
innocent if they could survive and ordeal, or if miraculous signs appeared, They were guilty if they died at stake, or if
omens were associated with them (Bartol, 1995). Harsh punishments were given.
PRE-TWENTIENTCENTURY (18TH C – 1738 – 1798)
In the eighteenth century, criminological literature, whether psychological, sociological, or psychiatric in bent,
has traditionally been divided into three broad schools of thought about the causes of crime: the classical, neo-
classical and the positivist schools of criminology.
The classical School of Criminology
The is the school of thought advocated by Ceasare Beccaria whose real name is Ceasare Bonansa Marchese de
Beccaria together with Jeremy Bentham (1823) who proposed “Utilitarian Hedonism”, the theory, which explains that
a person always acts in such a way as to seek pleasure and avoid pain.
Cesare Beccaria in his “ESSAY on Crimes and Punishment” presented his key ideas on the abolition of
torture as a legitimate means extracting confessions. The Classical theory maintains that man is essentially a moral
creature with absolute Free will to choose between good and evil. Therefore, tress is placed upon the criminal
himself; that every man is responsible for his act.
Freewill (Beccaria) – a philosophy advocating punishment severe enough for people to choose, to avoid
criminal acts. It includes the belief that a certain criminal act warrants a certain punishment without any variation.
Hedonism (Bentham) – the belief that people choose pleasure and avoid pain.
According to Beccaria, the crime problem could be trace not to bad people but to bad laws based on the
assumption of freewill. He proposed the following principles (Adler, 1995):
1. Laws should be used to maintain the social contact – “ Laws are the condition under which men united
themselves in society”.
2. Only legislators should create laws – “authority of making law penal laws can only reside with the legislator, who
represent the whole society united by the social compact”.
3. Judges should impose punishment only in accordance with law.
4. Punishment should be based on the pleasure – pain are the only springs of actions in being endowed with
sensibility. If an equal punishment be ordained in two crimes that injure society in different degrees, there is
nothing to deter men from committing the greater as often as it is intended with greater advantage”.
5. The punishment should be determined by the crime – “if mathematical calculations could be applied to the
obscure and infinite combinations of human actions, there might be a corresponding scale of punishments
descending from the greatest to the least”.
6. Punishment should be based on the act, not on the actor – “crimes are only to be measured by the injuries
done to the society”.
7. Punishment should be prompt and effective – “ the more immediat6e after the commission of the crime a
punishment is inflicted, the more just and useful it will be”.
8. All people should be treated equally – “ the punishment of a nobleman is no differ from that of the lowest
member of society”.
9. Capital punishment should be applied only to serious crimes against the state (Achmalleger, 1997).
10. The use of torture to gain confession should be abolished.
11. It is better to prevent crimes than to punish them.
 Although the classical doctrine had an immediate and profound impact on jurisprudence and legislation, there
are certain arguments against it.
Arguments about the Classical Theory (Tradio, 1999).
1. Unfair – it treats all men as if they were robot without regard to the individual differences and the surrounding
circumstances when the crime is committed.
2. Unjust – having the same punishment for first offenders and recidivists.
3. The nature and definition of punishment for first offenders and recidivists.
4. It considers only the injury caused not the mental conditions of the offender.
The Neo- Classical School of Criminology
The neo – Classical School of Criminology argued that situations or circumstances that made it impossible
to exercise freewill are reasons to exempt the accused from conviction.
This school of thought maintains that while the classical doctrine is correct in general, it should be modified
in certain details:
a. That children and lunatics should not be regarded as criminals and free from punishment.
b. It must take into account certain mitigating circumstances.
The Positivist/ Italian School (1838 – 1909)
The school that composed of Italians who agreed that in the study of crime the emphasis should be on
scientific treatment of the criminal, not on the penalties to be imposed after conviction.
It maintained that crime as my other act is a natural phenomenon and is comparable to disaster or calamity.
That crime as a social and moral phenomenon which cannot be treated and checked by the imposition of punishment
but rather rehabilitation or the enforcement of individual measures.
Cesare Lombroso and his two students, Enrico Ferri and Rafael Garofalo advocated this school.
Cesare Lombroso (1836 – 1909) – The Italian leader of the positivist school of criminology, was criticized
for his methodology and his attention to the biological characteristics of scientifically earned him the “father of modern
criminology.” His major contribution is the development of a scientific approach to the study of criminal behavior and
to reform the criminal law. He wrote the essay entitled “CRIME: Its Causes and Remedies” that contains his key ideas
and the classifications of criminals.
Classifications of Criminals by Lombroso
1. Born Criminals – there are born criminals according to Lombroso, the belief that criminal behavior is inherited.
2. Criminal by Passion – are individuals who are easily influenced by great emotions like fit of anger.
3. Insane Criminals – are those who commit crime due to abnormalities or psychological disorders. They should be
exempted form criminal liability.
4. Criminoloid – a person who commit crime due to less physical stamina/ self control.
5. Occasional Criminal – are those who commit crime due to insignificant reasons that pushed them to do at a given
occasion.
6. Pseudo – criminals – are those who kill in self-defense.

Enrico Ferri (1856 –1929) – He was the best-known Lombroso’s associate. Member of Parliament,
accomplished public lecturer, brilliant lawyer, editor, and scholar. Although he agreed with Lombroso on the biological
bases of criminal behavior, his interest in socialism led him to recognize the importance of social, economic, and
political determinants.
His greatest contribution was his attack on the classical doctrine of free will, which argued that criminals should
be held morally responsible for their crimes because they must have made a rational decision to commit the crime.
Raffaele Garofalo (1852 – 1934) –Another follower of Lombroso, an Italian nobleman, magistrate, senator, and
professor of law. Like Lombroso and Ferri, he rejected the doctrine of free will and supported the position that the
only way to understand crime was to study it by scientific methods Influenced on Lombroso’s theory of atavistic
stigmata (man’s inferior/ animalistic behavior), he traced the roots of criminal behavior not to physical features but to
their psychological equivalents, which he called “moral anomalies”.
According to his theory, natural crimes are found in all human societies, regardless of the views of the
lawmakers, and no civilized society can afford to disregard them.
Natural crimes, according to Garofalo, are those that offend the basic moral sentiments of probity (respect for
property of others) and piety (revulsion against the infliction of suffering on others) Adler, 1995).

Types of Criminals by Garofalo

1. Murderers – those who are satisfied from vengeance/ revenge.
2. Violent Criminal Criminals – those who commit very serious crimes.
3. Deficient Criminals – those who commit crime against property.
4. Lascivious Criminals – those who commit against chastity.

The classical and Positivist School Compared

 Classical School Positivist School

Legal definition of crime No to legal definition of crime

Punishment fit the crime Punishment fit the criminal

Doctrine of free will Doctrine of determinism

Death penalty allowed Abolition of death penalty

No empirical research Inductive method

Definite sentence Indeterminate sentence

EARLY TWENTIETH CENTURY

David Emile Durkheim (French, 1858 – 1917)
He advocated the “Anomie Theory”, the theory that focused on the sociological point of the positivist school
which explains that the absence of norms in a society provides a setting conducive to crimes and other anti-social
acts. According to him, explanation of human conduct lies not in the individual but in the group and the social
organization.
Durkheim proposed the following principles:
a. Crime is a natural thing in the society,
b. The concept of wrong is necessary to give meaning to what is right,
c. Crime help society for changes – it means that a society to be flexible to permit positive deviation must permit
negative deviations well.
He is also framed the early development of the “Consensus Theory” in sociology. He argued that mainly life.
According to him, the order of social life does not derive from individuals but from society because the individual is
not sufficient unto him, it is the society that he receives everything necessary to him.
He also maintained that crime is an “important ingredient of all healthy societies because crime make people
more aware of their common interest and help to define appropriate, moral, or lawful behavior.”

Sigmund Freud (1856 – 1969)

Psychologists have considered a variety of possibilities to account for individual differences – defective
conscience, emotional immaturity, inadequate childhood socialization, maternal deprivation, and poor moral
development.
The Freudian view on criminal behavior was based on the use of psychology in explaining an approach in
understanding criminal behavior.
Sigmund Freud in his Psychoanalytic Theory maintains that:
a. Criminal behavior is a form neurosis, that criminality may result from an over active conscience.
b. Crime is result of the compulsive need for punishment to alleviate guilt and anxiety.
c. Criminal behavior is a means of obtaining gratification of need.
d. Criminal conducts represent a displaced hostility. Criminality is essentially a representation of psychological
conflict.

Robert Ezra Park (1864 – 1944)

Park is a strong advocator of the scientific method in explaining criminality but he is a sociologist, He
advocated the “ Human Ecology Theory”. Human Ecology is the study of the interrelationship of people and their
environment. This theory maintains that crime is a function of social change that occurs along with environment
change. It maintains that the isolation, segregation, competition, conflict, social contract, interaction and social
hierarchy of people are the major influences of criminal and crimes.

MIDLE TWENTIENT CENTURY

Ernest Kretschmer (1888 – 1964)
The idea of somatotyping was originated from the work of a German Psychiatrist, Earnest Kretschmer, who
distinguished three principal types of physique as:
1. Asthenic – lean, slightly built, narrow shoulder
2. Athletic – medium to tall, strong, muscular, course bones
3. Pyknic – medium height, rounded figure, massive neck, broad face Kretsmer related these body physique to
various pychotic behavioral patterns: Psknic to manic depression, asthenics and athletics to schizophrenia.

William H. Sheldon (1898 – 1977)

 Sheldon is an influenced of the Somatotyped School of Criminologyt, which related body built to behavior.
He became popular of his own Somatotyping Theory. His key ideas are concentrated on the principle of “Survival of
the Fittest” as a behavioral science. He combines the biological and psychological explanation to understand deviant
behavior.
Sheldon’s “Somatotyping Theory” maintains the belief of inheritance as the primary determinants of behavior
and the physique is a reliable indicator of personality.

Classification of Body Physique by Sheldon

a. Endomorphy – a type with relatively predominance of soft, roundness through out the regions of the body. They
have low specific gravity. Persons with typically relaxed and comfortable disposition.
b. Mesomorphy – athletic type, predominance of muscle, bone and connection tissue, normally heavy, hard and
firm, sting and tough. They are the people who are routinely active and aggressive, and they are the most likely to
commit crimes.
c. Ectomorphy – thin physique, flat chest, delicacy through the body, slender, poorly muscled. They tend to look
more fatigue and withdrawn.

Edward Surtherland (1883 – 1950)

Sutherland has been referred to as “ the most important criminologist of the twentieth century” because his
explanation about crime and criminal behavior can be seen as a corrected extension of social perspective. For this
reason, he was considered as the “ Dean of Modern Criminology.” He advocated the DAT –Differential
Association Theory, which maintains that the society is composed of different group organization, the societies
consist of a group of group having criminalistic tradition and anti-criminalistic tradition. It is learned through the
process of committing the crime, motive and attitude.

Walter Reckless (1899 – 1988)

A broad analysis of the relationship between personal and social controls is found in Walter Reckless
Containment Theory. This theory is a form of control, which, suggests that a series of both internal and external
factors contributes to criminal behavior (Schmalleger, 1998).
Karl Marx, Frederick Engle, Willem Bonger (1818 – 1940)
The are the proponents of the Social Class Conflict and Capitalism Theory. Marx and Engle claimed that
the ruling class in a capitalist society is responsible for the creation of criminal law and their ideological bases in the
interpretation and enforcement of the ideological bases in the interpretation and enforcement of the laws. All are
reflected on the demoralized surplus of population, which is made up of the underprivileged usually the unemployed
and underemployed.

LATE 20th CENTURY: THE CONTEMPORARY POINEERS

Robert King Merton (1910)
Robert Merton is the premier sociologist of the modern days who, after Durheim, also related the crime
problem to anomie. He advocated the Strain Theory, which maintains that the failure of man to achieve a higher
status of life caused them to commit crimes in order for that status/ goal and the social structure is behavior assumes
that people are law abiding but when under great pressure will result to crime.

Albert Cohen (1918)

He advocate the Sub-Culture Theory of Delinquency. Cohen claims that the lower class cannot socialize
effectively as the middle class in what is considered appropriate middle class behavior. Thus, the lower class
gathered together share their common problems, forming a subculture that rejects middle class values. Cohen called
this process as reaction formation. Much of this behavior comes to be called delinquent behavior; the subculture is
called a gang and the kids are called delinquents. He put emphasis on the explanation of prevalence, origins, process
and purposes as factors to come.

Gresham Sykes (1922)

He advocated the Neutralization Theory. It maintains that an individual will obey or disobey societal rules
depending upon his or her ability to rationalize whether he is protected from hurt or destruction. People become law
abiding if they feel they are benefited by it and they violate it if these laws are not favorable to them.

Lloyed Ohlin (1928)

He advocated the DOT – Differential Opportunity Theory. This theory explains that society leads the lower
class to want things and society does things to people. Ohlin claimed that there is differential opportunity, or access,
to success goals by both legitimate and illegitimate means depending on the specific location of the individual with in
the social structure. Thus, lower class groups are provided with greater opportunities for the acquisition of deviant
acts.
Frank Tennenbaum, Edin Lemert, Howard Becker (1822 – 1982)
They are advocates of the Labeling Theory – the theory that explains about social reaction to behavior. The
theory maintains that the original cause of crime cannot be known, no behavior is intrinsically criminal, behavior
becomes criminal if it is labeled as such.

Earl Richard Quinney (1934)

Quinney is a Marxist criminologist who advocated the Instruments Theory if capitalist rule. He argued that
the state exist as a device for controlling the exploited class – the class that labors for the benefit of the ruling class.
He claims that upper classes create laws that protect their members of society. Quinney major contribution is that he
proposed the shift in focus from looking for the causes of crime from the individual to the examination of the Criminal
Justice System for clues.

OTHER THEORISTS
Charles Darwin’s Theory (1809 –1882)
In the theory of evolution, he claimed that humans, like other animals, are parasite. Man is an organism
having an animalistic behavior that is dependent on other animals for survival. Thus, man kills and steal to live.

Charles Goring’s Theory (1870 – 1919)

The medical officer in prison in England who accepted the Lombroso’s challenge that body physique is a
determinant to behavior. Goring concluded that there is no such thing as physical criminal type. He contradicted the
Lombroson’s idea that criminality can be seen through features alone. Nevertheless, Goring accepted that criminals
are physically inferior to normal individuals in the sense that criminals tend to be shorter and have less weight than
non-criminals.

Earnest Hooton’s Theory (1887 – 1954)

An Anthropologist who reexamined the work of Goring and found out that “Tall thin men tend to commit
forgery and fraud, undersized men are thieves and burglars short heavy person commit assault, rape and other sex
crimes; where as mediocre (average) physique flounder around among other crimes.”

Adolphe Quetelet (1796 – 1874)

Quetelet was a Belgian Statistician who pioneered Cartography and the Cartographical School of
Criminology that placed emphasis on social statistics. He discovered, basing on his research, that crimes against
persons increased during summer and crimes against property tends to increase during winter.

THE STUDY OF CRIMINAL BEHAVIOR

What is a CRIMINAL PSYCHOLOGY?

In general, psychology is the science of behavior and mental processes. This means that psychologists use
the methods of science to investigate all kinds of behavior and mental processes, from the activity of a single nerve
cell to the social conflict in a complex society (Bernstein, et al, 1991).

In particular, criminal Psychology is a sub-field of general psychology where criminal behavior is only, in
part by which phenomena psychologists choose to study. It may be defined as the study of criminal behavior, the
study of criminal conduct and activities in an attempt to discover recurrent patterns and formulate rules about his
behavior.

Classification of Behavior (Atkinson, 1993)

Normal Behavior (Adaptive or adjusted behavior) – the standard behavior, the totality accepted behavior because
they follow the standard norms of society.
Atkinson (1993) also presented that understanding criminal behavior includes the idea of knowing what
characterized a normal person from an abnormal one. A normal person is characterized by:
1. Efficient perception of reality.
2. Self-knowledge
3. Ability to exercise voluntary control over his behavior
4. Self-esteem and acceptance
5. Productivity
6. Ability to form affectionate relationship with others

Abnormal Behavior (Maladaptive/ maladjusted behavior)

 A group of behaviors that is deviant from social expectations because they go against the norms or standard
behavior of society. A maladaptive (Abnormal) person may be understood by the following definitions:

Abnormal Behavior according to deviation of statistical norms based in statistical frequency

Many characteristics such as weight, height, an intelligence cover a range of values when, measured over a
population. For instance, a person who is extremely intelligent or extremely happy would be classified as abnormal.

Abnormal behavior according to deviation from social norms

A behavior that deprives from the accepted norms of society considered abnormal. However, it is primarily
dependent on the existing norm of such society.

Behavior as maladaptive
Maladaptive behavior is the effect of a well being of the individual and or the social group. That some kind
of deviant behavior interferes with the welfare of the individual such as a man who fears crowd can’s ride a bus. This
means that a person cannot adopt himself with the situation where in it is beneficial to him.

Abnormal behavior due to personal distress

This is abnormality in terms of the individual subjective feelings of distress rather than the individual
behavior. This includes mental illness, feeling of miserably, depression, and loss of appetite or interest, suffering from
insomnia and numerous aches and pain.

Abnormality in its legal point

It declares that a person is insane largely on the basis of his inability to judge between right and wrong or to
exert control over his behavior (Bartol, 1995).

Views on Normal and Abnormal Behavior

The view that normal and abnormal behavior are different in kind simply does not exist. There are not
“normal” people on the one hand and “abnormal” people on the other. Rather, adjustment seems to follow what is
called Normal Distribution – most people are moderately well adjusted, with minor maladaptive patterns, a few at one
other extreme enters mental clinics and a few at the other extreme lead satisfy and effective lives (Coleman, 1980).
Another consideration in understanding normal and abnormal behaviors is that, they depend relatively on
the existing social practice or culture of people in the society, since an acceptable behavior to one society may not be
accepted or allowed to other societies or individual.

KINDS OF BEHAVIOR
As mentioned earlier, the importance element in the definition of psychology is behavior. As cited by Alicia
Kahayon, behavior may be:

Overt or Covert Behavior

Behavior that are outwardly manifested or those that are directly observable are overt behaviors. On the
other hand, covert behavior are behavior that are hidden – not visible to the naked eye.

Conscious or Unconscious Behavior

Behavior is conscious when acts are with in the level of awareness. It is unconscious when acts are
embedded in one’s subconscious-unaware.

Simple or Complex Behavior

These are acts categorized according to the number of neurons involved in the process of behaving. Simple
behavior involves less number of neurons while complex behavior involved more number of neurons, a combination
of simple behavior.

Rational or Irrational Behavior

There is rational behavior when a person acted with sanity or reason and there is irrational behavior when
the person acted with no apparent reason or explanation – as when a man loses his sanity and laugh out loud at
nobody or nothing in particular.

Voluntary or Involuntary Behavior

Voluntary behavior is an act done with full volition of will such as when we discriminate, decide or choose
while involuntary behaviors refers the bodily processes that foes on even when we are awake or asleep like
respiration, circulation and digestion.

ASPECTS OF BEHAVIOR
 Intellectual Aspect – this aspect of behavior pertains to our way of thinking, reasoning, solving problem,
processing info and copying with the environment.
Emotional Aspect – this pertains to our feeling, moods, temper, and strong motivational force.
Social Aspect – this pertains to how we interact or relate with other people.
Moral Aspect – this refers to our conscience and concept on what is good or bad.
Psychosexual Aspect – this pertains to our being a man or a woman and the expression of love.
Political Aspect – this pertains to our ideology towards society/ government.
Value/ Attitude – this pertains to our interest towards something, our likes and dislikes.

THE CRIMINAL FORMULA

In explaining the birth of criminal behavior, we must consider three factor: criminalistics tendency (T), the
total situation (S), and the person’s mental and emotional resistance to temptation (R). These factors then can be put
into formula as:

T +S
C = ---------
R

Where:

C – Crime/ Criminal Behavior (the act)

T – Criminal Tendency (Desire/ Intent)
S - Total Situation (Opportunity)
R – Resistance to Temptation (Control)

The formula shows that a person’s criminal tendency and his resistance to them may either result in criminal
act depending upon, which of them is stronger. This means that a crime or criminal behavior exist when the person’s
resistance is insufficient to withstands the pressure of his desire or intent the opportunity (Tradio, 1983). In
understanding this, the environment factors such as tress and stains are considered because they contribute they
contribute in mobilizing a person’s criminal tendency and the individual’s psychological intellectual and social
upbringing and is either manifestation of a strong or weak character.

DETERMINANTS OF BEHAVIOR
The questions why do people become heterosexual and others homosexuals, some are alcoholics, some
are law abiding and others are criminals, come are well adjusted and others mentally ill? What will enable us to
understand these extremes of behavior?
The answer to those questions requires the study and understanding of the influences of HERIDITY
ENVIRONEMENT. As cited by Tuason:

Heredity (Biological Factors)

This refers to the genetic influences, those that are explained by heredity, the characteristics of a person
acquired from birth transferred from one generation to another. It explains certain emotional aggression, our
intelligence, ability and potentials and our physical appearance are inherited. It influences all aspects of behavior,
including intellectual capabilities, reactions, tendencies and stress tolerance. This will also explain the conditions that
genes, diseases, malnutrition injuries and other conditions that interfere with normal development are potential
causes of abnormal/ criminal behavior. It is the primary basis of the idea concerning crime behavior, the concept that
“criminals are born”.
It also considers the influences of genetic defects and faulty genes, diseases, endocrine imbalances,
malnutrition and other physical deprivations that can be carried out from one generation to another.

Environmental Factors
This refers to anything around the person that influences his action. James Coleman in his book mentioned
some environmental factors such as:
Family Background – it is a basic consideration because it is in the family whereby an individual first
experiences how to relate and interact with another. The family is said to be the cradle of personality development as
result of either a close or harmonious relationship or a pathogenic family structure: the disturbed family, broken
family, separated or maladjusted relations.
Childhood Trauma – the experiences, which affect the feeling of security of a child undergoing
development processes. The development processes are being blocked sometimes by parental deprivation as a
consequence of lack of adequate maturing at home because of parental rejection, overprotection, restrictive ness,
over permissiveness, and faulty discipline.
Pathogenic Family Structure – those families associated with high frequency of problems such as:
a. The inadequate family – characterized by the inability to cope with the ordinary problems of family living. It lacks
the resources, physical of psychological, for meeting the demands of family satisfaction.
b. The anti-social family – those that espouses unacceptable values as a result of the influence of parents to their
children.
c. The discordant/disturbed family – characterized by non – satisfaction of one or both parent from the relationship
that may express feeling of frustration. This is usually due to value difference as common sources of conflict and
dissatisfaction.
d. The disrupted family – characterized by incompleteness whether as a result of death, divorce, separation or
some other circumstances.

Other Factors
In the environment, the following are also factors that influential to one’s behavior:
1. Institutional Influences such as peer groups, mass media, church and school, government institutions,
NGO’s, etc.
2. Socio – Cultural Factors such as war and violence, group prejudice and discrimination, economic and
employment problems and other social changes.
3. Nutrition or the quality of food that a person intake is also a factor that influences man to commit crime
because poverty is one of the reasons to criminal behavior.

OTHER DETERMINANTS OF BEHAVIOR

In order to further understand and provide answers on the question “why do some people behave
criminally?” it is important to study the other determinants of behavior. These are needs, drives and motivation.

Needs and Drives

Need, according to a drive reduction theory, is a biological requirement for well being of the individual.
This need creates drives – a psychological state of arousal that prompts someone to take action (Bernstein, et al,
1991). Drive therefore is aroused state that results from some biological needs.
The aroused condition motivates the person to remedy need. For example, if you have no water for some
time, the chemical balance of the body fluids is disturbed, creating a biological need for water. The psychological
consequence of this need is drive – thirst – that motivates you to find and drink water. In other words, drives push
people to satisfy needs.

Motivation
Motivation on the other hand refers to the influences that govern the initiation, direction, intensity, and
persistence behavior (Berstein, et al, 1991). Thus motivation refers to the causes and “why’s” of behavior and giving
its direction (Kahayon, 1975).
Drives are states of comfortable tension that spur activity until a goal is reached.

Biological Needs Motivational Systems

Food Hunger – the body needs adequate supply of nutrients to function
effectively. “An empty stomach sometimes drives a person to steal.”
Water Thirst – just like food, the body needs water.
Sex A powerful motivator but unlike food and water, sex is not vital for survival
but essential to the survival of species.
Pain Avoidance The need to avoid tissue damage is essential to the survival of the
organism. Pain will activate behavior to reduce discomfort.
Stimulus Seeking Curiosity is most people and animal is motivated to explore the
environment even when the activity satisfies no body, needs.

Psychological Needs
Psychological needs are influenced primarily by the kind of society in which the individual is raised.
Psychological motives are those related to the individual happiness and well being, but not for the survival, unlike the
biological motives that focuses on basic needs – primary motives.

Relation among Motives

Berstein, et al (1991) offered that at any time, many motivates might guide a person’s behavior. What
determines which ones will? Abraham Maslow (1970) have given a perspective that addresses this question. He
suggested basic classes of need, or motives, influencing human behavior. These motives are organized in a
hierarchy.
 Abraham Maslow has suggested that human needs form a hierarchy from the most basic biological
requirements to the hierarchy from the most basic biological requirements to the needs for self-actualization – the
highest of all needs.

Self-Actualization

Aesthetic

Esteem

Cognitive Needs

Love/ Belongingness

Safety Needs

Psychological/ Biological Needs

The pyramid presentation shows that from the bottom to the top of the hierarchy, the levels of needs or motive
according to Maslow, are:

1. Biological or Physical Needs – these motives include the need for food, water, oxygen, activity, and sleep.
2. Safety Needs – These pertains to the motives of being cared for and being secured such as in income and
place to live.
3. Love/ Belongingness – Belongingness is integration into various kinds of social groups or social
organizations. Love needs means needs for affection.
4. Cognitive Needs – Our motivation for learning and exploration.
5. Esteem Needs – our motivation for an honest, fundamental respect for a person as useful and honorable
human being.
6. Aesthetic Needs – our motivation for beauty and order.
7. Self – actualization – pertains to human total satisfaction, when people are motivated not so much by
unmet needs, as by the desire to become all they are capable of (self-realization).

Frustration, Conflict and Anxiety

Frustration refers to the unpleasant feelings that result from the blocking of motive satisfaction. It is a form
of tress, which results in tension. It is a feeling that is experienced when something interferes with our hopes, wishes,
plans and expectations (Coleman, 1980).

The common sources of frustration are:

a. Physical obstacles – are physical barriers or circumstances that prevents a person from doing his plan or fulfilling
his wishes.
b. Social Circumstances – are restrictions or circumstances imposed by other people and the customs and laws of
social living.
c. Personal Shortcoming – such as being handicapped by disease, deafness, paralysis, etc. which serves as a
barrier to the things one ought to do.
d. Conflicts between motives
Conflict refers to the simultaneous arousal of two or more incompatible motives resulting to unpleasant
emotions. It is a source of frustration because it is a threat to normal behavior (Berstein, et al, 1991).

Types of Conflicts
1. Double Approach Conflict – a person is motivated to engage in two desirable activities that cannot be
pursued simultaneously.
2. Double Avoidance Conflict – person faces two understandable situations in which the avoidance of one is
the exposure the other resulting to an intense emotion.
3. Approach – Avoidance Conflict – a person faces situation having both a desirable and undesirable
feature. It is sometimes called “dilemma”, because some negative and some positive features must be
accepted regardless which course of action is chosen.
 4. Multiple Approach – Avoidance Conflict – situation in which a choice must be made between two or more
alternatives each has both positive and negative features. It is the most difficult to resolve because the
features of each portion are often difficult to compare.

Anxiety is an intangible feeling that seems to evade any effort to resolve it. It is also called neurotic fear. It could
be intense, it could be low and can be a motivating force (Coleman, 1980).
Stress is the process of adjusting to or dealing with circumstances that disrupts, or threatens to disrupt a
person’s physical or psychological functioning (Berstein,et al, 1991).

The Ego Defense Mechanisms

The defense mechanisms are the unconscious techniques used to prevent a person’s self image from being
damaged. When stress becomes quite strong, an individual strives to protect his self – esteem, avoiding defeat. We
all use ego defense mechanisms to protect us from anxiety and maintain our feeling of personal worth. We consider
them normal adjusted reactions when they are use to excess and threaten self-integrity (Berstein, et al, 1991).

As cited by Robert Wicks (1974), the following are our defense mechanisms:
1. Denial of Reality – protection of oneself from unpleasant reality by refusal to perceive or face it. Simply by
avoiding something that is unpleasant.

2. Fantasy – the gratification of frustration desires in imaginary achievement. Paying attention not to what is
going on around him but rather to what is taking place in his thoughts.
3. Projection – placing blame for difficulties upon other or attribution one’s own unethical desires to others in
an effort to prevent us being blamed.
4. Rationalization – the use of excuses an individual to him and to others. Attempting to prove that one’s
behavior is justifiable and thus worthy of self and worthy approval.
5. Reaction Formation – it occurs when someone tries to prevent his submission to unacceptable impulses by
taking opposite stand. Preventing dangerous desires from being expresses by exaggerating opposed
attitudes and type behavior and using them as barriers.
6. Displacement – discharging pent-up emotion on objects less dangerous than those that initially aroused the
emotion.
7. Emotional Insulation – withdrawal is passivity to protect self from hurt.
8. Isolation/ Intellectualization – series to cut off the emotions from a situation, which is normally, is full of
feeling.
9. Regression – revert from a past behavior to retreating earlier development level involving less mature
responses and usually a lower level of aspiration.
10. Sublimation – gratification of frustrated sexual desire in substitutive men sexual activities.
11. Identification – increasing feeling of worth by identifying self with person or institution. The person can
associate himself with something or someone to elevate position.
12. Introjections – incorporating external values and standards into ego structures so individual is not at their
even they are contrary to one’s own assumption.
13. Undoing – apologizing for wrongs, repentance, doing penance and undergoing punishment to negate
disapproval act.
14. Sympathism – striving to gain sympathy from others. The person seeks to be praised by relating faults or
problem.
15. Acting out – reduction of the anxiety aroused by forbidden desires by permitting their expression. The
individual deals with all impulse by expressing them.

Human Values
Human values are relevant in understanding human behavior. They are the standards which people use to
cognize, express, and evaluate their behavior thus give direction to their lives. They are the enduring preferences for
mode of conduct or state of existence.

Common Sense
The science of behavior has one of its goals the elimination of widespread misconceptions that are now
considered valid such as numerology and palmistry, although still accepted by some people today and palmistry,
although still accepted by some people today to predict events and conditions (Wicks, 1974).

Perspective on the Causes of Criminal Behavior

The commission of a crime may be the result of complicated factors and causes. The following are some of
the perspectives about the causes of criminal behavior (Coleman, 19800.
1. Anxiety (Psychological Perspective) – stressful situations that when become extreme may result to
maladaptive behavior.
 2. Faulty Learning (Behavior Perspective) – the failure to learned the necessary adaptive behavior due to
wrongful development. This usually result to delinquent behavior based on the failure to learn the necessary
social values and norms.
3. Blocked or Distorted Personal Growth (Humanistic Perspective) presumably, human nature trends towards
cooperation and constructive activities, however, if we will be an unfavorable environment.
4. Unsatisfactory interpersonal relationship – self – concept in early childhood by over critical parents or by
rigid socialization measures usually causes deviant behaviors among individuals because they are not
contented and even unhappy to the kind of social dealings they are facing.
5. Pathological social conditions – poverty discrimination and destructive violence results to deviant behavior.

Classification of the Causes of Criminal Behavior

Coleman (1980) stated that regardless of one’s theoretical, orientation, several terms is in common usage
regarding causes of abnormal or criminal behavior, the following are used:
1. The primary Cause – used to designate the condition without which the disorder would not have occurred.
The main reason of the existence of the disorder.
2. The predisposing Cause – a condition that proves too much for the individual and triggers the disorder.
3. The Reinforcing Cause – a condition that tends to maintain maladaptive behavior that is already occurring.

PATTERNS OF CRIMINAL BEHAVIOR

Criminal behavior may be patterned from the three main groups of maladaptive/ criminal behavior, which are
Neurotic/ Psychoneurotic Behaviors, Psychopathic Behavior and the Psychotic Behaviors.

Neurotic/ Psychoneurotic Behaviors

Neurotic behaviors are groups of functional personality disorders in which there is no gross personality
disorganization, the individual does not lose contact with reality, and hospitalization is not required.
Neurosis embraces a wide range of behaviors that are the core of most maladaptive life style. Basic to this
neurotic life style are:
1. Neurotic Nucleus – the faulty evaluation of reality and the tendency to avoid rather that to cope with stress
characterized by anxiety, avoidance instead of coping blocked personal growth.
2. Neurotic Paradox – the tendency to maintain the life style despite its maladaptive nature. It is characterized
by unhappiness and dissatisfactions.

A. Anxiety Disorders
Anxiety disorders are commonly known as “neurotic fear” When it is occasional but intense, it is called
“panic”. When it is mild but continuous, it is called “worry” which is usually accompanied by physiological symptoms
such as sustained muscular tension, increased blood pressure, insomnia, etc. They are considered as the central
feature of all neurotic patterns. These disorders are characterized by mild depressions, fear and tensions, and mild
stresses.

Classification of Anxiety Disorders

Obsessive-compulsive disorders – Obsessions usually centered on fear that one will submit to an
uncontrollable impulse to do something wrong. Compulsion on the other hand resulted from repetitive acts (Wicks,
1974). An obsessive-compulsive disorder is characterized by the following: When an individual is compelled to think
about something that he do not want to think about or carry some actions against his will, and the experience of
persistent thought about haunting situations.
Asthenic Disorders (Neurasthenia) – An anxiety disorder characterized by chronic mental and physical
fatigue and various aches and pains. Symptoms include spending too much sleep to avoid fatigue but to no avail
because of headaches, indigestion, back pains, and dizziness when awake.
Phobic Disorders – These refer to the persistent fear on some objects or situation that present no actual
danger to the person.

Examples of Phobia are:

Phobia Object Of Fear

1. Acrophobia High Places
2. Agoraphobia Open Places
3. Algophobia Pain
4. Astrophobia Storms/Lightning
5. Claustrophobia Closed Places
6. Hematophobia Blood
7. Mysophobia Contamination/germs
8. Hydrophobia Water
 9. Monophobia Being Alone
10. Nyctophobia Darkness
11. Ocholophobia Crowds
12. Patholophobia Disease
13. Pyrophobia Fire
14. Syphiliphobia Syhilis
15. Zoophobia Animals

B. Somatoform Disorders
Complaints of bodily systems that suggest the pressure of physical problem but no organic basis can be
found individual is pre-occupied with his state of heath or diseases.

Classification of Somatotype Disorders

Hypochondriasis
This refers to the excessive concern about state of heath or physical condition (Multiplicity about illness) A
hypocondriacal person tends to seek medical advises, but his fear is not lessened by his doctor’s reassurances, and
he maybe disappointed when no physical problem is found.

Psychogenic Pain Disorder

It is characterized by the report of severe and lasting pain. Either no physical basis is apparent or reaction is
greatly in excess of what would be expected from the physical abnormality.

Conversion Disorder (Hysteria)

It is neurotic pattern in which symptoms of some physical malfunction or loss of control without any
underlying organic abnormality.
Sensory Symptoms of Hysteria:
1. Anaesthesia – loss of sensitivity
2. Hyperesthesia – excessive sensitivity
3. Hypesthesia – partial loss of sensitivity to pain
4. Analgesia – loss of sensitivity to pain
5. Paresthesia – exceptional sensation
Motor Symptoms of Hysteria
1. Paralysis – selective loss of function
2. Astasia-abasia – inability to control leg when standing
3. Aphonia – partial inability to speak
4. Mutism – total inability to speak
Visceral Symptoms of Hysteria
1. Choking sensation
2. Coughing spells
3. Difficult in breathing
4. Cold clammy extremities
5. Nausea

C. Dissociative Disorder
A response to obvious stress characterized by amnesia, multiple personality, and depersonalization.

Amnesia
The partial or total inability to call or identify past experiences following a traumatic incident.
1. Brain pathology amnesia – total loss of memory and it cannot be retrieved by simple means. It requires long
period of medication.
2. Psychogenic amnesia – failure to recall stored information and still are beneath the level of consciousness
but forgotten material”.
Multiple Personality
It is also called “dual personality”. The person manifests two or more symptoms of personality usually
dramatically different from each other.
Depersonalization
It is the “loss of sense of self “ or the so called “out of body experience.” There is a feeling of detachment
from one’s mental processes or body or being in a dream state. Cases somnambulism (sleep walking) may fall
under this disorder.
D. Mood Disorders (Affective Disorders)
 Mood disorder often referred to as affective disorder however the critical pathology in these disorders is one
of mood which is the internal state of a person, and not of affect, the external expression of emotional content
(Manual of Mental Disorder).
Mood disorders are group of clinical conditions characterized by loss of sense of control of their moods and
affects, and a subjective experience of great distress mood may be elevated on depressed. These disorders
always result in impaired interpersonal, social and occupational functioning.

Classification Disorders
Depressive Disorders
Major Depressive Disorder – Patients with depressed mood have a loss of energy and interest, feeling of
guilt, difficulty in concentrating, loss of appetite, and thoughts of death or suicide, they are not affected with
manic episodes.
Dysthymic Disorder – a mild form of major depressive disorder.
Bipolar Disorders – those experienced by patients with both manic and depressive episodes.
Cyclothymic Disorder – a less severe form of bipolar disorder

Psychopathic Behaviors
The second group of abnormal behavior, which typically stemmed from immature and distorted personality
development, resulting in persistent maladaptive ways of perceiving and thinking.
They are generally called “personality or character disorders” These groups of disorders are composed of
the following:

A. Personality Disorders
1. Paranoid Personality Disorder
It is characterized by suspicious, rigidity, envy, hypersensitiveness and tendency to blame others of one’s
own mistakes.
2. Schizoid Personality Disorder
It is characterized by the inability to form social relationship and lack of interest
in doing so, persons with this kind of disorder hardly express their feelings. They lack social skills. They are the so-
called “loners”.
2. Schizotypal Personality Disorder
It is characterized by seclusiveness, over-sensitivity avoidance of communication and superstitious thinking
is common.
3.Histrionic Personality Disorder
It is characterized by immaturity, excitability, emotional instability and self-dramatization.
4.Narcissistics Personality Disorder
It is characterized by an exaggerated sense of self- importance and pre-occupation with receiving attention.
The person usually expects and demands special treatment from others and disregarding the rights and feeling of
others.
5. Borderline Personality Disorder
It is characterized by instability reflected in drastic mood shifts and behavior problems. The person usually
displays intense anger outburst with little provocation and he is impulse, unpredictable, and periodically unstable.
6. Avoidant Personality Disorder
It is characterized by hypersentivity to rejection and apprehensive alertness to any sign of social derogation.
Person is reluctant to enter into social interaction.
7. Dependent Personality Disorder
It is characterized by extreme dependence on other people-there is acute discomfort and even panic to be
alone. The person lacks confidence and feels helpless.
8. Passive – Aggressive Personality Disorder
It is characterized by being hostile expressed in indirect and non-violent ways. They are the so called
“stubborn”.
9. Compulsive Personality Disorder
It is characterized by excessive concern with rules, order, and efficiency that everyone does things their own
way. It is also characterized with an ability to express warm feelings, The person is over conscientious, serious, and
with difficulty in doing things for relaxation.
10. Anti- social Personality Disorder
It is characterized by continuing violation of the rights of others through aggressive, anti behavior without
remorse or loyalty to anyone.
Anti – social Personality is actually the “psychopathic personality disorder”. The person lacks ethical or
moral development and with inability to follow approved models of them conflict with the society. They may refer to
mixed groups of individuals such as unprincipled business people, crooked politicians, drug pushers, quack doctors,
prostitutes, etc.
Common Characteristics of Anti-social Personalities
1. Inadequate conscience development and unable to accept ethical values
2. Irresponsible and impulsive behavior; low frustrations tolerance
3. Ability to impress and exploit others; projecting blame unto others of their own anti-social acts.
4. Rejection of authority.
5. Inability to maintain good interpersonal relationship.
B. Criminal Behavior
The disorder used to describe the behavior of a person who commits serious crimes from individual to
property crimes and the disobedience of societal rules in general.
“Dyssocial Personality” is the term used to refer to these individuals (not anti – social) but particularly
those who violate laws and practice “crime as a profession” . They are not normally associated with any significant
personality disturbances. As a study, criminal behavior refers to the human conduct focused on the mental processes
of the criminal; the way he behaves or acts including his activities and the causes and influences of his criminal
behavior.
The Psychotic Behaviors
The Psychotic Behaviors are group of disorders involving gross structural defects in the brain tissue, severe
disorientation of the mind thus it involves loss of contact with reality.
1. Organic Mental Disorders
A diagnosis of organic mental disorder is associated with specific, identified organic cause, such as
abnormalities of the brain structure. These are mental disorders that occur when the normal brain has been damage
resulting from any interference of the functioning of the brain.

Types of Organic Mental Disorders (Coleman, 1980)

Acute brain disorder – caused by a diffuse impairment of the brain function. Its symptoms range from mild
mood changes to acute delirium.
Chronic brain disorder – the brain disorder that result from injuries, diseases, drugs, and a variety of other
conditions. Its symptoms include impairment of orientation (time, place and person), impairment of memory, learning,
comprehension and judgment, emotion and self-control.

Groups of Organic Mental Disorder (Coleman, 1980)

Delirium – the severe impairment of information processing in the brain affecting the basic process of
attention, perception, memory and thinking.
Dementia – deterioration in intellectual functioning after completing brain maturation. The defect in the
process of acquiring knowledge or skill, problem solving, and judgment.
Amnestic Sydrome – the inability to remember on going events more than a few minutes after they have
taken place.
Hallucinosis – the persistent occurrence of hallucinations, the false perception that arise in full wake ness
state. This includes hallucinations on visual and hearing or both.
Organic Delusional Syndrome – the false belief arising in a setting of known or suspected brain damage.
Organic Affective Syndrome – the extreme/severe manic or depressive state with the impairment of the
cerebral function.
Organic Personality Syndrome – the general personality changes following brain damage.
General Paresis – also called “dimentia paralytica” ,a syphilitic infection of the brain and involving
impairment of the CNS.

2. Disorder Involving Brain Tumor

A tumor is a new growth involving abnormal enlargement of body tissue. Brain tumor can cause a variety of
personality alterations, and it may lead to any neurotic behavior consequently psychotic behavior.

3. Disorder Involving Head Injury

Injury to the head as result of falls, blows and accident causing sensory and motor disorders; and mental
disorder such as:
a. Retrograde Amnesia – the inability to recall events immediately preceding the injury.
b. Intra Cerebral Hemorrhage – gross bleeding at the site of damage.
c. Petechial Hemorrhage – small spots of belonging at the site of damage.
These injuries may also impair language and other related sensory motor functions and may result to brain
damage.
a. Auditory Asphasia – loss of ability to understand spoken words.
b. Expressive Aphasia – loss of ability to speak required words.
c. Nominal Aphasia – loss of ability to recall names objects.
d. Alexia – loss of ability to read.
 e. Apraxia – loss of ability to perform simple voluntary acts.

Senile and Presenile Dementia

a. Senile Dementia – mental disorder that accompanied by brain degeneration due to old age.
b. Presenile Dementia – mental disorder associated with earlier degeneration of the brain.

Mental Retardation
Mental retardation is a mental disorder characterized by sub-average general functioning existing
concurrency with deficits in adaptive behavior. It is a common mental disorder before the age of 18. The person is
suffering from low I.Q., difficulty in focusing attention and deficiency in fast learning.
1. Mild Mental Retardation (I.Q. 52-67)-“educable”
2. Moderate Mental Retardation (I.Q. 35-51)- “trainable”
3. Severe Mental Retardation (I.Q. 20-35) – “dependent retarded”
4. Profound Mental Retardation (I.Q. under 20) – life support retarded”

Schizophenia and Paranoia

Schizophenia – refers to the group of psychotic disorders characterized by gross distortions of reality,
withdrawal of social interaction, disorganization and fragmentation of perception, thoughts and emotion. It also refers
to terms such as “mental deterioration”, dementia praecox”, or split mind”.

Types of Schizophrenia
1. Simple Schizophrenia (Undifferentiated Type) – the schizophrenia in which symptom are rapidly changing
mixture of all primary indicators of schizophrenia. The varying combinations of delusions, hallucinations, thought
disorder, and gross bizarreness.
2. Paraniod Schizophenia – it is the illogical, changeable delusions frequently accompanied by vivid hallucinations,
with a resulting impairment of critical judgment, unpredictable and occasionally dangerous behavior.
3. Catatonic Schizophenia - It is the altering period of extreme withdrawal and extreme excitement. The individual
may talk or shout incoherently and engage individual may talk or shout incoherently and engage uninhibited,
impulsive behavior. The person may be dangerous.
4. Hebepherenic Schizopherenia (Disorganized Type) – There is emotional distortion manifested in inappropriate
laughter, peculiar mannerism, and bizarre behavior.
5. Residual Schizopheria – refers to persons who had a prior episode of schizopherenia but currently, are not
displaying active delusions, hallucinations or overall disorganization of behavior.
Paranoia – it is a psychosis characterized by a systematized delusion system. A delusion is a firm belief
opposed to reality but maintained in spite of strong evidence to the contrary. It also a psychosis characterized by
delusion of apprehension following a failure or frustration.
Symptoms of the Disorder includes feeling of being mistreated, ignored, stolen from, spied upon, and over
suspicious.’
The Disorder is characterized by:
(sequence of events in paranoia)
a. Suspiciousness - the individual mistrust the motives others and fear that he will be taken advantage.
b. Protective thinking –blame other for one’s own mistake
c. Hostility – response to alleged mistreatment with anger and hostility, the person becomes increasingly suspicious.
d. Paranoid Illumination – strange feeling of events experienced.
e. Delusion – feeling of persecution.

The addictive Disorder

Psychoactive substance-use disorders such as alcoholism affects millions of people. Addiction and
psychological dependence on this substance create disastrous personal and social problems (Berstein, 1991). The
addictive groups of disorders include substance use, obesity and pathological gambling.

Substance Use (Alcohol and Drug Abuse)

Alcoholism or “problem drinking” is an addictive source of human disorders. It is evident by its general
effects as follows:
a. It serves as a dependent
b. It numbs the higher brain center
c. It impairs judgment and other rational
d. It lowers self-control
e. Deterioration of perception.
Drug abuse or the inappropriate use/misuse is a threat to normal behavior. It is an addictive disorder, the
fact that causes both physical and psychological dependency to the drug.
Pathological Gambling
It is an addictive form of disorder, which does not involve chemically addictive substance.

The sexual Deviations

Sexual deviation is the impairment of either the desire for sexual gratification or in the ability to achieve
it(Coleman, 1980).The sexual disorders are common causation of sex crimes.

Those affecting Males

1. Erectile Insufficiently (Impotency) – it is a sexual disorder characterized by the inability to achieve or maintain
erection for successful intercourse.
2. Pre-mature Ejaculation – it is the unsatisfactory brief period of sexual stimulation that result to the failure of the
female partner to achieve satisfaction.
3. Retarded Ejaculation – it is the inability to ejaculate during intercourse - resulting to worry between partners.

Those Affecting Women

1. Arousal Insufficiency (Frigidity) – a sexual disorder characterized by partial or complete failure to attain
lubrication or swelling response of sexual excitement by the female partner.
2. Orgasmic Dysfunction – sexual disorder characterized by the difficulty in achieving organism.
3. Vaginismus – the involuntary spasm of the muscles at the entrance to the vagina that prevent penetration of the
male.
4. Dyspareunia – it is called painful coitus/ pain sexual acts in women.

Sexual Behavior Leading to Sex Crimes

As to Sexual Reversals
1. Homosexuality – it is sexual behavior directed towards the same sex. It is also called “lesbianism/tribadism” for
female relationship.
2. Transvestism – refers to the achievement of sexual excitation by dressing as a member of the opposite sex or
other objects associated with the opposite sex.
3. Fetishism – sexual gratification is obtained by looking at some body parts, underwear of the opposite sex or other
objects associated with the opposite sex.
As to the Choice of Partner
1. Pedophilia – a sexual perversion where a person has the compulsive desire to have sexual intercourse with a
child of either sex.
2. Bestiality – the sexual gratification is attained by having sexual intercourse with animals.
3. Auto-sexual (self – gratification/masturbation) – it is also called “self abuse”, sexual satisfaction is carried out
without the cooperation of another.
4. Gerontophilia – is a sexual desire with an elder person.
5. Necrophilia – an erotic desire or actual intercourse with a corpse.
6. Incest – a sexual relation between person who, by reason of blood relationship cannot legally marry.
As to Sexual Urge
1. Satyriasis – an excessive (sexual urge) desire of men to have sexual intercourse.
2. Nymphomania – a strong sexual feeling of women with an excessive sexual urge.
As Mode of Sexual Expression
1. Oralism – it is the use of mouth or the tongue as a way and sexual satisfaction.
a. Fellatio – male sex organ to the mouth of the women coupled with the act of sucking that initiates
orgasm.
b. Cunnilingus – sexual gratification is attained by licking the external female genitalia.
c. Anilism (anillingus) – licking the anus of the sexual partner.
2. Sado- Masochism (Algolagnia) – pain/ cruelty for sexual gratification.
a. Sadism – achievement of sexual stimulation and gratification through the infliction of physical pain on the
sexual partner. It may also be associated with animals or objects instead of human beings.
b. Masochism – infliction of pain to oneself to achieve sexual pleasure.
As to part of the Body
1. Sodomy – is a sexual act through the anus of the sexual partner.
2. Uranism – sexual gratification is attained through fingering holding the breast of licking parts of the body.
3. Frottage – the act of rubbing the sex organ against body parts of another person.
4. Partailism – it refers to the sexual libido on any part of the body of sexual partner
As to visual Stimulus
1. Voyeurism – the person is commonly called “ the peeping Tom”, an achievement of sexual pleasure
through clandestine peeping such as peeping to dressing room, couples room, toilets, etc. and frequently
the person masturbate during the peeping activity.
2. Scotophilia – the intentional act of watching people undress or during sexual intimacies.
As to Number of Participants in the Sexual Act
1. Troilism – three persons participate in sex orgy such as two women versus sexual intimacies.
2. Pluralism – group of persons in sexual orgies such as couple to sexual relations. It is also called “sexual
festival”.

Other Sexual Abnormalities

1. Exhibitionism – it is called “indecent exposure”, intentional exposure of genitals to members of the opposite
sex under inappropriate conditions.
2. Coprolalia – the use of obscene language to achieve sexual satisfaction.
3. Don Juanism – the act of seducing women as a career with out permanency of sexual partner or
companion.

CRIMES IN MODERN WORLD

The crimes in the modern world represent the latest and the most dangerous manifestations of the
something – for – nothing- complex problems of society. This includes Organized Crimes, White – Collar Crimes,
Conventional Crimes, and the Victimless Crimes.

ORGANIZED CRIMES
An organized Crime is a criminal activity by an enduring structure or organization developed and devoted
primarily to the pursuit of profits through illegal means. It is sometimes referred to as the “MOB”, MAFIA”,
SYNDICATE” or the “COSA NOSTRA”, which are known as “the enemy with in”, “the 2nd government”, “the 5th estate”
or the “crime confederation.”
The term Cosa Nostra (literally means “one thing”) or mafia is use to signify organized crimes, and one of
the varieties names for either mob or syndicate. A strict code of conduct governs their behavior called the “OMERTA”
– the mafia’s code of secrecy, and informal, unwritten code of organized crime, which demand silence and loyalty,
among other thing, of family members (Abandinsky, 1991).

Structure of Organized Crime

BOSS
(Counselor)

UNDER BOSS

Caporegima Caporegima Caporegima Caporegima

(Lt.) (Lt.) (Lt.) (Lt.)

SOLDIERS
(Members group under Lt.)

Corruption Soldiers employ threats, Control on

Control on Assault, murder, and enforced Multi-State
Police & Discipline over members, non-Areas
Public Officials Members and victims on the
Order of the BOSS
 Legitimate Industry Illegal Activities
Foods Products, Realty Gambling, Narcotics
Restaurants, Hotels Loan sharking
Manufacturing Industries Extortion/ Racketing
Vending Vehicles, etc. Pornography, vice crimes

Organized crimes refers to the unlawful activities of the members of a highly organized, disciplined
organization engaged to gambling, prostitution, loan sharking, narcotics, labor racketing, and other illegal operations
of the organization.
The group may be characterized as persons of decent character, with formal education, having its own
social classes from gangsterism to racketeering.

How the Organized Crime Group Works?

For the organization to work there must be:
1. An Enforcer – one who make arrangements for killing and injuring (physically, economically,
psychologically) the members or non-members.
2. A Corrupter – one who bribes, buys, intimidates, threatens, negotiates, and “sweet talks” into a relationship
with the police, public officials or any else who might help the members security and maintain immunity from
arrest, prosecution and punishment.
3. A Corruptee – a public official, usually not a members of the organization family, who can wield influence on
behalf of the organization’s interest.
Sources of Illegal Profit
The organization gains from goods and services that are of great demand by the society but are prohibited
by law. It includes but not limited to most victimless crimes such as illegal drugs, alcohol, gambling, pornography, and
including bank fraud, extortion or racketeering and others.

Characteristics of Organized Crimes

1. It is a conspiracy activity involving coordination of members.
2. Economic gain is the primary goal.
3. Economic gain is achieved through illegal means.
4. Employs predatory tactics such as intimidation, violence and corruption.
5. Effective control over members, associates, and victims.
6. Organized crimes does not include terrorist dedicated to political change.

Generic Types of Organized Crimes

1. Political Graft – manned by political criminals (political Graft), who use of force and violence of a means to
obtain profit or gain, and or achieving political aims or ambitions. An example of this is vote buying, and the
employment of private armies to control a certain political area.
2. The Mercenary/Predatory Organized Crime – crimes committed by groups for direct personal profit but
prey upon unwilling victims.
3. In – Group Oriented Organized Crime – groups manned by semi organized individual whose major goals
are for psychological gratification such as adolescent gangs.
Example: Motorcycle Gangs
4. Syndicated Crime – the organization that participates in illicit activity in society by the use of force, threat,
or intimidation. The group with a formal structure – whose purpose is to provide illicit services, which are in
strong public demand through the use of secrecy on the part of the associates. There is assurance of
protection necessary for its operations through political corruption or avoidance of prosecution.

Essential Composition of Organized Crime

Organized crime needs professional criminals to successfully operate in the organization.
Professional crimes refer to occupations or their incumbents, which possesses various traits including useful
knowledge that requires lengthy training, service oriented and code of ethics that permits occupations to attempt to
obtain autonomy and independence with high prestige and remuneration.
Characteristics of Professional Crimes (Sutherland)
1. Crime is a sole means of livelihood.
2. Careful planning, and reliance upon technical skills and methods.
3. Offenders are of migratory life style.
4. The groups have shared sense of belongingness, rules, codes of behavior, and mutual specialized
language.
Characteristics of Professional Crimes (Quinney)
1. Crime is a sole means of livelihood or economic gain.
2. There is highly developed criminal career.
 3. There is considerable skill involved.
4. Group of professional/ career offender.
5. Hard to detect by authorities/can be able to avoid imprisonment

Criminological Types of Organized Crimes

1. Traditional Crime Syndicates.
2. Non-traditional Crime Syndicates
3. Semi – Organized Crime
4. Politically Controlled Organized Crime
Controlling Organized Crimes
1. Law Enforcement Effort
2. Organization of Anti – Organized Crime measures
3. Community Awareness and Cooperation

WHITE COLLAR CRIMES

Edwin Sutherland defined white-collar crime as criminal acts committed by a person of respectability and
high social status in the course of his or her occupation.
Forms of White Collar Crimes
1. Corporate Crimes – the violation of a criminal statute either by a corporate entity or by its executives,
employees or agents, acting on behalf of and for the benefit of the corporation, partnership or other business
entity.
2. Environmental Crimes – violation of criminal law which, although typically committed by businesses or by
business officials, may also be committed by other persons or organizational entities, and which damage
some protected or otherwise significant aspect of the natural environment.
3. Occupation Crimes – any act punishable by law, which is committed through opportunity created in the
course of an occupation that is legal.
Occupational Crime Classification
Occupational crimes are further classified as:
1. Organizational Occupation Crime – crimes committed for the benefit of the entire organization in such
instances only the organization or the employer, not individual employees.
2. State Authority Occupation Crime – crimes by officials through the exercise of their state-based authority.
Such crime is occupation specific, and can only be committed by person in public office or by working for
such persons.
3. Professional Occupational Crime – crimes by professionals in their capacity as professionals. The crimes
of physicians, attorneys, psychologist, and the like are included here.
4. Individual Occupational Crime – crimes by individuals as individuals which include income tax evasion,
theft of goods and services by employees, the filing of false expense report and the like.
Occupational crimes also refer to:
a. White-collar crime (Sutherland)
b. A vocational crime – committed by one who does not think for himself as criminal and whose major source of
income is something other than crime.
c. Corporate crime – committed by corporate officials for their offenses of the corporation itself.
d. Economic crime – illegal activity that principally involves deceit, misrepresentation, concealment, manipulation,
breach of trust and illegal circumvention.
e. Organizational crime – illegal actions taken in accordance with operative organizational goals that seriously harm
employees or the general public.
f. Upper-world crime – law-breaking acts, committed by those specialized kinds of occupational slots for the
commission of these offenses.

Dealing with White-Collar Crimes

Gary Green pointed out that professional criminals would probably continue to enjoy immunity from
prosecution. Hence, they are unlikely to be deterred by sanction or threat and are unlikely to be formally disqualified
by their professional organizations. They will therefore fell free and be free to continue or begin their activities
(Schmallenger, 1999).
James W. Coleman suggest four areas of reform, which white-collar crime might be effectively addressed:
1. Ethical Reforms – reform include such things as working to establish stronger and more persuasive codes
of business ethics. Courses in ethical could school their employees in right livelihood.
2. Enforcement Reforms – reform center on the belief that white-collar criminals must be severely published,
but also include such things as better funding for enforcement agencies dealing with white-collar crime, and
i9nsulation of enforcement personnel from undue political violations.
 3. Political Reforms – focus on eliminating campaign include the level of fairness in determining government
grants and contracts, the enforcement of laws and the regulation of the activities of elected officials and
administrative personnel.

THE CONVENTIONAL CRIMES

Conventional crimes are groups of crimes categorized as violent crimes (index crimes) and property
crimes.
Violent crimes are criminal acts, which in the threat of or actual physical harm by an offender to a victim. It
presents not only index offenses that every one recognizes as violent (murder, rape, robbery) or other acts involving
force and intimidation but also “violent crimes” that are commonly categorized as social problem” such as domestic
violence, child abuse, elder abuse, etc.
Violent acts are in the forms of:
1. Interpersonal Violence
 Forcible Rape. Murder
 Serious Assault, Family Violence, Robbery
2. Political Violence
 Terrorism
3. Collective Violence
 Riots, Mobs, Crowds,
 Urban Violence

Property Crimes are crimes of economic interest. It includes in ordinary language. It also includes but not limited to
offenses such as unlawful entry to commit theft, shopping, vandalism, arson.
Property crimes are also in the forms of:
1. Occasional Property Crimes
 Shoplifting, Vandalism
 Motor vehicle theft, Check Forgery
2. Conventional Property Crimes
 Burglary/unlawful entry to commit theft
 Fence
 Larceny/Theft
3. Destructive Property Crimes
 Arson

Violent Crimes (Index Crimes)

A. Murder – is the unlawful killing of human being with malice and with the “act of violence”
Types of Murder
1. Serial Murder – is act-involving killing of several victims in three or more separate incidents over a week, a
month or year.
2. Mass Murder – it is the killing of four or more victims at one location with one event.
3. Spree Murder – the killing of persons in two or more locations with almost no time break between murders.
B. Homicide and Assault
Homicide is also unlawful killing with out the qualifying circumstances of murder. It is generally regarded as
the most commonly committed of all the index crimes (based on the UCR offenses).
Assault is called “unlawful attack” to another person purposely to harm or inflict physical injuries. It is a crime
that involves offering to give bodily harm injuries. It is a crime that involves offering to give bodily harm to a person or
placing the person in fear.
C. Robbery
INTERPOL defined robbery as “violent theft”. It is the taking of property belonging to another with intent to
gain by means of force upon things, violence of intimidation against the person.
Kinds of Robbery
1. Robbery of person – “hold up cases”
2. Robbery in open place following sudden attack – snatching cases’
3. Robbery in private premises – “forcible entry”
4. Robbery after preliminary association of short duration between victims and offender.
5. Robbery in case of previous association between victim and offender.
Types of Robber
1. The Professional Robber – robber who has long-term commitment to the crime of robbery as a major source
of livelihood.
2. The Opportunist – the commonly known as “ bandits”, one who is all purpose property offender.
3. The Addict Robber –one who committed the crime of robbery to support the drug habit. (Unplanned)
 4. The alcoholic Robber – like the addict robber who engages to robbery occasionally in order to support his
habit (Unplanned)
5. The Mugger – they are the most feared robbers. They are semi-professional robbers who are sometimes
called “strong armed robbers” – the street robbers who commit everything from snatching to the brutalization
of the victim.
D. Rape
Rape is commonly defined as ‘carnal knowledge of a woman against her will”. Rape is the fastest growing of
all UCR index crime.
Categories Of Rape
1. Real Rape – aggravated rape involving violence, weapons and attackers.
2. Simple Rape – anything else not fall as “real rape” such as: victims are viewed as suspicious, particularly if
the victim did not physically resist.
Rape is a violent crime due to the means employed usually characterized by violence, aggression and
domination.
General Effect of Rape
“Rape Trauma Syndrome” – refers to the adverse psychological impacts rape victims continue to suffer
long after the incident. It includes:

a. Sexual anxiety
b. Pervasive fear to the opposite sex
c. Problems in interpersonal relationship
d. General problem of unhappiness
Classification of Men who Rape
1. Anger Rapist – sexual attack becomes a means of expensing anger or rage and involves more physical
assault upon the victim.
2. Power Rapist – assailant primarily wishes to express his domination over the victim.
3. Sadism Rapist – perpetrator combines sexuality and aggression which aims in psychic desires to often
torture or otherwise abuse the victim.
E. Family violence are violence crimes involving physical assault by a family member to another family
members such as the following:
1. Child Abuse – an attack or assault of an adult against the defenseless or people who cannot defend
themselves usually by a parent to a child.
2. Spouse Abuse – “husband vs wife battering “
Criminal Career of Violent Offenders
1. Culturally Violent Offenders – those who live in cultures which violence is an acceptable problem
mechanism.
2. Criminally Violent Offenders – those who use violence as a means to accomplish criminal acts.
3. Pathological Violent Offenders – those who commit violent crimes due to mental disturbances.
4. Situational Violent Offenders – those who commit acts of violence on rare occasions, often under
provocation. They are the criminals “by passion”.
Property Crimes (Non- Index Crimes)
A. Occasional Property Crimes
Occasional Property crimes are group of property crimes committed by ordinary criminals with little
progressive knowledge on criminal techniques. Offenders injure or steal property on an infrequent basis. They tend to
commit crimes such as:
1. Auto theft of motor vehicle theft
2. Shoplifting or good pilferage
3. Vandalism
4. Check Forgeries
Types of Auto Theft
1. Joy riding Auto Theft – borrowing automobiles without returning
2. Short-term transportation – stolen vehicle as a temporary means of transportation.
3. Long-term Transportation – stolen vehicle used as a permanent means of transportation.
4. Profit motivated Auto Theft – organized auto theft, which includes vehicle identity alterations, or the “chop-
hops – cannibalized auto parts.
Types of Vandalism
1. Wanton Vandalism – destruction acts, which have no monetary gain or purpose in mind.
2. Predatory Vandalism – destructive acts of gain such as destroying machines in order to gain contents.
3. Vindictive Vandalism – acts as an expression of hatred.

B. Conventional Property Crimes

 The are group of property crimes committed by professional criminals on a persistent basis, which constitute
form of career criminality.
Conventional property crimes include:
1. Burglary (Robbery) – unlawful entry of forcible entry in order to commit a felony of theft.
2. The Fence – dealers of stolen properties, the act of “buy and sale of stolen properties”
3. Larceny (theft) – simple taking of properties with intent to gain and without the consent of the owner.
C. Destructive Property Crime
Arson – unlawful burning of property on another.
Types of Arson
1. Profit-motivated Arson – illustrated by insurance fraud
2. Revenge Arson – burning of properties due to hatred or spell of jealousy
3. Vandalism Arson – fire is employed as a means of expressing vindictive toward the property of a group of
people or an individual.
4. Excitement Arson – those set by “pyromaniacs”
5. Sabotage Arson – fires during civil disturbances.

VICTIMLESS CRIMES
What is a Victimless Crime?
In common understanding of what crime means is that the act implies that there is both perpetrator and a
victim of the wrongful behavior. With victimless crimes, this general rule does not apply.
VICTIMLESS CRIMES refers to those crimes in which no clear victim is readily identifiable. In other words,
the only injured party is the offender, who engages in self-destructive behavior.
These crimes are also called moral offenses or vice. Many of these crimes generally refer to Public Order
Crimes – an offense that is consensual and lacks a complaining participant. It is rare in these cases are victims who
seek prosecution.

Prostitution
Prostitution is the practice of having sexual relations with emotional indifference on a promiscuous and
mercenary basis. Prostitution itself is not a criminal offense; it is the act of soliciting, selling, or seeking paying
costumers, which is prohibited. It is overwhelmingly a female occupation. (F. Hagan)
Prostitution is the act of sexual intercourse for hire, an offering or agreeing to perform an act of sexual
intercourse or any unlawful sexual act for hire “sex for money”. Leonard Click)
Prostitution is bartering of sex favor for monetary consideration, either gift or cash, without emotional
attachment between partners. It is the practice of offering one’s body for indiscriminate intercourse, usually in
exchange for monetary value. It is synonymous with sexual intercourse. (Denney Pace) The type of prostitution may
include but not limited to the Street Walkers, call Girl/Boy, Electric Call Girl/Boy, Lonely Hearts Hustlers, Computer
Selected Date, Public-Relation Gimmick, Photo-Studio Prostitution, House Wife Prostitute, and the Massage Parlor
prostitute.

Rationale in the Control of Prostitution

1. The act of prostitution is a crime itself
2. It is against public morals, it does not meet the approval of society as a whole
3. The elimination of crime associated with the profession of bartering one’s sex favor money
4. Prevention of STD’s and other health problems related to sex as origin

Pornography
Pornography is any material intended primarily to arouse sexual desires, pertaining to literature and or
lascivious materials in the forms of mail or written media, television, telephone, and radio.

Drug Abuse
The term Drug Abuse most often refers to the use of drug with such frequency that it causes physical or
mental harm to the user or impairs social functioning. Traditionally, drug abuse referred to the use of any drug
prohibited by law, regardless of whether it was actually harmful of not. This meant that any use of Marijuana, for
example, even if it occurred only in a while, would constitute abuse, while the same level of alcohol consumption
would not.

Concept of Drug Dependence

The users continue to take a drug over an extended period of time. Just the long this period is dependent on
the drug and the user. The users find it difficult to stop using the drug. They seem powerless to quit the drug. The
users take extraordinary and often harmful measures to continue using the drug. They will drop out of school, steal,
leave their families, go to jail and lose their job to keep using drug.
Concept of Drug Addiction
Drug addiction is a state of mind in which a person has lost the power of self control in respect of a drug. He
consumes the drug repeatedly leaving aside all values of life. In other words a drug addict will resort to crime to
satisfy his repeated craving for the drug. The effects of drug addiction are mainly deteriorative personality changes.
One or more of the following attributes characterizes drug addiction:

Compulsion / Uncontrollable Craving - the addict feels a compulsive craving to take repeatedly and tries to
procure the same by any means.
Tolerance – it is tendency to increase the dose of the drug to produce the same effect as to that of the original effect.
Addiction – the addict is powerless to quit drug abuse
Physical Dependence – the addict’s physiological functioning is altered. The body becomes sick, inactive and
incapable of carrying out useful activity in the absence of the drug. The withdrawal syndromes will occur once the
drug is stopped.
Psychological Dependence – emotional and mental discomfort exist to the individual. The drug addict feels he
cannot do without the drug, consequently if he does not take the drug his processes are affected. He cannot carryout
his work efficiently.
Withdrawal Syndrome – the addict becomes nervous ad restless when he does not get the drug. After about 12
hours, he starts sweating. His nose and eyes becomes watery and continue doing so increasingly for another twelve
hours. Vomiting, diarrhea, loss of appetite and sleep follows, Respiration, blood pressure and body temperature also
rises, starts subsiding and most of it gone in about two weeks time. Complete recovery takes place in three to six
months.

Alcoholism
The term Alcoholic and Alcoholism are used to refer to a person or the person’s behavior with life problem
related to alcohol drinking. Sometimes they are called “Problem Drinking”.
Alcoholism may not be a crime but it is largely dependent on the community standard, whether the
community tolerates the sale of alcoholism is accepted or not, the fact is problem drinking is associated with criminal
behavior and crime.

Alcoholism and Crime

Because drinking affects people’s behavior, it has effects on the community as a whole. Such effects any
result to crime due to any of the following:
 Trouble in the Home – Heavy drinkers takes money needed for food, clothes and furniture. This
causes debts. Husband and wife fight and accuse each other of being unlawful. There will be often
sexual problems. Children are badly treated and badly fed. And drinking makes people lazy and
they may not go to work. Women may have to steal food to feed their families.
 Trouble among Friends – The heavy drinker will often fight with his friend and may kill many
people.
 Trouble at Work – The heavy drinker often does not go to work because he feels sick. He
sometimes works badly and hurts himself or others.
 Trouble at Play – Heavy drinkers has a bad effect on sportsmen. Because alcohol affects the
brain, the drinker cannot control his arms and legs well. A sportsman who has been drinking cannot
play well as he should.
 Trouble on Roads – the driver has lost his judgment, he is careless and takes risks. Accidents
result. A person who is drunk may walk onto the road and be killed by a motor vehicle.
 Trouble with Crime – excessive drinking is the biggest cause of crime. People become
aggressive, fight, break into houses and steal.
 Trouble with the Economy – the economy is badly affected when people do not go to work and
production falls. Heavy demands are made on health services, the police force and correctional
institutions. Hence, alcoholism is burden to the government.

Prevention of Alcohol Problem

Solely treating people with medications cannot control problem drinking and
alcoholism. Treatment should be coupled with proper education both in the schools and in the adult community to
develop the nation habits of moderation in the use of alcohol beverages. It requires investigation and testing of social
policies on the control of the distribution of alcohol as well as the effective implementation of these prevention
policies.

Gambling
Gambling is usually defined as wagering on games or events which chance largely determines the outcome.
(Coleman).
 While there were some prohibitions against gambling have never drawn the attention commanded by
alcohol, prostitution and narcotics. Yet, gambling was intertwined with the supply of alcohol and drugs. Organized
crimes groups even have the biggest connection with these victimless crimes in the most urban areas. (Brendan

STUDY OF CRIME VICTIMS

What is a victimology?

Victimology, as institutionalized by the WSV, may be defined as: the scientific study of the extent, nature
and causes of criminal victimization, its consequences for the person involved and the reactions thereto by society, in
particular the police and the criminal justice system as voluntary worker and professional helpers.

A History of the Victim

In early times, victims took the law into their own hand. If they were able to apprehend their victimizers, they
enacted their own form of revenge and impose some form of personal retaliation. The Code of Hammurabi, one of
the earliest legal codes, required that many offenders make restitution. If the offender could not be found, however,
the victim’s family was duty bound to care for the needs of the victim. This early period in history has been called the
“Golden Age of Victims” because victims were not only well cared for but also had considerable say in imposing
punishments upon apprehended offenders.
During the middle ages, the concept of “King’s Peace” had emerged, where in all offenses were seen
violations of imperial law. It became the duty of the government to apprehend, try and punish offenders, effectively
removing the victim from any direct involvement in judicial decision making. Victims were expected only to provide
evidence of the crime and to testify against those who had offended them. Victims as a class moved to the state
(Schmelleger,1999). The situation remained pretty much the same until today. Proof is that the state is being
considered the offended party against the criminal offender.

The Concept of Victim

The concept of victim dates back to ancient cultures and civilizations. Its original meaning was rooted in the
exercise of sacrifice—the taking of the life of a person or animal to satisfy a deity. (Karmen, 1990).
Over the centuries, the word victim came to have additional meanings, so as to include any person
who experiences injury, loss, or hardship due to any cause”.
Today, the world victim is used in many different contexts and is broadly interpreted. It is not unusual to hear
the world “victim” paired with a wide range of human experiences: cancer victims, holocaust victims, crimes, accident
victims of injustice, conjures up visual images of suffering, devastation and often-destructive forces (Karmen, 1990).

Who is a victim?
Media attention on several high profile cases in recent years has clouded the issue of “who is a victim? For
example cases in which a victim clashes with antagonists have complicated the delineation of victim and offender, I.
e. the so-called “subway vigilante” , a man who shot four teenagers with an unlicensed revolver on a subway train
when he feared he would be robbed. Reportedly, he perceive himself to be a victim of a mugging, and used a
weapon on perceived perpetrators, in order to “ defend himself” the would- be victim” was tried for attempted murder,
assault and reckless endangerment. To some, he is / was a victim standing up for himself; to others, he is a trigger-
happy gunman who reportedly overreacted to an inaccurately perceived treat. (Johnson,1986; Sullivan, 1989;
Karmen, 1990)

General Classes of Victims (Hans Von Hentig)

1. The Young – the weak by virtue of age and immaturity dominated by males.
2. The Female – often less physically powerful and easily dominated by males.
3. The Old – the incapable of physical defense and the common object of confidence scheme.
4. The Mentally Defective – those who are unable to think clearly.
5. The Immigrant – those who are unsure of the rules of conduct in the surrounding society.
6. The Minorities – racial prejudice may lead to victimization or unequal treatment by the agency of justice.

Psychological Types of Victims

1. The Depressed – those submissive by virtue of emotional condition.
2. The Acquisitive or Greedy – the value or act of wanting more propels such individuals into victimization.
3. The Wanton or Overly Sensual – those ruled by passion and thoughtlessly seeking pleasure.
4. The Lonesome – similar to the acquisitive type of victim, by virtue of wanting companionship or affection.
5. The Heartbroken – those emotionally disturbed by virtue of heartaches and pains.
6. The Tormentor – the type of victim who asked for it, often from his own family or friends.

Other Types of Victims

 Benjamin Mendelsohn, a European defense attorney, like Hans Von Hentig, created his own classification of
victim types. This includes the following six categories:
1. The completely innocent victim – such a person is an ideal victim in popular perception. In this category
placed persons victimized while they were unconscious, and the child victims.
2. Victims with only minor guilt and those victimized due to ignorance.
3. The victim who is just as guilty as the offender, and the voluntary victim. Suicide cases are common who
provoked the criminal or actively induced their own victimization.
4. The victim guiltier than the offender – this category was described as containing persons who provoked the
criminal or actively induced their own victimization actively induced their own victimization.
5. The most guilty victim “who is guilty alone” – an attacker killer by a would-be victim in the act of defending
themselves were placed into this category.
6. The imaginary victim –those suffering from mental disorders, or those victims due to extreme mental
abnormalities.

Dynamics of Victimization
There are number of procedural models that can be applied to the study of the victimization process for the
purpose of understanding the experience the victims undergoes during and following victimization. Among these
models are:
“Victims of Crime Model” (by: Bard and Sangrey) According to this model, there are three stages involved
in any victimization:
a. Stage of impact and Disorganization, during and, immediately following the criminal event,
b. Stage of Recoil – during which the victim formulates psychological defenses and deals with conflicting emotions of
guilt, anger, acceptance, and desire of revenge (said to last three to eight months),
c. Reorganization Stage – during which the victim puts his or her life back to normal daily living. Some victims,
however may not successfully adopt the victimization experience and a maladaptive reorganization stage may last for
many years.
“Disaster Victim’s Model” – this models was developed to explain the coping behavior of victims of natural
disaster. According to this model, there are four stages of victimization:
a. Pre-impact stage – describe the state of the victim prior to being victimized.
b. Impact or the stage at which victimization occur.
c. Post impact stage – which entails the degree and duration of personal and social disorganization
following victimization.
d. Behavioral outcome – which describes the victim’s adjustment to the victimization experience.