GENBIO2 – NUTRITION-NOTES
Nutrient Procurement and Processing
Nutrient - dissolved minerals and organic substances from the environment.
-refers to any substance required for the growth and maintenance of an
organism.
Procure means "to acquire"
Plant nutrition - the interrelationships of mineral elements in the soil or
soilless solution as well as their role in plant growth.
2 Types of Organism based on how they acquire nutrients
1. Autotrophs – organisms that obtain energy from sunlight and chemicals to
produce their own food. Examples: plants; chemosynthetic bacteria (nitrifying
bacteria)
2. Heterotrophs – organisms that cannot make their own food and obtain their
energy from other organisms. Examples: animals, fungi
Producers - make their own food using energy from the sun
Omnivore – eat plants and meat
Carnivore – meat eaters
Herbivore – plant eaters
Insectivores – insect eaters
Nutritional Requirements of Plants
A. water
B. carbon dioxide
C. essential nutrients or elements
Examples:
macronutrients: C, H, O, N, K, Ca, Mg, P, S (large amount)
micronutrients: Cl, Fe, B, Mn, Zn, Co, Mo (small amount)
The nutrients that the plant will obtain has a great effect to its growth and
development. Lack of nutrients, either one or two will cause deficiency to the
plants.
Plants are capable of producing their own food (Autotrophic organisms)
through photosynthesis they also require the raw materials from the
environment for the maintenance of life.
Routes for the Absorption of Water and Minerals Across Plant Roots
1. Symplast - absorbs water and minerals through the plasmodesmata
2. Apoplast - absorbs water and minerals along cell walls
Water and minerals from the soil need to reach the conducting tissues of
plants, specifically the xylem.
Plasmodesmata – one of the cytoplasmic strands passing thru openings in
some plant cell walls and forming connections with adjacent cells.
Xylem – a complex tissue in the vascular system of higher plants that consists
of vessels, tracheid’s, or both usually together with wood fibers and
parenchyma cells,
- functions chiefly in conduction of water and dissolved minerals but also in
support and food storage, and typically constitutes the woody element (as of
a plant stem)
Phloem – a complex tissue in the vascular system of higher plants of sieve
tubes and elongated parenchyma cells usually with fibers and that functions
in translocation and in support and storage
- organic molecules
Absorptive Structures of Plants
1. Root hairs – slender extensions of specialized epidermal cells that greatly
increase the surface area available for absorption.
2. Root nodules – localized swellings in roots of certain plants where bacterial
cells exist symbiotically with the plant.
3. Mycorrhizae - a symbiotic interaction between a young root and a fungus.
The bacteria help the plant fix nitrogen and in turn, the bacteria are able to
utilize some organic compounds provided by the plant.
The fungus obtains sugars and nitrogen-containing compounds from root
cells while the plant is able to get some scarce minerals that the fungus is
better able to absorb from the soil.
Nutritional Adaptation by Plants
A. Symbiosis of plants and soil microbes
B. Symbiosis of plants and fungi
C. Parasitism
D. Predation
Symbiosis – cooperative relationship; living together in intimate association
Parasitism – one a parasite obtains benefits from a host which usually injures
Predation – mode of life in which food is primarily obtained by the killing and
consuming of animals
Nutritional requirements are extremely important in maintaining acceptable
performance of neonatal, growing, finishing and breeding animals.
Calorie – unit of energy that indicates the amount of energy contained in food.
An average woman needs to eat about 2000 calories per day to maintain, and
1500 calories to lose one pound of weight per week.
An average man needs 2500 calories to maintain, and 2000 to lose one pound
of weight per week.
However, this depends on numerous factors. These include age, height,
current weight, activity levels, metabolic health and several others.
Animals must be fed diets that meet their needs. If their needs are not
properly met, the animals won’t grow, reproduce, or produce milk, and they
could possibly die.
Nutritional Requirements of Animals
1. Water is vital for bodily functions such as regulation of temperature, nutrient
uptake, removing wastes, to assist in transporting nutrients, body weight, and
health.
2. Carbohydrates – serve as a major energy source for the cells in the body.
- usually obtained from grains, cereals, breads, fruits, and vegetables.
- should make up about 75 percent of an animal's diet.
- also produce the body heat that helps keep the animal warm.
- provide powers muscular movements.
- aid in the use of proteins and fats by the body.
- are called simple or complex.
Simple - easily digested, include sugars found naturally in foods such as
fruits, vegetables, milk, and milk products, corn, wheat, oats, barley, and
sorghum. They also include sugars added during food processing and refining,
and starch.
Complex - difficult to digest, cellulose and lignin, include whole grain breads
and cereals, starchy vegetables and legumes, and mainly in roughages, such
as hay and pasture plants. Many of the complex carbohydrates are good
sources of fiber.
3. Proteins – can also be used as an energy source.
- mainly uses these as building materials for cell structures and as enzymes,
hormones, parts of muscles, and bones.
- building blocks of animal tissues.
- for the growth and regeneration of tissues.
- come from dairy products, poultry, fish, meat, and grains.
4. Fats – are used to build cell membranes, steroid hormones, and other
cellular structures
-insulate nervous tissue
-an energy sources
-protect organs
- contain certain fat- soluble vitamins that are important for good health.
-obtained from, margarine, butter, fried foods, meat, and processed snack
food.
5. Essential Nutrients - substances that animals can only get from the food
they eat because they could not be synthesized inside the body.
A. Essential amino acids – needed for synthesis of proteins and enzymes;
among the 20 amino acids, eight could not be synthesized by humans: lysine,
tryptophan, threonine, methionine, phenylalanine, leucine, isoleucine and
valine.
B. Essential fatty acids – used for making special membrane lipids; an
example is linoleic acid in humans.
C. Vitamins – organic molecules required in small amounts for normal
metabolism; examples include fat-soluble Vitamins A, D, E, K, and water-
soluble Vitamins B, B2, B3, B12, C.
D. Trace Elements or Minerals – inorganic nutrients needed by the body in
minute amounts; these form part of enzymes, body tissues, and body fluids;
examples include: iodine, cobalt, zinc, molybdenum, manganese, selenium.
Food Uptake in Cells via the Three (3) Types of Endocytosis
Endocytosis -the taking in of matter by a living cell by invagination of its
membrane to form a vacuole or vesicle.
1.Phagocytosis – engulfment of organic fragments or big particles, e.g.
pseudopod formation in Amoeba. (cell eating)
2.Pinocytosis – uptake of extracellular fluid by a cell using small vesicles
derived from the plasma membrane. (cell drinking)
3.Receptor-mediated endocytosis – this relies on membrane receptor
recognition of specific solutes which are then taken up by the cell via receptor-
coated pits.
Types of Animals based on Feeding Mechanisms
1. Substrate-feeders – animals that live in or on their food source.
Examples: earthworms and caterpillars.
2. Filter-feeders – include many aquatic animals which draw in water and
strain small organisms and food particles present in the medium.
Examples: whales and coelenterates
3.Fluid-feeders – suck fluids containing nutrients from a living host.
Examples: mosquitoes, leeches, head lice, aphids
4.Bulk-feeders – eat relatively large chunks of food and have adaptations like
jaws, teeth, tentacles, claws, pincers, etc. that help in securing the food and
tearing it to pieces. Examples: snakes, cats, man 
 a. Mouth - anterior opening of the tube for the entrance of food
Different kinds of Digestive Compartments in Animals
1. Food vacuoles in unicellular organisms – these fuse with lysosomes that
contain hydrolytic enzymes.
2. Gastrovascular Cavity or incomplete digestive system - composed of a
single opening through which food is taken in and where wastes are disposed
of; it is a saclike body cavity.
3. Complete digestive system – essentially like a tube with an opening at
one end for taking in food (mouth) and an opening at the other end where
unabsorbed waste materials are eliminated (anus). In between the mouth and
anus, are specialized organs that carry out transport, processing, and
absorption of digested nutrients.
Human Digestive System
Stages of Food Processing
1. Ingestion – to take in for or as if for digestion; the act of eating or feeding;
this is coupled with the mechanical breakdown of
food into smaller pieces allowing for a greater surface area for chemical
digestion.
2. Digestion - involves mechanical and chemical breakdown of large food
molecules into soluble or diffusible molecules that can be absorbed by the cell.
Mechanical: Chewing or tearing food (Through their teeth) to break apart large
food particles.
Chemical: uses enzymes whereby water is added in hydrolysis to break the
chemical bonds in food.
3. Absorption – process of absorbing nutrient; passage of digested nutrients
and fluid across the tube wall and into the
body fluids; the cells take up (absorb) small molecules such as amino acids
and simple sugars.
4. Elimination – discharging or excreting waste products from the body;
expulsion of the undigested and unabsorbed materials from the end of the gut.
Accessory for Digestion in Complete Digestive System
1. Liver- secretes bile for emulsifying fats
2. Gall bladder- stores and concentrated bile produced by the liver, and then
releases it into the duodenum to help absorb and digest fats.
3. Pancreas- secretes enzymes that breakdown all major food molecules;
secretes buffer against HCl from the stomach; secretes hormones insulin for
control of glucose metabolism.
4. Salivary glands
Saliva - mixture of mucus and serous fluids; helps to form a food bolus;
contains salivary amylase to begin starch digestion; and dissolves chemicals
so they can be tasted; antibacterial properties of saliva protect tooth enamel
against bacteria.
a. Parotid gland - largest of the three glands, biggest producer of saliva.
b. Sub maxillary gland - also called submandibular glands, are located along
the side of the lower jawbone.
c. Sublingual gland - situated beneath the mucous membrane of the floor of
the mouth, near the chin region.
Bile a dark green to yellowish brown fluid, produced by the liver of most
vertebrates, that aids the digestion of lipids and fats in the small intestine.
Insulin is a hormone made by the pancreas that allows your body to use sugar
(glucose) from carbohydrates in the food that you eat for energy or to store
glucose for future use. It also keeps the blood sugar level from getting too high
(hyperglycemia) or too low (hypoglycemia).
Alimentary Canal the whole passage along which food passes through the
body from mouth to anus. It includes the esophagus, stomach, and intestines.
Human Digestive System: Parts and Functions
1. Digestive Tube - starting from the mouth and ending in the anus.
Bolus - a ball-like mixture of food and saliva that forms in the mouth during
the process of chewing.
b. Oral Cavity - cavity immediately posterior to the mouth and bounded by the
cheeks, tongue, hard and soft palate, teeth, tonsils, and where food is initially
chewed into shreds by the teeth, and mixed with saliva by the tongue.
Saliva has several components. It contains an enzyme (salivary amylase), a
buffer (bicarbonate), slippery glycoproteins (mucins), and antimicrobial agents
such as lysozyme.
c. Pharynx - posterior part of the oral cavity for passage of food and air; and
serves as the entrance to the esophagus that connects to the stomach and
trachea (windpipe) that serves as airway to the lungs.
d. Esophagus - collapsible muscular tube extending from the pharynx through
an opening in the diaphragm to the stomach and about 25 cm (10 in.) long.
The rhythmic waves of contraction of the smooth muscle wall of the esophagus
is called peristaltic contractions or peristalsis.
e. Stomach - a muscular, stretchable sac located just below the diaphragm. It
has three important functions. First, it mixes and stores ingested food.
Second, it secretes gastric juice that helps dissolve and degrade the food,
particularly proteins. Third, it regulates the passage of food into the small
intestine. The gastric juice is a combination of HCl and acid-stable proteases.
The churning action of the stomach together with the potent acidity of the
gastric juice convert food into a thick, liquid mixture called chyme.
1. Cardiac Sphincter - guards the opening of the esophagus and stomach
2. Pyloric sphincter - guards the opening of the pylori into the duodenum.
Sphincter is a ring of smooth muscles that close off a passageway or an
opening to the body surface.
f. Small intestine - the site where almost all of the digestion and absorption
of nutrients and minerals from food takes place; longest part of the digestive
tube, approximately 6 meters long.
Has Three (3) portions:
1. Anterior duodenum - most chemical digestion using enzymes takes place.
2. Middle jejunum - has a lining which is designed to absorb carbohydrates
and proteins. The inner surface of the jejunum, its mucous membrane, is
covered in projections called villi, which increase the surface area of tissue
available to absorb nutrients from the gut contents.
3. Posterior ileum - the function is mainly to absorb vitamin B12, bile salts,
and any products of digestion that were not absorbed by the jejunum.
g. Large intestine – Na ion and water absorption and temporary storage of
the fecal matter. A small amount of fluid, sodium, and vitamin K are absorbed
through its walls and many bacteria live; and about 1 meter long.
Has Three (3) Parts:
1. Caecum - a cavity open at one end, blind pouch at the beginning of the
large intestine into which the ileum opens from one side and which is
continuous with the colon.
2. Colon – or the large intestine
3. Rectum - a short extension of the large intestine and is the final segment of
the digestive tract. It is where the compacted undigested food from the colon
are pushed.
h. Anus - terminal opening of the digestive system through which feces are
expelled.
Digestion - physical and chemical conversion of food to simple absorbable
forms
1. Simple sugar from carbohydrates
2. Amino acids from proteins
3. Fatty acids and glycerol from lipids
4. Nucleotides from nucleic acid
2. Digestive Glands - responsible for secretion of digestive juices containing
enzymes for digestion of food.