KL2018-IABSE Spring Conference Proceedings-Papers

IABSE CONFERENCE
KUALA LUMPUR, 2018
“Engineering the Developing World”
REPORT
International Association for Bridge and Structural Engineering IABSE

Publisher
IABSE
c/o ETH Zurich
Hönggerberg HIL E 21.3 8049 Zurich
SWITZERLAND
Tel: +41 – 44–633 2647

Fax: +41 – 44–633 1241
e-mail: secretariat@iabse.org
Web: http: //www.iabse.org
ISBN 978-3-85748-159-8
IABSE Conference – Engineering the Developing World
April 25-27 2018, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

Scientific Committee Organising Committee

David Collings, UK, Chair Paul Mullins, Chair
Sajal Nandy, Malaysia, Vice Chair Ahad Javanmardi
Nor Ashikin Mhd Khairussaleh, Malaysia, Chow Soon Keang
Secretary Paul Harding
Eric Ancich, Australia A Lingammuthu
Ane de Boer, Netherlands Sajal Nandy
Alok Bhowmick, India Pradip Kumar Biswas
Bruno Briseghella, Italy Tan Geem Eng
Jan Biliszczuk, Poland Jackie Voon
Choong Kok Keong, Malaysia
Christian Cremona, France
Advisory Committee
Chow Soon Keang, Malaysia
Vim Coper Gonzales, Philippines Dato’ Ir Ashok Sharma
Yaojun Ge, China Dato’ Ir. Dr Ismail Mhd Taib
Stephanos Dritsos, Greece Dato’ Thomas Chong
Naeem Ullah Hussain, Hong Kong Datuk Ir Adanan Mohamed Hussain
Steve Kite, Hong Kong
Guy Larose, Canada
Fernando Madrazo Aguirre, UK
Jose Matos, Portugal
Jason Maximino Ongpeng, Philippines
Fausto Mistretta, Italy
Paul Mullins, Malaysia
Luis Oliveira-Santos, Portugal
Andres Winston Oreta, Philippines
Nikolaj Rask Pedersen, Denmark
Jose Romo Martin, Spain
Richard Scantlebury, United Kingdom
Peter Seitz, Germany
Evan Speer, USA
Tan Geem Eng, Malaysia
Tzzy Wooi Teh, Malaysia
Dolores G Pulido, Spain
Harshavardhan Subbarao, India
Edo Vonk, Singapore
Endah Wahyuni, Indonesia
Ye Xia, China
Xin Zhao, China
i

Sponsors
Premier Partner Coffee Breaks

Maurer Maurer
MFE Formwork Sdn Bhd
StrucSol Cocktail Partner
ALLPLAN
Junior Partner
Tony Gee Lanyards
Mageba
Mageba
ALLPLAN
Sika
Chairback
Tony Gee

Lanyards
Mageba
Technical Tours
Sika
Supporting Organisations Media Partners

Malaysia Ministry of Tourism and Culture Bridge Design & Engineering
Malaysia Convention & Exhibition Bureau The Institution of Structural Engineers,
Construction Industry Development Board, IStructE
CIDB, Malaysia Institution of Civil Engineers, ICE
Association of Consulting Engineers
Malaysia, ACEM
The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia, IEM
Concrete Bridge Development Group, CBDG
The Lighthouse Club, Kuala Lumpur
Lembaga Leburaya Malaysia, LLM
University of Malaya, UM
Universiti Sains Malaysia, USM
ii

Preface
Selamat datang, Svaagot he, huanying, welcome to Malaysia, welcome to IABSE Kuala Lumpur
2018 – Engineering in the Developing World. We aim to show a wide range of ideas, designs, built
projects, current research and future initiatives with contributions from around the world. A global
forum for sharing the art and science of civil and structural engineering.
The conference has a number of themes; the largest number of contributions are to the large-scale
infrastructure projects theme. Perhaps no surprise, with the major projects currently underway locally
in Malaysia, Singapore, Brunei and Indonesia. The mega projects of China and India are only a few
hours away. Engineering innovations for rapid urbanisation is another popular theme with urban
railway clearly now favoured over congested highways. Harmonising new and old and the future of
aesthetic design are important issues touched on in our keynote sessions. We have some seminar
sessions on the programme to stimulate debate, one from Bridges to Prosperity outlining projects in
not yet developed parts of our world. The last but not least of the themes is Towards achieving a low
Carbon Footprint, an important consideration for a developed and developing world.
I end with a thank you to the scientific committee its secretary and the others who helped in reviewing
our papers and their significant effort to maintain a high scientific and technical content to the
conference.
David Collings
Chair of the Scientific Committee
Past Chair of IABSE Malaysia
iii

Table of Contents
Malaysian Highways Infrastructure – Vision 2050 & Challenges Ahead in Coming Decades
ISMAIL MD SALLEH..........................................................................................................................................1
Do Structural Codes Stifle Creativity?

NETHERCOT, David A ..................................................................................................................................... 9
The Second Penang Bridge Project: Planning, Design, Construction and Maintenance
ISMAIL, Mohamed Taib .................................................................................................................................. 19
Case study on comparison between Chinese and American design of high-rise RC frame-core-tube
structure
XIAO, Congzhen ............................................................................................................................................ 29
Bridge Design for India - from Kolkata to New Delhi

SCHLAICH, Mike; BURKHARDT, Uwe .......................................................................................................... 39
Brunei Temburong Link

HUSSAIN, Naeem .......................................................................................................................................... 47
Technical Risks to Major Infrastructure Development

ANCICH, Eric; CHIRGWIN, Gordon ............................................................................................................... 54
Megaproject and Risk Management: A Case of Kuwait

ALSANAD, Shaikha ........................................................................................................................................ 68
System of Combined Foundation as Base For Mega-Structures

REBIELAK, Janusz ........................................................................................................................................ 75
Structure and Performance Characteristics of Curved Box Girders with Corrugated Steel Webs
WANG, Kangjian ............................................................................................................................................ 81
Experimental Study on Shear Behavior of Curved Box Girders with Corrugated Steel Webs
LIU, Sumei; DING, Hanshan .......................................................................................................................... 88
The All-Composite Road Bridge – A Proposal for Rapid Urbanisation

SIWOWSKI, Tomasz; KOZŁOWSKI, Aleksander ; ZIEMIAŃSKI, Leonard; RAJCHEL, Mateusz; KALETA,
Damian ........................................................................................................................................................... 95
Study on Steel-Concrete Composite Beams under Pure NegativeBending and Combined Negative
Bending and Torsion
LIN, Weiwei .................................................................................................................................................. 103
Behaviour of Metallic Anchorage Plates for Prestressing CFRP Laminates Under Room and Elevated
Temperatures
SENA-CRUZ, José; CORREIA, Luís; BARRIS, Cristina .............................................................................. 111
Seismic Behavior of Skew RC Bridges with CFRP piers
iv

MAHBOUBI, shima ....................................................................................................................................... 119
Fully Stress Laminated Timber Bridge

FELICIANGELI, Dario .................................................................................................................................. 127
Experimental Study on Hybrid Masonry Structure with RC Frame under Cyclic Loading
ZHANG, Fei; MA, Jianxun ............................................................................................................................ 135
Research on The Automatic Tension Control and Management Integrated System of Railway Prestressed
Concrete Beam
ZHUO, Yi ...................................................................................................................................................... 143
Economy and Elegance in Bridge Design: The Beauty of Practical Objects that Do Their Job Well
GAUVREAU, Paul ........................................................................................................................................ 151
Architecture of the Roman Catholic Cathedrals in the Developing Countries

VERTATOVA, Eva ....................................................................................................................................... 159
Structural, Technological and Aesthetical Considerations for the Detailing of Steel Tubular Joints
GEORGIEV, Vasil Georgiev; MIHOV, Yavor; MIHOV, Dimitar .................................................................... 167
Bridge Aesthetic Concept and Design

HUI, luo ........................................................................................................................................................175
Pro Value of State of the Art Bridge Bearings and Expansion Joint Solutions
GUENTHER, Peter ....................................................................................................................................... 183
Seismic testing of expansion joints: an extensive testing campaign based on worldwide real earthquake
simulations
SAVIOZ, Pascal; IMAM, Moustafa; MOOR, Gianni ...................................................................................... 191
Advanced Bridge Bearing Technologies with a Special Focus on Railway Applications

SAVIOZ, Pascal; SPULER, Thomas; BRUENINGHOLD, Max .................................................................... 199
Replacement of Bridge Expansion Joints: Challenges and Solutions

SAVIOZ, Pascal; SPULER, Thomas; MENG, Niculin .................................................................................. 201
Construction of 90m multi-span viaducts with innovative span by span construction method
PACHECO, Pedro; COELHO, Hugo ............................................................................................................ 203
Hybrid Launching Gantry for the Construction of Span by Span Precast Segmental Bridge
OOI, Shu Tat ................................................................................................................................................ 211
Challenges in Design & Construction of Elevated Grade Separators with Wide Deck & Single Central Pier
BHOWMICK, Alok ........................................................................................................................................ 219
Inverted T Crosshead and Deck Slab Continuity for Efficient Structural System as adopted in DUKE 2
Highway Project
G.IRUSAN, Anbarasan ................................................................................................................................. 227
v

Helping Gasiza have a Bridge for Generations to Come

DEAN, Sean ................................................................................................................................................. 232
Appropriate Approaches to Health, Safety And Welfare on Footbridge Projects in Developing Countries
WHITTAM, Johannes; LUDIN, Matthias ....................................................................................................... 234
B2P Rutaka Footbridge – Improving Safety Using Innovative Deck Pull Method
TOWLER, Ian; MILLS, Ben; LOFTS, Matthew; MILLS, Brandon; BENSON, William .................................. 242
Integrated Engagement for Considered Infrastructure: Harmonising New with Old

STROYMAN, Molly ....................................................................................................................................... 250
The Conceptualization, Design and Locally-Appropriate Construction of a 127-Meter Suspension

Footbridge Located in the Andes Mountains.
COOPER, Thomas R; MONTENEGRO, Juan Diego .................................................................................. 252
Planning, Design and Construction of Elevated Guideway of Kelana Jaya (KLJ LRT) Extension Project
and Challenges & Lessons Learnt
BISWAS, Pradip Kumar; GANENDRA, Dennis; EMBI, Azmar Bin .............................................................. 259
Design of Segmental Precast Portal Frame for Red Line Mass Transit System in Bangkok, Thailand
WIROJJANAPIROM, Puvanai; RITDUMRONGKUL, Sopon; IMSOMBAT, Sittisak; NIELSEN, Knut H ...... 267
The Kenyan Dream : Developing Concept of Nairobi MRTS

ROY, BC; BHATTACHARJEE, Satyaki ........................................................................................................ 275
Precast Segmental Aerial Guideway for Honolulu Rail Transit Corridor Project
LEE, Hohsing ............................................................................................................................................... 283
Design of the Viaducts for the Line 3 of the Riyadh Metro LRT in Saudi Arabia
DURAND, Paul-Emile; WISE, Lucas; JOY, Emmanuel; ROSSETTO, Alain ................................................ 291
Mumbai Metro Line 2A – Challenges in Design and Construction

SHAIKH, Mohammed Adil; SAWANT, Mangesh; TANK, Ajay; MODY, Nirav; PANDEY, Amit .................... 299
Digitally Enabling Design for Manufacture, Assembly and Maintenance of Bridges

FARMER, Neil Stephen; BRILAKIS, Ioannis; MCGOVERN, Scott .............................................................. 307
A Rational Approach to Life Cycle Design of Infrastructure Developments in Malaysia

GURUSAMY NAIDU, Kribanandan .............................................................................................................. 315
Performance Assessment of Roadway Bridges Using Robustness and Risk Indicators Associated to
Human Errors
PEREIRA, Neryvaldo Galvão; MATOS, José; OLIVEIRA , Daniel ............................................................... 323
Towards Nonlinear Reliability Assessment of Concrete Transport Structures

PUKL, Radomír; NOVÁK, Drahomír ............................................................................................................. 330
vi

Comparing different bridge typologies, through a lifecycle perspective, for Mexico City
SANTOS, Carlos; MATOS, José .................................................................................................................. 338
Seismic Resilience of Aging Infrastructure Networks

CAPACCI, Luca; BIONDINI, Fabio ............................................................................................................... 340
Carbon Reinforced Concrete in Construction Practice

TIETZE, Matthias Rolf; SCHLADITZ, Frank; LIEBOLDT, Matthias; SCHUMANN, Alexander; CURBACH,
Manfred ........................................................................................................................................................ 348
Future Applications in Carbon Reinforced Concrete

TIETZE, Matthias Rolf; SCHLADITZ, Frank; CURBACH, Manfred; KAHNT, Alexander; ZOBEL, Robert ... 356
Suggestions for Improved Crack Width Calculation Methods for Large Concrete Structures
HENDRIKS, Max; TAN, Reignard; KANSTAD, Terje ................................................................................... 358
Strength Properties and Microscopic Observations of Concrete with Plastic Wastes as Partial Aggregate
Substitute
ORETA, Andres Winston .............................................................................................................................. 360
Behavior of Reinforced Concrete Beams with 700 Mpa High-Strength Reinforcement - Flexure and
Serviceability
LEE, Joo-Hyung; CHO, Jae-Yeol ................................................................................................................. 368
Review of the Most Common Repair Techniques for Reinforced Concrete Structures in Coastal
Areas
ANCICH, Eric; RASHIDI, Maria; BUCKLEY, Peter; GHODRAT, Maryam .................................................... 370
Challenges and innovation in large-scale infrastructure projects – the WHSD project

PEDERSEN, Nikolaj Rask; JACOBSEN, Jonas Sejersbøl; LAUSTEN, Søren ............................................ 378
The Harbor Passage Bridge in Hamburg

REINTJES, Karl-Heinz ................................................................................................................................. 386
Configuration Design of Viaduct Pier in Urban Highway

XIAO, Keli; JIN, Yanjun; LI, Lin; HE, Wei ..................................................................................................... 393
Standardized Manufacturable Steel Orthotropic Decks for Urban Bridges

SOUGATA, Roy ............................................................................................................................................ 401
Experimental Investigation on the Punching Shear Behaviour of RC Flat Slabs under Seismic Loading
SHERIF, Alaa ............................................................................................................................................... 403
Earthquake Resistance of Multistory Structure with Existing LLRS

PURUSHOTHAMA, Chaithra ....................................................................................................................... 411
Transitioning to Seismic Design

TIONG, Timothy ........................................................................................................................................... 419
vii

The Seismic Performance Evaluation of RC High-Rise Buildings Designed to Various Building Codes
ANWAR, Naveed; HASSAN, Waqar ; KHAING SOE, Mi Mi ; NAJAM, Fawad Ahmed; NAJAM,
Fawad Ahmed .............................................................................................................................................. 427
Innovative Upgrading of Heritage Buildings – Structural Case Studies
Rebuilding of Tokyo’s Suitengu Shrine

IIDA, Tomohiro; NAKANE, Kazutomi; ASO, Naoki ....................................................................................... 443
Reinforcement of Old Masonry by New Structure

YAMAZAKI, Ryohei ...................................................................................................................................... 451
Structural Feasibility of ISO Shipping Containers for Core-dwelling Housing

TAN, Cher Siang; NUSSBAUMER, Alain ..................................................................................................... 459
Shear Resistance Mechanisms of Steel Sheet Shear Walls with Burring Holes - Shear buckling of plates
between holes and post-buckling behaviour--
KAWAI, Yoshimichi; FUJIHASHI, Kazunori; TOHNAI, Shigeaki; SATO, Atsushi; ONO, Tetsuro ................ 466
Deformation Capacity of Perforated H-shaped beams

YAMAZAKI, Kenji; INABA, Toru; USAMI, Tetsu; USHIWATA, Fumi ............................................................ 474
Development of Repair Method for Bead-Penetrating Crack in Orthotropic Steel Deck Stiffened by
Closed Section Ribs
SHINNO, Takahiro; MIZOKAMI, Yoshiaki ; MORIYAMA, Akir; KISHI, Yuki ; SAKANO, Masahiro ............. 482
Proposal for New Beam-End Connection with Rib Plates inside Steel Panel zone of Beam-to-Column
Joints
YAMAZAKI, Kenji; INABA, Toru; USAMI, Tetsu; TAKUMA, Kawakami; SABURI, Kazuhiro ....................... 489
Design and Development of the Msikaba and Mtentu River Gorge Bridges
ANDERSON, John Robert Beveridge .......................................................................................................... 497
Design and Construction of Beipanjiang Bridge

LIU, Bo ......................................................................................................................................................... 505
Partial cable-stayed bridge in the application of heavy haul railway

LI, Guilin ....................................................................................................................................................... 513
Design and Research of Sea-Crossing High-Speed Railway Steel-Concrete Composite Box Girder
Cable- Stayed Bridge
ZENG, Jiahua ............................................................................................................................................... 521
Effects of High Speed Trains on Bridges

CALATOZZO, Erica; LEMAIRE, Arnaud; MONTENS, Serge ....................................................................... 526
Innovation Design of a Ballastless Cable-Stayed Bridge with Main Span of 300m in High-Speed Railway
DIPING, Li .................................................................................................................................................... 534
viii

Key Techniques Introduction to Maputo Bridge Steel Box Girders Construction

QIANG, Yaofeng; GUO, Changrui; ZHAO, Congming ................................................................................. 542
Study on Correction of Linear And Internal Force of Steel Box Girder Bridge Based on Zero Moment
Method.
WENG, Fangwen ......................................................................................................................................... 550
Thermal Simulation on the Flat Steel Box Girder of the Maputo Bridge under Solar Radiation
LIU, Cheng; FAN, JianSheng; ZHUANG, LiangDong; GAO, JinYang ......................................................... 555
Construction and Engineering Challenges of the Entrance Building Roof for the Hong Kong West Kowloon
Terminus Station
CHONG, Alecs K. T.; BESSODES, Mathieu; TAPLEY, Mike; LEUNG, Alexis Y. K. .................................... 563
5 Martin Place Sydney

WEBB, John F B; LAVORATO, Tony ........................................................................................................... 571
The New Large Space Frame - Tama-Sudare

YAMADA, Tatsuya ....................................................................................................................................... 579
Double Layer Space Frame for Setia SPICE Convention Centre

CHOONG, Kok Keong; SAW, Hin Cheong; WONG, Sik Kwang; CHEW, Khai Seng; TANG, Song Teik .... 587
Structural Robustness of Long-Span Cable-Supported Bridges Segmented by Zipper-Stoppers to Prevent

Progressive Collapse
SHOGHIJAVAN, Mohammad; STAROSSEK, Uwe ..................................................................................... 593
Fast Tracking the Pulau Poh Cable-stayed Bridge

VOON, Chet Chie; GOH, Hiang Miang; KOO, Chuan Seng ........................................................................ 601
Brunei Temburong Link – Design of Cable Stayed Bridges Against Extreme Loading Conditions
YIP, Sammy; KITE, Steve ............................................................................................................................ 609
Seismic Pounding Mitigation of an Existing Cable Stayed Bridge using Metallic Dampers
AHAD, Javanmardi ....................................................................................................................................... 617
Loading Steps in Analyzing the Interaction Between the Tied Arch Continuous Bridge and Multiple Tracks
YAN, Bin; HAN, zhongshu; ZHOU, Min ........................................................................................................ 624
The Application Status and Developing Foreground of CRTS Ⅲ Ballastless Track

JING-YUAN, Bai ........................................................................................................................................... 632
Experimental Study on the Deformation of Simply Supported Beam with CRTSII Ballastless Track in Chinese
High-speed Railway
WANG, Meng ............................................................................................................................................... 637
Design & Construction of Setiawangsa – Pantai Expressway (SPE-DUKE Phase 3) – Section 3 from Pandan
to Setiawangsa in Kuala Lumpur
ix

PUVVADA, Srinivas Rama Krishna Satya; BENG CHOY, Tham ................................................................ 644
The realisation of the 6.2km Long Padma Multipurpose Road and Rail Bridge in Bangladesh
JONES, Vardaman; ISLAM, Shafiqul; HALLIDAY, Ronnie .......................................................................... 652
Opportunities and Challenges of Traffic Dispersal Structures in KL

SAMBANTHAR, Baskaran ........................................................................................................................... 661
Doha New Orbital Highway Project, Junction 7 Existing Bridge Widening

SAITO, Daisuke; BANCE, Andrew; DAOUTIS, George ............................................................................... 669
Design & Construction of Duta – Ulu Kelang Expressway (Phase 2) – Tun Razak Link (TRL) in Kuala
Lumpur
PUVVADA, Srinivas Rama Krishna Satya; BENG CHOY, Tham ................................................................ 677
Large Scale Infrastructure Project Implementation in Malaysia. A Case Study - Metropolitan Highways in
Klang Valley: Damansara-Shah Alam Elevated Highway (DASH)(DASH)
EUSOFE, Zarulazam; HARUN, Sazali ......................................................................................................... 685
Next Generation Flexible Plug Joint Material

SAVIOZ, Pascal; GALLAI, Gustav; METTNER, Knut ................................................................................... 693
Integration of SHM at an Early Stage in the Design and Construction of Long-Span Bridges
SAVIOZ, Pascal; MENG, Niculin; ISLAMI, Kleidi; MALEKZADEH, Masoud ................................................ 701
Design Guidelines for Bolted Single Support Bar Modular Bridge Joint Systems
ROY, Sougata; ARTMONT, Frank A. ........................................................................................................... 709
Bridge Deck Waterproofing on Concrete

STOLL, Philippe ........................................................................................................................................... 717
Finger Type expansion joints for Penang Second Bridge

CHONG, Seng Shia ..................................................................................................................................... 720
Retrofitting and Strengthening Interventions of RC Members Using Ultra High Performance Concrete
(UHPC)
TEO, Wee ..................................................................................................................................................... 726
Lateral Behaviour of Post-tensioned Segmental Bridge Columns with High Performance Concrete
NIKBAKHT, Ehsan ....................................................................................................................................... 732
Cyclic behavior of precast segmental UHPFRC bridge columns with replaceable damage-concentrated
elements
WANG, Zhen; WANG, Jingquan; ZHU, Junzheng ....................................................................................... 736
Prefabricated Box Girder with Ultra High Performance Concrete

XIAO, Keli; JIN, Yanjun; LI, Lin; HE, Wei; XINLONG, Duan ........................................................................ 744
x

Sustainable Ultra High Performance Cementitious For Rapid Urbanization and Carbon Neutral Mega
Construction Projects
LAI, Fook Chuan .......................................................................................................................................... 746
Method of Designing a Plate-like Ultra High-rise Building

OKAMURA, Shoko; MUTO, Kei ................................................................................................................... 757
Mega High Rise Buildings – Is there a Limit to High Performance Concrete Availability in Malaysia?
Application of Down-Grading Reversely Constrained Optimal Design Method for Tall Building Structures
AMPIAH, Apetsi; ZHAO, Xin; ZHAO, Jianzhe; ZHUANG, Ma ...................................................................... 773
High-rise PPVC Building for Rapid Urbanisation

CHUA, Yie Sue; LIEW, Jat Yuen, Richard ................................................................................................... 780
Intermediate Seismic Isolation Ultra High-rise Office Building Integrated with Historical Building
HAMADA, Yuki ............................................................................................................................................. 783
KVMRT Challenges - Elevated Viaducts and Station Structures

WONG, ChongLing ...................................................................................................................................... 791
Utilization of Existing Metro Rail Viaduct for Emergency and Personal Rapid Transit
RAJA, Prabu; KUMAR, Naresh .................................................................................................................... 799
KVMRT Viaduct Structural Design Development

HEWSON, Nigel; TEH, Tzyy Wooi ............................................................................................................... 806
Optimizing and mitigating risks for Lead Rubber Bearing application on Jakarta LRT
MAURIS, georges; WOUTS, Ivan; GIRARDI, Marcel; TOUAT, Arezki; NISCHIGUTI, Eduardo .................. 814
Statistical Investigation of Design Live Load by Applying WIM Data with Different Degree of Compliance
with Truck Weight Limit
PAIK, Inyeol; JEONG, Kilhwan ..................................................................................................................... 820
Case Study of a Typical Challenge in Tunnelling for Kolkata East West Metro Line
DEWANJEE, Biswanath ............................................................................................................................... 822
Making the World’s Longest Subsea Tunnel Sustainable

SOYLAND, Ketil; WOLDEN, Christer; HARRISON, Debbie; GARMANN, Christopher ............................... 830
The Vertical and Horizontal Displacements of Cross-River Twin-Tunnels Surroundings Induced by

Tunneling
WU, Lin; ZHANG, Zhihua; ZHANG, Xiedong; LIN, FaJin ............................................................................. 838
The Application of Steel-Concrete-Steel Composite Structures in Immersed Tunnels

GUO, Yutao; FAN, JianSheng; NIE, Jian-guo; XU, Guo-ping; TANG, Liang; SONG, Shen-you ................. 845
xi

Tunnelling Works for East Coast Rail Link Project, Malaysia

SUHAIMI, Mohamed Kamal ......................................................................................................................... 853
Hong Kong Underground Space Development and its Enlightenment for the Mainland
ZHANG, Dexiang .......................................................................................................................................... 861
Precast Industry Contributed toward Green Construction

LIMSUWAN, Ekasit; JONGVIVATSAKUL, Pticha ........................................................................................ 869
Bridging the Gap: Enabling Lower Carbon Footprint and Creating Economic Value from Application of
Modern High Strength Niobium Steels
PATEL, Jitendra ........................................................................................................................................... 875
Flat Plate Photobioreactor Façade Elements

WELLER, Bernhard; ASSMUS, Elisabeth .................................................................................................... 883
Way Forward for Construction Industry with active participation in Carbon Footprint Reduction for
Sustainable Development using Geosynthetics.
MARIAPPAN, Saravanan ............................................................................................................................. 890
Large bridges recently built in Poland

TOCZKIEWICZ, Robert; BILISZCZUK, Jan; TEICHGRAEBER, Marco ....................................................... 897
Kampala Flyovers-Importance of Independent Review and Design Check

WOJNARSKI, Lukasz; RAYAT, Kulvinder .................................................................................................... 905
A Case Study - Failure of Pile Bore at Bridge Construction in Agra-Lucknow Expressway Project (India)
KADBHANE, Digambar J; MAHENDRKAR, Avinash Y ............................................................................... 907
Design & Construction of Prai Swing Bridge

KUMAR, Sashi ............................................................................................................................................. 913
Evaluation of Long-Span Bridge Concepts and their Application Under Various Site Specific Conditions
EIDEM, Mathias Egeland ............................................................................................................................. 915
The Scheme Design of ‘Bi-Speed Bicycle Viaduct’ Demonstration Line

XIAO, Keli; JIN, Yanjun; ZOU, Aijia; LI, Lin; HE, Wei ................................................................................... 917
Smart Structures and Materials

MYSORE SRIRAMA PRASAD, Rakesh ...................................................................................................... 925
Design and Construction of Triple-Span Precast Concrete Open Spandrel Arch Bridge System
ONG, Chong Yong; CHOONG, Kok Keong; ONG, Tai Boon ....................................................................... 933
Full Scale Load Test of a 20m Span Precast Concrete Closed Spandrel Arch Bridge System with Corrugated
Section
ONG, Chong Yong; CHOONG, Kok Keong; MA, Wee Lee; TAN, Geem Eng; ONG, Tai Boon ................... 941
xii

Lancang River Arch Bridge with Concrete-filled Steel Tube Stiffened Skeleton
JIN, Fei ......................................................................................................................................................... 948
Corrosion-resistant Reinforced Concrete Columns

SHEIKH, Shamim Ahmed; KHARAL, Zahra ................................................................................................. 954
Study on the Corrosion Experiment of Concrete Under Different Stress Conditions

SHEN, Gang; LI, Hui; WU, Xun .................................................................................................................... 962
Experimental Study on Fatigue Properties of Corroded Bridge Wires

JIANG, Chao; WU, Chong; JIANG, Xu ......................................................................................................... 970
Bach Dang River Stay Cable Bridge – Underslung Form Traveller Construction
DUPLEIX, Joakim ......................................................................................................................................... 977
Structural Topology Optimization of Bridge Girders in Cable Supported Bridges

BAANDRUP, Mads; SIGMUND, Ole; AAGE, Niels ...................................................................................... 983
Study on A New Type of Deck Applied to Four-lines Railway Cable-stayed Bridge with Wide Truss
Stiffening Girder
XIA, Zhengchun ............................................................................................................................................ 991
Investigation for Behavior of Reinforced Concrete Wall by Impact of Hard Projectile

KIM, Chunghyeon; CHO, Jae-Yeol .............................................................................................................. 998
Air-Coupled Nonlinear Ultrasonic Test for Reinforced Concrete Beams

ONGPENG, Jason Maximino Co; GUEVARRA, Kenneth .......................................................................... 1000
Design & Post Tensioning Application of Cement Silos

RAPTOPOULOS, Sotos ............................................................................................................................. 1006
Structural Planning for Tall Damped Building with Irregularly-Shaped Plan and Elevation
KUSHIMA, Soichiro; MORISHITA, Taisei; YAMASHITA, Yasuhiko; OKUNO, Yuuichirou;
NAKAHIRA, Kazuto .....................................................................................................................................1013
3D Non-Linear Model Describing the Behaviour of Peripheral High Capacity Saw-Tooth Connectors
Subjected to Compressive Load
AL-KROOM, Hussein Faisal; SCHMID, Volker; REIMER, Andreas ........................................................... 1021
Structural Response of Skew-Curved Concrete Box Girder Bridges under Eccentric Vehicular Loading
GUPTA, TANMAY; KUMAR, Manoj ........................................................................................................... 1029
A Semi-Analytical Method For The Calculation of Dynamic Responses of Cantilever Plates Under
Moving Loads
WU, Qi; LI, Qi ............................................................................................................................................. 1037
Prestressed Transfer Plate Design and Construction

LOW, Hin Foo ............................................................................................................................................. 1045
xiii

The Appraisal of Wind-Driven Rain within Open-Air Sport Venues

STANFIELD, Robin Alan; CAMMELLI, Stefano; HASHIM, Hayati 1053
Aerogel Using for Thermal Insulation Property of Buildings

HAO, Shuo; YAN, Bin; ZHOU, Min ............................................................................................................. 1060
Managing Wind-driven Rain to Improve the Performance of Outdoor Spaces

LIM, Yi Shan; KALA, Sudeesh; CHATTEN, Mark ...................................................................................... 1064
Innovative Ballast-less Track System for Urban Areas

ACHS, Günther .......................................................................................................................................... 1070
Application of Synthetic Wood Sleepers on Double Deck Steel Truss Bridge

ZOBEL, Henryk Ludwik ................................................................................................................................1078
Structural
Lightweight Aggregate Concrete and Its Applications
PAYAM, Shafigh .......................................................................................................................................1085
Keynotes (pg 1 - 46), Workshop (pg 1085)
xiv

List of Authors
A Capacci, Luca 340
Aage, Niels 983 Chatten, Mark 1064
Achs, Günther 1070 Chew, Khai Seng 587
Ahad, Javanmardi 617 Chirgwin, Gordon 54
Al-Kroom, Hussein Faisal 1021 Cho, Jae-Yeol 368, 998
Alsanad, Shaikha 68 Chong, Alecs K. T. 563
Ampiah, Apetsi 773 Chong, Send Chia 720
Ancich, Eric 54, 370 Choong, Kok Keong 587, 933, 941
Anderson, John Robert Beveridge 497 Chua, Yie Sue 780
Anwar, Naveed 427 Coelho, Hugo 203
Artmont, Frank A. 709 Cooper, Thomas R 252
Aso, Naoki 443 Correia, Luís 111
Assmus, Elisabeth 883 Curbach, Manfred 348, 356
B D
Baandrup, Mads 983 Daoutis, George 669
Bance, Andrew 669 Dean, Sean 232
Barris, Cristina 111 Dewanjee, Biswanath 822
Beng Choy, Tham 644, 677 Ding, Hanshan 88
Benson, William 242 Diping, Li 534
Bessodes, Mathieu 563 Dupleix, Joakim 977
Bhattacharjee, Satyaki 275 Durand, Paul-Emile 291
Bhowmick, Alok 219

Biliszczuk, Jan 897 E
Biondini, Fabio 340 Eidem, Mathias Egeland 915
Biswas, Pradip Kumar 259 Embi, Azmar Bin 259
Brilakis, Ioannis 307 Eusofe, Zarulazam 685
Brueninghold, Max 199
Buckley, Peter 370 F
Burkhardt, Uwe 39 Fan, Jiansheng 555, 845
Farmer, Neil Stephen 307
C Feliciangeli, Dario 127
Calatozzo, Erica 526 Fujihashi, Kazunori 466
Cammelli, Stefano 1053
xv

G Inaba, Toru 474, 489
G.Irusan, Anbarasan 227 Islam, Shafiqul 652
Gallai, Gustav 693 Islami, Kleidi 701
Ganendra, Dennis 259 Ismail 1
Gao, Jinyang 555 Ismail, Mohamed Taib 19
Garmann, Christopher 830

Gauvreau, Paul 151 J
Georgiev, Vasil Georgiev 167 Jacobsen, Jonas Sejersbøl 378
Ghodrat, Maryam 370 Jeong, Kilhwan 820
Girardi, Marcel 814 Jiang, Chao 970
Goh, Hiang Miang 601 Jiang, Xu 970
Guenther, Peter 183 Jin, Fei 948
Guevarra, Kenneth 1000 Jin, Yanjun 393, 744, 917
Guo, Changrui 542 Jing-Yuan, Bai 632
Guo, Yutao 845 Jones, Vardaman 652
Gupta, Tanmay 1029 Jongvivatsakul, Pticha 869
Gurusamy Naidu, Kribanandan 315, 435, 765 Joy, Emmanuel 291
H K
Halliday, Ronnie 652 Kadbhane, Digambar J 907
Hamada, Yuki 783 Kahnt, Alexander 356
Han, Zhongshu 624 Kala, Sudeesh 1064
Hao, Shuo 1060 Kaleta, Damian 95
Harrison, Debbie 830 Kanstad, Terje 358
Harun, Sazali 685 Kawai, Yoshimichi 466
Hashim, Hayati 1053 Khaing Soe, Mi Mi 427
Hassan, Waqar 427 Kharal, Zahra 954
He, Wei 393, 744, 917 Kim, Chunghyeon 998
Hendriks, Max 358 Kishi, Yuki 482
Hewson, Nigel 806 Kite, Steve 609
Hui, Luo 175 Koo, Chuan Seng 601
Hussain, Naeem 47 Kozłowski, Aleksander 95
Kumar, Manoj 1029
I Kumar, Naresh 799
Iida, Tomohiro 443 Kumar, Sashi 913
Imam, Moustafa 191 Kushima, Soichiro 1013
Imsombat, Sittisak 267
xvi

L Mihov, Dimitar 167
Lai, Fook Chuan 746 Mihov, Yavor 167
Lausten, Søren 378 Mills, Ben 242
Lavorato, Tony 571 Mills, Brandon 242
Lee, Hohsing 283 Mizokami, Yoshiaki 482
Lee, Joo-Hyung 368 Mody, Nirav 299
Lemaire, Arnaud 526 Montenegro, Juan Diego 252
Leung, Alexis Y. K. 563 Montens, Serge 526
Li, Guilin 513 Moor, Gianni 191
Li, Hui 962 Morishita, Taisei 1013
Li, Lin 393, 744, 917 Moriyama, Akir 482
Li, Qi 1037 Muto, Kei 757
Lieboldt, Matthias 348 Mysore Srirama Prasad, Rakesh 925
Liew, Jat Yuen, Richard 780

Lim, Yi Shan 1064 N
Limsuwan, Ekasit 869 Najam, Fawad Ahmed 427
Lin, Fajin 838 Nakahira, Kazuto 1013
Lin, Weiwei 103 Nakane, Kazutomi 443
Liu, Bo 505 Nethercot, David A 9
Liu, Cheng 555 Nie, Jian-Guo 845
Liu, Sumei 88 Nielsen, Knut H. 267
Lofts, Matthew 242 Nikbakht, Ehsan 732
Low, Hin Foo 1045 Nischiguti, Eduardo 814
Ludin, Matthias 234 Novák, Drahomír 330
Nussbaumer, Alain 459
M
Ma, Jianxun 135 O
Ma, Wee Lee 941 Okamura, Shoko 757
Mahboubi, Shima 119 Okuno, Yuuichirou 1013
Mahendrkar, Avinash Y 907 Oliveira , Daniel 323
Malekzadeh, Masoud 701 Ong, Chong Yong 933, 941
Mariappan, Saravanan 890 Ong, Tai Boon 933, 941
Matos, José 323, 338 Ongpeng, Jason Maximino Co 1000
Mauris, Georges 814 Ono, Tetsuro 466
Mcgovern, Scott 307 Ooi, Shu Tat 211
Meng, Niculin 201, 701 Oreta, Andres Winston 360
Mettner, Knut 693
xvii
Malaysian Highways Infrastructure – Vision 2050 & Challenges Ahead

in Coming Decades
Datuk Ir. Hj. Ismail Bin Md. Salleh
Director General, Malaysian Highway Authority, Malaysia
Contact: Ismail@llm.gov.my
Abstract
Malaysia has achieved a significant economic and social progress over the past several decades
through the implementation of First Malaysia Plan (1966-1970) to Ninth Malaysia Plan (2006-2010).
Further the Government of Malaysia aims at achieving high income nation status by 2020 (VISION
2020).
With the global economy becoming more competitive and challenging, in the year 2010,
Government of Malaysia has embarked on comprehensive economic agenda known as Economic
Transformation Programme (ETP) that builds on the directions outlined in Tenth Malaysia Plan to
transform the Malaysian Economy. ETP focusses on 12 National Key Economic Areas (NKEA) which
are key growth engines that are expected to contribute substantially to Malaysian economic
performance. ETP also compliments the existing programmes with similar objectives viz., 1Malaysia
(People First-Performance Now), Government Transformation Programme (GTP), New Economic
Model (NEM) and 10th Malaysia Plan (2011-2015).
The initiation of Greater Kuala Lumpur / Klang Valley under economic transformation programme
by Government of Malaysia has resulted in rapid growth in urbanisation, transportation,
infrastructure, and construction industry sectors beside others. Availability of Space in the urban
environments is very scarce and hence the need for integration of infrastructure facilities and their
coexistence.
Malaysian infrastructure development especially the transportation sector is going through rapid
changes in terms of adapting state of the art construction technology, adjusting to industry
evaluation, and use of intelligent transportation system to achieve the set goals under National
Transformation Programme (TN 50) by Government of Malaysia and equip the nation to brace the
Industry Revolution (Industry 4.0).
The Malaysian highway infrastructure will surely surge in progress by implementing sustainable
measures both in economic & environmental terms and state of the art technology in meeting the
present needs and without compromising those of future generations.
Keywords: Vision 2020; Economic Transformation Programme; New Economic Model; National
Transformation (TN 50); Industry 4.0; Integration of Public Transportation; Intelligent Transport
System; Internet of Things; Autonomous Vehicles; Risk Management; Sustainable Development.
1
Economic Model (NEM) to be achieved through an

1 Introduction Economic Transformation Programme (ETP)
Malaysia has achieved a significant economic and driven by eight Strategic Reform Initiatives (SRIs)
social progress over the past several decades which will propel Malaysia to an advanced nation
through implementation of various economic status with inclusiveness and sustainability and the
plans. Presently with more competitive and 10th Malaysia Plan [2].
challenging global economic environment, The new vision for Malaysia now is 2050 National
Malaysia has reached a defining moment in its Transformation (TN50) which is a 30-year
development path. transformation plan aiming to transform Malaysia
Malaysia has embarked on comprehensive to become one of the top 20 countries in the world
economic agenda to achieve the developed nation in terms of economic development, citizen well-
status and among top 20 countries in the world being and innovation.
through various initiatives such as Vision 2020, 1 ETP focusses on 12 National Key Economic Areas
Malaysia Plan, Government Transformation (NKEA) which are key growth engines that are
Programme (GTP), New Economic Model (NEM), expected to contribute substantially to Malaysian
Economic Transformation Programme (ETP) and economic performance [1].
10th Malaysia Plan [1].
One of the important aspects of ETP is the
The Malaysian infrastructure development implementation of Greater KL / KV. The Greater KL
especially the transportation sector is going / KV is already on the global map as one of the
through rapid changes with the initiation of iconic cities in Southeast Asia. It boasts world
Greater Kuala Lumpur / Klang Valley (Greater KL / renowned landmarks such as Petronas Twin
KV) under ETP to equip the nation to brace the Towers, a unique blend of diverse cultures and
Industry Revolution (Industry 4.0) in terms of heritage, an extensive road network and high
technology and innovation. quality basic services such as water and electricity.
This paper aims at presenting the various strategies However, it now faces fierce competition from
to overcome the challenges and key factors to neighbouring cities in development progress and
achieve Government of Malaysia Vision of National attracting multinational talent. Its liveability lags
Transformation TN50 and adapt to Industry 4.0 in many other Asian Cities, inadequate public
the development of Malaysia transport transport system and many other natural assets
infrastructure. remain untapped.
2 Malaysia Economic Planning 3 Malaysian Transport Infrastructure

Traditionally, the progress in Malaysian economic The initiation of Greater KL / KV under economic
and social development over the past several transformation programme by Government of
decades is through the implementation of First Malaysia has resulted in rapid growth in
Malaysia Plan (1966-1970) to Ninth Malaysia Plan urbanisation, transportation, infrastructure, and
(2006-2010). Besides the Government of Malaysia construction industry sectors beside others.
also aims at achieving high income nation status by Availability of Space in the urban environments is
2020 (VISION 2020). very scarce and hence the need for integration of
infrastructure facilities and their coexistence.
Vision 2020 aimed to become a fully developed
nation is not possible without economic, social and The Greater KL / KV aspirations to be achieved
government transformation. To move forward the through four dimensions viz., Greater KL / KV as a
Government has crafted a framework comprising magnet, as a connect, with new places and
1Malaysia (People First, Performance Now), enhanced services.
Government Transformation Programme (GTP) to Under Greater KL / KV programme, the regional
strengthen public services and effective delivery in connectivity will be accelerated by deploying a
the National Key Result Areas (NKRAs), the New high-speed rail system to connect Greater KL / KV
2
and Singapore. At the same time, intra city Since the above existing transport system is still
connectivity will be improved with highways, light inadequate to meet the current demand as well as
rail and mass rapid transit systems, pedestrian the future, following public transport systems are
facilities etc. being planned and developed to enhance the
capacity and meet the future demand:
The Malaysian transport infrastructure mainly
comprise public transport systems like Light Rail 1) Light Rail Transit (LRT3) – a double track
Transit (LRT) / Mass Rapid Transit (MRT) / Monorail elevated alignment of approximately 37 Km in
/ inter urban Rail & Bus services and extensive length between Bandar Utama and Johan
highway network system besides other modes of Setia, 26 stations with 5 Integrated interchange
transport like airways. stations and expected to be operational by
2020 [3].
3.1 Public Transport System 2) Mass Rapid Transit (MRT Line2) – known as
Sungai Buloh – Serdang – Putrajaya Line (SSP
Malaysia has currently the following public
Line), 52.2 Km in length, 35 stations, 11
transportation systems in operation as a part of
interchange stations, Park & Ride facilities at 16
Greater KL / KV integrated transit system:
stations, expected to operational in year 2022.
a) Inter & Intra Urban Rail Commuter System Figure 2.0 below shows the proposed elevated
(KTM); station design and its integration features [4].
b) Light Rail Transit (LRT 1 & 2) – Kelana Jaya Line
46.4Km in length with 37 stations, Ampang Line
& Sri Petaling Line 45.1Km in length with 36
stations;
c) KLIA Express by Express Rail Link (ERL) –
connects KL Sentral to KLIA / KLIA2 airport,
59.14Km in length;
d) KL Monorail – 8.6Km in length and 11 stations;
e) Mass Rapid Transit (MRT Line1) – known as
Sungai Buloh – Kajang Line (SBK Line), 51 Km in
length, 31 stations;
f) Rapid KL Bus System;
Figure 2.0 MRT Line2 Station Features
g) Bus Rapid Transit System (BRT Sunway) –
5.4Km in length with 7 stations; 3) High Speed Rail connecting Kuala Lumpur-
Singapore (HSR) – 350 Km total length, 8
Figure 1.0 shows the existing public transport
stations, operational speed of 320 Km/Hr and
system facilities present in Malaysia.
expected to be operational in year 2026 [5].
4) East Coast Rail Link (ECRL) – a new railway
linking East Coast states to Greater KL/KV
region. This electrified double track line is
proposed in 2 phases. Phase 1 connects
Kelantan, Terangganu, Pahang and Selangor
covering a length of 531.6 Km with 22 stations.
Phase 2 connects Kelantan to Kota Baru and
Selangor to Port Klang covering a length of
102.3 Km with 4 stations. This project is
expected to be operational by year 2024.
Figure 3.0 below shows the proposed intercity
passenger rail system of ECRL project [6].
Figure 1.0 Light Rail Transit System
3
Various highways that are under construction

phase are as below:
a) Sungai Besi – Ulu Kelang Elevated Expressway
(SUKE) – 31.8 Km in length approximately;
b) East Klang Valley Expressway (EKVE) – 39 Km in
length approximately;
c) Damansara – Shah Alam Elevated Expressway
(DASH) – 23 Km in length approximately;
d) West Coast Expressway (WCE) – 233 Km in
length approximately. Figure 5.0 shows the
proposed route of West Coast Expressway [8].
Figure 3.0 Proposed Intercity Passenger Rail System
3.2 Highways Network System

The Malaysian highway infrastructure is considered
one of the best among developed nations.
In Malaysia currently, there are about 31 inter
urban & intra urban highways / expressways in
operation, 6 are under construction phase and
another 5 are in planning stage besides several
other major arterial roads. This highway network
Figure 5.0 Proposed West Coast Expressway
system has been contributing significantly towards
the country’s economic growth from time to time. e) Setiawangsa – Pantai Expressway (SPE) – 29.8
Km in length approximately; Figure 6.0
The North-South expressway is the Malaysia’s
presents the ongoing SPE project.
longest access controlled highway with the total
length of about 823Km which connects Bukit Kayu
Hitam near Malaysia - Thailand border on northern
side and Johor Bahru at the southern portion of
Peninsular Malaysia and to Singapore. Figure 4.0
shows the view of North-South expressway [7].
Figure 6.0 Setiawangsa - Pantai Expressway

f) Pan Borneo Expressway (PBE) – approx. 2000
Km in East Malaysia connecting Semantan
(Sarawak) to Serudong (Sabah) with dual
Figure 4.0 View of North-South Expressway carriageway to JKR R5 standards, expected to
complete by 2023 for the Sarawak section and
This expressway since operational in the year 1994,
by 2025 for the Sabah section. Figure 7.0
acts as a backbone connecting major cities and
presents the ongoing Pan Borneo expressway
towns in Western Peninsular Malaysia and has
in East Malaysia [9].
spurred the economic growth significantly in the
adjoining regions all along its route.
4
h) Integration of existing and planned transport

systems;
i) Changing values and lifestyle;
j) Legal issues and risk factors; and
k) Policy framing and political will.
Figure 7.0 Proposed Pan Borneo Expressway

All the above transport infrastructure project are
intended to spur the regional growth and
development in terms of employment, regional
connectivity and thereby boosting the Malaysian Figure 8.0 Urban Congestion & Space Constraint
economy to achieve the goals set out under Vision
2020 & TN 50 by Government of Malaysia. 5 Strategies to achieve TN 50 &
Industry 4.0
4 Challenges in coming Decades
The strategies to overcome the above challenges
Malaysian infrastructure development especially and key factors to achieve the Government of
the transportation sector with the above large Malaysia vision of TN 50 & adapt to the Industry 4.0
scale ongoing projects is presently going through through Malaysian highway infrastructure are
rapid changes in terms of adapting state of the art outlined but not limited to as below:
construction technology, adjusting to industry
· To maintain effectively the existing highway
evaluation, adapting to internet of things, and use
assets and other infrastructure to service users
of integrated transport information system to
to the maximum extent;
achieve the set goals under National
Transformation Programme (TN 50) by · To Integrate the existing & planned public
Government of Malaysia and equip the nation to transportation systems to alleviate congestion;
brace the Industry Revolution (Industry 4.0). Figure 9.0 shows the integration of existing
highway network with MRT station [4];
In the coming decades, the Malaysian highway
infrastructure shall face mainly the following
challenges but not limited to:
a) Space availability for development and sharing
of space for coexistence;
b) Utilisation of existing highway infrastructure to
its maximum time & capacity (Refer to Figure
8.0 – Urban Congestion & Space Constraint);
c) Upgrading to latest construction technology;
d) Adaption of intelligent transport technologies;
e) Industry 4.0 that evolves cyber physical Figure 9.0 MRT Integration with Road Network
systems by fusing the physical, digital and
· Regional connectivity through large scale
biological worlds;
public transport projects such as LRT, MRT
f) Inclusion of Creativity & Innovation;
expansions, High Speed Rail, East Coast Rail
g) Understanding of internet of things and its
Link etc;
application;
5
· Applications of advanced and emerging license plate-based system, and global

technologies in transportation systems to save navigation satellite system (GNSS) to identify
lives, time, money, energy and the user accounts to ensure revenue collection.
environment. And integration of information &
· Use of UAV / Drones for road & traffic survey,
communication technology with vehicles,
pavement evaluation & asset management,
users and transportation infrastructure
real time vehicle tracking, intelligent traffic
(Definition of ITS by Malaysia);
management etc;
· Use of state of the art Intelligent Transport
· Efficient use of Internet of Things, Big Data &
Management Systems, Traffic Control &
Cloud Computing tools that are characterised
Surveillance System, Toll Collection System,
with large volume - high velocity - wide variety
and Emergency Response Plans. Figure 10.0
to make use in real time traffic management &
shows the driverless MRT train system;
surveillance. This includes advanced traffic &
traveller information system, connecting
vehicles, fleet management, electronic
ticketing, electronic toll collection (RFID /
MLFF), congestion pricing & management, real
time traffic signal control systems, parking
management system, vehicle weigh-in-motion,
vehicle entrance permission, vehicle on-board
Figure 10.0 Driverless MRT Train with TCSS System units (OBU), automatic enforcement system
and efficient transport planning by public
· Progression of Malaysian highway network to
authorities [10] (Refer to Figures 13.0 & 14.0);
migrate from TouchnGo / Smart TAG systems
to RFID in 2018 & MLFF in 2025. Figure 11.0
shows the RFID implementation and Figure
12.0 shows the MLFF gantry in testing phase;
Figure 13.0 Various Applications of ITS

Figure 11.0 ETC System - RFID implementation
Figure 12.0 ETC System – MLFF Gantry in Testing

Figure 14.0 Next Generation ERP system with OBU
Typically, the ETC system can adopt any one of
the 3 approaches viz., RFID transponders, · Vehicle to Everything technology in which
vehicles sharing useful traffic information with
6
one another using GPS, DSRC and Internet of · Adoption of eco-friendly, green technology &
Things regarding their own movement. sustainable engineering techniques such as use
of LED, solar energy etc. (Refer to Figure 17.0 &
· Use of energy efficient vehicles developed
18.0);
based on smart engineering and virtual system
integration such as Electric / Battery operated · Smart road lighting using relevant automated
/Autonomous vehicles aimed at reducing system and data connectivity offers lighting
carbon emissions [10]. This will have potential asset management (analyse, plan & maintain),
to revolutionise the transport sector. (Refer to remote lighting management (monitor,
Figure 15.0); manage & measure) that is safe and green [10].
Figure 15.0 Electric/ Battery Operated Vehicles

· Adapt to the new sustainable & innovative
technologies in terms of machineries, precast
elements, and materials. Currently Malaysian
highway construction industry is using latest Figure 17.0 Green ITS Technology
TBMs for tunnelling, boring machines, slip form · The smart bike sharing green system
pavers, precast beams, and crossheads etc.; implemented recently viz., oBike is Malaysia's
· Effective utilisation of limited space due to first and largest dockless system which uses
rapid urbanisation by means of smart highways technology. It allows commuters to travel – via
concept, smart cities, decentralisation of bicycles located all over the city and across
activities, inter urban connectivity and country to reduce congestion and pollution.
economic corridor developments for regional · Adopting an ITS that provides high quality
growth [10]. The smart highways boast the transport information to meet diverse needs,
features such as priority lanes for electric & enhanced traveller experience with smarter
automated vehicles, sensor based controlled interactivity, a safe, secured, sustainable, and
intersections, intelligent pedestrian crossings eco-friendly roadway environment. In the near
using LEDs, solar energy based glowing lines future, driverless car technologies are likely to
etc. (Refer to Figure 16.0); attract the most attention in the paradigm shift
to transportation systems.
· Deployment of fibre optic cables along major
road networks with high transmission
capacities will contribute to future ITS systems
development that requires rapid high-volume
transmission and huge traffic data aggregation
to regional or national data centres. (Eg. Asia
Pacific Information Superhighway initiative).
· Risk Assessment & Risk Management; and
Figure 16.0 SMART Concept · Establishing Institutional & Legal Framework.
7
Figure 18.0 Typical Application of Intelligent Transport System (ITS)

[3] www.lrt3.com.my – official website of
6 Conclusions Prasarana Malaysia Berhad, Malaysia.
The new technologies, means of collecting and [4] www.mymrt.com.my – official website of
processing data are already demonstrating their Mass Rapid Transit Corporation, Malaysia.
potential impact on driving safety, reduced fuel
consumption, efficient communication between [5] www.myhsr.com.my – official website of
infrastructure, vehicles and traffic centres. MyHSR Corporation, Malaysia
With the Vision 2020 in its right path of achieving [6] www.spad.gov.my – official website of Land
the set goal of Malaysia as developed nation status Public Transport Commission, Malaysia
and effective implementation of National [7] www.plus.com.my – official website of PLUS
Transformation 2050 (TN 50) coupled with Industry Malaysia Bhd., Malaysia
4.0, in the coming decades the Malaysian highways
will surely emerge as a world class, fast, safer, [8] www.wce.com.my – official website of West
convenient and intelligent system with fully Coast Expressway Sdn. Bhd., Malaysia
mechanised, automated operations and [9] www.panborneo.com.my – official website
sustainable with the use of user friendly intelligent of Lebuhraya Borneo Utara Sdn. Bhd.
transportation systems, digital and green
[10] Proceedings of ITS Seminar & Exhibition
technologies in meeting the present needs and
2017, Malaysia
without compromising those of future generations.
7 References
[1] Executive Summary, Economic
Transformation Programme – A Road Map
for Malaysia, 2010.
[2] www.epu.gov.my – official website of Unit
Perancang Ekonomi (EPU), Malaysia.
8
DO STRUCTURAL CODES STIFLE CREATIVITY?

D. A. Nethercot
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Imperial College London
London, UK
Contact: d.nethercot@imperial.ac.uk
Abstract
It is an often heard contention: 'Structural Codes stifle creativity, they have become too prescriptive,
we don't need them etc'. Is this true? Where is the evidence? Do these views have an objective and
authoritative basis? Or are they part of the folk law, gaining a degree of credibility simply through
repeated stating? What is the alternative?
By examining the true role of Structural Design Codes, including the sort of material that is and is
not provided by them and the processes employed for their production, an attempt will be made to
set their position properly in context. This will be based on the author's experience - gained over
nearly half a century - as a researcher developing new design rules and procedures, as a teacher to
both students and practitioners explaining the basis of Code rules, as a user providing direct input
into projects, as an 'expert' responsible for advising on the appropriateness and implementation of
Codes and as a member and chairman of committees responsible for the actual writing of Design
Codes.
Keywords: structural design codes.
terms of breadth and depth of coverage. The legal

1 Introduction status of Codes varies in different parts of the
Structural Codes of Practice influence the world, being enshrined in law in some countries yet
professional activities of all Structural Engineers. merely advisory and optional in others. The
Whilst relatively few will be involved with their perception of their legal standing is even more
creation, adaptation and updating, the great wide-ranging (and often misunderstood), with
majority will utilise their contents – some Structural Engineers often believing Codes to be
imaginatively and as an aid, some in a prescribed more influential than is actually the case. And, of
and unthinking fashion, a few in a defensive and course, their quality varies from lucid, polished and
negative way. Attitudes amongst users vary across highly relevant and valuable documents to unclear,
supportive, puzzled, irritated, grateful etc. To the ambiguous and misleading offerings.
same individual they may well, at different times, This paper will address a number of issues relating
be helpful, informative, restrictive or troublesome. to the preparation, use and support of Structural
Much has been written to explain the technical Codes. It is based on the author's experience,
basis and development of new Codes as part of the gained over some 50 years, in all aspects of
support for their introduction; some authors have 'Codification', from identifying shortcomings and
made suggestions for improved formats, new conducting the underpinning research needed to
styles of presentation, different approaches in
9
effect improvements through writing the Committee, Dr A R Flint, gave his view of the
documents and educating others in their intelligent requirements for each of these; reproduced below
use to expert witness work on their correct are those for designers and researchers:
implementation. Issues covered include: ensuring
· “Designers have different priorities. Many
an appropriate balance between recognising and
plead for simplicity in a Code both for
implementing appropriate technical advances,
speed of application and to enable it to be
ensuring the minimum disruption to working
used by Engineers with limited experience.
practices and facilitating ingenious and imaginative
Some expect rules to be both simple and all
usage by enterprising and well informed designers,
embracing. Others expect that they should
whilst providing a consistent framework for the
refer to fundamental knowledge when
delivery of safe yet economical structures. Finally,
designing major bridges and want freedom
it will report on a specific activity designed to
for experienced designers to work beyond
answer the paper’s title question.
the scope of a Code. Those competing for
worldwide markets require the Code to
2 ROLE OF CODES produce the “most economical” bridges.
Structural Codes typically contain a mix of Simplicity of design rules and economy in
information, including factual data, design rules, the material content of a bridge are
advice on good practice and specific references incompatible for other than simple
elsewhere. Although their precise status varies in structures”.
different parts of the world, it is generally accepted
that the easiest way to demonstrate structural
adequacy (and thus to gain an approval) is to show · “Researchers desire a code to be
that the methods used agree with the provisions of technically perfect and comprehensive,
the current local Code. making use of the most recent research
results.”
In the UK the process has traditionally been under
the direction of the National Standards body -
British Standards Institute (BSI). Its Code drafting Clearly the first of these contains a number of
committees are expected to be familiar with the contradictions in itself, whilst the second has little
essentials of BS 0: A Standard for Standards. This obvious rapport with the first.
lists the 6 aims of standardisation as:
Once a Code has been introduced, the structural
1. To simplify the growing variety of products engineering community will be obliged to operate
and procedures. to it. It is therefore of interest to explore the
2. To improve communication. precise legal requirements. For Building Structures
3. To promote overall economy. in the UK, these are set out in the Government’s
4. To ensure safety. Building Regulations. Taking the Structural
5. To protect consumer and community Engineering aspects and paraphrasing for
interests. simplicity, these effectively state “it is the
6. To eliminate trade barriers. responsibility of the designer to demonstrate the
Even a cursory examination reveals the potential integrity and safety of their design”. The exact
for conflict. For example, can rules 1 and 3 always process by which this should be done is not
agree, can 3, 4 and 5 always be reconciled? specified. Rather, the designer is given
considerable freedom to use whatever approach is
deemed most appropriate for the task in hand. Of
In addition, different parties will each have their course, those responsible for checking the design
own legitimate – and frequently competing – and thus for granting the approval are likely to be
requirements from a Code. Writing on the most easily persuaded by a design that is
background to the development of the Part 3 of BS substantially in accordance with the current
5400 in 1980 [1], the Chair of the relevant version of the appropriate National Codes but
10
working outside these boundaries e.g. by using nowadays. Manufacturers’ literature, design
foreign codes, design based on first principles, guides, computer software, textbooks, volumes of
empirical methods etc, is certainly not prohibited. worked examples etc all play a part, often to the
Neither incidentally is working to so called extent that the actual Code may only be consulted
withdrawn Codes i.e. those that longer maintained comparatively infrequently. Indeed, much of the
by the British Standards Institution (BSI). However, concern over the introduction of the suite of
the Engineer’s client or insurers might have a view Structural Eurocodes relates to the expectation
on the wisdom of operating in this way. that designers will be able to continue to operate
This represents a particularly open approach. using these in much the same way that they now
Elsewhere in the world and, indeed, for different work with National Codes, thereby emphasising
sectors in the UK rather more prescriptive the need to produce all the supporting materials.
arrangements prevail, with the most directed
effectively enshrining, the requirement to design in Figure 1 presents a diagrammatic representation of
accordance with a particular Codes as a legal the relationship between the structural designer,
(rather than, say, a contractual) requirement. the Codes themselves and this additional material.
Structures do, of course, obey the laws of physics Importantly, it also includes the vital role of
so “designing according to the Code” does not education, experience and understanding that
confer immunity from the possibility of failure – underpins the intelligent use of all of this material.
particularly if the Code in question has been It is sometimes forgotten that a proper
misapplied or is not appropriate to the particular understanding of structural engineering transcends
matter in question. the use of particular Codes and that all of these
The actual Codes, whether they cover the response documents are based on similar principles albeit
of a structure, loading requirements, material expressed in different ways – sometimes to the
specifications etc are, of course, only a part of the extent that it is hard to recognise the common
portfolio of material used by structural designers basis.
Figure 1 Portfolio of material
the steep growth in size of Codes over the years, it

3 ISSUES WITH CODES is clear that the advocates of comprehensive
coverage have prevailed. A clear case of “the more
3.1 Brevity vs. Comprehensive Coverage we know the more we codify”. However, it is worth
pausing to reflect on the fact that a Code user will
The commonly held perception is that a short
only be reading one particular section at any one
document is easier to work with yet it is often
time and that, providing the arrangement, system
claimed that a Code should contain “everything of indexing and cross referencing etc, is carefully
that is needed”. Both are desirable but clearly thought through, length itself need not be an issue.
mutually exclusive. Moreover, defining a complex
issue in a few words often makes it more difficult 3.2 Simple vs. Competitive Approach
for the reader; conversely separating out the points
into a simple step by step presentation is likely to Practitioners always ask that the provisions of
result in greater clarity. Based on the evidence of codes be easy to follow and quick to use. This is, of
11
course, understandable since they wish to result has been that the original rather
minimise design time – a point that is increasingly straightforward concept of a pair of design
strongly made in response to the pressures of fee formulae, one to cover stud failure and one to
competition and practice economics. On the other cover concrete failure, have been progressively
hand, procedures that lead to the most modified with empirical coefficients, only for new
competitive outcomes are, of course, technically decks to appear that present further problems.
satisfying as well as being likely to be attractive to One way of addressing this would have been to
clients. Those responsible for the supply of design have retained the original pair of formulae but to
software to the industry are also likely to be have required designers to obtain modification
attracted to procedures designed to provide the coefficients for whatever particular deck they were
most competitive outcome, recognising the using, with the expectation that manufacturers
opportunities provided to them by the many steps would have to provide these as part of their sales
and substantial calculations. This is clearly an area information. This would avoid the current situation
in which both attributes have their virtues but the in which various interpretations of formulae not
two are clearly incompatible. Some codes have originally intended to cover that particular
attempted to address this by providing more than situation have been made. It would also encourage
one procedure – the so called tier approach – but the appearance of new forms of decking delivering
this has not really become popular. By far the most superior performance and backed up by their own
satisfactory way of addressing the issue is to devise customised and correct design procedure.
procedures capable of implementation in a simple
fashion but which, when the occasion dictates, may 4 CODES AND THE WIDER DESIGN
also be implemented in a more extensive form ENVIRONMENT
leading to a more competitive result. A simple
example would be a design formula in which during
4.1 Globalisation
the first pass all of the coefficients could be set as
either zero or unity but which for a more Preparing codes on an international basis with the
competitive answer would require precise values aim that usage be spread over a wide geographical
to be calculated. area is clearly attractive. Apart from the obvious
example of the Structural Eurocodes, whose
3.3 Requirements vs. How they should be coverage now extends to some 26 countries as
met illustrated in figure 2, the well established Australia
– New Zealand – USA – Canada – Mexico
Merely listing the requirements is, of course, the collaboration on successive editions of a code for
essence of the new generation of Performance the design of cold-formed steel structures points to
Based Codes. In its starkest form this concept a growing trend.
merely states what is required and expects the user
to find ways of demonstrating that this has been The original 1975 justification of the European
achieved. Such codes clearly encourage innovation, Commission, as stated in the following six points:
both in terms of how the requirement might be · Provide common design criteria.
met and in the approach used to justify this. They · Ensure common understanding.
are, however, more difficult for the user since, by · Facilitate exchanges of people and
definition, almost all the guidance e.g. determining products.
the strength for a given column arrangement, has
· Facilitate marketing across borders.
to be located elsewhere. There are some topics for
· Provide a common basis for R & D.
which this type of approach might, however, now
· Increase competitiveness.
be thought to be more appropriate. For example,
the design of shear connectors, when used in
conjunction with metal decking, is complicated by
the impossibility of anticipating each and every
development in terms of decking profile [2]. The
12
Aligned with modern Too sophisticated for

approaches e.g. “simple applications”
computer based
methods
Benefits – Breadth of Coverage
Claim Risk
More comprehensive Too broad coverage of
than all previous minority items at
codes expense of fuller
treatment of frequently
used topics
Suitable for wide Arrangement of
applications material makes harder
to use for
straightforward topics
Figure 2. European Union - Member States, No duplication Need to consult several
Admission and Candidate Countries documents for even
Remains valid today. To these might be added a simplest task e.g.
composite construction
seventh:
Benefits - Wide Acceptance
· Making best use of the available code Claim writing Still some “local
writing resources. process/legal practices”; risk of little
position ensures relevance if only
Given the increasing pressures on the limited acceptance by all working locally
groups of people with the expertise, energy and members
inclination to work on code development, this is a Aids export of Also aids others
significant issue. For the reasons mentioned earlier designs and products importing
code preparation is becoming a more challenging
Common practice May invalidate existing
task, whilst the climate of employment is reducing e.g. design based on earlier testing not in
opportunities for those suited to it to make testing accordance with new
themselves available. procedures
A more personal view of the stated benefits Examples of the assistance required by three
balanced by a series of corresponding potential groups of code users are given in table 2.
risks to a country making the transition from
National Codes to Eurocodes is given as table 1. Table 2. Implementation in the uk – needs of
Clearly in order that the former be released, the industry
latter should be minimised.
Designers and regulators
Table 1. Potential benefits and perceived risks. · Need access to a clear jargon free
programme with dates of
Benefits - Technically the most advanced
- publication of the Eurocodes
Claim Risk - publication of the National
Based on most up to Unfamiliar to users – Annexes
date view on topics too complex? - availability of guidance
covered documents
- availability of design aids
Consensus of expert Political “horse trading”
views across Europe opportunistic - withdrawal of British Standards
influences
13
Academia and those providing training The quote actually refers to the introduction of a
· Require new version of BS449 – a UK Code that some would
- Teaching Notes have us believe to be a paragon of all that is needed
- Access to a concise version of today.
the Eurocodes Rather than dismiss this resistance to change,
- Textbooks somewhat more effort should be made to address
- Background information the underlying reasons and to try to anticipate and
confront them during the transitional phase.
Software Producers
Writing a couple of years ago [3], the author
· Final drafts of suggested:
- Eurocodes
- National Annexes · Any newly introduced document is, by
- Residual Standards definition, unfamiliar.
- NCCI · New is often perceived as technically more
· Interpretation issues resolved complex.
· This leads to the expectation that it would
Moreover, a valuable lesson from the Eurocode be more difficult to use.
operation for those looking to work internationally · The consequence is to presume longer
is: All previous estimates of timescales should be design times.
extended – significantly so. · Since there is no expectation of additional
fee income, the presumption is that
4.2 Transition profitability would be eroded.
Writing in the Introduction to a UK Government And followed this with ways in which these
Report prepared by a group chaired by the author concerns might be assuaged.
the then President of the Institution of Structural
Engineers described the transition from a design · A properly orchestrated campaign to both
environment based on National Codes to one prepare the community for a new
based on the Eurocodes as: document and to explain how it should be
used, including the provision of
“Representing a much greater change than the illustrations where it confers genuine
introduction of Limit State Codes or the shift to benefits as compared with its predecessor
Metric Units”. is clearly crucial.
It is sometimes stated that nowadays publication of · More comprehensive coverage, leaving
a new Structural Code doesn’t mark the end of the fewer situations that need to be resolved
process but the beginning of a far more substantial “outside the code” is normally thought
task. For the great majority of the Structural beneficial by practitioners.
Engineering Community the preparation of a new · Time spent on making the procedures easy
Structural Code does not affect them directly. to follow and, above all, quick to
However, when it is published working practices implement should lessen the view of the
have to change as use of the new document new document as being “difficult”.
replaces the established regime. Whilst this might · Identification during the introductory
be regarded as a relatively recent concern, the period that problem areas in the previous
following quote from over half a century ago shows document have been recognised, accepted
that change was never welcome: and dealt with in an improved fashion
should demonstrate that users’ concerns
“The onset of new or revised regulations invariably
(with the previous code) have been
heralds a trying period of the unfortunate people
addressed.
who have to work such regulations. This applies
both to those who have to comply with, and those · Well in advance of the introduction, clear
who have to administer, such regulations”. views on the reasons why the new
14
document is needed and illustrations of definition, planning, securing resources and

how it will make the lives of designers management of the process. Fundamental to all
easier should create a climate of this is the original brief. How often in the past have
anticipation – rather than dread. those responsible for a new code spent significant
time and thought upfront carefully defining the
More thought, time and resource should, in the
precise brief and then working in a way that
author’s view, be given to this aspect of the
imposes some discipline in adhering to it? Whilst it
transition. Simply publishing the document and
is not apparent, the definitive answer experience
then assuming that the community will welcome
suggests: infrequently - certainly in the ways that
the change, identify new benefits and readily alter
are necessary. Think of several well publicized
its working practice is, with today’s substantial
software projects - usually commissioned by
structural codes plus the large volume of
governments - that have either overrun
supporting infrastructure linked directly to each
spectacularly or simply failed to deliver because of
document, not an acceptable approach. Nor is the
either an inadequate initial specification or failure
situation helped when those speaking at events
to adhere to the original specification or both. The
designed to introduce the community to new codes
disparity between promised completion dates and
give as the justification “because it gives a more
actual publication of codes points to the same
consistent level of reliability” or “because it is
phenomenon of specification drift.
technically more up to date”, rather than
emphasising potential user benefits such as “more Of course, some of those closely involved with code
comprehensive in its coverage”, “containing easier preparation – possibly too closely to appreciate the
to use treatments for commonly encountered totality of the situation – might well argue that
topics”, “reducing the scope for varying code writing is a different sort of activity, citing
interpretations” or “providing more economical reasons such as ;
solutions for certain topics”.
· It is not clear at the outset what is needed
· It is necessary to include the latest material
4.3 Balance
· It is not possible to predict the outcome of
All the foregoing analysis of the production, use of the comment process
and support for structural codes points to one · Using volunteers for at least part of the
factor being the most important – balance. This is task means that they must be given
defined as juggling: freedom of expression
· Economy - both in terms of the documents Each of these can be logically countered. Realising
use and of the results it produces what is needed and how it is to be produced is
· Simplicity - for the users fundamental to any project. Being as clear as
· Comprehensiveness - coverage of all that is possible on all aspects in advance and then sticking
considered essential to the essence of the plan by keeping the variations
· Flexibility - allowing users with differing in check –especially in terms of content - should
degrees of skill and confidence both deliver codes aligned with the original
opportunities to use these as the situation carefully thought out requirements and to a
dictates realistic timescale.
· Innovation - allowing those with suitable
knowledge and skill to follow the spirit 4.4 Participation
without being constrained by the letter Codes of practice are an “easy target” for
· Reality - carefully using the finite resources complaint by structure engineers. “Too complex”,
available to produce the document to “does not cover what is needed”, “too expensive”,
achieve the best result “difficult to follow”, “poorly organised”, “ not
Presented like this delivering a new structural code needed” are the sort of comments overheard
is, of course, an engineering project – requiring frequently in conversation, read in the
correspondence columns of Engineering Journals
15
and Magazines and offered during discussion 5 ADDRESSING THE QUESTION

sessions at meetings and courses. Yet normal
practice – certainly as enshrined in the BSI rules - is This paper is entitled: Do Structural Codes Stifle
that newly prepared documents must be exposed Creativity? Thus far it has attempted to explain
to public comment. Thus a draft document is something of the Code writing process and the
published, its existence is broadcast and comments challenges faced in satisfying all parties as well as
invited for a defined period. Furthermore, these making some personal suggestions for improving
same rules then require that a panel consider every matters. But what of the central question?
comment, produce a written response to each and Last year IABSE held a Spring Conference in Bath,
that the full committee then decide on the UK. Initially nothing had been planned but a casual
modifications to the Draft to incorporate these conversation at the September 2016 Conference in
comments. Of course, the panel is entitled to state Stockholm quickly became a ‘Why don’t we see
“not agreed” against those comments it regards as what might be done ?’ challenge. Before the end of
unjust, incorrect or irrelevant but all such decisions the Conference we had a title, a venue, a
must be defended in committee discussion. Conference chair and a goodly number of
Experience in the UK suggests that a ‘volunteers’ ready to assist. Because of the short
disappointingly small proportion – perhaps less preparation time the emphasis was on discussion,
then 5% - of public comments are incisive and well participation and producing some outcomes rather
thought through and have the potential to improve than formal presentations and comprehensive
the document. Given the opportunities provided by written material. One discussion session was
the comment process, it is a matter for concern entitled: Do Structural Codes Stifle Creativity?
that it appears to be underused – compounded by
the frequency with which points emerge from It was organised by the author, with a panel of 4
individuals after completion of the process that experienced designers working in different sectors
they did not choose to input when they had the who each made a short opening statement, the
chance. Unsurprisingly, there is an inverse brief for which was to be provocative. The
relationship between those who complain most expectation was that these would stimulate a
and the input received from them during the variety of views from the floor and from within the
comment period. panel and that the chair would need considerable
diplomacy to ensure a reasoned discussion. The
Some series of codes go further in exposing result was a surprising degree of consensus. Firstly,
themselves before the formal introduction. For it was the general view that if we did not have
example, the Structure Eurocodes were available centrally agreed and produced Codes then we
for open “trial use” for several years in the ENV would need something very like them to record the
stage. Unlike BSI Drafts for Comment, which should detailed technical material - essentially data and
not be used in earnest, the ENVs were intended for procedures - necessary to support structural
application on real projects. Scant evidence that design. Secondly it was agreed that this was far
this happened is available; often situations in which better looked after by a representative and
it did were somewhat contrived through respected body than by Government or the private
Government projects paying for an alternative sector. Thirdly and surprisingly forcefully it was the
design. widely held consensus that well informed, able and
Perhaps the profession should involve itself more confident structural designers would always find a
in this comments or trial use opportunity as a way way to work within the spirit if not the letter of the
of assisting and informing the preparation of codes. Codes and would be able to demonstrate to the
Professional bodies might give greater publicity to satisfaction of others the integrity of their designs.
the availability of each new document and The essence of the debate and the main outcomes
encourage their members to participate. But in the were captured in a short summary prepared by
end it comes down to individuals and companies Fiona Walport, a PhD student at Imperial who was
committing time and interest in preference to in the audience, as:
doing something else.
16
“This was a well-attended seminar chaired by the development of the codes, but that codes
Professor David Nethercot on the thought- require a maturity of research. A question from the
provoking topic of design codes and whether they audience led to a discussion on the importance of
stifle creativity. There were four speakers who gave company culture, and the continuing challenge to
short talks presenting their views before opening pass on experience and practice to early-career
to the audience. The key messages from the engineers. Compliance with codes is fundamental,
speakers were: and the way we respond to ideas is as important as
the original thinker and idea.
Jon Shanks – “Codes are bad but other things are
worse” Engineers cannot necessarily accept everything at
face value, and need to understand what the basis
Steve McKechnie – “Codes keep us honest” –
was in the development of the code. With
“Demonstrate adequacy of structure to person on
intelligent understanding and technical capability,
other side of the table”
the seminar concluded that codes do not stifle
Peter Curran – “They are two parallel areas, with creativity, and instead can be used in parallel to
no overlap” – “Dangerous use of codes without lack develop safe, efficient and innovative structures.”
of understanding is the real issue”
Oliver Broadbent – “Codes are a yardstick to 6 CONCLUSIONS
measure acceptability” – “Even within rules we can Structural Codes have been and may be expected
be creative” – “Codes and creativity should be to continue to be an important feature in the work
viewed in parallel and are complementary” of professional structure engineers. Through an
From very early on there was an overwhelmingly examination of the process of their preparation,
clear conclusion that no, industry codes do not introduction and support, the case for the
stifle creativity. This was continuously concluded resources devoted to these tasks being better
with the caveat that engineers must have a aligned with their importance has been developed.
thorough fundamental understanding of first Whilst it might be argued that the profession gets
principles, and good engineering judgement. the Codes (and code support) it deserves, the
influential nature of such documents means that
Codes have a periodic review every 10 years with there is a collective responsibility on the profession
intermediate reviews at 5 years. David made the to strive for an ever improving planning, process
point that we must constantly review and change and product, leading to better practicality,
things, but that the codes reflect what is performance and profitability.
appropriate guidance in the prevailing
circumstances. Codes of practice cannot cover any Based on a recent snapshot discussion of the
situation in any point of time for any purpose – paper’s central question, the answer was a
engineers have a responsibility! surprisingly forceful No.
Some comments from the audience included one
7 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
from David Rush, who said that “codes make things
legal, engineers make things safe. Codes can be In putting this paper together the author has drawn
dangerous but do not inherently stifle creativity”. on some 40 years experience that has involved
This led to a discussion on the creativity aspect, collaborating with many individuals. Each has had
with Oliver commenting that “Codes limit the an influence – whether they realised this at the
degrees of freedom to make things easier, and in time – and has therefore in some way made a
effect are a jig”, and that “codes are in fact an contribution to the content. The views expressed
amazing enabler of creativity, allowing for extra are, however, solely the responsibility of the
time for innovation with the knowledge that safety author.
is take account of”.
Steve made the point that we have a collective 8 References
responsibility as a body of engineers to feed into [1] A.R. Flint, The history, scope, aims and
17
principles of BS54000 in relation to steel

and composite bridges., Des. Steel Bridg.
(1981) 1–10.
[2] R.P. Johnson, Shear connection in beams
that support composite slabs--BS 5950 and
EN 1994-1-1., Struct. Eng. 83.22. (2005) 21–
24.
[3] D.A. Nethercot, -Structural steel design
codes: Vehicles for improving practice or for
implementing research?., in: Fourth Int.
Conf. Adv. Steel Struct., 2005.
18

The Second Penang Bridge Project: Planning, Design, Construction

and Maintenance
Dato’ Ir. Dr. Ismail bin Mohamed Taib
Former Managing Director of Jambatan Kedua Sdn Bhd, Malaysia

Contact: ismailmohamedtaib@gmail.com

Introduction
The 24 km dual carriageway Sultan Abdul Halim bridge project, Penang’s second link was
completed in 2014. On the island end is Batu Maung which houses the Penang International
Airport. On the mainland is Batu Kawan. The main navigation span consist of a cast-in-situ cable
stayed concrete bridge with span arrangement of 117.5m +240m + 117.5m. The approach bridge
consist of 55m precast segmental box girders constructed span by span supported on high
damping rubber bearing on reinforced concrete piers. Bored piles of 2m diameter are used for the
cable stayed bridge and 1.5m at the mudflats of Batu Kawan. Driven 1.0m diameter spun piles are
used at most of the pier locations and 1.6m diameter steel pipe piles at chainages where very high
piers and deep seabed level is encountered. The 7 km land expressway on the Batu Kawan side
traverses on high embankment build along low lying ground of very soft compressible ground
extending up to 23m thick. Long term post construction settlement of 50mm for the first 20 years
of service requires longer period of surcharge for both the prefabricated vertical drains (PVD) and
vibro stone columns (SC). PVD and SC were design for embankment height up to 4.5m and 10m,
piled embankment for higher bridge approaches. Once a vast and vacant territory, Batu Kawan is
now linked to major highways to other states in the peninsular by the land expressway. In addition
to the high number of research facilities that are being set up and with the state government is
creating and education hub, making Batu Kawan a prime location for further development. This
paper shall describe in detail the planning, design, construction and maintenance of the Second
Penang Bridge project.
Keywords: Second Penang Bridge; concession; cable stayed bridge; precast segmental; high
strength concrete.

1 Feasibility Studies 1.1 The Northern Route

Based on feasibility study report by HSSI & Yachiyo Linking the proposed Penang Outer Ring Road
Engineering in June 2001, three alternative routes (PORR) at Bagan Jermal on the island and
were proposed namely the Northern Route, the Butterworth Outer Ring Road (BORR) at Bagan
Mid-Channel Route and the Southern Route. Ajam on the mainland and continue to North-
(Figure 1) South Expressway. Land acquisition of heavily
urbanized and densely populated area which
involve commercial buildings, school, residential
houses, food hawkers, burial grounds, farms, light
19
industries and mosque among others. The total Bridge currently seen in Butterworh and the
length of crossing is 9.2 km. However restricted by island.
the Royal Malaysian Air Force (RMAF) aviation
requirement and the post Panamax ships of 60m 1.4 Estimated Cost
air draught of the Penang port requirements.
The initial estimated costs by the 2001 feasibility
study is shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Initial Estimated Cost
Estimated
Estimated Estimated
Link Total
Crossing Link
Island Estimated
Route Cost Mainland
Cost [RM
[RM [RM
[RM million]
million] million]
million]
Northern 1,790 215 212 2,337
Mid-
2,258 135 50 2,572
Channel
Southern 2,079 24 347 2,582
1.5 Decision made

The finding of study presented in the Interim
Report indicate the Northern Route to be the
most viable alternative. However, the alignment
of the Southern Route was finally decided upon by
Figure 1. Feasible alternate routes the government. The decision was to promote the
Combination of low-level bridge and 2.15m long socio-economics growth in the south that would
immersed tube tunnel is considered for the main provide a balanced development across Penang
crossing to overcome the above requirements. state.
1.2 The Mid-Channel Route 2 Project Construction Details

Linking Georgetown with the Butterworth-Kulim Jambatan Kedua Sdn. Bhd. (JKSB), a wholly owned
Expressway (BKS). The total length is 8 km long company of the Minister of Finance, Incorporated
crossing which include the 2.86 km long undersea was appointed as the concessionaire for the
tunnel. Similar to the Northern Route the Second Penang Bridge Project in August 2008. The
immersed tunnel is the only option. It cut across project was managed by JKSB’s in-house project
the ferry service route and an existing 32” management team. The selected option was
diameter undersea water pipe. Relocation of the originally a relatively straight bridge but the final
pipe is inevitable. Acquisition of premium curvy bridge alignment was adopted in the detail
residential and commercial premises will be design due to constraint arisen from South
necessary. Channel tidal currents at Pulau Jerejak on the
island, the Great Kra Mudflats and the West
1.3 The Southern Route Channel tidal currents at Pulau Aman of the
Linking Bayan Lepas Expressway at Batu Maung on mainland. A dual carriageway of 3.5m + 2.4m
the island with Batu Kawan on mainland and shoulder and 3.0m motorcycle lane on each side
ended at North-South Expressway at KM 154. This was adopted on the main bridge.
alternative involves a 24km crossing in which
16.8km crosses the Straits of Penang. Provide 2.1 Work Package Details.
opportunity to replicate the successful pattern of Construction work for the project was initiated by
development at the proximity of the Penang Package 1 on 8 November 2008 and last but not
20
least to be completed by Package 2 on 30 Thus the main bridge is a cable stayed bridge with
September, 2013. China Harbour, Engineering a prestressed concrete deck girder supported by
Company (CHEC) and UEM Builders (UEMB) are two planes of cables (Figure 3). The span
the contractors for Package 1 and 2 at RM2.2 and arrangement is 117.5m + 240m + 117.5m. The
RM1.55 billion respectively (Figure 2.) The total width of the deck is 35m and depth is 2.5m.
Independent Check Engineer is ARUP Hong Kong. A diaphragm beam is designed at every 6m with
Other packages are by local consultants and rib width of 350mm.

Figure 2. Work Package Diagram
contractors. Practical completion of the project Figure 3. Main Cable Stayed Bridge
was mid-February, 2014 and officially opened to A fan type cable arrangement was chosen for
traffic on 28 February 2014. The tendered cost of aesthetical reason. The cable spacing is 6m at the
the construction was RM4.25 billion and deck end and vertical spacing 2.5m at the pylon
completed at a final cost about RM4.5 billion. end. They are anchored into the pylon using a
Stringent quality control on production and site saddle. The deck girder is cast monolithically into
works were implemented. Factors affecting the the pylon crossbeam. Prestressing tendons are
quality are studied and preventive actions taken used inside the crossbeam piers. The 30m height
with continuous improvement. This ensured requirement for the navigational channel resulted
smooth project delivery with quality guaranteed, to a high and slender pylon, which allows the
time saving and cost control. necessary flexibility for thermal movements
The project has earned numerous local and without bearing to be installed.
international awards including the environmental The H-shaped pylons are supported by reinforced
Prime Minister’s Hibiscus for Special Project concrete pile caps and bored piles of 2.3m
Award and the Brunel Medal Award 2015 by the diameter with steel casing to a depth of 36m and
Institution of Civil Engineers, UK for outstanding 2.0m diameter socketed into solid granite
civil engineering achievement. bedrock. Each pylon was design with 21 numbers
of piles and the transition pier has 12 numbers
3 Main Navigation Span piles.
3.1 Structural Layout of Bridge 3.2 Design

The feasibility study recommended a 3-span light The bridge was designed in accordance to BS5400-
weight concrete or steel balanced cantilever box 4:1990. To allow for additional flexibility to cater
girder bridge for the main navigation span. The for future high traffic volumes, JKSB has requested
constraint identified being that the Penang Airport the future removal of New Jersey Barrier between
aviation height restriction on the top level the motorcycle lane and the main carriageway. As
structure cannot be more than 48m. However, a result of the increase in traffic loadings, the
upon further consideration, the exception was depth of the bridge deck has to be increased from
given during the detail design stage. 2.5m to 2.8m
21
The Second Penang Bridge has a stay cable system reinforcement cage. Concreting was carried out
where the stays are only anchored at deck level using a tremie pipe.
and run through saddles cast in the pylon. This
It was envisaged that since steel fenders were
configuration gives a direct introduction of the
installed around the pile caps, a scheme then
vertical components of the stays into the pylon.
evolved for carrying out the substantial concrete
Hence size of the pylon can be reduced improving
pours using the steel fenders casing as formwork.
the appearance of the bridge.
The working platform and steel fenders was
The construction sequence is based on the lowered to the design level and secured in
balanced cantilever construction method with position under water pressure and tidal waves.
form traveler. The design life of the stay cables is The working platform is now the soffit formwork
60 years and are all fully replaceable. The design 1.2m – 1.8m underwater self compacted lean
permit the replacement of one cable removed or mass concrete layer. Water was pumped out
rupture due to vehicle fire. However without before the installation of reinforcement. The
falsework, heavy vehicles are not allowed on the concrete casting was carried out in two stages.
bridge if two adjacent cables are missing. Several mitigation measures were adopted to
control the temperature including using
3.3 Concrete pulverized fuel ash (PFA) cement and partially
substituting ground granulated blast furnace slag
The concrete for the construction of the cable
(GGBS) for cementitious material and crushed ice
stayed bridge was supplied from a mixing plant
added to the water. Four to six layers of cooling
built on the temporary platform near the main
pipe were installed to absorb the internal heat.
piers. The Table 2 below gives the minimum
requirements for concrete grade. Durability The first and second section of the transition piers
requirement in accordance to BS EN 1992-1- and pylons were constructed by slip-forming.
1:2004. High performance concrete with Rapid Hydraulic self-climbing formwork was used for the
Chloride Permeability Test of RCPT less than 800 subsequent construction. The formwork and
coulombs in 56 days was specified. tubular steel falsework for the crossbeam were
ready once the self-climbing formwork had passed
Table 2. Minimum Requirement of Concrete Grade
beyond the crossbeam. The box girder crossbeam
Concrete Nominal Crack was cast in two stages. Pylon construction was
Location
Grade cover Width
modified by a varying precamber values in each of
[mm] [mm]
the X, Y, Z coordinates with a maximum of -
Deck C55/20 45 0.20 130mm, 5mm and 35mm respectively at the top.
50
Deck segment M00, M01 at pylons and S18, S17 at
55 (sea
spray transition piers were cast on falsework. Other
Pylon C50/20 zone 0.15 segments were constructed by using form
12m travelers. Each of the side spans consist of 19,
above
HWL) 3.0m deck segment, the main span consist of two
Transitio groups of 19 deck segment and one 2.0m main
C40/20 50 0.15
n Pier span closure segment. The weight of a typical deck
Pile caps C40/20 75 0.10 segment is 426 tonne and the self weight of the
Bored
form traveler is approximately 175 tonne. Deck
C40/20 75 0.10 segment were constructed in two stages, girder
Piles
edge beams and followed by diaphragm and deck
The borehole for the bored piles were supported slab. The erection cycle is 12 days inclusive of first
by steel permanent casing, whilst the subsequent tensioning of cable stays after casting of edge
boring in sand and beyond by bentonite slurry. beams, second tensioning after casting of deck
Extensive efforts were made to ensure accuracy slab and diaphragm and the third tensioning after
and quality during installation of the steel folding and launching of the form traveler.
22
3.4 Stay Cables parameters as well as workmanship of remedial

works.
VSL was responsible for the supply and installation
of stay cables based on the setting out
3.6 Ship Impact
information from the main contractor. The cable
have a guaranteed lifespan of 100 years and The sea bed at the main navigation span consist of
depending of cable length and minimum cable soft to very soft marine clay to a depth of 20 –
force have Gensui damping system installed. 30m. Soil treatment for the foundation soil to bear
However JKSB requirement is to have all cables the man-made protection island will be necessary
equip with dampers. Cable units vary in length and its consolidation time is substantial in the
between 22m to 131m and in capacity from 37 to critical path of the construction sequence. As such
73 numbers 0.6” strands. Parallel strand system an energy dissipation steel box buffer system
was used with galvanized waxed mono strands (steel fender) evolved as a collision protection
together with third generation saddles to enable system, instead of man-made islands. Further,
single strand installation and replacement. steel fender is more environmental friendly as it
would reduce the blockage and impact on the
Third generation saddles has individual holes
tidal flow of the South Channel.
formed through pylon for each strand of a stay.
Differential axial force are transferred between The ship impact assessment was based on
left and right side of pylon through friction. Two AASHTO international guidelines. Second Penang
independent corrosion barriers are provided by Bridge is considered a critical bridge and
the gel, high performance concrete and the steel evaluated the risk of potential failure is not
box. Both anchorages of the saddle stay are greater than 1 in 10,000 years. The shallow South
stressing anchorages located at the bridge deck’s Channel is occasionally utilised by coastal
edge beam. Several stressing steps are required shipping, thus a Design Vessel of 4,500 DWT was
for force adjustment and fine tuning during deck specified for the navigational channel. Away from
construction to control the stresses in the the navigational channel, an empty runaway 1,540
concrete. DWT barge also has been adopted drifting at 1.5
knots. This exceeded any of the local vessels
3.5 Bored Piles currently identified as navigating in the local area.
The quality of the shaft concrete of the bored piles
was checked using cross-hole sonic logging (CSL)
4 Approach spans
to ASTM D670. There were 6 access tube provided
for each pile, 4 of them 50mm diameter and the 4.1 Driven Spun Piles, Steel Tubular Piles
other two 100mm. The later were the access tube and Bored Piles
also used for interface coring. For those pile that Based on the soil strata and design loading, a
had been found containing defects in Class II or III, combination of driven 1.0m diameter prestressed
remedial work were adopted to repair those piles. spun piles, 1.6m diameter steel tubular piles and
Class IV piles were rejected. 1.5m diameter bored piles are proposed for the
Interface coring was required for all bored piles as pier foundation. Spun piles (5200 numbers) with
a verification test on the workmanship of base average length of 58.5m are used for 95% of the
cleaning. There were some piles initially that were location due to economic reasons. The piles are
found to contain imperfections at pile base spun to 78.5Mpa concrete strength and factory
interface and remedial works done. The piles were jointed in Lumut to its full length and transported
toe-socketed 2m to 6m into the granite bedrock at by barge. Steel pipe piles are used at chainages
depths over 100m below seabed. A series of where very deep seabed level and tall piers are
loading test were performed on the trial bored encountered and bored piles at the mudflat
piles (O-cell) and later on production piles adjacent to the mainland. Cathodic protection to
(Statnamic test) in order to verify the design the steel piles was used in light of the aggressive
marine environment. Initial High Strain Dynamic
23
testing (PDA) was carried out with not less than pile caps is 18 days taken in consideration of the
5% of total number of piles. A further 1% of the tides and reinforcement fixing and concrete pour
piles are restrike for Delayed PDA to verify the in the dry. The construction of the 496 low piers
final capacity. Pile head cracking was also involved the fabrication, assembly and erection of
recorded on 1.26% of the spun piles which are an integral set of prefabricated steel forms from
comparable, if not better than accepted pier to crosshead. Several types of steel mould are
international practice. A series of loading tests used, namely for fixed piers, movement joint
were performed to verify the design parameters piers, free piers. These low piers have a height of
and acceptance criteria about 5m from the top of the pile cap to the top
of crosshead.
4.2 Dredging works
There are 80 high piers above 5m to 27.843m to
Most of the piers are located in shallow water of the top of pile head. These piers were constructed
the Great Kra Mudflats. Thus the 270m width of using a layer of prefabricated steel pier modules,
temporary navigation channel -3.0 to -3.5m ACD in a sequence of steel form installation, concrete
need to be dredged for piling and concreting pour, form removal, repeating until the crosshead
works; and transporting and launching of level was reached (Figure 4). The crosshead steel
Segmental Box Girders. A total of approximately forms were then erected, concreting and the steel
12 million m3 was dredged over the entire forms removed. Two floating concrete batching
construction period, which account for more than plants provide each more than 2,500m3 of
10% of the Package 1 cost. Generally, trailing concrete to be supplied at one time.
suction hopper dredger shall be more suitable and
efficient to carry out the dredging works. However
due to strict environmental requirements on the
mud diffusion control, grab dredgers have been
incorporated. The Environmental Impact
Assessment (EIA) approval required the disposal
of the dredged material at Pulau Kendi in the open
seas, some 20km off site. On line Tracking Web
Fleet, discharge and depth sensor were used to
monitor the bottom hopper barges to ensure no
illegal dumping. Also a monthly Independent

Environmental Monitoring and Audit of the water
quality, and Fisheries Impact Assessment, Figure 4. Pier Construction
compliance to Department of Environment (DOE)
and implementation of mitigating measures were 4.4 Segmental Box Girder (SBG)
done quarterly to monitor compliance by the The precast yard for the 8092 precast segmental
various packages at site. However, a token of RM7 box girder units was established close to the
million compensation were still paid to the bridge eastern abutment at Batu Kawan on the
fishermen, without strict compliance and mainland. (Figure 5) The short line casting was
implementation have potential to bear higher carried out in 22 moulds, of which 16 were for
costs to compensate the fishermen. typical segments (5202), deviator segments (1156)
and locator segments (578) and 16 for abutment
4.3 Substructure works segments (196) and pier segments (960). Typical
Generally the pile caps were cast in a two staged segments were cycled in less than 24 hours and
concrete pour. A 1m thick lean mass concrete end segments in 36 hours.
layer was poured as permanent formwork. Six unis The original design including durability
of precast concrete shell were installed as requirements was carried out in accordance to
permanent formwork in the second stage BS5400:4:1990. A higher level of durability was
concrete pour. A typical erection cycle time of the
24
subsequently requested for compliance to BS EN A typical 55m span consist of 14 segments, of

1992-1-1:2004 with 40mm to 50mm cover for which 2 pier segments, 2 deviator segments, a
external faces and 30mm to 40mm cover for locator segment and 12 typical segments. Spans
internal faces. Limit of crack widths from 0.25mm are launched and erected as a simply supported
to 0.20mm on both faces. Thus, the design was span by span arrangement, and then joined by in-
highly optimize with minimum weight of segments situ stiches at piers to form continuous bridge
between 69 and 100 tonnes. modules (Figure 6). It took two years for four
overhead launching gantries to complete the SBG
A change in the module arrangement from a 15
erection of the approach bridge.
span module to a 6 span module. A requirement
to change from dry joints to glued joints. A zero

Figure 5. Segmental Box Girder Casting Yard
tension stress is required across all joints. JKSB Figure 6. Span by span segmental box girder
allowed for the use a hybrid prestressing launching
combination of external tendons and internal
continuity tendons. During the design review 5 Land Expressway
process, ICE highlighted that Package 1 spun piles
The land expressway traverse along the low-lying
is overstressed under the 2500 year earthquake
area with soft marine clay extended up to 23m.
event. A resolution between JKSB, ICE and the
The ground water table was very high close to the
contractors, required Package 2 to change from
ground surface, where part of the site inundated
mechanical pot bearings to High Damping Natural
with water. The embankment height varies from
Rubber earthquake bearings
2.5m to 11m. The embankment was designed to
Concrete durability requirement is RCPT of 1000 have a very minimal post-construction settlement.
Coulombs at 28 days. The design concrete grade is Based on the soil investigation carried out, the
C55/20, with an early strength requirement of 15 subsoil profile can be generalized as follows in
MPa for mould striking after 10 hours and 25 MPa order of descending depth:
for lifting. High early strength is achieved by
addition of silica fume and ggbs cement. Together • Very soft to soft Marine CLAY with thickness
this requirements resulted in an average 28 day ranging from 12m to 23m. Generally thin sand
strength of +90 MPa. lenses/stiff stratum of approximately 1m thick
were encountered at depth 11m below
The quality of the segments was monitored on a
ground. Thus the soft stratum was divided
continuous basis. Quality issues are discussed at
into two i.e. upper CLAY and lower Clay
weekly coordination meetings to keep production
• Medium to dense silty SAND/ stiff to very stiff
team aware of the current status, with a view to
sandy SILT, embedded up to 70m below
eliminate poor practice or other defect source.
ground
JKSB also carry out independent quality reviews.
25
• At some locations, hard sandy SILT/ clay or stability problems occurs during construction. Due
very dense silty SAND layer was encountered to low shear strength of soft clay, embankment
at depths between about 63m to 66m. need to be built in stages with final rest period in
between of 2 to 6 months, so that the increase in
The initial settlement design criteria in 2007 was
strength of the soil as consolidation under the
to achieve 90% primary consolidation during
embankment’s weight occurs will enhance
construction and 400mm post construction
embankment stability. Counterweight berm and
settlement for the first 7 years which is the
high strength geotextile was also applied to
accepted norm in Malaysia. At the tender stage,
maintain the stability of embankment. High
this was tightened to achieve 100% primary
surcharging (1.5m to 2.2m) was adopted in order
consolidation settlement under permanent load
to accelerate settlement during construction
during construction, and post-construction
stages. In addition, pumping from well points
settlement was limited to 250mm for the first 5
installed was also carried out to increase the rate
years. However by 2011 as the work progress, the
of water discharge at some location.
design requirements were further tightened by
JKSB with post-construction settlement of 50mm The design of stone column was based on the
for the first 20 years of service. The Malaysian method proposed by Balaam and Booker (1980)
Highway Authority (MHA) has also imposed a and H. J. Priebe (1995). The stone column were
requirement of the International Roughness Index generally terminated at soil layer with Qc of at
(IRI) of 2.0m/ km of the pavement and bridges least 1 MPa, 24m at the approach to the land
prior to service. bridge, 18m elsewhere and 12m at the PLUS
interchange. The embankment was also
The design require secondary compression to be
constructed in two stages with a rest period of 2.5
partly removed, as the initial secondary
month. Surcharging (1.5m to 2.2m) and basal
compression would be relatively large and then
reinforcement of high strength geotextile or
reduces with time. It requires high surcharging in
geogrid depending on the height of embankment,
order to accelerate the settlement and partially
were also employed to accelerate settlement and
remove the initial secondary settlement. The
maintain embankment stability. Data loggers
effect of the vertical drains will be to accelerate
recorded the work done for each of the PVD and
settlement and this was based on the work of
SC installations (Figure 7).
Barron (1948). The design was also based on the
reduction in rate of secondary compression
proposed by Ladd (1991).
In general, there were three types of ground
treatment employed:
• Prefabricated Vertical Drains (PVD) was
design for embankment of up to 4.5m
high, with staged construction and
controlled rate of filling,
• Dry Vibro Stone Column (SC) for
embankment between 4.5m and 10m
high, with controlled rate of filling, and
• Piled Embankment (PE) for embankment
higher than 10m near bridge approaches. Figure 7. PVD and stone column dimension
The drains were generally terminated at soil layer Geotechnical instruments have been installed to
with Qc of at least 1 MPa. Embankment on PVD monitor the performance of ground treatment
treated ground was designed to be constructed in during construction and where possible, post
2 or 3 stages and according to fill height with construction. Generally, rod settlement gauges
interim rest period of 2 months to ensure that no and ground surface markers, inclinometers and
26
pneumatic piezometers were installed at 100m performance 0f PVD treated embankment since
and 200m intervals respectively, a further 2 has been excellent; however several stretches of
months rest period was maintained in order to the SC treated ground needed more
achieved the required post construction counterweight berm before reprofiling and has
settlement of 50mm in 20 years before laying the since been performing satisfactorily.
pavement layers. Based on monitoring results, the

recorded settlement generally ranges from 1.5m
to 1.8m at PVD treated ground (maximum 2.0m)
and 0.9m to 1.5m at SC treated ground. The

Figure 8 Island view of Second Penang Bridge
A Structural Health Monitoring System (SHMS)
6 Other Ancillaries Work was installed for monitoring and evaluation of
Two Toll Plazas, the Second Penang Bridge Toll Second Penang Bridge under its in-service
Plaza and the PLUS Toll Plaza are required for the condition. The SHMS of over 500 sensors included
collection of tolls. The previous toll plaza, surau weather stations, corrosion cells, accelerometers,
and JKSB administrative building is certified dynamic and static strain gauges, global
Platinum of the Green Building Index (GBI). The positioning systems, dynamic weigh-in-motion
Traffic Control and Surveillance System (TCSS) stations, embankment settlement gauges and
were installed and integrated with the Penang speed radar. It is use to monitor environmental
Bridge via Variable Messaging Signboard (VMS) loads, operation loads, the bridge structural
and Dynamic Road Signage (DRS). Other minor characteristics and the bridge response. Thus, in a
works include the street lighting for the PLUS far field earthquake event or ship impact, the
trumpet interchange on the mainland. structural safety can be immediately evaluated by
comparing the before and after structural
7 Operation and Maintenance performance of the bridge.
The measures taken during the design and The information provided by the SHMS together
construction to provide a project with minimal with the Bridge Management System (BMS) and
maintenance. The bridge structure has also been regular manual inspection give a detailed
provided with the necessary facilities for assessment and more realistic maintenance or
operation and maintenance. Three under-bridge repair programme for assets. Other management
gantries has been provided for the cable stayed systems developed included the Highway, the
bridge. Soffit access manhole and walkways are Building, the Mechanical and Electrical, the
provide in the SBG. A service tray is conveniently Landscape and the Accident Information
placed alongside the access walkway. Management System.
27
8 Conclusion
Despite its implementation in a fast track manner,
the Second Penang Bridge project was completed
to the highest quality, considering the health and
safety, cost, sustainability and environmental
considerations (Figure 8).
9 Reference
[1] The Second Penang Bridge: Sustainability
through Innovation in Design by I.
Mohamed Taib. First International Seminar
on the Design and Construction of Second
Penang Bridge, 15-16 Nov. 2011
[2] The Second Penang Bridge: A Glorious
Chapter in Modern Bridge Engineering by R.
Sham et al. ISBN 978-7-112-18371-5.
[3] Construction and Testing on Marine Bridge
Foundation by S. L. Chiu et al. Second
International Seminar on the Design and
Construction of Second Penang Bridge, 28–
29 Nov. 2012
[4] Design, Construction and Monitoring of
embankment for Minimal Settlement by Y. Y
Guo et al. Second International Seminar on
the Design and Construction of Second
Penang Bridge, 28–29 Nov. 2012
[5] Best Management Practices to Minimize
Impacts to Marine Water Quality by R. N. A.
Raja Zainal. Second International Seminar
on the Design and Construction of Second
Penang Bridge, 28–29 Nov. 2012
[6] Sustainability Through Innovation in Design
and Construction: Second Penang Bridge,
Malaysia by I. Mohamed Taib et al. The 36th
IABSE Symposium, Kolkata, 2013
28
Case study on comparison between Chinese and American design of

high-rise RC frame-core-tube structure
Congzhen Xiao, Ziguo Xu, Hao Xia, Jianhui Li, Xiaowu Hou
China Academy of Building Research, Beijing 100013, China
Peng Liu, Song Wen
Arup, Beijing 100020, China
Contact: xiaocongzhen@cabrtech.com
Abstract
Two identical high-rise reinforced concrete (RC) frame-core-tube structures, located in Beijing China
and San Francisco America, respectively, are designed using the Chinese and the American codes.
Methods to determine load, seismic action, and material strength for seismic design in the Chinese
and American codes are presents in this paper, and the major differences of design results are
compared. Elastic response of the two structures are calculated by the mode-superposition
response spectrum method, and the member dimension, dynamic characteristics, displacement,
and reinforcement are compared. Furthermore, the dynamic elastic-plastic behavior is conducted
using 10 sets of earthquake waves to analyze the collapse probability. Results reveal that the two
structures designed by the Chinese and American codes show some differences in the dynamic
behavior, displacement and reinforcement in the boundary restraint elements of shear walls due to
the different design methods in the Chinese and American codes.
Keywords: frame-core-tube structure; seismic design; design comparison; Chinese code; American
code
different design codes, because the seismic

1 Introduction performance of a structure is governed by the
The degree of seismic safety in the Chines code entire system of seismic design codes, from the
presents a critically issue, various comparisons action view, these include the differences of dead
have been performed between the Chinese and load value, live load value and calculation method
foreign codes, these include comparing the site for seismic action; from the resistance view, these
classification and the parameter values of ground include the differences of material strength value,
motions in different codes [1]; comparing the bearing strength value for member, in addition,
calculation formulas of earthquake action in include the various adjustment coefficients and
seismic codes of China and America [2]; and detailing requirements.
comparing the design methods for flexure and axial A typical high-rise RC frame-core-tube structure is
strength of RC columns, shear strength of RC selected to conduct the case study, the building is
beams in Chinese and American codes [3,4]. Most respectively designed using Chinese seismic design
of these comparative studies mainly focused on code and American seismic design code, the
several design parameters, a design formula or a member dimension, dynamic characteristics,
particular phase within the entire seismic design displacement, and reinforcement of the two
procedure, such are insufficient to fully evaluate designs are compared, the reason for the
the design philosophies and the safety margins of performance differences of the two designs is
29
analyzed in order to find improved method for Table 1. Live loads.

seismic design
Application Chinese code American code
2 Design object core outside area 3.0 kN/m2 3.0 kN/m2
To compare the differences in the seismic core inside area 3.0 kN/m2 3.5 kN/m2
performances of the same building based on the
Chinese and the American seismic design codes, a staircase 3.5 kN/m2 2.0 kN/m2
typical high-rise building is selected, as detailed in
Figure 1, the building is a 24-story frame-core-tube equipment room 7.0 kN/m2 7.0 kN/m2
structure, the total height is 98 m, plane size is
44x44m , the distance between outside frame 2.1.2 Seismic load
columns is 8.8 m, the distance between outside
This study focuses on the differences in seismic
frame column and core tube is 12 m, the plane size
performances between the two buildings
for core tube is 21.8x20 m. The height of first floor
respectively designed according to the Chinese and
is 6 m, and height of other floor is 4 m, the height-
the US codes, so it is important to ensure
to-width ratio for the building is 2.2, the height-to-
consistency of the site classification and the seismic
width ratio for the core tube is 4.9. Model C is
hazard level between the two buildings. This site
designed using the Chinese seismic design code,
condition is approximately equal to site class III in
Model A is designed using the American seismic
the case, peak acceleration is 0.4g under
design code,
earthquake (i.e. 2% probability of exceedance in 50
All design details, including the structural years), and shear-wave velocity is 200m /s.
configuration and dimensions, building function,
For model C, this site condition is site class III and
floor height and so on, are identical to the two
the first group in Chinese code, design
models, the member size is respectively
characteristic period of site Tg=0.45s, for model A,
determined according to the design result of
the building is located on site class E, which site
different seismic design code.
coefficients Fa=0.9, Fv=3.23, corresponding design
characteristic period of site To=0.121s, Ts=0.603s.
According to the Code for the Seismic Design of
Buildings GB50011-2010, the fortification level
earthquake (i.e. 10% probability of exceedance in
50 years) is used to define the Seismic Ground
Motion Parameter Zonation Map of China, the
horizontal frequent earthquake (i.e. 63%
probability of exceedance in 50 years) is used as
design frequent earthquake. The peak value of
Figure 1. Building plan. elastic response spectrum of frequent earthquake
is 1/3 that of fortification level earthquake, Chinese
2.1 Design load response spectrum is listed in Figure 2.
2.1.1 Dead load, live load

For the self-weight of the structure, density of
reinforced concrete is 26 kN/m³ according to the
habit of Chinese designer, but is 23.5 kN/m³ for the
American designer.
Live loads are listed in Table 1.
Figure 2. Chinese response spectrum.
30
According to the ASCE 7, maximum considered 0.88 , (2)

earthquake (MCE, 2% probability of exceedance in
(3)
50 years, approximately equal to severe 1.4
earthquake in Chinese code) ground motion maps
The conversion relationship between elastic
to define the earthquake intensity in different
modulus of concrete E_C and standard value of
regions in America, the corresponding design
cubic compressive strength f_(cu,k) is listed in
spectrum is 2/3 times the MCE spectrum. The
follow.
design spectrum is then reduced by the response
modification coefficient R, which is 7 for the RC 10
frame-core-tube structure, American response 34.7 (4)
spectrum is listed in Figure 3. 2.2
,
The mean value of cylinder compressive strength

with cylinder 6 inch (152mm) in diameter and
12inch (305mm) in height is used to determine
strength grade of concrete in American code,
which is approximately equal to the mean value of
prism strength in Chinese code.
/ 1 1.645 (5)
The elastic modulus of concrete is determined
according to American code ACI318-11.
Figure 3. American response spectrum. 4733 ( 41.4 ) (6)
The comparison between Chinese response 3322 6897 (
(7)
spectrum and American response spectrum 41.4 )
indicates that seismic action for member design in Comparison between Chinese and American codes
Chinese code is slightly larger than that of for design strength of concrete is listed in Table 2.
American code.
Table 2. Compressive strength and elastic modulus
2.2 Design parameters for materials of concrete
The strength value of materials has a great effect mean value of elastic modulus
strength
on the design result, the principle of same Code compressive （x104MPa）
grade
strength /MPa
materials is used in this paper, but the strength
grade of materials is respectively determined by C60 50.1 3.55
Chinese C50 42.9 3.35
evaluation standards in China and America, and the
code C40 36.1 3.25
design parameters of materials is respectively
C30 28.0 3.00
determined by Chinese code and American code.
7000psi 48.3 3.29
American 6000psi 41.1 3.04
2.2.1 Concrete
code 5000psi 34.5 2.78
The standard value of cubic compressive strength 4000psi 27.6 2.49
f(cu,k) with 95 percentage degree of confidence and
cubes 150mm in size is used to determine strength 2.2.2 Steel
grade of concrete in Chinese code, the standard
The standard value of yield strength with 95
value of prism strength fck is converted by the
percentage degree of confidence is used to
standard value of cubic compressive strength, the
determine strength grade of steel in Chinese code,
design value of prism strength fc is used in the
the similar rule for strength grade of steel is
structure design.
adopted by the American code.
, , 1 1.645 (1)
31
Table 3. Yield strength of reinforcement. 3 Comparison of the design

code reinforcement
standard value of outcomes
yield strength /MPa
Chinese code HRB400 400 The dimensions and material of the main structural
American code Class 60 414 members in Model C and Model A are compared in
Table 4 and Table 5.
Table 4. Dimensions of the main structural members

Model C Model A
Application
floor dimension floor dimension
L1~L8 400 mm L1~L8 16 in (406 mm)
core outside wall L9~L16 350 mm L9~L16 12 in (305mm)
L17~Roof 300 mm L17~Roof 12 in (305 mm)
L1~L8 300 mm L1~L8 12 in (305 mm)
core inside wall L9~L16 250 mm L9~L16 12 in (305 mm)
L17~Roof 200 mm L17~Roof 8 in (203 mm)
L1 1200 mm x 1200 mm L1~L8 40 in x 40 in (1020 mm x 1020 mm)
L2~L8 1100 mm x 1100 mm L9~L17 32 in x 32 in (813 mm x 813 mm)
frame column
L9~L16 900 mm x 900 mm L18~Roof 24 in x 24 in (610 mm x 610mm)
L17~Roof 700 mm x 700 mm
L1 600 mm x 1200 mm L1~L9 40 in x 40 in (1020 mm x 1020 mm)
frame beam L2~L24 600 mm x 900 mm L9~L17 32 in x 32 in (813 mm x 813 mm)
L18~Roof 24 in x 24 in (610 mm x 610 mm)
L1~L23 110 mm L1~L23 6 in (152 mm)
floorslab
Roof 120 mm Roof 8 in (203 mm)
Table 5. Material of the main structural members.

Model C Model A
Application
floor material floor Material
L1~L9 C60 L1~L8 7000psi
core and coupling beam L10~L17 C50 L9~L16 6000psi
L18~Roof C40 L17~Roof 5000psi
L1~L9 C60 L1~L9 7000psi
frame column L10~L17 C50 L10~L17 6000psi
L18~Roof C40 L18~Roof 5000psi
Floor slab L1~Roof C30 L1~Roof 4000psi
3.1 Main design outcomes

Comparison of main design results between Chinese and American codes is listed in Table 6.
Table 6. Main design results.
index Model C Model A
T1/s 2.56 3.39
T2/s 2.48 3.25
period
T3/s 2.27 2.89
total mass/t 57609 48095
Total area/㎡ 46464 46464
mass
mass area ratio t/㎡ 1.24 1.04
32
1/873 1/126
X direction
allowable limit 1/800 allowable limit 1/50
Maximum story drift ratio
1/843 1/137
Y direction
allowable limit 1/800 allowable limit 1/50
3.2 Main difference of design results and The mass of model C is the sum of the self-weight
analysis of reason of the structure plus 0.5 times the live load, in
accordance with the provisions of 5.1.3 of the Code
The design results indicate that the dimensions of for Seismic Design of Buildings GB50011-2010. The
the main structural members are similar, but the effective mass of model A includes the total dead
structural vibration characteristics and load and four other loads required by Section
displacement are difference in the two building, 12.7.2 in ASCE 7-05, (1) in areas used for storage, a
such a difference is mainly because the calculation minimum of 25% of the floor live load; (2) the
methods are difference in the Chinese and weight of partitions; (3) the total operating weight
American codes. of permanent equipment; and (4) where the flat
roof snow load exceeds 1.44 kN/m2, 20% of the
3.2.1 Structural vibration characteristics
uniform design snow load, irrespective of the
Structural vibration characteristics are mainly actual roof slope.
determined by structural stiffness and mass, but
the calculation methods for structural stiffness and 3.2.2 Structural displacement
mass are difference in the Chinese and American The lateral displacement of model C is evidently
codes. smaller than the value of model A, which indicates
For the stiffness calculation in the Chinese code, that the Chinese code specifies a higher
the calculation formula of elasticity modulus of requirement for lateral displacement.
concrete is listed in equation 4, stiffness increase First, the two buildings are different in structural
coefficient for beam is set to consider stiffness and mass, more detailed information is
enhancement effect of floorslab on beam, but the listed in Table 6 and 7.
stiffness of coupling beam is reduced as listed in
Table 7. Second, the values of seismic design force are
different, the design seismic forces of model C are
Table 7. Stiffness adjustment coefficient of beam in calculated with the acceleration spectrum for
the Chinese code frequent earthquakes. The design seismic forces of
coupling model A, on the other hand, are calculated with a
Middle beam boundary beam reduced design acceleration spectrum according to
beam
the response modification coefficient, R. The
2.0 1.5 0.5
internal forces in structural members can
The American code adopt the calculation formula subsequently be calculated from an elastic analysis,
of elasticity modulus of concrete listed in equation but the lateral displacement corresponding to the
6, in order to consider the effect of member design lateral forces can be obtained by multiplying
plasticity under earthquake action, the stiffness of by Cd, which is 5.5 in the model A.
beam, column and wall are reduced as listed in In order to eliminate the effect of different
Table 8. calculation parameters between Chinese and
Table 8. Stiffness adjustment coefficient in the American codes, the design outcomes can been
American code. compared directly, the Model A is analyzed again,
and the values of stiffness and seismic design force
coupling
column wall beam
beam
for Model A are determined by the Chinese code,
the calculation results are listed in Table 9 and
0.7 0.6 0.35 0.2
figure 4, the period and maximum story drift ratio
33
of Model A designed by the American code are mass are difference in the Chinese and American
larger slightly than that of Model C designed by the codes.
Chinese code under same calculation standard,
For the stiffness calculation in the Chinese code,
which indicates that compared with the Chinses
the calculation formula of elasticity modulus of
code, the American code has a loose requirement
concrete is listed in equation 4, stiffness increase
on structural stiffness, but the loose degree isn’t
coefficient for beam is set to consider
large.
enhancement effect of floorslab on beam, but the
Table 9. Main design outcomes. stiffness of coupling beam is reduced as listed in
Model Model
Table 7.
index
C A Table 7. Stiffness adjustment coefficient of beam
T1/s 2.56 2.81 in the Chinese code.
period T2/s 2.48 2.66
T3/s 2.27 2.59 coupling
total mass/t 57609.4 58315 Middle beam boundary beam
Total area/㎡ 46464 46464 beam
mass 2.0 1.5 0.5
mass area ratio 1.24 1.26
t/㎡
Maximum story X direction 1/873 1/761 The American code adopt the calculation formula
drift ratio Y direction 1/843 1/700 of elasticity modulus of concrete listed in equation
6, in order to consider the effect of member
plasticity under earthquake action, the stiffness of
25 beam, column and wall are reduced as listed in
Table 8.
20
Table 8. Stiffness adjustment coefficient in the
15 American code.
coupling
10 column wall beam
beam
5 0.7 0.6 0.35 0.2
0
The mass of model C is the sum of the self-weight
0 1/1000 1/500 of the structure plus 0.5 times the live load, in
accordance with the provisions of 5.1.3 of the Code
for Seismic Design of Buildings GB50011-2010. The
(a) X direction (b) Y direction effective mass of model A includes the total dead
Figure 4. Story drift ratio. load and four other loads required by Section
12.7.2 in ASCE 7-05, (1) in areas used for storage, a
3.3 Main difference of member design minimum of 25% of the floor live load; (2) the
weight of partitions; (3) the total operating weight
The design results indicate that the dimensions of of permanent equipment; and (4) where the flat
the main structural members are similar, but the roof snow load exceeds 1.44 kN/m2, 20% of the
structural vibration characteristics and uniform design snow load, irrespective of the
displacement are difference in the two building, actual roof slope.
such a difference is mainly because the calculation
methods are difference in the Chinese and 3.3.2 Structural displacement
American codes.
The lateral displacement of model C is evidently
smaller than the value of model A, which indicates
3.3.1 Structural vibration characteristics
that the Chinese code specifies a higher
Structural vibration characteristics are mainly requirement for lateral displacement.
determined by structural stiffness and mass, but
the calculation methods for structural stiffness and
34
First, the two buildings are different in structural 25

stiffness and mass, more detailed information is
listed in Table 6 and 7. 20
Second, the values of seismic design force are

15
different, the design seismic forces of model C are
calculated with the acceleration spectrum for
10
frequent earthquakes. The design seismic forces of
model A, on the other hand, are calculated with a 5
reduced design acceleration spectrum according to
the response modification coefficient, R. The 0
internal forces in structural members can 0 1/1000 1/500
subsequently be calculated from an elastic analysis, 模型C
模型A
but the lateral displacement corresponding to the 规范限值
design lateral forces can be obtained by multiplying (a) X direction (b) Y direction
by Cd, which is 5.5 in the model A. Figure 4. Story drift ratio.
In order to eliminate the effect of different
calculation parameters between Chinese and 3.4 Main difference of member design
American codes, the design outcomes can been
compared directly, the Model A is analyzed again, Dimensions of the structural members are
and the values of stiffness and seismic design force determined mainly by axial compression ratio and
for Model A are determined by the Chinese code, structural stiffness, A more detailed information is
the calculation results are listed in Table 9 and listed in Table 4, because the Chinese code
figure 4, the period and maximum story drift ratio specifies a higher requirement for structural
of Model A designed by the American code are stiffness, which leads to a larger members.
larger slightly than that of Model C designed by the Reinforcement of the main structural members are
Chinese code under same calculation standard, listed Table 10, reinforcements in shear wall
which indicates that compared with the Chinses between the Model A and Model C are significantly
code, the American code has a loose requirement difference , Such the difference is mainly because
on structural stiffness, but the loose degree isn’t the design methods for shear wall between
large. Chinese and American codes are different.
Table 9. Main design outcomes. Table 10. Comparison of reinforcement.
Model Model
index Reinforcement Model C Model A
C A
T1/s 2.56 2.81
period T2/s 2.48 2.66 bottom two
shear wall and
T3/s 2.27 2.59 distributed floors 0.3%,
embedded
total mass/t 57609.4 58315 reinforcement other floors
column are
Total area/㎡ 46464 46464 0.25%
mass uniform
mass area 1.24 1.26 longitudinal
Shear reinforcement in
ratio t/㎡ reinforcement of
wall whole section,
Reinforcement embedded
Maximum story X direction 1/873 1/761 1%~1.7% in the 1
of embedded column 1.2%,
drift ratio Y direction 1/843 1/700 floor ~13 floor,
column individual
0.25%~0.8% in
reinforcement
the 14 floor ~ roof
1.4%。
Side column
frame column in first Side and corner
0.97%, corner
column floor column 1.00%
column 1.18%
35
Top of beam If the concrete depth of compression zone c＞ ,

except ground Top of beam then special boundary elements are required.
frame
border beam floor 0.83%, 0.75%, bottom of
beam ②according the requirement of stress, special
bottom of beam beam 0.59%
0.53% boundary elements are required at an edge if
two-layer two- compressive stress exceeds
way 0.2 .
reinforcement in
four corners ③strength reduction factor: The nominal strength
Top of floorslab
floorslab reinforcement
0.3%, other
0.33%, bottom of
of shear wall considering strength reduction
district factor ϕ isn’t smaller than the demand strength U.
floorslab 0.33%
0.5%~0.6%,
bottom of (9)
floorslab is defined as the net tensile strain in the extreme
0.2%~0.4% tension steel when the section reaches nominal
American code refers to structural walls and, strength ( = 0.003). If ≥ 0.005, ϕ = 0.9. If ≤
with regard to Seismic Design Categories D through , ϕ = 0.65 for tied boundary elements or 0.75 for
F, special structural walls. spiral reinforced boundary elements. The value of
ϕ is interpolated for intermediate values of .
1) Bearing capacity calculation of shear wall:
shear walls can be configured in numerous ways, as The P-M curve of shear wall considering the
follow in Figure 5. strength reduction factor is listed in Figure 6.
Rectangular shape “Bar bell” shape
Flanged walls in common T, L, C and T shapes
Figure 5. Various wall cross sections.

Figure 6. P-M curve.
The calculation principle for bearing capacity of
shear wall is same with the frame column, effect For Special boundary element, additional stirrups
combination between vertical earthquake and bi- are set at the edges, and longitudinal
direction earthquake is considered, and the reinforcements are set uniformly in whole section.
application point of Pu is the centroid of wall cross
section. 3.5 Material consumptions
2) Boundary Elements: two judgment Table 11. Comparison of material consumption.
requirements are listed in ACI 318 for setting Reinforcement Model C Model A
special boundary elements amount amount
per Total per
① Limit depth of compression zone is calculated Members
Total
square （t square
according the design requirement of displacement: （t）
meter（） meter（
kg/㎡） kg/㎡）
Floorslab 352.9 7.6 371 8.0
(8)
600 Beam 1121.7 24.1 1051 22.6
Column 353.5 7.6 281 6.1
Shear wall 342.7 7.4 485 10.4
is the limit depth of compression zone; hw is the
Sum 2170.8 46.7 2188 47.1
height of cross section; is the ultimate
displacement; is the height of shear wall. Concrete Model C Model A
36
amount
amount
IDA curves are calculated by incremental dynamic
per analysis for four group models, and listed in Figure
Total per
Total square
Members （m³ square 7~ 10.
（m³） meter
） meter
（m³/
(m³/㎡) 600
㎡）
Floorslab 4040.6 0.087 5835 0.126 500
C-1
Beam 5307.4 0.114 4143 0.089 400 C-2
Column 1620.5 0.035 1414 0.030 C-3
Amax
300 C-4
Shear wall 2667.8 0.057 3187 0.068
C-5
Sum 13636.3 0.293 14579 0.313 200
C-6
100 C-7
Note：total area 46464㎡.
0
The material consumptions of the two models are 0 0.005 0.01
θmax 0.015 0.02
compared in Table 10. The comparison reveals that
the total reinforcement consumption of the model Figure 7. IDA curves for model C with Chinese
C is roughly the same as that of the model A, earthquake wave.
however, such a consumption of the main vertical 600
members, including the columns and shear walls, is A-1
500
obviously different between the two models, the A-2
400
reinforcement amount of shear wall used in the
Amax
300 A-3
model A is higher 40% than that of the model C, but
the reinforcement amount of columns used in the 200 A-4
model A is lower 2% than that of the model C. 100
A-5
0
Similarly, the total amount of concrete used in the 0 0.01 0.02 0.03
model A is larger 7% than that in the model C, the θmax
concrete amounts of beam and column used in the Figure 8. IDA curves for model C with American
model A is smaller 13%～22% than that of the earthquake wave.
model C, but the concrete amounts of floorslab and
shear wall used in the model A is larger 20%～44% 600 C-1
than that of the model C, which contribute to the 500
larger concrete usage in the model A. 400 C-2
Amax
300
C-3
4 Collapse resistant analysis 200
100 C-4
The collapse resistant capacity of the two models
0
are assessed by incremental dynamic analysis
0 0.005 0.01 0.015
(IDA), 10 earthquake waves are selected θmax
respectively according to the requirements of the
Chinese code and American code, The Chinese Figure 9. IDA curves for model A with Chinese
PKPM-Sausage design software is employed, the earthquake wave.
models are divided into four groups, which is
600
respectively model C with Chinese earthquake A-1
500 A-2
wave, model A with American earthquake wave,
400 A-3
model C with American earthquake wave, model A A-4
Amax
300
with Chinese earthquake wave, the peak ground A-5
acceleration (PGA) of these selected earthquake 200 A-6
100 A-7
waves is scaled to 70, 200, 300, 400 and 510 cm/s2. A-8
0 A-9
0 0.01 θmax 0.02 0.03
37
Figure 10. IDA curves for model A with American 4) Reinforcements in shear wall between the
earthquake wave. Model A and Model C are significantly difference ,
Such the difference is mainly because the design
The results in the Figure 7~10 indicate that (1)
methods for shear wall between Chinese and
when the PGA of these selected earthquake waves
American codes are different.
is 400 cm/s2, the amount of earthquake waves is
eight when the maximum story drift ratio of the 5) The dimensions of the main structural members
model C is larger than 1/100; (2) when the PGA of of the two models are similar, but the depth of
these selected earthquake waves is 400 cm/s2, the floorslab in the American code is normally larger
amount of earthquake waves is three when the than that of the Chinese code.
maximum story drift ratio of the model A is larger
6) the total reinforcement consumption of the
than 1/100.
model C is roughly the same as that of the model A,
however, the reinforcement amount of shear wall
5 Conclusion used in the model A is higher 40% than that of the
1)For seismic design concept, a structure can be model C, but the reinforcement amount of columns
economically designed according to the reduced used in the model A is lower 2% than that of the
elastic seismic design forces in the American code, model C. Similarly, the total amount of concrete
while the structural elements are detailed to used in the model A is larger 7% than that in the
reliably exhibit ductile behavior, thereby model C.
maintaining the basic life safety performance 7) The results of collapse resistant analysis indicate
objective. In the Chinese code, a two-stage design that the collapse probability of the Model A is
method is used for the structural seismic design of smaller than that of the Model C.
buildings. The first design stage refers to an elastic
design procedure under frequent earthquakes, The 6 References
second stage refers to an inelastic deformation
check procedure under severe earthquakes. [1] L. Kaihai, W. Yayong., Research on
Conversion Relationships Among the
2) The structural vibration characteristics of the
Parameters of Ground Motions in Seismic
two models are significantly different, because the
Design Codes of China, America and Europe
calculation methods for structural stiffness and
[J]., Build. Struct. 8 (2006).
mass are difference in the Chinese and American
codes. For the stiffness calculation in the Chinese [2] W. ZHU, Y. JI, W. XIA, S. YAN., Comparison
code, stiffness increase factor for beam is set to of Earthquake Calculation Method in
consider enhancement effect of floorslab on beam, Seismic Code Between China and the United
but the stiffness of coupling beam is reduced. The States., J. Huazhong Univ. Sci. Technol.
American code considers the effect of member (Urban Sci. Ed. 18 (2009).
plasticity under earthquake action, the stiffness of [3] S.S. Ye Lie-ping, Calculation of Design
beam, column and wall are reduced. Methods for Flexure and Axial Strength of
3) The lateral displacements of the two models are RC Columns in Chinese and American
significantly different, it should be noted that the Codes, J. Archit. Civ. Eng. 25 (2008) 56–63.
two models are different in structural stiffness. In [4] and Y.W. YE, Lie-ping, Calculation and
addition, there are different in seismic design force, Comparison of Shear Strength of RC Beams
the American code calculates design seismic force Between Chinese and American Codes, J.
with a reduced design acceleration spectrum Archit. Civ. Eng. 17 (2008).
according to the response modification factor, R.
The internal forces in structural members can
subsequently be calculated from an elastic analysis,
but the lateral displacement corresponding to the
design lateral forces can be obtained by multiplying
by Cd, which is 5.5 in the model A.
38
Bridge Design for India - from Kolkata to New Delhi

Mike Schlaich
Technische Universität Berlin, Germany
schlaich bergermann partner, Berlin, Germany
Uwe Burkhardt
schlaich bergermann partner, Berlin, Germany
Contact: m.schlaich@sbp.de
Abstract
This paper is about cable-stayed bridges built in India during the last forty years. The common
ground for these bridges not only is their location and that most are made with composite decks,
also their stories touch many of the themes of this conference. They are large scale infrastructure
projects in a rapidly developing country where old and new need to learn to coexist at a fast pace
and they certainly illustrate the issue of aesthetic design.
Several cable-stayed bridges from the author´s office and the issue of composite decks for this
bridge type serve as examples to illustrate how bridge design has evolved in India from the 1970s
until today.
Keywords: cable-stayed bridges, conceptual design, composite deck, signature bridges, bridge
construction, India.
Now, more than 40 years later, another large cable-

1. Introduction stayed bridge crossing the Yamuna river in New
Already in the 1970s, Jörg Schlaich together with Delhi is currently nearing completion. Globalisation
Rudolf Bergermann designed the Second Hooghly has it, that today also in India indigenous building
Bridge, today called Vidyasagar Setu, in Kolkata, has to be redefined and other issues such landmark
India with a record span of 457m. Another early designs have surfaced. The Yamuna bridge is
cable-stayed bridge is the much smaller Sikkim envisaged to become an attraction that will serve
bridge in Akkar which was built in 1988 in a remote as the starting point for a recreation area in the
area which was difficult to access. What both Indian capital and which will improve quality of life
bridges have in common is that they were built in an area burdened by pollution. Another recent
indigenously, with local labour, local construction example, the new Railway Overbridge in
methods and local material. For the Sikkim bridge Bardhaman close to Kolkata exemplifies how
even the cables were manufactured on site! certain design features are so general that they can
Vidayasagar Setu was also the first cable-stayed be transferred from one continent to another.
bridge with a composite deck and it has become In this paper these bridges will be described in
the origin of many long-span cable-stayed bridges more detail, thus giving an overview on the
all over the world. development of cable-stayed bridge design over
39
some 40 years in India. It will become obvious that bridge deck and are assembled by the free
there have been major advances in cable-stayed cantilevering method. The concrete of the deck can
bridge technology, especially regarding the cables be cast using the steel grid as scaffolding or,
but also as far as construction and joining preferably, placing as prefabricated slab elements.
methodology are concerned. Since almost all the In the latter case, only the joints must be concreted
bridges which are presented here have in common in-situ. Regarding corrosion, the steel girders are
that their decks consist of steel-concrete easy to inspect and maintain compared to a hollow
composite cross-sections the next chapter is box section. Because the steelwork is protected by
dedicated to this subject. the concrete slab and the girders are open and
aerated there is less interior corrosion.
2. Composite decks for cable- For long-span cable-stayed bridges the weight of
stayed bridges the deck is a crucial factor since it dominates the
For spans of around 200m to 1000m, cable-stayed design of the towers and foundations. Compared to
bridges are usually the most economic choice [1]. the total weight of a 200-500m long deck the
Compared to suspension bridges, cable-stayed concentrated load of a heavy vehicle is small. While
bridges offer the advantages that they are self- the lightest possible deck is typically an orthotropic
anchored, even during construction and, therefore, steel deck this option is significantly more costly
do not required costly counterweights like than a concrete or composite deck and does not
suspension bridges do. Furthermore, they react have the robustness, especially regarding fatigue
with only small deformations to live loads. when compared to concrete or composite
solutions. Concrete decks are very robust and stiff
However, with increasing span the axial forces in
but also quite heavy and often require post-
the deck of cable-stayed bridges increase.
tensioning. The optimum solution for medium span
Therefore, composite decks are a very
cable-stayed bridges, therefore, is a steel-
advantageous solution. Depending on the
composite deck, where the steel sustains the
situation, the welded, bolted or even riveted steel
tension loads and the concrete supports the
grids can be brought to site in segments on barges
compression loads.
or trucks where they are lifted by cranes from the
Figure1. In-situ composite deck of the Vidyasagar Setu: isometric view (left) and during construction (right)
© schlaich bergermann partner
40
Composite bridge decks typically use as the upper the stay cables, so that no temporary supports or
chord a concrete slab which is connected to the formwork is necessary. When using precast panels,
steel beams underneath via shear studs or which span in-between the cross girders no
equivalent measures. The ideal configuration is two formwork is required at all. The joints between the
cable planes along the edges of the deck slab. This precast panels will be filled with low-shrinkage
way the concrete slab is put in compression in both concrete to create a jointless deck, rigidly
directions. In the transverse direction the cross connected to the steel girders. Not to mention that
girders with a typical spacing of 4m to 5m act as with "old" precast panels the creep and shrinkage
simply supported beams with compression in the effects can be strongly reduced.
top (concrete) flange and tension in the bottom
Finally, small relative displacements between the
(steel) flange. In the longitudinal direction the
concrete deck and steel girders and cracking of the
horizontal component of the cable force, which
concrete slab itself, lead to noticeably higher
gradually increases towards the masts, puts the
structural damping, compared to a steel deck or a
concrete deck under compression as well. This bi-
fully prestressed and hence uncracked concrete
axial compression state saves reinforcement and
cross section. This can be an important factor when
increases the stiffness of the deck.
dealing with wind dynamics.
It is noteworthy that composite bridge decks are a
relatively simple technology, which can be used all 3. Vidyasagar Setu - Second
over the world. Compared to steel decks the Hooghly Bridge
welding requirements are lower for the steel
The Second Hooghly Bridge in India bridges the
beams since the concrete deck spreads, and hence
Hooghly river and connects the suburb Howrah
reduces, the dangerous fatigue loads that originate
with central Kolkata. The total length of the bridge
from the live load on the bridge. The stress changes
is 823m with a main span of 457m and a width of
in the main and cross girders are significantly lower
35m. The construction started in 1978 but could
than in the deck plate and top stiffeners of an
not finish before 1992 due to logistic problems and
orthotropic deck. While reinforced concrete is also
other political difficulties [2].
deemed as a simple technology, a concrete bridge
deck typically requires post tensioning, which goes Since weldable steel and HSFG bolts were not
along with high precision when placing the tendons available at that time in India, only a riveted
and a significant amount of quality control during structure was possible and with the applicable
the tensioning process. standards at that time an orthotropic steel deck
was not desirable. Thus, Vidyasagar Setu was not
During erection, composite decks show several
only record span at the time, it also became the
advantages as well. The light steel girders can be
first long-span cable-stayed bridge with a
prefabricated in the workshop in large units that
composite deck.
can be lifted with cranes and directly connected to
Figure 2. Second Hooghly Bridge (Vidyasagar Setu), Kolkata (© Roland Halbe)
41
The deck consists of three main girders (Figure 1). concept design in 1980 and years before
The two outer ones, with a distance of 29,1m in the Vidyasagar Setu. Considering the remote location,
transverse direction, are supported by cables every this was quite a success.
12,3m. The central girder redistributes local wheel
loads. Every 4,1m a cross girder connects the main
girders. All girders are open I sections with a depth
of 2m. The main girders are made of steel
equivalent to S355 and the cross girders of a steel
similar to S235. The 23cm thick in-situ concrete slab
is connected to the steel grid by custom made
shear blocks with loops.
The stay cables consist of parallel wire strands with
up to 220 wires with a diameter of 7mm each made
of Indian steel grade 1460 / 1670. The wires are
protected inside a robust PE duct filled with elastic Figure 3. Akkar bridge in Sikkim during
polyurethane. The anchorages have been construction (© schlaich bergermann partner)
manufactured in India under a license of BBR.
5. ROB Bardhaman
4. Akkar Bridge in Sikkim Since the existing bridge over the railway tracks
The road bridge across Rangit river in Jorethang in and the platforms of the train station of
the state of Sikkim had to replace an old suspension Bardhaman near Kolkata was heavily congested
bridge. The aim was to adapt the relatively and several accidents had happened it was decided
advanced concept of the cable-stayed bridge to the that a new 4-lane bridge was urgently required. In
special conditions of a rather underdeveloped 2011 schlaich bergermann partner was
region - with the added problem of a remote and approached by CES Kolkata, now Jacobs, to
mountainous location. propose an optimized concept design for a new
bridge.
To avoid the import of large quantities of high
quality steel, the deck and pylons were designed The new bridge is located north of the existing one
entirely in reinforced concrete: the first cable- but still crossing the tracks as well as the platforms.
stayed bridge of this type in Asia. In contrast to the existing bridge no columns were
placed on the platforms to avoid losing valuable
The bridge deck is not connected with the pylon,
space there but also because their construction
but entirely suspended. The cables could be
and the access during construction would have
manufactured in Sikkim: they consist of a simple
been difficult and dangerous. Ideally the new
bundle of parallel wires kept in shape by a long lay
bridge had to span over the entire width of 120m
twist, so that the conventional sheath can be
of the train station with minimum interruption of
dispensed with. To protect the wires from
the train service during its construction. The best
corrosion, the cables are filled and painted with
solution for this was a cable-stayed bridge that
polyurethane. Connections at the end are formed
could be built by the free-cantilever-method
by pouring molten zinc into the sockets to fully
without any temporary supports on the platforms.
bond the cables [3].
Large prefrabricated steel grids can be installed
Compared to the Vidyasagar Setu the Akkar bridge during nightly track closures, with later placement
is small with two spans of 54m, a width of only 11m of precast concrete elements on top, in a very
and a pylon height of 55m (Figure 3). It was similar way as the construction of the Ting Kau
completed already in 1988, eight years after bridge in Hong Kong for example [4].
42
Figure 4. ROB Bardhaman, India (© Jacobs)

The height of the road level was already defined by for future extension of the train station without
the approaches as well as the required clearance such obstacles. Therefore, a solid and very heavy
above the deck. The remaining space defined the concrete deck that balances the much longer main
maximum depth of the bridge deck leaving spans was proposed for the side span with three
sufficient contingencies for vertical deflection due post-tensioned concrete upstands that provide the
to live load. The conclusion was that there was not required stiffness. By chance a similar design by
enough structural depth for the cross girders to schlaich bergermann partner was just under
span 25m between two cable planes along the two construction at that time in Belgium over the Albert
outer bridge edges. A cable plane was introduced Canal. In that case the canal had to be crossed with
in the centreline of the bridge and henceforth, to minimum interruption of the shipping traffic and
achieve a more elegant alignment of the cables there was little space available for the side span as
from different viewing angles a harp shaped well (Figure 5). The Belgian bridge served as the
arrangement was chosen (Figure 4). The depth of blueprint for Bardhaman.
the main girders varies between only 50cm for the
The harp arrangement had been chosen due to the
outer ones and 1m for the central one, which has
skewed angle of the crossing in the Belgian case.
to carry significantly more load.
So, the general concept of the Belgian cable-stayed
A harp shape arrangement calls either for ties bridge over Albert Canal could be combined with
downs in the side span or a very rigid deck in the the detailing of the Signature bridge for Delhi which
side span. The area under the side span was easily was also under construction at that time. Both, the
accessible during construction but columns or tie- Albert Canal bridge as well as the ROB Bardhaman
downs in this case were not well received to allow use hollow steel boxes as main girders in contrast
Figure 5. Bridge K03 over Albert Canal, Belgium (© Jan De Nul Group/Patrick Henderyckx)
43
to the open I sections used in the other bridges reduce the load on the back-stay cables. The fact
presented in this paper. While the Albert Canal that the modules were bolted together on site
bridge girders are welded on site, bolted splices instead of welded is an adjustment to the local
have been foreseen for the Bardhaman bridge methods of construction. The construction started
similar to the Signature Bridge in Delhi. Similar 2010, meanwhile all the 13000to of structural deck
state-of-the-art cable-system systems with 0,6” and pylon steel have been fabricated and shipped
strands have been used in both cases, provided by to the construction site. Most of the deck and pylon
Freyssinet for the Bardhaman bridge and MK4 for are erected with half of the stay-cables installed.
the Albert Canal bridge, respectively. The cable The completion is expected still in 2018.
spacing was in both cases 12m at the main span
The asymmetric cable-stayed bridge has a main
and 7m only for the side span.
span of 251m (corresponding to a symmetric
bridge with two pylons of 500m span) and total
6. Signature Bridge Delhi length of 675m [1]. Its composite deck carries 8
The "Signature Bridge" as the new landmark of lanes (4 in each direction) and is approximately
New Delhi connects the city Ghaziabad and its 35m wide. The main span is supported by lateral
surrounding across the river Yamuna to the inner cables spaced at 13,5m intervals. Towards the
city. The dynamically shaped pylon consists of two approaches the same deck section continues with
inclined legs, which are rigidly connected to the piers supporting it at 36 m intervals. The height of
deck girders and bend mid-way. The upper portion the steel tower is approximately 150m.
of the pylon anchors the back-stay cables as well as The bridge deck consists of three main girders with
the main-span cables, arranged in a harp like a height of 2m and cross girders at a spacing of
manner. The tip of the pylon is created by a 30m 4,5m, very similar to the Second Hooghly Bridge. To
high steel-glass structure, which can be illuminated provide sufficient space for 8 lanes, the two outer
to create a beacon visible from afar at night [5]. main girders, supported by cables, are spaced 32m
A special detail of the bridge is that the self-weight apart from each other. The emergency footpath
of the pylon partially balances out the self-weight has been placed on 1,5m long cantilevers outside
of the super structure through the eccentric of the cable planes. All main and cross girders are
location of its center of gravity with respect to the
pivot point of the pylon footing. This serves well to
Figure 6. Virtual image of Ornamental Painting on the Pylon (© schlaich bergermann partner)
44
welded I-sections with plate thickness between Due to the positive experience gained from the
20mm and 100mm in grade S355. To save material joint detail developed for the Ting Kau Bridge (see
the cross girders have a variable depth with a [4]) the same detailing has been used again. For the
maximum value of 2m in the centre and 1,4m at the areas outside of the cable-stayed part the detail
connection to the outer main girders. Similar to the was further developed to allow for a central layer
Ting Kau Bridge in Hong Kong [4], all joints have of reinforcement that became necessary close to
been designed as bolted high strength friction grip the pier supports, where the negative bending
connections (Figure 7). In addition to that the outer moment with tension in the top slab governs the
main girders are in butt contact in order to transmit design.
the compression induced by the horizontal
component of the cable force via contact and not
the bolts. The contact was achieved by machining
the end faces of each girder which saved a lot of
bolt and splice plate weight. No machining was
required for the central main girder splices since it
mainly redistributes local wheel loads.
Figure 8. Steel gridl with precast concrete panels

on top before closing of the joints (© A. Deffner)
The rigid connection between the concrete slab
and the steel girders was achieved by shear studs
with different diameters for main and cross girders.
To transmit out-ouf-plane shear forces, the end
faces of the panels have been treated in such a way
Figure 7: Bolted high strength friction grip the cementitious grout has been removed and the
connection of the main girder (© A. Deffner) coarse aggregate became visible. Furthermore,
The deck of the Signature Bridge in New Delhi is pockets have been foreseen in the end faces of the
located relatively low above water which is shallow panels to transmit the significant in-plane forces
outside of the monsoon period. Therefore, it was safely (Figure 8).
possible to erect the entire deck on temporary
trestles and to install the cables only afterwards.
Thus, full composite action also for dead load could
be achieved, so that the concrete slab is
transmitting even more compression force as in the
other cases. This is reflected in the distribution of
the concrete slab thickness. Outside of the cable-
stayed part the precast reinforced concrete panels
have a thickness of 25cm which gradually increases
to 35cm thick panels towards the pylon and ends in
a 70cm thick in-situ portion around the pylon legs.
The deck panels are made of grade M50 concrete Fig. 9: Passive cable anchorage at deck level(© A.
(similar to C40/50 in terms of Eurocode) with a size Deffner)
of 4,5m by 8m to minimize the number of
transverse joints.
45
Figure 10. Signature Bridge in New Delhi nearing completion (© A. Deffner)

Similar to ROB Bardhaman a state-of-the-art stay
cable system with diameter 15,7m strands made of 8. References
steel grade 1860 has been used. Up to 128 strands [1] Schlaich M., Burkhardt U., “Composite
form one stay cable. Since no fatigue tests for this decks for long-span cable-stayed bridges”,
anchor type have been available with the supplier The Bridge & Structural Engineer, Volume
Tensa, such tests were performed especially for 46, Number 2, ING-IABSE, New Delhi, 2016.
this project. The larger active anchors are all [2] Schlaich J., Bergermann R., "Cable-Stayed
incorporated in the ample interior of the pylon Bridges with Composite Stiffening Girders -
while the more compact passive anchors are The Second Hooghly Bridge in Calcutta",
located above the concrete where they can easily Proceedings of the Sino-American
be inspected and maintained (Figure 9). Symposium on Bridge and Structural
Engineering, Peking, 1982.
7. Summary [3] Holgate A., “The Art of Structural
Engineering – The Work of Jörg Schlaich
Already forty years ago cable-stayed bridges with and his Team”, Edition Axel Menges,
composite decks were indigenously built for urban Stuttgart/London, 1997.
and well-accessible areas like Kolkata as well as in [4] Bergermann R., Schlaich M., "The Ting Kau
the remote areas of India in Sikkim. Over the years Bridge in Hong Kong", Proceedings IABSE
the detailing evolved due to improvement of local Symposium Kobe, Japan, 1998.
technologies for example from rivets to high
[5] Schlaich M., Subbarao H., Kurian J., "A
strength bolts or from in-situ concrete decks to Signature Cable-Stayed Bridge in India -
accurately fabricated precast panels and integral The Yamuna Bridge at Wazirabad in New
structures. Long-lasting and safe cable systems Delhi", SEI Journal, 1/2013.
which comply with international standards have
replaced in-situ made solutions. This also applies to
large scale bearings, expansion joints as well as
monitoring and maintenance equipment. The new
Signature Bridge in Delhi will be a flagship project
representing the state-of-the-art construction
possible nowadays in India combined with
international engineering experience.
46
Brunei Temburong Link

Naeem Hussain, Sammy Yip, Murphy To
Ove Arup & Partners, Hong Kong
Chin Kok Kong, Ding Lee Sing, Yat Kheong Cheng

Ove Arup Dan Rakan-Rakan, Brunei
Contact: naeem.hussain@arup.com
Abstract
Temburong district has been physically isolated from the rest of Brunei which has hindered the
economic growth of the district. A sea-crossing link is being constructed to connect the district to
Brunei-Muara. A feasibility study was carried out between 2010 and 2012 to establish the alignment
and preliminary design of the link, followed by detail design and construction. This paper describes
aspects of the feasibility study, detail design and construction
Keywords: Alignment, marine viaduct, swamp viaduct, cable-stay bridges, pre-cast construction.
Bay and then up-river to Bangar. Neither of these

1 Introduction alternatives offer 24 hours a day accessibility.
Brunei is located on the north coast of the island of
Borneo in Southeast Asia. Apart from its coastline
with the South China Sea, it is completely
surrounded by the state of Sarawak, Malaysia; and
is separated into two parts by the Sarawak district
of Limbang, Figure 1.
This physical separation of Temburong district from
the majority of Brunei has significantly affects the
economic development of the district and Brunei
as a whole. Despite comprising 23% of the total
land area of Brunei, Temburong only contains 2%
of the population. To travel to Temburong by land
requires passing into and out of Sarawak through a
long circuitous route typically involving significant
waiting times at the borders which can result in a
Figure 1. Map of Brunei
journey time of up to 4 hours between the central
business district of Bandar Seri Bagwan and the
main district town of Bangar, Figure 2. Alternatively
it is possible to travel by speedboat across Brunei
47
An example screenshot from the GIS model is

shown in Figure 3. In this case the four different
routes that were considered are overlaid on the
growth areas in Temburong which were extracted
from the masterplans. The existing road network,
designated navigation channels, mangrove forests
of high ecological value and national boundaries
are also shown. These are just examples of the
many layers of information which were included.
Option 1
Figure 2. Current travel times Option 2
2 Route Selection Option 3
Option 4
2.1 Optional Alignments
A route selection exercise was carried out to
determine the most favourable alignment across
Brunei Bay as well as the optimum connection
points in both Brunei-Muara and Temburong
districts. In order to assess the route options, the
goal achievement matrix technique was adopted
considering the following criteria: Figure 3. Screenshot from GIS model
 Planning and Land Matters 2.2 Chosen Alignment & Contract Packages
 Environmental Issues
 Transport Planning Option 3 (refer Figure 3) was selected as the
 Impact on Local Community preferred route with the highest score under a
 Engineering range of sensitivity tests. The advantages are
 Implementation Programme summarised as:
 Cost Transport Planning: It provides the shortest travel
distance and travel time between Brunei-Muara
Within each of the criteria listed above, sub-criteria
and Temburong.
were investigated and scored. Sensitivity studies
were carried out varying the weight as-signed to Planning and Land Matters: It requires minimal
each of the criteria in order to confirm the private land acquisition and hence has the least
robustness of the route selection. land issues and anticipated to be more acceptable
to the general public.
The above assessment considered information
from various sources, including available master Environmental: It will avoid encroachment in
plans. Spatial data was overlaid and correlated conservation mangrove areas and minimise
using a Geographic Information Systems (GIS) encroachment through production mangrove
model. This enabled multiple layering of areas.
geographic data to ensure that all captured
Stakeholder Opinion: It was the preferred
information is correlated and taken into account in
alignment of the majority of stakeholders.
the development of the alignment.
The overall scheme and contract packages is shown
in Figure 4
48
Figure 4. Overall alignment and contract packages

The FIDIC based contracts are being executed by
the following contractors to the Employer’s Design
by Arup:
 CC2 Marine Viaduct, Daelim Swee JV
 CC3 Navigation Bridges, Daelim Swee JV
 CC4 Temburong Viaduct, China State Ocean
Quarry JV
Figure 5. Marine viaduct
 CC5B M&E works, HSE Engineering
3.2 Access and Dredging
3 Marine Viaduct Because of the very shallow water and in order to
The design of the viaduct has been driven by the provide access for construction equipment such as
construction methodology which had to address floating piling rigs, barges, floating batching plant,
the following environmental, geotechnical and etc it has been necessary to dredge a channel along
economic parameters: the whole of alignment in Brunei Bay. The dredged
material was pumped or delivered by barge to a
 Shallow water depth and sand bars in Brunei
new deposition site on the east side of Pulau
Bay
Pepatan. Stone containment bunds were built for
 Soft soils up to 70m depth overlying mudstone the reclamation site, Figures 6 and 7
 Ease of construction Bund Installation
 Speed of construction and minimum cost D

B
In view of the above use was made as much as
possible of pre-cast and pre-fabricated structural
elements
3.1 General Arrangement

The superstructure of the viaducts are in the form Figure 6. Deposition site of dredged material
of twin full span concrete single cell box girders,
Figure 5. The structural depth of the box girder is
3.0m and total width of the top flange is 11.3m. A
combination of internal pretensioned strands and
external post-tensioned tendons are being used.
Figure 7. Cutter suction dredger
49
3.3 Pile Foundations

The ground conditions mean geotechnical
resistance will be gained primarily from the
mudstone. Therefore long piles are required,
typically in excess of 75m.
In view of the above, the following solutions have
been adopted:
 1.0m diameter concrete spun piles where
there are thick layers of soft clay and the
mudstone is at deep level of more than 40m
Figure 9. Installing pilecap soffit formwork
below seabed - the majority of locations
 1.0m diameter steel pipe piles for the 3.5 Pier Columns
foundations in the proximity of Pulau Baru- In order to save on internal formwork, pier columns
Baru where the mudstone is at higher level and which are less than 5.5m tall are solid sections,
spun pile cannot be driven into the hard
except for a 1.2m deep bearing inspection pit at the
stratum
top. Taller piers are hollow in order to save
 1.6m diameter steel pipe piles for the material, but incorporate a 1.5m deep solid section
foundations in the proximity of the two at the top, below the bearing inspection pit. This
navigation channels where a higher resistance means that more than half of the piers are solid and
against ship impact is required. very easy to construct, Figure 10.
Figure 8. Spun pile driving
3.4 Pile Caps

The positioning of the typical pile caps was Figure 10. Climbing formwork for columns
carefully chosen to facilitate construction.
3.6 Superstructure
2m thick caps are required to transfer the loads
from pier columns to the pile group. The top edge The quality and speed of construction was a key
of the caps are located at +3,2m so that the top factor in the design. Precast concrete segmental
surface is out of the splash zone and does not box girders are considered to be the most cost
require stainless steel reinforcement. The soffit is effective and durable solution for long length sea
therefore at a level of +1,2m, which is slightly crossings, and has therefore been adopted.
above Mean Higher High Water level. The soffit Span-by-span erection is faster than balanced
was kept deliberately above the water level to cantilever techniques, as a whole span can be
make construction easier. erected in one operation. Typically a 3-4-day cycle
A precast soffit slab has been used as permanent can be achieved compared to around 6 days for
formwork for the pile cap. Figure 9. balanced cantilevering.
50
A span-by-span single full span segment erection The Brunei Channel Bridge (BCB) is a single tower
method is being used with a specially designed cable stayed bridge with a 145m navigation span
gantry by Dorman Long Technology, that can lift and a symmetrical 145m side span. The Eastern
two girders simultaneously, Figure 11. Channel Bridge (ECB) has a main span of 260m over
the navigation channel, with 130m side spans.
The all-concrete ladder beam deck is 37.2m and
30.2m wide for BCB and ECB respectively. to carry
the dual 2-lane carriageway. The general
arrangements are illustrated in Figure 13.
130m 260m 130m
Figure 13. General Arrangement of Brunei Channel

Bridge and Eastern Channel Bridge
Figure 11. Special gantry that lifts two girders in
tandem
4.1 Foundations
The giders are being cast in a special factory
The foundations for the towers are large diameter
erected at works area in Serasa with the precast
2.2m bored piles with steel casing. Precast shells
girders delivered to the works front by barge,
have been used as permanent formwork for the
Figure 12.
6.25m deep pile caps. The piles and pile caps have
been designed to resist marine vessel impact.
Figure 12. Delivery of fullspan girder by barge

Figure 14. Intallation of precast shells for pile cap
4 Navigation Span Bridges
There are long span bridges across two navigation
channels, namely the Brunei Channel and the
Eastern Channel.
51
Figure 17. Casting of tower legs with climbing

Figure 15. Casting of pilecap within precast shells formwork
from floating concrete batching plant
4.2 Towers
5 Temburong Swamp Viaduct
The 12 km low height Temburong Viaduct traverses
The tower shape symbolises the physical
the peat swamp forest in Temburong.
connection between the four districts of Brunei. In
classic Islamic fashion archivolt of four planes or The peat swamp forest has unique and endangered
ribs is introduced in the arch to visually create four flora and fauna. The soil conditions consist of soft
lines or planes of arches to represent the four peat overlying soft marine clay with depths
districts and a long single vertical ‘window’ exceeding 70m. Due to these challenging ground
introduced on top to represent the unification of conditions and in order to safeguard the flora and
the districts. Koranic words are also added to the fauna of the swamp forest, a top-down
towers. Figure 16 construction method has been developed, with all
construction undertaken from deck level.
5.1 Viaduct Structure

The viaduct consists of almost 200 no. 120m long
piled slab modules. Each module consists of 10 no.
12m spans. The design maximises the use of
precast concrete elements and repetition, enabling
construction to be undertaken in a fast track
manner, a necessity to meet the completion date.
Each pier foundation consists of 4 no. 0.9m
diameter concrete spun piles, with a precast pile
Figure 16. Eastern Channel Bridge Tower cap. The piles and precast cap are connected via a
cast in-situ pile plug at each pile.
Jump-form formwork is being used for construction
of the towers, Figure 17 The superstructure comprises of five precast
double T beams per span, which are landed onto
the precast pile caps Figures 18 and 19.
52
MJ PRECAST IN-SITU
PILE CAP DIAPHRAGM
SPUN PILE PRECAST
12m PILE CAP
Figure 18. Typical elevation of the piled slab

viaduct
IN-SITU STITCH PRECAST DOUBLE T
POUR (TYP) BEAM (TYP)
Figure 21. Piling works
Figure 19. Typical section of the piled slab viaduct

monolithic connection
5.2 Fast track construction method

Figure 22. Aerial view of construction
The construction is based on the use of tracked
cranes and platforms working as a train. The plat-
6 Conclusion
forms span between the row of piles.
The design of the whole scheme has been based on
The front part of the train comprises of three
maximising the use of precast and prefabricated
platforms for each carriageway with piling cranes
elements to meet the varying environmental,
sitting on the platforms. The guide for the piles is
geotechnical and economic constraints.
cantilevered from the platform.
Following the piling cranes there are other cranes 7 Acknowledgement
that install temporary platforms, erection of
precast pile caps and the T-beams. The This paper has been published with permission
combination of temporary platforms and from Public Works Department, Ministry of
completed deck structures allows delivery of insitu Development, Brunei Darussalam.
concrete, precast piles, pile caps and t-beams.
8 References
The sequence of construction is shown
diagramatically in Figure 20 below, with the actual [1] Carter, M., Yip, S., Hussain, N., Chin, K. K.,
construction shown in Figures 21.and 22 Ding, L. S., Lim, S. Y. “Temburong Bridge,
PRECAST
Brunei – Feasibility Study”. IABSE Conference
COMPLETED MATERIAL SPAN IN PILING
SPAN DELIVERY CURING PILE CAP CRANE (TYP) 2015: Providing Solutions to Global
Challenges, Geneva, September 2015.
PRECAST DECK TEMPORARY TEMPORARY

DOUBLE T CONSTRUCTION STEEL PILE CAP DECKING
DECK BEAMS CRANE (TYP)
Figure 20. Fast track sequence of construction
53
Technical risks to major infrastructure development

Eric Ancich
Western Sydney University, NSW, Australia
Gordon Chirgwin
Independent Researcher, NSW, Australia
Contact: anciche@iprimus.com.au
Abstract
There are a number of different classes of risk that must be addressed in the development, execution and
operation of any major infrastructure project. Should the proponent fail to address all of these risks, the
project may be a failure.
In this paper, the Authors discuss technical risks, highlighting cases where the initial formation and
composition of the Project Team provided the conditions for failure to occur, sometimes with loss of life.
The Authors will discuss several Australian examples, including the Royal Canberra Hospital demolition,
Melbourne’s West Gate Bridge collapse, and also the San Francisco Oakland Bay Bridge construction. In
each case, the Authors show that organisational design of the Project Team played a significant part in the
technical failures and the consequences. In Canberra Hospital demolition case, that the technical failure
resulted in a death, is largely attributable to the design of the Project Team and political interference.
The Authors compare these failures to the successful completion of the Øresund Bridge, identifying those
aspects of the Project Team design that ensured a high likelihood of success.
Keywords: demolition; implosion; bridge collapse; bridge design.
1 Introduction  Technical risks in execution, including

inadequate understanding of the technical
Projects have a number of classes of risk aspects of the project.
including:
 Choice of project; At each of these points in the project life cycle, a
 Project Team Formation; poor choice can lead to problems. The earlier in
 Incorrect prioritisation of project objectives; the project that the risk is inadequately
 Conceptual risks in the project, including addressed, the greater the likelihood of adverse
excessive emphasis on innovation and cost consequences for the project, and greater the
competition over standardisation, the use of possibility of project failure.
proven materials and expert team members; This paper looks at each of these areas of risk,
 Technical risks in design, including modelling, except for choice of project, in respect of real
materials choice and insufficient detailing; projects, and considers how this influenced the
ultimate success or failure of the project.
54
2 Projects part of the agreed handover to the Federal

(National) Government, and the site had to be
2.1 Royal Canberra Hospital Demolition cleared by November 1997 [1];
3. A report into the site canvassed the
The Royal Canberra Hospital demolition by possibility of explosive demolition, provided
implosion techniques resulted in the death of expertise was available [1];
Katie Bender, a 12 year old girl, who was part of a 4. The ACT Government saw this as an
crowd watching from a distance of approximately opportunity for staging a public event [1];
500 metres from the blast site [1] [2]. 5. The Authorities in ACT had no
experience in dealing with demolition by
explosives [1];
6. The ACT Government and Authorities
decided on implosion without any detailed,
expert review of the process, or of the
suitability of that method for the building, or
advice into what needed to be in place for
demolition by explosives [1];
7. The ACT Government Authority,
Totalcare Industries Ltd (TCL) charged with the
demolition and clearing of the site chose as
project manager, Project Coordination
Figure 1 Blast Observed from Lennox Gardens
(Australia) Pty Ltd (PCAPL). An organisation
(Canberra Times)[3]
with no expertise in managing demolition by
explosives [1];
8. TCL did not seek expert advice in
explosive demolition, nor did it require PCAPL
to do so [1];
9. Mr Sullivan of ACT Department of Urban
Services (DUS) (to whom TCL reported) did not
follow the advice from TCL that an external
consultant be appointed to oversee the work
[1];
10. TCL did not require PCAPL to prepare a
work plan that addressed all the issues in the
Consultant’s feasibility study on demolition,
including explosive demolition [2];
11. The call for tenders prepared by
PCAPL/TCL was poorly worded and placement
Figure 2 Acton Peninsula and Location of Katie
was limited, excluding any reference to
Bender (yellow placeholder) (Google Earth)[4]
explosive demolition, and only appearing once
2.1.1 Timeline on two newspapers, on 27 January 1997 [1]
[2];
The Coroner’s report [1] and a later review [2] of 12. The Tender documents did not refer to
that identified the following sequence of events: explosive demolition [1];
1. The hospital demolition was part of the 13. Of the Tenders received, two included
plans by the Australian Federal Government implosion as a method for demolition;
to build a museum on the site [1]; 14. No consideration was given to the lowest
2. The Australian Capital Territory (ACT) tender, which was by conventional demolition
Government was charged with demolition as [1]
55
2.2 West Gate Bridge Collapse

The West Gate Bridge collapse was one of the
15. No consideration appears to have been
worst bridge collapse tragedies in Australia’s
given to the third Tender, which included
history, resulting in 35 dead and many others
implosion, but properly addressed the Tender
injured.
Requirements [1];
16. The preferred Tender by City & Country Briefly, the main section of the bridge was
Demolition (Australia) Pty Ltd (CCD) and its designed as a cable-stayed steel box with a
Sub-Contractor Controlled Blasting Services composite concrete deck (Figures 3 to 6)[5]. Pier
(CBS)) was incomplete and PCAPL made no 11 and Pier 14 are the anchor piers for the tower.
attempt to make it complete [1]; The main box is trapezoidal in shape and
17. PCAPL made its recommendation solely comprises 5 cells. The spans from Piers 10 to 11
on price for implosion, without regard to the and 14 to 15 are within the super elevation
technical merits of that Tender, the transition, which results in a non-uniform cross-
qualifications of the Contractor; or the section along the span.
qualifications of the Sub-Contractor [1];
The bridge owner was a company formed by the
18. Control of the project was transferred
Victorian Government by act of Parliament, but
from ACT DUS to the Chief Minister’s Office,
comprising private interests, which was permitted
who handled the matter as a PR exercise [1];
to issue bonds which were guaranteed by the
19. No proper plan of demolition seems to
Victorian Government. The scheme design,
have ever been produced, most especially, no
including all concrete bridgeworks was by
proper consideration appears to have been
Maunsell Australia, a subsidiary of G Maunsell and
made by anyone with relevant experience and
Partners (UK). The design of the cable-stayed
expertise as to the safety of the method
bridge was by Freeman Fox and Partners – at the
adopted [1] [2];
time one of the most respected designers of long-
20. The method of demolition appears to
span bridges in the world. Fabrication and
have been changed at least twice without any
erection of the steel span was initially let to World
documentation, and possibly without any
Services & Construction Pty Ltd (WSC), a
planning [1];
subsidiary of Workspoor-Utrecht of Netherlands,
21. TCL and PCAPL allowed CCD to bypass the
but later the erection was transferred to John
usual controls on demolition by explosives and
Holland (Constructions) Pty Ltd.
to ignore the contract provisions on planning
[1]; A Judicial Commission of Inquiry [5] found plenty
22. CCD and CBS had no experience of of blame to share around – particularly in respect
explosive demolition in an urban environment of the following:
[1]; 1. The Authority, for not taking a close
23. CCD and CBS had no experience of enough interest in the works at an early stage
explosive demolition of steelwork [1]; and (e.g. – not requiring proper reports and not
24. The local safety authority (Workcover requiring the submission of calculations as
ACT) was poorly resourced and had no agreed), and throughout the progress of the
expertise in the method. [2] works (e.g. not checking on the assembly and
erection of Span 10-11), despite having the
In summary, the Royal Canberra Hospital
power and expertise to do so;
Demolition was mismanaged at every stage by
2. Freeman Fox & Partners, for using
people without any expertise in the field of
designers that were clearly beyond their
explosive demolition in an urban environment. To
technical competence, not producing a design
complete the disaster, this inherently risky project
that met the structural requirements of the
was made into a public spectacle by politicians
brief, not properly controlling the issue of
and their media advisors.
drawings, producing sets of drawings that
56
were not in accordance with each other for 1. John Holland Constructions for ignoring
major details, not co-operating with the advice from WSC and Freeman Fox & Partners, for
builders; not specifying erection tolerances, not properly connecting the elements of the span
ignoring requests for advice, not providing in a manner that allowed the half boxes to be
technical support as required, for the London connected, for siting work sheds in dangerous
office not advising either the Authority or the locations, for placing kentledge on the partially
site staff on matters of critical importance and completed span against the advice of Freeman Fox
using as site staff engineers that were too & Partners’ Resident Engineer and for not
inexperienced in this class of work; properly controlling the erection process.
3. WSC for not producing a proper erection
The ultimate result of these failings was a
system (in particular, for not producing an
preventable collapse of Span 10-11 with
erection system that did not excessively stress
severe loss of lile and many injuries, and an
the span as evidenced by the buckling of the
enquiry that laid bare all the faults of
two erected spans), for not properly
everyone involved for the world to see.
supporting John Holland Constructions
through the erection of span 10-11 and for
directing the undoing of connections on Span
10-11 without due regard for safety;
Figure 3 General Arrangement – West Gate Bridge, Half Main Spans
57
Figure 4 Box Girder Cutaway – Actual Cantilever Diaphragm shown dotted
58
Figure 5 Box Girder Cross-Section - Half
Figure 6 West Gate Bridge – Numbering of Units
59
2.3 Oakland Bay Bridge Seismic Refit
2.3.1 Project Description

The Oakland Bay Bridge Project was a projected $1.4 billion bridge construction project, that is now
projected to cost over $6 billion. The main project aim was to ensure that this link was not likely to be
disrupted by an earthquake within the life of the remaining structure. It followed an assessment by
experts, following the Lona Prieta Earthquake, which concluded that some parts of the bridge were
vulnerable to earthquake [6].
In broad terms, the project was to strengthen those parts of the structure which were economic to
strengthen, and to replace the eastern span, which was not thought to be economic to strengthen.
The original bridge comprised “a combination of linked structures that constituted an historic engineering
challenge. It included a cantilever span of 1,400 feet in the East Bay crossing, two 2,310-foot center
suspension spans, two 1,160-foot side spans in the West Bay crossing, and a tunnel carrying the upper (six
lanes for fast traffic) and lower decks (three truck lanes and two interurban track lines) through Yerba
Buena Island.” Ground was broken on July 9, 1933, and construction was completed in 3 years, 5 months
[7].
2.3.2 Timeline
Because of the time taken for this project and the degree of complexity of some of the issues, it is not
possible in the space available to provide a comprehensive timeline. The complete timeline is available in
De Wolk (6).
2.3.3 The gathering storm

Early in the project life, political decisions delayed the project definition and commencement, but this is
common with large projects, and was a feature in the original building of the bridge. As the project
progressed, several issues arose, bringing the management of the whole project into question. Amongst
the issues being aired in the local press were claims that the work was not progressing properly; the work
was not of the specified quality and these issues were being hidden by Caltrans [7] [8].
60
Figure 7 San Francisco Oakland Bay East Bridge [9]

1. There were defects in the welding of the Self Anchoring Suspension Tower and superstructure,
and that these defects were being ignored by senior management in order to expedite the project; and
2. When issues first arose with the welding, the Project Management focussed on the delivery
schedule, rather than the technical issues – thus sending the message that delivery schedule was
critical and all else was subordinate [6].
2.3.4 Quality Issues
2.3.4.1 Welds
The Project Director focused on on-time completion and cost saving over technical performance. When
inspectors failed welds, the inspectors were sacked, rather than addressing the root causes of the weld
failures [6]. The Project also used an overseas untried fabricator instead of a well proven local fabricator,
because the potential saving of about $250 million. In the event, this decision cost the project at least $165
million and the project still finished years behind schedule. The future maintenance risk is unquantified,
and possible unquantifiable.
1. Subcontractor, Shanghai Zhenhua Heavy Industry Co., Ltd. (ZPMC), for the welded components was not
pre-qualified for the work at the time the tender was called.
61
2. ZPMC was not assessed as competent by the Caltrans assessors, MacTec Engineering and Consulting
(MACTEC), as the workforce were not up to standard and the contractor was not experienced in the class of
work [6].
3. Caltrans and the main contractor (American Bridge/Fluor) did not consider the consequences of the
long supply chain and the MACTEC warning about lack of experience and personnel when awarding the
work to ZPMC (the price difference was about $400 million in $1.8 billion price for steelwork, and the
project was already grossly over budget).
4. The specification for welding of steelwork subject to fatigue no cracks. Right from the start of
fabrication, welding did not meet the specified standard.
5. The project management team had the MACTEC reporting line changed to them, rather than through
Materials Engineering and
Testing Services (METS) branch of Caltrans, creating conflicts of interest. Further conflicts of interest from a
change in inspection contractors, as Caltrop/Alta Vista was not qualified for the work.
6. Delays cost MTC $100 million. Catch up payments cost a further $175 million, thus the difference was
not $400 million but $200 million.
7. The project managers put completion ahead of quality and contract in the early stages and got
neither.
8. One change order was for $185 million to accelerate steelwork, on for $45 million to accelerate other
parts of the project.
4. It is apparent that neither American Bridge/Fluor nor the project managers from Caltrans understood
the importance of crack free fabrication in the bridge deck and tower. All bridge authorities will specify no
cracks in these components, as the crack will greatly accelerate fatigue crack growth; for example, with a 5
mm long 10 mm deep crack in a 25 mm deep butt weld 2 metres long, the stresses at the tip would be
magnified by 12 times, that is, the crack will propagate with 1/12 of the design fatigue stress. Hence, with
detectable cracks within the welds, the steel components will require repairs from a very early age.
2.3.4.2 Bolts
Some bearing anchor bolts failed on stressing [9].
1. Bolt diameter 3” (75mm), threaded both ends.

2. Specified bolts Grade BD to ASTM354 (10.9 in metric terms).
3. Protection specified: blast cleaned galvanised and grouted.
4. The 96, 2008 bolts were not properly manufactured, with many being over the specified hardness of
HRC 39, but all were accepted.
5. Two arrangements were specified in the original design – one with the bolts penetrating the whole
headstock and the other with partial penetration. The ones with partial penetration bolts had one end in a
‘top hat’, with grout tubes leading from the ‘top hat’ to the surface.
6. In the original design, the grout tubes fed downwards from the ‘top hat’ to the bottom of the
member.
7. This arrangement was changed during construction, with the grout tubes leading up to the top
surface.
8. 32 of 96 bolts in the partial penetration area failed shortly after tensioning.
62
9. The all but one of the failures occurred in the bottom threaded section, in an area that had had
standing water over the 5 years prior to tensioning.
10. The failures were not confined to the over-hardness bolts, few of the unfractured bolts were tested for
hardness.
5. Investigation concluded by Caltrans consultants that the failures were from stress corrosion cracking
(SCC) [9] [10], however this ignores the fact that all the failures occurred essentially on stressing, and
ignores the effects of corrosion prior to the grouting and stressing. Chung[9] maintains that a more likely
cause is hydrogen embrittlement (HE), with the elemental hydrogen being the product of corrosion.
Fontana [10] states that SCC will occur when the steel is subject to anodic conditions: i.e. when the steel is
corroding. However, the observations indicate that the bolts partially submerged in water had lost the
major part of their galvanising. According to Chung [11] and Fontana [12], it is far more likely that the bolts
were subject to HE, where the source of the H is the cathodic reaction occurring at the surface of the steel. 
HE requires susceptible material, sufficient stress and H.
BD bolts are susceptible to HE.
The stress levels specified for the bolts was above the threshold required for HE in air.
Zn will corrode preferentially to exposed steel, protecting the bolts from corrosion.
6. Based on the incorrect conclusion of SCC, Caltrans and its consultants advised that the remaining
bolts were safe, and that bolts made in 2011 using rolled threads were also safe, because the hardness of
the bolts did not exceed HRC=39 [10]. Unfortunately, some of the later bolts have rolled threads.
Therefore, the hardness of these threads may well exceed HRC 39 [11]. Further, galvanising may not be
complete in the threaded area. Incomplete cleaning of the thread (a result of blast cleaning rather than
pickling) may result in holidays in the galvanising.
Figure 8 Remedial work on the failed anchor bolts[8]

8. If minor defects exist in the Zn coating, corrosion will occur and H will be provided to steel. The
reaction sequence for the corrosion of zinc coated steel is:
Zn => Zn2+ +2e- (at Zn surface);
2H+ +2e- => 2H (at the iron surface);
2H => H2.
9. If H migrates into the steel, the last reaction occurs within the steel, which may or may not cause
embrittlement depending on susceptibility. The quantity of H produced at the surface of the steel will
depend upon the amount of zinc corroded.
63
10. Tops of bolts that fractured corroded through to at least the ZnFe complexes. According to Chung (10)
and in accordance with Fontana, some of the H produced may migrate into the steel where the Zn coating
is not complete. The conclusion by Caltrans/TBPOC regarding other Grade BD bolts may not be safe as:
The means to prevent water may not be sufficient, hence H production still may occur;
Zn is used on all the bolts, increasing the likelihood of H production;
The rolled threads may have a hardness much higher than the rest of the bolt, making
the steel susceptible;
There are anomalies in the hardness profiles, indicating the threshold for HE may be
lower than assessed by Caltrans.
11. Additionally, Chung and Fulton [13] have shown that where corrosion is the driver of HE, the failure
may occur at any time.
2.3.5 Conclusion for San Francisco – Oakland Bay Bridge East

1. The project was poorly controlled from the outset;
2. Specifications were ‘amended’ when performance was inadequate by project managers who had
insufficient technical expertise;
Some poor technical choices were made during design by people without sufficient technical expertise;
4. Poor choices were made by the field staff, including the acceptance of poorer than specified welds in
fatigue critical members, and the decision to change the path of the grout tubes for convenience;
5. The attitude of ‘If you raise issues, we will remove you’ has permeated the job;
6. The project is late, over budget, of poorer than hoped for quality; and
7. The resulting bridges will have a high long-term maintenance cost and probably a reduced life.
Usually engineering managers say Cost, Quality and Time – pick two. In this case, poor management has
meant that the final outcome is none – the SF-OBBridge is over budget, late and of low quality.
2.4 Øersund Crossing

The Øresund Crossing is a combined road and rail fixed link of 18 km, including tunnels, bridges, the
complexities of working across a national border, the need for the project to be commercially viable, the
need to meet two sets of technical standards (including the different operating standards of the railways
and the need to meet complex environmental standards. The differing law codes for the two countries also
meant that dispute prevention and resolution was extremely important.
To prepare and run a complex project under these circumstances requires the Owner to be fully across the
details of the project, but that doesn’t mean making every decision [14].
The Øersund project (once it finally got going) was a model of what project management should be.
The guiding philosophies of the project team were: ‘Keep it simple’, and ‘Only the owner can gamble’ [14].
Hence, risk was allocated on the basis of control and price-ability. Risks that were controllable by the
contractor were allocated to the contractor, risks that were quantifiable were made price-able, and all
other risks belong to the Owner.
Contractors were selected on the basis of most economically advantageous tender, not the lowest price.
And all contractors were expected to make a reasonable profit [15].
64
In order to remove the risk of litigation by contractors, Dispute Resolution Boards were set up, with the
authority to arbitrate disputes. The Boards were independent of the Owner, and comprised 3 experts in
the particular field. These Boards met 2-3 monthly, but, because of the partnerships formed, there were
no disputes to be resolved [14].
The final cost certain, but what was originally estimated has some uncertainties. The different estimates
include different amounts of approach works, so a proper comparison is not possible without a detailed
study of the estimates. Two notable areas of cost increase were the environmental and shipping
provisions. These account for 74% of all the cost increases. As both these costs had to do with legislative
risk – the government requiring more than initially indicated – this is really part of that ‘gambling’ by the
owner. The actual design and construction cost for the link, without approaches, came in on budget and
before time.
3 Discussion
Looking at all the projects, there are similarities with all the failures, and these contrast with the Øresund
Crossing project.
In each failure there was a classic technical failure that was missed or corrected. These technical failures
led to death, cost over-run, time over-run and poor quality of the work. It has also led to loss of reputation
for all involved. However, behind this, the Owner has failed to behave like a competent Client, and has not:
Remained involved with the project at all stages
Known what they wanted
Been pro-active in finding solutions
Been part of the solution
Managed the contracts
Created a common team spirit
Followed up on delegations
Selected contractors primarily on the base of competency.
The Royal Canberra Hospital Demolition was a clear case of the client pursuing objectives that were
peripheral to the primary object of the project to the detriment of both the project and public safety.
Further, the ACT Government did not act as a competent client when it chose a contractor who clearly did
not have the expertise to carry out the work and chose the method of demolition based on political
objectives rather than sound technical reasoning. The ACT Government further compounded the
difficulties by failing to remain properly engaged in the project. It appears from the Coroner's Report [1]
and the follow up report [2] that the project managers had little idea on what was happening, no technical
competence in the work and were reliant on safety inspectors from another department to oversee the
safety of the work.
The Lower Yarra Crossing Authority failed to ensure that the designers for the cable stayed bridge (West
Gate Bridge) produced a competent design with the required information for the construction contractor to
build it. The lack of engagement at the early stages of the project meant that the Authority missed the best
chance to prevent the disaster – namely, when WSC was attempting to determine the erection methods
and requirement. Had the Authority been fully engaged in the work at that time, the lack of detail and the
errors in the design would likely have been exposed. The Authority would also have been much more
aware of the industrial issues plaguing WSC, and may have been able to bring other pressures to bear on
the unions. In that case JHC may never have been appointed to complete the erection, and the collapse not
happen.
Caltrans failed to ensure that the short term objectives did not over-rule the long-term objectives. They did
not focus on the risks to time, cost and quality of decisions, particularly related to the fabrication of the
65
steelwork. This lack of quality focus allowed the detailing of the grout tubes to be altered, creating the
situation where 32 of the hold-down bolts failed. When the project started running behind schedule
because of quality issues, the project managers form Caltrans accepted ‘use as is’ dispositions on quality
and compounded the error by paying ‘acceleration’ payments to the contractor, thereby negating the cost
savings for the steelwork.
The Øresund Crossing on the other hand has clearly been a success, and owes much of that success to the
determination of the Øresundsbro Konsortiet to be a competent client.
4 Conclusion
Complex engineering projects can be, and mostly are, executed in a competent manner. The Øersund
Crossing shows how to conduct a complex project in a manner that is a credit to all involved. However, as
the various other projects show, if the management of the project does strive for, demand and control for
technical excellence, then failure is waiting.
Project owners cannot remain aloof from the project. They must be competent owners, involved in the
project, ensuring that competent engineers and contractors are used, that project objectives are clear and
that contractual relations are harmonious. If the owner lack competence, then a competent organisation
must be brought in to manage the project in the place of the owner. In all cases, quality and safety must be
given primacy.
We should not forget the advice of Britain’s wartime leader, Winston Churchill, that "Those that fail to learn
from history, are doomed to repeat it."
5 References
[1] Madden S.G.& Australian Capital Territory. Coroner's Court. Inquest findings, comments and
recommendations into the death of Katie Bender on Sunday, 13th July 1997 on the demolition of the
Royal Canberra Hospital, Acton Peninsular, ACT held at the Magistrates Court, Knowles Place,
Canberra City, between 17th March 1998 and 11th November 1998 (118 days of sitting) [Shane G.
Madden, Coroner] ACT Coroner, Canberra, Australia, 1999, 307 p.
[2] Healy P. ACT Workcover and the Failed 1997 Implosion: A Case Study of the Role of the Inspectorate
(Working Paper 91), ANU, September 2015, 62 p.
[3] Canberra Times July 13, 2017. Photo: Graham Tidy.
[4] Google Earth build date 18 August 2017, Google
[5] Barber E.H.E, Bull F.B and Shirley-Smith H. Report of Royal Commission into the Failure of West Gate Bridge.
Melbourne, Vic. Australia: C.H. Rixon Government Printer; 1971, 143 p, Report No.: 2 – 7037/71.
[6] De Wolk R. The San Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge: Basic Reforms for the Future Preliminary Report, Report
prepared for Senator Mark DeSaulnier, Committee on Transportation and Housing, California State
Senate by News to the Next Power, January, 2014, 41 p.
[7] http://articles.latimes.com/2005/apr/08/local/me-baybridge8
[8] http://articles.latimes.com/2005/oct/22/local/me-sbriefs22.4
[9] Anon. Supplemental Report on the
A354 Grade BD High-Strength
Steel Rods on the New East Span of
the San Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge
66
with Final Findings and Decisions,

California Department of Transportation (Caltrans), Sacramento, CA, USA, December, 2014, 36 p.
[10] https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/infrastructure/2bridges.cfm Federal Highway Authority.
[11] Chung Y. Validity of Caltrans' Environmental Hydrogen Embrittlement Tests on Grade BD Anchor Rods
in the SAS Span, Report prepared for Steve Heminger (Chair) Toll Bridge Program Oversight
Committee (TBPOC), November, 2014, 60 p.
[12] Fontana M.G: Corrosion Engineering, 3-51 & 3-52 pp 145-150, McGraw Hill Custom Publishing,
Edition 3 1986.
[13] Chung Y and Fulton L.K. Environmental Hydrogen Embrittlement of G41400 and G43400 Steel Bolting
in Atmospheric Versus Immersion Services, J Fail. Anal. and Preven. (2017) 17:330–339.
[14] Lundhus P. Perspective on procurement – recent practices and the future, Netlipse, . European
Infrastructure Procurement, Copenhagen, 5 May 2012.
[15] Lundus P. Bridge building in practice – mentally and physically, Proc. 5th Austroads Bridge
Conference, Hobart, Tasmania, Australia, 2004 .
67
Mega Challenge for Mega Project : Stakeholder’s Perspective.

Dr. Shaikha AlSanad
Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research, Kuwait.
Contact: ssanad@kisr.edu.kw, ssanad@outlook.com
Abstract
The mega project are large, complex project, and unique in their construction venture into the
authorities of many other utilities and disciplines. The purpose of this paper attempt aims to
identify, prioritize and categorize assess the likelihood of occurrence and level of impact of the risks
perceived factors in construction mega project with the Kuwait Construction industry. A structure
questionnaire of random selected sample produced from different group of stakeholders that are
employed in both private and public sector, within the Kuwait construction industry. The literature
review and semi-structure interview used to identify 54 risk factors which are grouped and
categories into six group have been identified and prioritized on the basis of criticality in the
construction mega project, and then incorporated into the design of the survey instrument. Survey
respond data subject to descriptive statistics analysis and inferential statistics. A significant
difference observed in the perception of stakeholder’s professionals from the type of organization
and their experience on the criticality of these factors. This study will assist the construction
stockholders practitioners to develop plans to achieve their goals and improve the megaproject
process based on these outlined concepts. The study contributes by exploring the degree of risk
occurrence and its impact on construction mega projects. Moreover, the study imparts insights on
the perception of risk ranking among different group of stakeholders in Kuwait and it’s also provides
some insights on the current level of risk.
Keywords: Risk management, risk identification, risk allocation, risk mitigation, construction.
has a positive or negative effect on the objectives (

1 Introduction e.g : time , cost, scope and quality). The notion of
The success of any project is typically assessed and risk management and its analysis has been
evaluated when the project has accomplished its established as an imperative procedure in any
objectives and goals. Moreover, the successful for project [2]. Nevertheless, the crucial necessity of
any project can be measured in terms on the risk analysis is amplified further when it is put in to
quality/performance, cost and time. Risk is an the realm of megaprojects where each risk has
important aspect to deliberate in any project as it significantly more impact and ramifications for the
can affect numerous vital factors of any project, stakeholders involved [3]. Any construction
such as the time , quality of the materials, cost- activities essentially carries with it certain level of
benefit analysis during the project lifecycle and the risk. The level of the risk is directly correlated to
demand, production costs, and financial variables size and complexity of the construction project
[1]. Risk can be defined as an uncertain event that [3-6]. Consequently, understanding and managing
the wide array of risks associated with construction
68
projects has been recognized as an important underperformance. Earlier studies have stated
management process in order to maximize the that despite their growing popularity and adoption,
chances of achieving project objectives in terms of construction of megaprojects are associated with
time, cost, quality, safety and environmental enormously inadequate performance and design
sustainability [7]. The notion of risk management consisting of poor outcome quality, benefits
has been established as an imperative procedure in shortfall, time and cost escalation, and fail to
any project [2]. The essential for identifying and deliver in the terms used to justify the need for the
managing risk is even more significant after project [4]. Correspondingly, a number of
considered from the perspective of Mega researchers have described that poor performance
Construction Projects (MCP). In the MCP the risks of the megaprojects are due their inherent
immersed are elaborated significantly due to the characteristics such as political influence,
size and complexities MCP’s projects involve. uncertainty, high complexity, high risk, size of the
project , number of people involved and large
The U.S Federal Highway Administration defines variety [10]. Furthermore, decision maker operates
mega projects as Mega Project defines as major within limited rationality and decisions are based
infrastructure projects that cost more than U.S $1 on incomplete information or incorrect data.
billion, or projects of a significant cost that attract Consequently, it is important to establish a method
a high level of public attention or political interest and system to manage these risk factors effectively
because of substantial direct and indirect impacts in advance. Furthermore, it is essential to manage
on the community, environmental, and budgets.” the probability of such risk factors causing failures
[4]. In Addition, the construction of megaprojects in the project by implementing models or
involves resources that run into millions of person- mitigation measures [11]. While, there is a wide
hours and have massive budgets with a vast array body of general research on megaprojects, the
of stakeholders from the construction sector. current literature fails to deliver a
These unique factors introduce complexities and frameworks/guidelines for construction industry
other unclear risks into their execution. While practitioners which advise on the risks of
megaprojects, are infrequently implemented when megaprojects and method to mitigate them [2, 9].
compared to general construction projects, the This research is even more limited when put in to
knowledge with regards to the risks associated with the context of addressing the risks associated with
them is very limited. megaprojects in Kuwait and the wider region.
Furthermore , a limited study has investigated risks
The State of Kuwait is planning to construction from the perspectives of groups of project
huge infrastructure and development projects stakeholders [7]. Kuwait finds itself in a unique
through its long-term strategies from 2007 until position in the construction world as many
2035 to elevate the country is position to the megaproject ’s have been given the green light by
region’s top commercial and financial hub [8]. the government with the aim of improving and
Therefore, understanding the risks associated with enhancing the country’s infrastructure and
megaproject is crucial for the successful regional standing. Therefore, it is crucial to better
implementation of the planned developments. understand the risks involved in this sort of
construction activity. Moreover, it is imperative to
garner first-hand insight from local construction
Factually, outputs of construction megaprojects
industry stakeholders who know the state of the
have shown a bad reputation largely due to actual
construction sector in Kuwait in order to devise
inadequate project management performances,
accurate and feasible roadmaps and action plans to
cost and time escalations, and insignificant
minimize and mitigate the reverberations of said
consequence quality. Research demonstrations
risks. This research seeks to highlight the
that the majority of megaprojects fail to meet their
differences in stakeholder’s perceptions towards
asserted objectives [9]. In other words, mega
the potential and significance of the risks involved
project characteristics cause meaningful project
with conducting mega project construction in
management difficulties that lead to
Kuwait.
69
2 Methodology whole results because they do not reflect any

relationship between the risk factors [13]. An RII
value was calculated for the probability and impact
This paper aim to study risks associated with of each risk factor. The same approach has been
construction a mega project in Kuwait construction used by many researchers to analyses the
industry. The research methodology selected probability and impact of risk factors [13-15].
comprised a comprehensive literature review, a Relative Importance Index (RII) is calculated using
structural questionnaire survey was used as a key the following equation [16]:
tool for gauging the respondents' perception of
5
probability of occurrence and the level of impact
for each of the identified risk factors. The literature a n
i 1
i i
(1)
review and the semi structure interviews assisted 5N
as the basis and guidelines for designing the
questionnaire survey. The questionnaires involved
of two sections. The first section was intended to
collect respondent’s profile. The second section Where
was intended gauging the respondents' perception a = the weight assigned to each response,
of probability of occurrence and the level of impact
N = total number of responses,
for each of the identified risk factors. The
questionnaire including question based on the n = frequency of each response,
Likert scale questions. Risk assessment in terms of
5 = the greatest weight
the perceived level of impact and probability of the
occurrence of a list of 54 risk factors in relation to
the construction a mega project within the Kuwait The probability and impact of each factor is
construction Industry using a five-point Likert scale multiplied to obtain the degree of risk. The
(1 = very low; 2= low , 4 moderate ; 4= high ; 5 = prioritized risk factors can be assessed further in
very high probability and impact). The survey was order to conduct a quantitative analysis of the
distributed to local construction stakeholders with degree of risks. "The specific combinations of
experience in Kuwait's building and construction probability and impact lead to a risk being rated as
industry. Nonprobability sampling method was ‘high’, ‘moderate’, or ‘low’ significance” [17].
adopted to preserve a high degree of legitimacy of
the received data. To assist respondents and
improve the response rate, a web based
3 Results and Analysis
questionnaire was designed and the link was sent
3.1 Respondents’ Profile
by email to all respondents. To maintain high
degree of legitimacy of received data, out of 700
questionnaires were administered, 536 Table 1 demonstrates the respondents’ profile. The
questionnaires were filled and returned. This results reveal that the majority of participants
represents 76.5% of the total questionnaires sent (54%) belonged to the private sector, whereas 48%
out which is considered sufficient for the study
of the participants belonged to the government
based on the perception of Oke and Ogunsemi [12] sector. The majority of survey participants, 24%,
that the result of a survey could be considered as were consultants, while17% were contractors, 13%
biased and of little significance if the return rate
worked for owner, the participants worked in
was lower than 20-30 % . The data collected from
subcontractor and researcher institute perceived
the questionnaires was then collated and analysis.
same number of respondents (12%). 12 % worked
Data collected from the survey was analysed using for research institute, 8 % were supply chain, 8%
the Relative Importance Index (RII). For this nature for owner, 8% subcontractor, 5 % were developers,
of data, the standard deviation and mean of each and 3 % were facility managers. Furthermore, the
risk factor are not appropriate to determine the supply chain (9%), developer (8%) and least
70
number of responses came from Facility manager

Table 1. Respondents’ Profile
(6%). Of the respondents surveyed, 28% had more
than 25 years of experience in the construction Category Number %
industry, whereas minority of the participants Business category
(11%) indicated that they had less than 5 year of
Developer/Client 41 8%
experience in the construction industry. The richer
Contractor 92 17%
the experience of participants in the construction
sector results in getting better information about Supply chain 50 9%
the perceptions of risk for the construction and Owner 67 13%
implementing the practices of megaprojects in Academic/Research
66 12%
Kuwait. The results specified that the majority of institute
the respondents had been complicated in different Facility Manager 30 6%
natures of megaprojects project. Subcontractor 64 12%
Consultant 126 24%
Types of Megaprojects involved in
3.2 Risk Identification & Analysis Oil Sector 54 12%
A total 54 risk factors been identified from the Industrial 43 9%
Literature review and interview survey, which been Electricity & water 66 14%
categorized into six risk category such as : political Educational 58 13%
risk , the supply chain risk social risk, Environmental Health 33 7%
Safety and Health risk, environmental risk, Tourism 16 3%
technical risk, and lastly economical risk. The Services 82 18%
survey participants were asked to rate probability
Sport 20 4%
of occurrence and the level of impact of each risk
others 89 19%
factors according to the following Likert scale: 1
denoting “very low”, 2 representing “low”, 3 Type of organization
denoting “medium” , 4 representing “high”, and 5 Government sector 214 46%
denoting as “very high” Private sector 247 54%
3.3 Reliability Test 3.4 Risk Identification & Analysis

To certify the reliability of individually risk factor, The survey endorsed participants to delivered
Cronbach’s coefficient alpha was performed to test numerical scores that conveyed their perception
the internal consistency amongst the items on probability of occurrence and level of impact of
included in each factor [18]. The results show that each factor to deliver mega project. For this nature
the internal consistency is 0.968 for the probability of data, the mean and standard deviation of each
of risk factors whereas 0.962 is for the impact of factor are not appropriate to determine the
risk factors. According to Pallant [18], the internal generally results because they do not reflect any
consistency is considered to be confirmed at the association between the risk factors [13]. Instated,
Cronbach Alpha of 0.7 or above. Therefore, both the risk factors collected from the survey were
the values are at an acceptable level for making all analyzed statistically using Relative Important
factors reliable. Index (RII). According to the RII, the risks indicated
by the stakeholders were then ranked as the results
are shown in the Table 2.
71
Table 2. Overall ten most significant risks according to interview participants

Risk RII Ranking
The length documentary cycle in the life cycle of the project 0.809 1
The relations between government and parliament is strained 0.808 2
Shortage in manpower availability 0.795 3
Inadequate infrastructure 0.772 4
Lack of government support 0.761 5
Delay in paying subcontractors invoices 0.755 5
Change in government funding policy 0.75 7
Bureaucracy and corruption practices 0.747 8
Global economic recession 0.743 9
Lack of financial resources and Cash flow problem of partners 0.742 10
risk expect ‘economical risk’ based on their

organizational type and as the confidence level is
According to risk rating values, the most significant
greater than 95%. So for these factors H is
risk identified was ‘The length documentary cycle’
accepted. Noticeably those respondents from
(also known as Project Initiation Documentation) in
‘government sector’ discipline provide more
the life cycle of the project (RII = 0.80) followed by
importance to the impact level of risk factors
‘Variation order to project during the construction
associated with construction mega project in
phase’ (RII= 0.73). Other important risk factors
Kuwait. This is further elucidated with the help of
were ‘Delay in paying subcontractors invoices’ (RII=
mean rank values generated by the same test.
0.71), ‘Technical difficulties in obtaining utility
Since the significance values in table 3 are less than
permits’ (RII= 0.69), and ‘Lack of financial resources
0.05 hence a significant difference can be seen in
and Cash flow problem of partners‘ (RII = 0.69).
the mean rank values between working for all the
risk category except economic risk and its group
3.5 Inferential Statistics
average. The mean rank values for ‘government
Inferential test performed to explore the sector’ discipline aerospace industries are more
differences and/or relationships if any in the data than those of ‘private sector” which means that
in order to test the hypotheses. The Mann-Whitney ‘government sector’ are facing more problems in
U test was used to test the following hypotheses: the implementation of megaproject in Kuwait
H: construction industry.
There is a difference in stakeholders' perception of

the risk factors affecting the delivery of mega Table 3. Result of the Mann-Whitney U Test for
projects based on their organization category. the level of impact risk
Mann-Whitney U Test Statistics
3.5.1 Results of Hypothesis 1 Significance value
Group of Risks
p-value
Mann-Whitney U test for Impact level for group of Technical Risk .002
Risk. Economical Risk .110
Table 3 presents the output of the Mann-Whitney Social Risk .002
U Test for the level of impact risk factors based on Political Risk .005
the organization type. The output of the test is Supply Chain Risk .025
considered significant if the p-value is less than Environmental , Safety and Health
.020
0.05. Evidently the p-value for all group expect risk
‘economic risk’ are less than 0.05, which meant
that there is difference between the stakeholders’
perception about the impact level for the group of
72
4 Conclusions 5 References
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complicated, and dynamic in their nature. To transport investments. Networks and Spatial
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associated with construction in mega project. The [3] Irimia-Diéguez AI, Sanchez-Cazorla A, Alfalla-
outcomes of the survey research reveal that Luque R. Risk management in megaprojects.
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on the risks that the different stakeholder groups ambition: Cambridge University Press; 2003.
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highlight that the private sector stakeholders organisational systems and processes:
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emphasis on the financial risk involved in mega Institute of Quantity Surveyors Research
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Megaproject and their outputs and outcomes
[8] Helmy MA. INVESTIGATING THE CRITICAL
become an indivisible phenomenon. Respondents
SUCCESS FACTORS FOR PPP PROJECTS IN
demonstrating the government sector assured and
KUWAIT. 2011.
confirmed that the risk that their perceived to be
[9] Flyvbjerg B. What You Should Know About
the most significant was the technical risk. A mega
Megaprojects and Why: An Overview. Project
project due to its size and critical nature
Management Journal. 2014;45(2):6-19.
necessitates expert management in order to
[10]van Marrewijk A, Clegg SR, Pitsis TS, Veenswijk
minimize risk occurrence for the private sector
M. Managing public–private megaprojects:
some the risks can be managed through internal
Paradoxes, complexity, and project design.
resources and experts, other more complex risk
International Journal of Project Management.
require the need for external intervention in
2008;26(6):591-600.
several alternative forms such as contractors and
outsourcing.
73
[11]Locatelli G, Mancini M, Ishimwe A. How can

system engineering improve supplier
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developing economy. The Construction and
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74
System of combined foundation as base for mega-structures

Janusz Rębielak
Cracow University of Technology, Kraków, Poland
Contact: j.rebielak@wp.pl
Abstract
The paper presents structural concept of innovative structural system of combined foundation,
which makes possible to construct foundations for buildings, including heavily loaded objects,
located on subsoil of very small load capacity. It consists of component parts having different forms
and playing various structural roles. Some of these components can be designed as huge waterproof
boxes having substantial uplift pressure, that is why they could be component parts of structures of
artificial islands. The proposed foundation system, due to its inner build, is able to absorb significant
part of the energy caused by an earthquake. There are presented some proposals of its possible
applications as the base for high-rise buildings and for mega-structures.
Keywords: Foundation; subsoil; load capacity; structural system; high-rise building; mega-structure.
1 Introduction
Systems of deep foundations are complex, they
need a long time to be constructed, they are the
expensive technical solutions and their applications
may have serious impact on the environment. Thus
it seems to be more convenient to apply one of
shallow types of the foundation systems but
practical application of it is a difficult task [1-9].
2 Structural concept
Figure 1. Schemes of concept of proposed system
The main structural goal of proposed system of the
combined foundation is to distribute the connected to the main matter of foundation
concentrated load force (F), see Fig. 1, to numerous structure in form of beams (1). Boundary nodes
central nodes (Cn) uniformly arranged along (Ce), where act vertical components of reactions
neutral axes of horizontal beams (1) and connected directed down, have to be suitably stabilized.
to the matter of these beams. In the narrow space Lenticular modules have to be connected by means
between two beams, situated parallel to each of nodes of the type B, see Fig. 1a, or of the type C,
other, is arranged an intermediate system see Fig. 1b. This structural configuration has some
composed of lenticular modules (2). Vertical inherent features of damping of energy of
members of these modules are jointed to the vibrations evoked by dynamic load. This ability can
central nodes (Cn) and to the structural nodes (Sn). be significantly increased e.g. by application of
Nodes A, B, C and the structural nodes (Sn) are not hydraulic jacks (3), computer controlled, which can
75
be placed in selected members of the intermediate Another way of stabilization of boundary zones of
lenticular system (2). The hydraulic jacks will be the foundation structure is shown in Fig. 3, where
integral parts of structures of suitable members. directly below the boundary nodes (Ce) are
Proposed system of combined foundation is arranged additional foundation plies (Fp). When
registered in Polish National Patent Office under the building is located in an earthquake area then
number 221971 [10]. a favourable solution is to separate horizontally
(Hrs) the building foundation structure from the
3 Basic structural configurations background.
System of combined foundation can take various
forms and it can fulfill the main structural
conditions required from foundation of buildings
located in the earthquake areas. Proposed type of
combined foundation, due to its very large surface,
can ensure stability to the whole object even after
dynamic dislocations of big parts of the ground.
Because to the boundary nodes (Ce) are applied
vertical reactions directed down therefore these
areas should be suitably designed. One of possible
ways of stabilization of these parts is to shape there
a kind of big scoop, see Fig. 2, where the weight of
ground located in the soil wedge (Sw), determined
by angle of slide (α), will play role of the required
stabilization. If the multi-storey building is located
on the proposed type of foundation and inside its
aboveground structure is applied a specific form of
lenticular girder, as the main bracing system of this
building, then the whole structure is proposed to Figure 3. Scheme of vertical cross-section of
call the combined structural system of the tall combined structural system of tall building located
building [11]. in earthquake areas
The lenticular modules are consider as structural
units of this system and they can be repeated many
times along horizontal directions, see Fig. 4. In this
case nodes of the type C1 and C2 must not to be
connected to the matter of the main beams (1) of
this structure. Number of replication of the
lenticular units is optional, what implies that
horizontal surface of this foundation can be
theoretically unlimited.
Figure 2. Simplified scheme of vertical cross-

section of combined structural system of the tall Figure 4. Scheme elongated form of system of
building with scoop endings in boundary zones combined foundation
76
It further implies that proposed system of the 252.00m. It is designed in suitable shape of the
combined foundation makes possible to locate a combined foundation having double main beams,
very heavily loaded object on the ground of even which is purposely founded almost directly on the
very small load carrying ability. Extremely large subsoil surface and contains three aboveground
horizontal surface of the foundation structure can stories, each of the construction depth equal to
be a stable support for a huge building mega- 6.00 meters. Total height of this building complex
structure, example form of which is shown in Fig. 5. equals slightly more than 380.00 meters.
Figure 6. Bird view of the designed building

complex called GeoDome Sky Towers
The four main buildings are connected together by
means of a central object having form of geodesic
Figure 5. Example form of mega-structure sphere, of diameter equals ca. 100.00 meters,
supported on system of combined foundation which joints each tower in its half. The main towers
of the building complex are also connected by help
Sets of the main beams together with floor’s slabs
of huge arches, designed in specific forms of spatial
can create big boxes considered as spatial modules
structures, situated vertically and running from the
of the foundation structure. A system of the
half of the tower’s height to the suitably selected
intermediate structure will be located in the
lower and upper parts of these corresponding
narrow spaces between two adjacent boxes. Such
towers.
a huge horizontal structure will be the support for
such type of the building mega-structure.
4 Proposals of applications
The system of combined foundation has been
applied as structural base in the conceptual design
of a mega-structure called GeoDome Sky Towers
(author: Janusz Rębielak; technical cooperation:
Maciej Smoliński), prepared for the international
architectonic competition eVolo2012, see Fig. 6 –
Fig. 11. The complex of GeoDome Sky Towers
consists of four tower buildings, having form of
rectangular prisms and square shape of the base
projection of dimensions 36.00m x 36.00 m and
containing 80 typical stories each. The support
base of this complex is of square form of the base Figure 7. Simplified scheme of the ground plan of
projection of the horizontal dimensions 252.00m x the whole building complex
77
Inner spaces of the four towers are designed for

the needs of offices, hotels, apartments and other
similar useful purposes. The lower half of the space
of the geodesic structure contains the technical
and service rooms including several auditoriums
and other types of the multipurpose halls. In the
upper part the “Tropical Island” is designed as a
leisure center for users of this huge complex,
where is designed a big pool with artificial sandy
beach and other appropriate facilities.
Figure 10. Scheme of vertical cross-section of

central geodesic structure
Figure 8. Perspective view from roof level of 3rd

storey horizontal base
Figure 11. View of interior space of leisure center

designed in the upper part of geodesic structure
In the inner spaces of huge vertical arches there are
arranged green sectors, where are located plants
originating from tropic regions of the world.
Figure 9. Simplified scheme of general vertical

cross-section Figure 12. Another perspective view of the
GeoDome Sky Towers complex
78
Spatial modules of system of the combined The Ocean Agave is planned as a relatively small
foundation can take various forms and they can be and independent settling unit that is self-sufficient
made as huge waterproof boxes having substantial in terms of energy and food supply and able to
uplift pressure, that is why they could be house a group of 120-150 persons. It is designed as
component parts of artificial islands able to sail on the free-floating structure in subtropical ocean
a lake or on a see. Such boxes can be made as e.g. areas, in far distance from land, the sail direction of
reinforce concrete construction or composite which can be controlled by means of set of
steel-reinforce concrete structures. System of the propellers moved by electric engines together with
combined foundation has been proposed as the set of rudders. The platform for Ocean Agave is a
base structure of the artificial island in conceptual circular shape of structural system of combined
design of the Ocean Agave, see Fig. 13 – Fig. 16, foundation and it is built by using properly
prepared for the architectonic competition connected, sealed, steel-reinforced concrete boxes
eVolo2015 (author: Janusz Rębielak; technical (Bx), having mostly trapezoidal shapes with
cooperation: Wojciech Kocki and Maciej Rębielak). structural depth of 15 meters. Between them are
located members of intermediate system (Int)
having various structural forms. Interior of this
artificial island is protected by the main reinforced
concrete breakwater running along its perimeter
and having height of ca. 25 meters. The boxes form
a circle, having slightly more than 400 meters in
diameter, surrounded by perimeter breakwater
Figure 13. Simplified elevation of the floating (Bw), supplemented with a set of triangular,
object called Ocean Agave reinforced concrete elements forming loading bays
(Lb), constructed similarly to the boxes themselves,
and with properly placed trapezoidal reinforced
concrete elements (Fb), which act as external
breakwaters and allow obtaining energy from sea
waves.
Figure 14. Bird view of Ocean Agave
Figure 16. General scheme of arrangement of

structural parts inside space of the Ocean Agave
The center of the basic houses structure is called
Agave and it is divided into several dozen spatial
Figure 15. Analytic schemes of the central structures (Sp) with elongated shapes that
structure of the Ocean Agave decrease linearly towards the center, and whose
axes converge in the central point of the whole
79
setting. Assumed shape of the Agave structure is structural analyses and test researches in order
dictated by the pursuit of allowing the best possible to verify all the assumptions and expectations.
lightning conditions and vegetation of plants with
low tolerance for sea water. For this reason they 6 References
were placed in enclosed, air-controlled glass spatial
structures with elongated shapes. Glass panels of [1] Allen E., and Iano, J. Fundamentals of
these structures can also be covered by semi- Building Construction. Materials and
transparent photovoltaic foils. The main residential Methods. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons;
spaces (Dws) for permanent dwellers of the Ocean 2014.
Agave are situated exactly in its center. Outside the [2] Edward A. Fundamentals of Building
main perimeter breakwater there are located Construction: Materials and Methods. 4th
triangular and trapezoidal structures, which are Edition, John Wiley and Sons; 2004.
basic parts of engineering devices able to obtain
energy from sea waves. Another source of electric [3] Greenfield S.J. Foundation in Problem Soil: A
energy are the photovoltaic panels situated on the Guide to Lightly Loaded Foundation
oblique internal surface of the circular breakwater. Construction for Challenging Soil and Site
Other type of food can be obtained for the Conditions. Prentice Hall; 1992.
inhabitants from fish in see water surrounding [4] Coduto D.P. Foundation Design: Principles
Ocean Agave, or bred along with other species of and Practices, 2nd Edition, Prentice Hall;
sea animals within appropriate underwater 2001.
devices, available from numerous loading bays
[5] Das B.M. Principles of Foundation
surrounding around the perimeter.
Engineering, 5th Edition, Pacific Grove, CA:
Thomson/Brooks/Cole; 2014.
5 Conclusions
[6] Tomlinson M.J. Foundation Design and
The proposed structural system of combined Construction, 7th Edition, Prentice Hall; 2001.
foundation fulfils requirements defined at the
beginning of the research task. Its horizontal [7] Sarkisian M. Designing Tall Buildings.
Structure as Architecture. New York:
surface is theoretically unlimited and it can be
Routledge, Taylor and Francis Group; 2011.
the safe and reliable foundation structure for
the heavily loaded buildings, which have to be [8] Hansbo S. Foundation Engineering. New
placed even on ground of very small load York: Elsevier; 1994.
capacity or located in seismic area. Application [9] Kowalczyk R.M., Sim R. and Kilmister M.B,
of this structural system does not need to editors. Structural systems for tall buildings.
make deep foundation trenches, that is why its Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat,
presence should not destroy the natural New York: McGraw-Hill; 1993.
underground water system and it can be [10] Rębielak J. [System of Combined
relatively inexpensive technical solution. Foundation]. Patent Office of Republic of
However, it is somewhat complex structure Poland, Patent No 221971; 2016. Patent
but it will make possible the safe foundation of application No P.394745; 2011. Polish
objects in areas, which nowadays are [11] Rębielak J. System of Combined Foundation
considered as difficult or almost impossible to for Tall Buildings. Journal of Civil Engineering
use for building purposes. It is expected that and Architecture. 2012; 6(12): 1627-1634.
specific form of system of combined
foundation can be applied to straighten the
previously inclined objects. The proposed
structural solution of combined foundation has
to be subjected to numerous and complex
80
Structure and Performance Characteristics of Curved Box Girders with

Corrugated Steel Webs
Kangjian Wang, Peiwei Zhang, Jinxiang Chen
Southeast University, Nanjing, China
Man Zhou
Southeast University, Nanjing, China
Central South University, Changsha, China
Contact: wangkjw@163.com
Abstract
Many advantages of curved box girders with corrugated steel webs (CSWs) are given in this paper,
they have a lot of advantages such as light weight, high efficiency, engineering economics, assembly
construction and aesthetic appearance. This type of structure combines steel and concrete materi-
als properly, which improves the structural strength, stability and utilization efficiency of materials,
and can effectively resist earthquakes, and realize assembly. The unique structural features of CSWs
in curved box girders are pointed out, that is, the difference between the inside and outside folded
angles. Based on cosine theorem and sum of angles, formulas of two different angles are proposed.
Moreover, mechanics characteristics are given, which include three types of shear buckling modes,
section distortion and longitudinal warping. Thus, the design of CSWs dimensions can be carried out
through the buckling of CSWs in curved box girders, and the arrangement of intermediate dia-
phragms of curved box girders with CSWs should be considered. Additionally, the transverse char-
acteristics regularities of curved box girders with CSWs under different cases and different radius of
curvature are obtained, respectively. Among them, two kinds of cases are the most unfavorable.
Keywords: Structure; mechanics characteristics; transverse performance; CSWs; Curved box girders
buckling and interactive buckling, Moon gave the

1 Introduction shear buckling design curves of CSWs [1]. The dis-
Box girder with corrugated steel webs (CSWs), due tortion behavior of box girders was initially studied
to its unique structural characteristics (web speci- by Dabrowski [2]. Based on the fixed warping and
ficity) and advantages of light weight, is one of the bending normal stress ratio (5% or 10%), some de-
preferred composite structures in Asia’s bridge en- sign guidelines specify the spacing between the di-
gineering, which has both engineering economy aphragms [3].
and aesthetic appearance. The study of transverse performance of box girders
The mechanics properties of box girder with CSWs could be traced to ordinary concrete box girders.
are remarkable. Based on three buckling modes of Guo J.Q. made the "TYL" framework analysis
trapezoidally CSWs such as local buckling, global method of transverse internal force analysis of box
81
girder recommended by American Bridge Hand-

book extend to the rectangular box girder with can- (a)
tilever [4]. The transverse stress of ribbed concrete
wide box girder is analyzed by Zhou M., and it is
found that the rib has a certain reduction effect on
the transverse stress [5]. According to the basic
principle of frame analysis, Jia H.J. considered the
influence of web and floor of bridge deck on the
transverse deflection, and put forward the trans- CSWs
verse force calculation model of box girders with
CSWs; experimental study and finite element cal-
culation were carried out for actual box girder
bridge with CSWs, and the validity of the transverse
force calculation model was verified [6]. Based on
the basic principle of frame analysis method, com- (b)
bined with the structural characteristics and me- CSWs
chanics properties of box girder with CSWs, a
method for calculating the roof transverse bending
moment of box girder with CSWs was established,
Then the transverse bending moment of the box
girder with CSWs and concrete box girder under
the same load was compared [7].
Although there are many mechanics properties of
straight girders with CSWs, curved girders with
CSWs is lack of study. Fig. 1 Curved girders with CSWs: (a) Altwipfegrund
Bridge; (b) Yuwotou Bridge
2 Advantages of curved box girders (1) It solves the problem of web cracking of tradi-
with CSWs tional concrete curved box girders and makes the
structure more light. With 10 to 20 mm thick CSWs
The curved box girder bridge with CSWs is a new instead of 30 to 80 cm thick concrete webs, the
type bridge with economics, high efficiency and seismic performance has been improved, reducing
simple construction, such as Altwipfergrund Bridge the amount of materials, and engineering cost of
(in Germany, completed in 2001) and Yuwotou structures. The effect of shrinkage and creep of
Bridge (in China, main span=50 m, curvature radius concrete is reduced, and durability of girders is im-
=110 m) as shown in Fig. 1. Since the ACSI society proved. At the same time, the problem of long-
introduced box girders CSWs as the bridge struc- term deflection of the traditional concrete box
ture in 1988, all the countries around the world girder is solved to some extent, and the bridge span
have studied the new composite box girder, but the capacity is effectively improved.
curved box girder bridge with CSWs is less studied.
Curved box girders with CSWs combine two differ- (2) Due to the shape of CSWs in curved box girders
ent materials of steel and concrete properly, which and the overall curved linetype of webs, the stiff-
improves the structural stability, strength and effi- ening rib effect is obtained, which makes the shear
ciency of material use. Its superiority is embodied performance of CSWs improved to some extent. At
in the following aspects: the same time, the longitudinal direction of CSWs
also has obvious accordion effect as shown in Fig.
2, which greatly reduces the longitudinal stiffness
of CSWs. Therefore, the webs can not restrain the
creep and shrinkage deformation of the upper and
82
lower concrete slabs, avoid the transfer of the pre- s is a single wavelength, l is the projection length of
stressing force to the webs, enhance the prestress- a single wavelength in relation to the longitudinal
ing tension efficiency, and reduce the amount of axis, a is the length of the longitudinal panel, c is
prestressed steel. the length of the inclined panel, b is the projected
length of the inclined panel in relation to the longi-
tudinal axis, R is the radius of curvature, hr is the
CSW amplitude height of CSW, t is the panel thickness,
Force=0 θ1 is the outer folded angle, and θ2 is the inner
Moment=0 folded angle.
t
Accordion
c/2 θ1
hr
y
x θ2
b/2 a b
l
Fig. 2 Accordion effect of CSWs in curved box gird-
R+hr/2 R-hr/2
ers
(3) In construction, curved box girders with CSWs Fig. 3 Longitudinal section of a single wavelength
are easy to assemble. Compared with the tradi- CSW in curved box girders
tional concrete box girder, it can reduce the com-
plex process such as templets, Brackets and In accordance with the triangle cosine theorem and
preburied pipelines construction. To a certain ex- the sum of angles being a perigon or straight angle,
tent, it shortens the curing period of mass con- the following angles (θ1 and θ2) equations (expres-
crete, accelerates construction progress and saves sions about a, R, hr and c) are obtained:
construction cost.
a
(4) In operation and maintenance stage, the exter- 1    arccos
2( R  hr 2)
nally prestressed tendons can be monitored in real (1)
time, which is easy to replace and strengthen. In c 2  2 Rhr
 arccos
appearance, curved box girders with CSWs are 2c( R  hr 2)
more beautiful, it is easy to coordinate with the
surrounding environment, and adds a beautiful c 2  2 Rhr
 2  arccos
curved landscape for the city and the mountain 2c  R  hr 2 
area. (2)
a
 arccos 
2( R  hr 2)
3 Structure and mechanics charac-
teristics
3.2 Mechanics characteristics
3.1 Web characteristics Curved box girders with CSWs can effectively resist
Because of the difference between the inside and earthquakes, realize lightweight and assembly, and
outside folded angles, curvilinear shape of horizon- need to be widely promoted. The following de-
tal curved CSWs is formed. With the help of the scription is its mechanics characteristics:
molds with two different angles, it can be finished In the early stage of structural design of curved box
by molding pressing method. girders with CSWs, the buckling of web, cross sec-
To determine the relationship among the geomet- tion distortion and longitudinal direction warping
ric variables of CSWs in curved box girders, a single should be taken into account.
wavelength CSW is taken, as shown in Fig. 3. Here,
83
There are three types of buckling modes for CSWs (a) Load
in curved box girders: local buckling, interactive
Undeformed
buckling and global buckling as shown in Fig. 4. The
local buckling of CSWs occurs in a single plate seg-
ment, and the global buckling passes through the Deformed
multi-plate-segment, and the interactive buckling
is a more complicated situation. CSWs are generally
prefabricated in factory and assembled on site.
Therefore, the design of CSW dimensions can be
carried out by analyzing the shear buckling of CSWs
in curved box girders. (b)
Deformed
(a) Undeformed
Displacement
direction
(b) Fig. 5 Section distortion and longitudinal warping

of curved box girders with CSWs
4 Transverse characteristics study

4.1 Computational model
(c) The span of curved box girder with CSWs is 54 m,

closing height is 2500 mm, the roof width is 9 m and
the thickness is 300 mm. The width of closed bot-
tom plate is 5 m and the thickness is 250 mm. The
opening floor starts from the center line of the web
and the cantilever length is 200 mm. The shape of
the waveform is shown in Fig. 3, t=9 mm, hr =170
Fig. 4 (a) local buckling (b) interactive buckling (c) mm, a=b=300 mm. A total of 45 wavelengths are
global buckling of CSWs in curved box girders included. The thickness of the end diaphragm is
The bending-torsion coupling effect of curved box 400 mm. Steel material is used in corrugated webs,
girders with CSWs under the action of equivalent elastic modulus is 2.1×105 MPa, and Poisson ratio is
eccentric load can not be ignored in actual bridge 0.3. Concrete material is used for the top, bottom
construction. Among them, the cross section dis- and diaphragm of the box girder, elastic modulus is
tortion and distortion warping behavior of thin- 3.45×104 MPa, and Poisson ratio is 0.2. The left side
walled section under eccentric load are particularly of the box section is the inner side of curved gird-
important, as shown in Fig. 5. Thus, the arrange- ers, and the right side is the outer side of curved
ment of the intermediate diaphragms of curved girders, as shown in Fig. 6. Here, and the load is a
box girders with CSWs should be considered. In this concentrated force, i.e. the vehicle load of China
way, the section distortion and warping can be ef- bridge code.
fectively reduced.
84
P
Case 1
P
Case 2
P
Case 3
P
Case 4
P
Case 5 curved box girders are reflected by the change of
Point Am Point Bm Point Cm Point Dm Point Em
curvature radius and the change of the positions of
the load points.
R
Inner side Outer side -40
Midspan section (a) Case 1
Transverse moment per unit width (kN·m/m)

R=60m
(a) -60
R=100m
R=140m
Path B Path C Path D
-80 R=260m
R=∞
-100
R
2500
Inner side Outer side -120
R=60m
(b) -140
5000
9000
-160 R=∞
Fig. 6 Loading condition (a) and computing path 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

(b) of curved box girders with CSWs (Unit: mm) Midspan interval (m)
Numerical analysis is carried out by combining fi- 160

(b) Case 2
nite element method with theoretical formula, the 140

R=60m
shell element is adopted and the two sides of the 120
R=100m
floor are simply supported. For convenience of nu- 100 R=140m
merical analysis of results, in view of this structure, R=260m
80 R=∞
the transverse internal force distribution along
60
paths B, C and D of the bridge deck is investigated
by using 5 cases (from Case 1 to Case 5) from the 40
inner side to the outer side of the midspan section 20 R=60m

of the box girder, sequentially. Here, Case 1 means 0
that the load acts on the free end of the roof at the R=∞
-20
inner side of midspan section of the curved box 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
girder, i.e., Am point; Case 2 means that the load Midspan interval (m)
acts on the cantilever root of the roof at the inner 300

(c) Case 3
side of midspan section of the curved box girder,
i.e., Bm point; Case 3 means that the load acts on 250

R=60m
the center point of the roof of midspan section of R=100m
200 R=140m
the curved box girder, i.e., Cm point; Case 4 means R=260m
that the load acts on the cantilever root of the roof R=∞
150
at the outer side of midspan section of the curved
box girder, i.e., Dm point; Case 5 means that the 100
load acts on the free end of the roof at the outer
side of midspan section of the curved box girder, 50
i.e., Em point, as shown in Fig. 6.

0
24 25 26 27 28 29 30
4.2 Results and discussions Midspan interval (m)
In order to comprehensively consider the trans-

verse characteristics of curved box girders with
CSWs, the following analysis will be carried out on
the transverse internal force distribution per unit
width of the corresponding paths under five cases,
respectively. The transverse characteristics of
85
140 (d) Case 4

5 Conclusions
R=60m
120
R=100m The structure and performance characteristics of
R=140m
100
R=260m curved box girders with CSWs are given in this pa-
80 R=∞ per. And the transverse mechanics behavior of
60
composite curved box girders with CSWs under dif-
ferent cases and different radius of curvature is ob-
40
tained under five different cases, respectively.
20
R=∞ (1) The advantages, structural characteristics (web
0
characteristics) and mechanics properties (includ-
R=60m
-20 ing local buckling, interactive buckling and global
24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Midspan interval (m)
buckling) of curved box girders with CSWs are
pointed out.
-40
(e) Case 5
R=60m (2) It is pointed out that the internal and external
-60 R=100m
R=140m angles are unequal, and the corresponding formu-
-80 R=260m las (expressions about corrugation dimensions and
R=∞
curvature radius) are given.
-100
(3) The transverse characteristics of curved box
-120
girders are reflected by the change of curvature ra-
-140
dius and the change of the positions of the load
R=∞
points, and it is found that the two cases (Case 2
-160 and Case 5) are unfavorable cases of transverse
-180
R=60m performance of curved box girders with CSWs.
24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Midspan interval (m)
6 References
Fig. 7 Distribution of transverse moment per unit
[1] Moon J., Yi J., Choi B.H., et al. Shear Strength
width along longitudinal direction of curved box
and Design of Trapezoidally Corrugated Steel
girder with CSWs
Webs. Journal of Constructional Steel Re-
It can be seen from Fig. 7 (a)-(e), under Case 1, with search. 2009; 65(5): 1198-1205.
the increase of the radius of curvature, the trans-
[2] Dabrowski R. Gekrümmte Dünnwandige Trä-
verse bending moment per unit width in the mid-
ger:Theorie und Berechnung. Springer-Velag;
span interval of Path B increases. Under Case 2,
2013.
with the increase of the radius of curvature, trans-
verse bending moment per unit width in the mid- [3] C. Park N.H., Choi Y.J., Yi G.S., et al. Distor-
span interval of Path B decreases. Under Case 3, tional Analysis of Steel Box Girders. Steel
the transverse bending moment per unit width in Structures. 2002; 2:51-58.
the midspan interval of path C has nothing to do [4] Guo J.Q., Zheng Z. Analysis of Transverse In-
with radius of curvature. Under Case 4, with the ternal Forces in Box Girder Bridges with Can-
change of radius of curvature, the transverse bend- tilevers. China Civil Engineering Journal.
ing moment per unit width of Path D is in a state of 1986; (3) (in Chinese).
fluctuation. Under Case 5, with the increase of the
curvature radius, the transverse bending moment [5] Zhou M., Zhang J., Yang D., et al. Transverse
per unit width of Path D shows a decreasing trend, Analysis of a Prestressed Concrete Wide Box
and almost all in the negative moment state. Girder with Stiffened Ribs. Journal of Bridge
Engineering. 2017; 22(8): 04017046.
[6] Jia H.J., Dai H., Zhang J.D. Research on Trans-
verse Internal Forces in Box-Girder Bridges
86
with Corrugated Steel Webs. Engineering

Mechanics. 2014 (12); 76-82 (in Chinese).
[7] Li Y.L., Yang B.W., Zhang J.D. Transverse Mo-
ment of PC Single Box-Girder Bridge with
Corrugated Steel Webs. Journal of Central
South University (Science and Technology).
2016; 47(8): 2802-2809 (in Chinese).
87
Experimental study on shear behavior of curved box girders with

corrugated steel webs
Sumei Liu, Hanshan Ding
School of Civil Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 210096, China
Contact: lsmf@seu.edu.cn
Abstract
Curved girder bridges with corrugated steel webs have already been constructed around the world;
however, few works have been done on their shear behavior. To investigate the shear behavior of
corrugated steel webs in curved girders, a curved box girder with corrugated steel webs was
investigated and tested in current study. The method of three-point loading was used in the test.
Test results indicate that the girder failed due to nonlinear shear buckling of the webs and the
shear yield stress of the material was less than the elastic shear buckling stress of the corrugated
steel webs. Failure of the corrugated steel webs was initiated by the local shear buckling of one of
the corrugation panels, which propagated to other panels. In the failure stage, the interactive
shear buckling occurred in outboard and inboard corrugated steel webs. In addition, many cracks
appeared in the concrete top flange nearby the top supports and the concrete bottom flange
between the 1/4 span to 3/4 span. The girder with corrugated steel webs can continue to resist
the load after the occurrence of shear buckling. For the design of this type of curved box girder, it
is necessary to consider the shear buckling of the corrugated steel webs.
Keywords: corrugated steel web; curved girder bridge; shear buckling; experimental study
bridges have already accomplished. Such as,

1 Introduction Hontani bridge(R=2400m, Japan), Katsutegawa
The composite girder bridge with corrugated steel bridge(R=1500m, Japan), Koinumarukawa
webs is known as a new style of the bridge bridge(R=1000m, Japan), Nakano viaduct
structure to overcome the weight problem of the (R=250m~400m, Japan), Altwipfergrund bridge
common concrete box girder. The composite (Germany), Meaux viaduct (R=1000m, France),
girder bridge with corrugated steel webs has many Yuwotou bridge(R=110m, China), and No.3 east
advantages over the common concrete box girder, river bridge(R=256m~310m, China), and so on.
such as lightweight, high efficient prestressing and On the basis of the small longitudinal rigidity,
aesthetic appearance. Due to the above corrugated steel web is not assumed to carry axial
advantages, the girder bridges with corrugated force, and it mainly carries the shear force.
steel webs have been extensively constructed in Therefore, the stability of corrugated steel web
France, Japan, and China. carrying shear force is one of the most important
Horizontally curved girders are frequently aspects of the composite girder bridge design.
employed in the construction of highways and Three shear buckling failure modes of a web are
viaducts in view of design requirements and their possible, and they are global shear buckling, local
aesthetic appearance. Most of the bridges with shear buckling, and interactive shear buckling. It is
corrugated steel webs are the straight bridges, widely accepted that local buckling is the
while applying corrugated steel webs in curved dominant failure mode in sparse corrugations,
88
while global buckling becomes the dominant shear buckling equations. The shear buckling
failure mode in dense corrugations. The parameters formula of trapezoidal or curved
interactive shear buckling mode becomes corrugated steel webs does not require
dominant when the density is in between of the calculation of local, global and interactive buckling
two above scenarios. parameters, but it depends on the geometric
properties of the trapezoidal or curved corrugated
Perhaps research on corrugated plates dates
web profile. Eight I-shaped steel beams with
back to the late twenties when Bergmann and
trapezoidal corrugated steel webs were tested to
Reissner (1929) calculated buckling loads in shear
investigate the shear behavior of trapezoidal
of rectangular corrugated plates, treated as plates
corrugated steel webs by Nie. J. G. et al. (2013).
having different flexural rigidities in two
Furthermore, extensive numerical calculations and
perpendicular directions [1]. Hlavacek (1968)
parametric analyses were conducted to derive the
investigated the buckling behavior in shear of flat
simplified formula for calculating the elastic shear
sheets and reinforced by separating equally
spaced stiffeners symmetrically to both faces of buckling strength [12]. Hassanein et al. （2014）
the sheet. The results were applied to the numerically studied the shear buckling behavior of
corrugated metal diaphragms [2]. Easley and tapered bridges with steel corrugated webs and
McFarland (1969) studied the global shear suggested shear design strengths for these webs
buckling behavior of corrugated metal diaphragms [13]. Hassanein et al. （ 2017 ） numerically
by treating them as orthotropic plates [3]. Easley investigated the shear behavior of high-strength
(1975) proposed the global shear buckling formula steel corrugated web girder [14]. Leblouba et al.
of corrugated plates [4]. Application of corrugated （ 2017 ） studied the shear response of
sheeting originally used in aircraft was gradually trapezoidal corrugated webs from the prebuckling
extended to civil engineering. Luo and Edlund stage until ultimate failure by laboratory tests and
(1996) studied the shear capacity of plate girders nonlinear finite element analysis [15].
with trapezoidal corrugated webs by using a non- From the studies mentioned above, many
linear finite element method. The authors researches have been conducted on the shear
analyzed the geometric parameters that influence behaviors of straight bridges with corrugated steel
the shear capacity of such girders [5]. Based on 42 webs. However few works have been done on
shear failure tests on 21 beams with corrugated curved girders. To investigate the shear behavior
webs conducted by Hamilton (1993) [6], Elgaaly et of corrugated steel webs in curved girders, a
al. (1996) [7] used the finite element method to curved box girder with corrugated steel webs is
analyze the shear strength of beams with studied and tested in this paper.
corrugated webs. Comparisons among the results
from the formulas, the finite-element analysis, 2 Profiles of the test specimen
and the tests were shown to be satisfactory.
Metwally and Loov (2003) combined elastic local One test specimen was used for this study.
shear buckling equation, elastic global shear Geometry size of the curved box girder is given in
buckling equation and shear yield equation into Figure 1 and the geometric dimensioning of
one equation. The combined equation describes a corrugated steel webs is given in Figure 2. The
curve with the three limits as upper bounds to the length was 6.6 meter and the radius was 8 meter
interaction stress [8]. Driver et al. (2006) proposed of the curved box girder. The box girder had two
a lower bound equation by combining local and middle steel diaphragm which the thickness was 8
global shear buckling equations of the web [9]. mm. Single cell box girder cross-section was
Moon (2009) [10]deduced the shear buckling adopted. From material tests, the yield stress and
parameters formula of trapezoidal corrugated ultimate stress of the corrugated steel web was
steel webs. Eldib (2009) [11] also proposed the 187.5MPa and 322.4 MPa respectively, the
shear buckling parameters formula of curved thickness of the steel web was 0.88 mm.
corrugated steel webs through making the formal Figure 3 shows a schematic view of the test
transformation to local, global and interactive setup. The method of three-point loading was
89
used in the test. Six sensors were used as girder, and two were put in the top.
supports, four were put in the bottom of the
120
R=8000
0
(a) The top view of the curved box girder with corrugated steel webs
490
250 1950 2200 1950 250
6600
(b) The front view of the curved box girder with corrugated steel webs
(c) Cross-section
Figure 1. Geometric dimensioning of the curved box girder with corrugated steel webs (unit: mm)
62.5 52 62.5 52 57.5 48 57.5 48
.5 34.
31.5
34.5
62 33.58
33.08
65 36
33. 57
.5
(a) Outboard web (b) Inboard web

Figure 2. Geometric parameters of trapezoidal corrugated steel webs (unit: mm)
90
1150 1150
1000
2400 2400
1000
1000
2980 2980
(a)Three-point loading
(b) loading point (c) Assignment of the sensors

Figure 3. Three-point loading of the curved girder bridge
During the loading processes the vertical load

3 Experimental phenomena and test increased from 66kN to 76kN, the girder continues
results to make noise. When the vertical load increased
to 76kN, fourteen corrugations of the outboard
During the loading processes the vertical load
web occurred interactive shear buckling, seven
increased from 58kN to 66kN, the girder made a
were from the left-hand member to the loading
noise. When the vertical load increased to 66kN,
point, and the other seven were from the right-
the outboard flat panel of the sixth corrugation
hand member to the loading point. In addition,
from the left-hand member of the outboard
cracks appeared in the concrete bottom flange
corrugated steel web protruded, and the inboard
between the 1/4 span to 3/4 span.
flat panel of the seventh corrugation from the left-
hand member of the outboard corrugated steel When the vertical load increased to 79kN,
web concaved. That is to say, local shear buckling twenty corrugations of the outboard web
occurred in the outboard corrugated steel web. In occurred interactive shear buckling, ten were from
addition, Cracks started to appear in the concrete the left-hand member to the loading point, and
top flange nearby the top supports. the other ten were from the right-hand member
to the loading point. Concrete cracks became
longer and wider.
91
When the vertical load increased to 94kN, the local shear buckling occurred in the outboard
the buckling deformation of the outboard web corrugated steel web. Then, the interactive shear
was larger. The piercing cracks appeared in the buckling occurred in the outboard corrugated
concrete bottom flange between the 1/4 span to steel web. Finally, the interactive shear buckling
3/4 span. occurred in the inboard corrugated steel web.
Failure of the girder was initiated by the buckling
With the continuation of loading, seventeen
of the corrugated steel webs. Local shear buckling
corrugations of the inboard web occurred
occurred in corrugated steel web with the vertical
interactive shear buckling, then, the girder failed.
load increased to 66kN, while the girder failed
The final deformed shaped of the test with the vertical load increased to 94kN. That is to
specimen at the end of testing is presented in say, the girder with corrugated steel webs can
Figure 4 and the final buckling shapes of the continue to resist the load after the occurrence of
corrugated steel webs are presented in Figure 5. shear buckling. In addition, many cracks appeared
From the experimental phenomena, failure of the in the concrete top flange nearby the top supports
corrugated steel webs was found to be initiated by and the concrete bottom flange between the 1/4
the local shear buckling of one of the corrugation span to 3/4 span.
panels, which propagated to other panels. Firstly,
Figure 4. The final deformed shaped of the girder (final states)
(a) The right-hand member of the outboard web (b) The left-hand member of the outboard web
(c) The left-hand member of the inboard web (d) The right-hand member of the inboard web
Figure5. The final buckling shapes of the corrugated steel webs (final states)
92
[2] Hlavacek V. Shear instability of orthotropic

4 Conclusion panels [J]. Acta Technica CSAV, Prague,
The experimental results on a curved box girder Czechoslovakia, 1968, 1: 134-158.
with corrugated steel webs were presented in this [3] Easley J T., McFarland D E. Buckling of light-
paper. The method of three-point loading was gage corrugated metal shear diaphragms
used in the test. From test results the following [J]. Journal of the Structural Division, 1969,
conclusions can be obtained: 95(7): 1497-1516.
(1) The girder failed due to nonlinear shear [4] Easley J T. Buckling formulas for corrugated
buckling of the corrugated steel webs and the metal shear diaphragms [J]. Journal of the
yield shear stress of the material was less than the Structural Division, 1975, 101(7): 1403-
elastic shear buckling stress of the corrugated 1417.
steel web.
[5] Luo R, Edlund B. Shear capacity of plate
(2) Failure of corrugated steel web was initiated girders with trapezoidally corrugated webs
by the local shear buckling of one of the [J]. Thin-Walled Structures, 1996, 26(1): 19-
corrugation panels, which propagated to other 44.
panels.
[6] Hamilton R W. Behavior of welded girders
(3) Firstly, the local shear buckling occurred in the with corrugated webs [D]. in Civil
outboard corrugated steel web. Then, the Engineering, University of Maine, 1993.
interactive shear buckling occurred in the
outboard corrugated steel web. Finally, the [7] Elgaaly M, Hamilton R W, Seshadri A. Shear
interactive shear buckling occurred in the inboard strength of beams with corrugated webs [J].
corrugated steel web. Journal of Structural Engineering, 1996,
122(4): 390-398.
(4)Many cracks appeared in the concrete top
flange nearby the top supports and the concrete [8] El Metwally A, Loov R E. Corrugated steel
bottom flange between the 1/4 span to 3/4 span. webs for prestressed concrete girders [J].
Materials and Structures, 2003, 36(2): 127-
(5) The girder with corrugated steel webs can 134.
continue to resist the load after the occurrence of
shear buckling. [9] Driver R G, Abbas H H, Sause R. Shear
behavior of corrugated web bridge girders
(6) The nonlinear shear buckling of the corrugated [J]. Journal of Structural Engineering, 2006,
steel webs needs further theoretical research. 132(2): 195-203.
[10] Moon J, Yi J, Choi B H, et al. Shear strength
5 Acknowledgment and design of trapezoidally corrugated steel
The support from the National Natural Science webs [J]. Journal of Constructional Steel
Foundation of China (NSFC) under the grant Research, 2009, 65(5): 1198-1205.
no.51378106 is gratefully acknowledged.
[11] Eldib M E A H. Shear buckling strength and
design of curved corrugated steel webs for
6 References bridges [J]. Journal of Constructional Steel
[1] Bergmann S., Reissner H. Neuere Probleme Research, 2009, 65(12): 2129-2139.
aus der Flugzeugstatik. Ueber die Knickung [12] Nie. J. G., and Zhu. L., and Tang. L. (2013).
von Wellblechstreifen bei “Shear Strength of Trapezoidal Corrugated
Schubbeanspruchung [J]. Zeitschrift fur Steel Webs.” J. China Civil Engineering
Flugtsclmik unci Motorhtftsch, 1929, 20. Journal, v. 46(6),p. 97-108.
93
[13] Hassanein M F, Kharoob O F. Shear buckling

behavior of tapered bridge girders with
steel corrugated webs [J]. Engineering
Structures, 2014, 74: 157-169.
[14] Hassanein M F, Elkawas A A, El Hadidy A M,
et al. Shear analysis and design of high-
strength steel corrugated web girders for
bridge design [J]. Engineering Structures,
2017, 146: 18-33.
[15] Leblouba M, Junaid M T, Barakat S, et al.
Shear buckling and stress distribution in
trapezoidal web corrugated steel beams [J].
Thin-Walled Structures, 2017, 113: 13-26.
94
The all-composite road bridge – a proposal for rapid urbanisation

Tomasz Siwowski, Mateusz Rajchel, Aleksander Kozłowski
Rzeszow University of Technology, Rzeszow, Poland
Damian Kaleta
Promost Consulting, Rzeszow, Poland
Contact: siwowski@prz.edu.pl
Abstract
Technology and materials can help cities get smarter and cope with rapid urbanisation. Life cycle
assessment (LCA) is one of the approaches applied in evaluation of material sustainability. Many
significant LCA comparisons of innovative and traditional construction materials indicate that fibre-
reinforced polymer (FRP) composites compare very favourably with other materials studied. As a
proposal for rapid urbanisation, the FRP all-composite road bridge was developed and
demonstrated in Poland. The paper describes the bridge system itself and presents the results of
research on its development. The output of the R&D project gives a very promising future for the
FRP composite bridge application in Poland, especially for cleaner, resilient and more
environmentally efficient infrastructure of fast-growing cities.
Keywords: FRP composites, road bridge, FEM analysis, VARTM manufacturing, testing, monitoring.
developed road networks are cited as major

1 Introduction barriers to performing business activities.
According to PwC, more than two-thirds of the Obviously, infrastructure plays a great role. Better
world population is projected to be living in urban transport links create benefits for users, improving
areas by 2050 [1]. This rapid increase will take place accessibility of workplaces or amenities, which in
mainly in developing countries and Poland still falls turn increases land values and encourages high-
into this category. Although urbanisation creates density development (e.g. tall buildings), thereby
huge opportunities for smart eco-cities, there are maximizing the return on more expensive land.
also significant challenges that are connected with Investing in good infrastructure is essential for fast-
different types of urbanisation: tremendous growing cities. Also, the environmental factors
demand for infrastructure and environment. have a significant impact on economic activity. PwC
Potentially, cities are the high-productivity areas stated that cities needed to become cleaner,
and drivers of economic growth. The spatial resilient and more environmentally efficient in
configuration of economic activity in a city depends order to prosper. An integrated and compact
on infrastructure, as the investment decisions of design of transport infrastructure and land use is at
companies and households correspond to the the core of providing a foundation for a truly
transport network. Poor infrastructure increases sustainable city [1].
cost of conducting a business in the city. Poorly
95
Technology and materials can help cities get an all-FRP composite bridge system. The paper
smarter and cope with rapid urbanisation. describes the bridge system itself and presents the
Previously, the primary factors when it comes to results of research on its development. The output
technology and material selection for the purposes of the R&D project gives a very promising future for
of infrastructure systems were based on the FRP composite bridge application in Poland,
performance requirements and economics (e.g. especially for cleaner, resilient and more
construction and maintenance costs). The environmentally efficient infrastructure of fast-
sustainable approach to design and construction growing cities
challenges architects and engineers to take
environmental factors, energy/resource 2 Bridge description
consumption, social factors, economic issues, and
performance criteria into consideration. Life cycle The first Polish road bridge fully made of FRP
assessment (LCA) is one of the approaches applied composites is situated in Rzeszow, the capital of
in evaluation of material sustainability. It includes Podkarpackie voivodship, along the urban road
the input and output for the phases of material life: over a small local stream. This is a 10,7 m long
raw material acquisition, manufacturing / single-span simply supported bridge with 7,7 m
processing, construction, maintenance, recycling / wide deck, carrying 2 × 2,5 m wide roadway and
disposal. Many significant LCA comparisons of two 0,75 m and 1,1 m wide sidewalks. Its nominal
innovative and traditional construction materials carrying capacity amounts 30 metric tonnes
indicate that fibre-reinforced polymer (FRP) according to the Polish bridge standard. The all-
composites compare very favourably with other composite bridge superstructure is formed by four
materials studied [2], [3]. Therefore, the FRP FRP composite girders with an overlying 0,13 m
composites have recently become a structural thick FRP sandwich deck slab (Fig. 1).
alternative to traditional construction materials
like steel, aluminium and concrete.
Compared to these materials, the FRP composites
produce fewer air and water pollution, consume
less energy and emit less greenhouse gas, leading
to both a reduced environmental impact and a
lower carbon footprint. Since the FRP does not
corrode or deteriorate, it can be recycled. More
importantly, virgin production of the FRP usually
has less environmental impact than even recycling
alternate materials, such as steel and aluminium.
The FRP composite products have high resistance
to rot and corrosion, a longer and more economical
service life and require less frequent energy-
intensive maintenance and replacement. These
inherent advantages lead to superior overall
sustainability of our FRP products [4].
As a proposal for rapid urbanisation, the Polish Figure 1. Side view and longitudinal section
science-industry consortium within the framework (above) and cross-section (below) of the FRP
of the Combridge R&D project developed and bridge (Units: [cm])
demonstrated two various FRP composite road The deck equipment consists of two lightweight
bridges, suited for all traffic load classes. For the concrete sidewalk slabs reinforced with GFRP bars
first time, a hybrid idea of the FRP composite- and encompassed by stone curbs and polymer
concrete structural system for bridges was cornice plates, thin insulation and pavement layer,
proposed, developed and implemented [5]. The two expansion joints and steel balustrades. Eight
second proposal comprised an innovative idea of elastomer bearings are used to support the span on
96
the abutments. The RC solid abutments are placed glass fabrics ranged from 800 to 1200 g/m2. As a
on 10 micropiles with diameter of 110 mm and core material for sandwich parts of girders and
length of 4.0 m. deck panels, the PVC foam with density of 80 kg/m3
and the PUR foam with density of 105 kg/m3 were
The FRP girders have a box cross-section with
applied respectively. The matrix of all composite
slightly inclined webs, two top 220 mm wide and 15
parts was made of epoxy resin.
mm thick flanges and one bottom 340 mm wide
and 15 mm thick flange. The maximum width of the
girder amounts 1380 mm and the depth is 715 mm. 3 Design
The top and bottom flanges are made of solid GFRP Firstly, in design process, the mechanical
composites whereas the webs are made in form of properties of all constituent laminas and core
the sandwich panels with PVC foam layer between foams were determined by the tensile tests. The
two GFRP laminates. To increase the torsional final material properties of the FRP composites
stiffness of the FRP girder and to prevent buckling (laminates) were established and taken into
of webs, nine internal diaphragms are placed and account in the FEM analysis, on the basis of the
bonded along the length of the girder. The classical laminate theory (CLT), the experimental
diaphragms are made in form of 46 mm thick characterization of the unidirectional laminas and
sandwich plates with a structure similar to the selected laminate stacking sequences used.
webs (Fig. 2).
The detailed FE model of the superstructure was
prepared in order to implement it during the design
process of the bridge and to analyse the
superstructure behaviour in different stages of
bridge construction and during its use. This model
was also developed in order to analyse the FRP
girder parametrically to optimize its structural
framework and to check code requirements. The
four-node shell and eight-node solid finite
elements were used for girders and deck panels
discretization respectively (Fig. 4).
Figure 2. The FRP girder’s view
The sandwich bridge deck slab consists of two 11,5
mm thick external laminates and 105 mm thick PUR
foam core stiffened with the internal vertical ribs
(Fig. 3). The deck panels are made of a GFRP
composite and are bonded to the top flanges of
each girder with epoxy adhesive.
Figure 4. FE model of the bridge superstructure

The orthotropic properties of the laminas having
different properties in different directions of fibres
were also considered during modelling. Thanks to
software code possibilities, the exact layered
Figure 3. The sandwich bridge deck slab structure of the laminates could be discretized. All
various layers (laminas) were modelled in finite
The unidirectional and biaxial stitched glass fabrics
shell elements and thus enabled the exact material
were used as a reinforcement of the FRP
composites in the superstructure. The weight of
97
properties to be assumed in the superstructure FE girder). To reduce risk of flaws and to ensure
models. constant pressure in all air suction pipes, two
parallel running vacuum pumps were used. The
In the first stage of FEM analysis, the static
temperature of the manufactured shell was
performance of the whole superstructure was
regularly monitored during infusion using the
checked. The girders and deck were linearly elastic
thermal imager. If the temperature exceeded 40°C,
in the full range of assumed standard design
the shell was cooled by forced air flow. If that was
loading according to the Polish code. No local
not sufficient, the shell was locally sprayed with
failure was discovered under this loading. The main
water. The aim of these actions was to prevent the
design criterion used for selection and optimization
resin from boiling. After closing the inlet of the
of laminas was the allowable deflection in mid-
resin, the laminates were cured for about 16 h.
span, i.e. span stiffness. Its value was assumed as
During this time, the vacuum pumps were not
L/300 according to the British FRP bridge code [6],
turned off. The next steps in the process of shell
which meant 33,3 mm for the bridge span under
manufacturing were as follows: removing
consideration. The FE model of the superstructure
technological layers, detaching the shell from the
was also used to predict the theoretical values of
mold, curing at 80°C for 8 h, and cutting off the
its self-frequencies, damping parameters and
edges. Then the shell was transported out and
patterns of vibration.
manufacturing of the next girder shell element was
Laminates strength testing was performed possible. The sandwich deck panels were
according to three failure criteria, mostly used in manufactured by means of the same technology.
the FRP structure design: maximum strain, Tsai –
Hill and Tsai – Wu. The mean strength of each
lamina was taken into account in calculation
together with the material safety coefficients γm
taken directly from the new European guidance [7].
These coefficients include such effects as: creep,
temperature and humidity influence on the FRP
material strength. The strength and stability of
each girder/deck section were numerically
revealed and thus confirmed the compliance of the
bridge superstructure with the service and ultimate
limit states as defined in relevant codes. All the
failure criteria were included during testing, which
revealed the proper design and optimization of
Figure 5. Three parts of the superstructure during
laminates, forming the FRP bridge superstructure
trial assembling in the workshop
4 Manufacturing and construction Due to transport limitations, the entire FRP
superstructure had to be divided into three parts:
All FRP composite components of the girders (shell two identical tandems with two girders and
box elements, diaphragms) as well as deck panels relevant deck panels with width amounting 3,29 m
were made in a process of vacuum infusion, often each and the middle closing panel in-between
called VARTM (vacuum assisted resin transfer tandems with width of 0,98 m (Fig. 5). Two
molding). The biggest challenge during longitudinally bonded joints were located just
superstructure manufacturing was the production above the girder flanges, which facilitated the joint
of girder shell elements with length of 12 m. Before manufacturing on site. Moreover, the production
the infusion started, the mold had been sealed with limitations led to the creation of the transverse
plastic foil and butyl tapes. The infusion of a single deck joints, which were manufactured in the
shell lasted about 8 h. Long infusion duration was a workshop. All the joints manufactured in the
result of large volume of resin, which had to be workshop as well as on site, which assemble deck
injected to saturate the shell (about 900 kg per panel, were made as bonded with epoxy adhesive.
98
After having been manufactured in the workshop, e) static and dynamic tests of all-composite
both tandems were transported on a truck to the superstructure under proof and service load
construction site, about 300 km away from the after the bridge was completed.
workshop. The superstructure was assembled on
The results of material tests were directly applied
site by means of a small mobile crane in only 1 hour
in the FEM modelling of the superstructure during
(Fig. 6). As the tandems had been rested on
design process. Moreover, they confirmed the
supports, the final closing parts of the deck were
required durability of GFRP laminates. According to
bonded by connecting two tandems together thus
the results of sandwich deck testing, its optimal
ending the assembling works. All deck equipment
structure was established in terms of strength and
(pavement, sidewalks, curbs, etc.) was placed in
stiffens, enabling the optimization of the foam
the workshop before transporting superstructure
density and the number and thickness of the
elements to the construction site. Only steel
vertical inner stiffeners of the deck. What is more,
balustrades had to be installed after superstructure
deck joints testing confirmed their design carrying
assembling.
capacity, both static and fatigue, showing the
satisfying safety factor at the same time.
The final laboratory test comprised the full-scale
girder static loading under four-point bending
scheme and was carried out to assess its real
resistance against the design values (Fig. 7).
Figure 6. Assembling of the bridge superstructure

on site
5 Testing
The bridge was a first all-composite road structure
in Poland that resulted from R&D project and
therefore, the comprehensive research had been Figure 7. Full-scale girder static test under four-
carried out before it was completed on site. Due to point bending
the fully prototypical character of the all-composite
superstructure, the Rzeszow University of Characteristic and design moments as well as shear
Technology (RUT) carried out the following tests in forces were compared to corresponding test
order to verify the design guidelines: values, showing satisfying safety margin of the
girder. After the dynamic modal test of the girder,
a) material tests including both main components the final failure test was carried out and enabled to
(resin, foam) as well was GFRP composites; determine the failure mode of the girder. The fully
b) static bending and shear tests of deck panels in linear behaviour of the girder in the entire static
full scale as well as tests joints bonded in the load range was revealed (Fig. 8). The successive
workshop and on site, on deck specimens; debonding of adhesive joints between both top
c) static bending as well as shear and dynamic flanges and the deck was observed as the only
tests of the girder in full scale (with relevant part failure mode under the total load of tripled
of the deck); maximum of design value.
d) static and fatigue tests of bonding connection
between deck and girder on specimens; To sum up, the laboratory tests fully confirmed the
design guidelines and revealed excellent safety
99
margins for all tested crucial elements of the FRP Basing on measured values, the dynamic
superstructure. However, the final test of the real coefficients for all velocities (10, 20, 25 km/h) were
bridge structure always includes its proof test and assessed as 1.079, 1.100 and 1.102 respectively.
checking the behaviour under service load. These values are much lower than the dynamic
coefficient value (1.25) used in bridge design
700.0 according to the Polish code. The estimated first
600.0
natural frequency that amounted 10.1 Hz, was
higher (i.e. better) than the recommended value
500.0 according to the same code (3 Hz). Moreover, the
Load 2P [kN]
400.0 determined logarithmic decrement, used to find

the damping ratio, equalled 0.283 and proved to be
300.0 the appropriate damping characteristic of the
200.0 bridge superstructure. The good results of all proof
tests and the final inspection, which revealed no
100.0
Deflection [mm]
damages after static and dynamic loading, were the
0.0 basis for the service permission issued by the road
0.0 20.0 40.0 60.0 80.0 100.0 administration.
Figure 8. Load – deflection plot in the mid-section 6 Monitoring

of the girder under the total load 2P=620 kN
The first Polish road bridge, which superstructure is
The static proof test carried out on the completed fully made of the FRP composites has been in
bridge revealed the satisfactory strength. service since the beginning of 2017. However, it is
Moreover, stiffeners of the superstructure and its well known that the FRP composite is a novel
behaviour strictly conformed to theoretical structural material in civil engineering and,
assumptions. Due to the lightweight character of additionally, is prone to manufacturing flaws and
the FRP superstructure, the most interesting part service faults as for example: delamination,
of the proof test was its dynamic response when interlaminar cracking or matrix degradation, which
trucks were passing the bridge. The dynamic tests could lead to serious structural damages. There are
were carried out with three velocities of passing many causes of the FRP composite deterioration in
truck: 10, 20, 25 km/h. To enhance a dynamic bridges: poor manufacturing quality, material
effect, the transverse 50 mm deep threshold was flaws, environmental degradation, impact,
used and hard braking on the pavement was overloading, fatigue, etc. The resultant damages
applied. The changes of girder’s vertical are very hard to detect and inspect with the routine
displacement as well as accelerations in few points maintenance procedures, using a conventional
of the superstructure were recorded in order to NDT equipment. Therefore, many structural health
evaluate the dynamic behaviour of the bridge (Fig. monitoring (SHM) systems, which are based on
9). various measurement technologies, were
developed, mainly in aeronautics, windmill
industry as well as civil engineering. Among others,
some of them are already applied in FRP bridge
monitoring, for example: infrared thermography,
ultrasound, acoustic emission and fibre optics.
Within the framework of Combridge project, three
monitoring technologies were initially tested and
one of them is still in use to monitor the FRP
superstructure, namely DFOS – distributed fibre
optic sensors [8].
Figure 9. Mid-span girder’s deflection under
moving vehicle
100
The DFOS monitoring system was installed inside measurement techniques applied for testing
two box girders and on one panel of the deck. Each enabled the validation of DFOS measurement
FRP girder was equipped with 10 longitudinal through the comparison of strains resultant from
sensors made of one constant optic fibre with the both techniques. The second proof load test was
total length of about 96,0 m (Fig. 10). Two DFOS carried out under the same loading conditions in
were installed on the deck slab, both on the bottom June 2017 and the service was stopped for a few
and top surface of the panel. The deck sensors hours to facilitate testing.
were divided on the longitudinal and transvers
Figure 11 shows the exemplary strain plot made
sections to measure strains in both directions.
with DFOS no. 09 in bottom flange of the external
Owing to DFOS technology, FRP strain readings
girder. The characteristic disturbance of strain
were realized in almost 20 000 virtual
smoothness was induced due to diaphragms
measurement points in the superstructure.
presence inside the girder.
Figure 11. DFOS installed inside box girder

Owing to DFOS technology, the incomparably
greater control and monitoring of the FRP structure
is possible in comparison to the conventional foil
strain gauges, installed on FRP surface in
unnoticeable way. The comparison of both
measurements revealed the difference in strain
readings not higher than 5%. The strain
measurement carried out with DFOS seems to be
accurate enough and constitutes a very efficient
FRP monitoring method. During the first year of
service, the FRP strain state check in the bridge
superstructure is anticipated to be carried out at
Figure 10. DFOS arrangement (above) and their least several times. The SHM results are considered
installation inside box girder (below) to help further optimization of FRP composite
The bridge monitoring was planned as a sequence structure in terms of cost and to evaluate the
of several proof load tests under controlled loading service life and durability of such bridges under
carried out twice a year during first five years of a urban road traffic and environment impact.
bridge service period. The first proof test had been
carried out just after completion the bridge and 7 Conclusions
before it was opened to traffic, in November 2016.
The first Polish all-composite FRP bridge was built
The results of this particular testing were also the
in late autumn 2016 and has been in service since
basis to obtain the relevant service permit from the
the beginning of 2017 (Fig. 12). The Polish
local road authority. Therefore the conventional
experience in designing, research, manufacturing
discrete foil strain gauges, accelerometers, as well
and construction of the all-FRP composite road
as LVDTs were also used in most of critical location
bridge clearly revealed that this advanced and still
of the FRP superstructure. Thus two different strain
emerging material can be a valuable alternative for
101
conventional materials widely used in bridge [2] Bakis C.E. Life cycle analysis issues in the use
construction. Moreover, the promising results of of FRP composites in civil infrastructure.
the demonstrative R&D project allow to classify Proceedings of US-Japan Workshop on Life
FRP bridges as future third-generation structures, Cycle Assessment of Sustainable
which may be expected to possess the following Infrastructure Materials; 2009 Oct 21-22;
features [9]: Sapporo, Japan. Hokkaido University: Eds. N.
Grace, M. Lepech, T. Ueda; 2009.
a) durable, i.e. they are highly resistant to
environmental degradation over time; [3] Daniel R.A. A Composite Bridge is Favoured
b) intelligent, i.e. they are able to continuously by Quantifying Ecological Impact. Structural
monitor their own state of health; Engineering International. 2010; 20 (4): 385-
c) performance - oriented, i.e. that they are 391.
designed and constructed to satisfy specific
[4] Zoghi M. (Ed.). The International Handbook
whole-life system-level performance objectives.
of FRP Composites in Civil Engineering. Boca
For structures such as road bridges in a dense Raton: CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group
urban environment, third-generation structures LLC; 2014.
have many major advantages. The FRP composites,
[5] Siwowski T., Kaleta D., Rajchel M., and
as a new generation of structural materials for civil
Wlasak L. The First Polish Road Bridge Made
engineering structures, offer great opportunities
of FRP Composites. Structural Engineering
by constructing high-performance third-generation
International. 2017; 27(2): 308-314.
structures.
[6] Design Manual for Roads and Bridges
(DMRB). Volume 1, Section 3, Part 17: BD
90/05 – Design of FRP Bridges and Highway
Structures. The Highways Agency, UK, 2005.
[7] Ascione L., Gutierez E., Dimova S., Pinto A.,
and Denton S. (Eds). Prospect for new
guidance in the design of FRP. EC Joint
Research Centre, Scientific and Technical
Figure 12. The first Polish all-composite FRP bridge Report No. 27666 EN, European Union, 2016.
in service since the beginning of 2017 [8] Galindez-Jamioy C.A. and López-Higuera
J.M. Brillouin Distributed Fiber Sensors: An
8 Acknowledgements Overview and Applications. Hindawi
Publishing Corporation Journal of Sensors.
This research project was supported by the Polish
2012; article ID 204121: 17 pages.
National Centre of Research and Development
(NCBiR), within the framework of DEMONSTATOR+ [9] Teng J.G., Ko J.M., Tommy H.T., Ni Y.Q., Xu
program, the project title: “Com-bridge: Innovative Y.L., Chan S.L., Chau K.T. and Yin J.H. Third
road bridge with FRP composites” (No. UOD-DEM- generation structures: intelligent high-
1-041-/001) performance structures for sustainable
urban systems. Proceedings of the
9 References International Symposium on Diagnosis,
Treatment and Regeneration for Sustainable
[1] Rapid urbanisation. PwC. [homepage on the Urban System. 2003 March 13-14; Japan. pp.
Internet]. No date [cited 2017 Nov 30]. 41-55.
Available from:
https://www.pwc.co.uk/issues/megatrends
/rapid-urbanisation.html
102
Study on Steel-Concrete Composite Beams under Pure Negative

Bending and Combined Negative Bending and Torsion
Weiwei Lin
Waseda University, Tokyo, Japan
Contact:linweiwei@aoni.waseda.jp
Abstract
Steel and concrete composite structures are widely used in both bridge and building structures due
to their numerous advantages against conventional solutions. However, the design and analysis of
continuous composite beams are rather complicated due to their different behaviour in positive (or
sagging) and negative (or hogging) moment regions. Moreover, in the regions of negative moments,
e.g. at the internal support regions of continuous members, a large part of the composite beam
section is subjected to torsional moment under certain loading conditions and curved composite
structures or flyovers, thus the bottom flange and the web are susceptible to local instabilities and
the concrete slab are easily to crack during its service life. In this study, a straight steel-concrete
composite beam was tested to investigate their mechanical performance under pure negative
bending and combined negative bending and torsional moments. Two-point loading condition with
and without load eccentricities were applied to create necessary loading conditions. Load and
deflection relationships, normal strain on the bottom flange of the steel main girder, and shear
strain of the stud shear connectors at different sections were recorded in the test and reported in
this paper. The results indicate that the classic beam design theory can be used for predicating the
behaviour of a composite beam under pure negative bending moment. In addition, the failure mode
and shear strain of shear connectors of the test specimen under combined negative bending and
torsional moments were also discussed.
Keywords: Steel-concrete composite, negative bending, torsion, stud, mechanical behaviour.
beams, however, the shortcomings are also

1 Introduction
obvious because of the negative bending
Steel-concrete composite structures can offer moment in intermediate support regions.
several distinct advantages over traditional When a steel-concrete composite section
steel or concrete structures, such as higher subjected to a negative bending moment,
span-to-depth ratio, reduced deflections, and concrete is in tension while the steel girder is
higher stiffness ratios etc. In recent years, mainly in compression, resulting in possible
steel-concrete composite structures have been cracking of the concrete slab and buckling of
widely used in civil engineering structures, the steel main girder, thereby affecting the
including both building structures and bridge serviceability and durability of such structures.
structures. For continuous steel-concrete On this background, the mechanical behavior
103
of steel-concrete composite beams under negative steel-concrete composite girders in negative

bending moment was investigated by the authors moment area, and a coupling effect between
group, focusing on the effects of repeated loading the applied forces and the lateral and torsional
(fatigue behavior), different types of shear restraint of the bottom flange was confirmed
connectors (e.g. studs and PBLs), and steel fiber [10]. Thivya et al. (2016) conducted an
reinforced concrete (SFRC) etc. [1~5]. experimental investigation on four Confined
Steel Concrete Composite Beams (CSCC beam),
Despite the research performed on steel-
and two point loading method was applied to
concrete composite beams under negative
evaluate the performance of the beam under
bending moment, more complicated behavior
combined bending and torsion. The influence
occurs in curved continuous beams (e.g. Figure
of shear connector spacing on ultimate
1), due to the combination of the negative
strength of such beams were investigated [11].
bending and torsional moments in internal
support regions. Many studies have been On this background, an experimental study on
performed on composite beams subjected to mechanical behavior of composite beams
combined bending and torsional moments, but under pure negative bending, and under
mainly focusing on the positive bending combined negative bending and torsional
moment. In 2003, Tensing and Jayagopal moments was performed and the results are
performed the loading tests on a total number reported in this paper.
of 48 steel fiber reinforced concrete beams.
Two failure modes were investigated and the
effect of fiber inclusion in concrete was studied
[6]. Santhakumar et al. (2007) performed a
numerical study on unretrofitted and
retrofitted reinforced concrete beams
subjected to combined bending and torsion.
Different ratios between twisting moment and
Figure 1. Composite beams under combined
bending moment are considered. The results negative bending and torsional moments
revealed that the CFRP composites with ±45o
fiber orientations are more effective in 2 Experimental program
retrofitting the RC beams subjected to
combined bending and torsion for higher To simulate the intermediate region of continuous
steel-concrete composite beams, an overturned
torque to moment ratios [7]. Nie et al. (2009)
simply supported steel-concrete composite beams
tested eleven steel-concrete composite
was designed and tested in this study. The details
beams, including four under pure torsion and of the test specimen and the test set-up are
seven under combined bending and torsion. described below.
Based on the experimental observations, a
three-dimensional behavioral truss model 2.1 Test Specimen
capable of analyzing composite beam sections
The specimen was 4600mm in length and was
subjected to the combined bending and simply supported at a span of 4000mm. Design
torsion was presented [8]. Štefić et al. (2012) Standards for Steel-Concrete Hybrid Railway
performed experimental analyses of combined Structures [12] was employed for the design of the
action of bending, shear and torsion on timber test specimen, and the composite beam used for
beams, and interaction of stresses due to those this experimental study was designed as full
forces were investigated [9]. Zhou et al. (2014) connection. The concrete slab thickness was
performed the distortional buckling analysis of 250mm with a width of 800mm. Vertical stiffeners
104
were welded at both support and loading sections and the bottom of the concrete slab. The
to avoid shear buckling failure and crippling of the longitudinal reinforcement ratio was 1.98% for the
web before flexural failure. The transverse test specimen. The geometry of the test specimen
reinforcements with a nominal diameter of 13 mm is shown in Figure 2. The steel main girder, the
and longitudinal reinforcements with a nominal reinforcement, and the concrete slab during
diameter of 19 mm were arranged on both the top construction were shown in Figure 3.
Gauge-155,158
Gauge-155,158
Bottom flange
Web
D-1 D-2 D-3 Top flange
(a) Side elevation (b) LVDT arrangement
(c) Slab and 2.

Figure reinforcement
Design of the test specimen (unit: mm) (d) Cross section
2.2 Instrumentation and Testing Procedure

The test specimen was instrumented for the
purpose of measuring deflections, sectional strains
across the depth, and strain of shear connectors
etc. The test set-up is shown in Figure 4. The
deflections at loading points were measured using
two LVDTs. The deflections at both ends of beam
were also recorded. Strain gauges were also
employed to measure the strains on the steel
beam, concrete slab, reinforcing bars, and stud
(a) Steel girder (b) Reinforcement setup
shear connectors. Two-point loading condition
with and without an eccentricity were applied to
create the combined torsional and negative
bending moments. Two-point load without
considering a load eccentricity was firstly applied on
the test specimen, to investigate the behaviour of
the specimen under pure negative bending. To
avoid the cracking of the concrete slab, the applied
load was controlled no larger than 260kN. After
that, the two-point loading condition considering a
(c) Concrete casting load eccentricity of 10cm was applied on the test
Figure 3. Manufacture of the test specimen specimen to investigate the performance of the
specimen under combined negative bending and
torsional moments. The applied load was kept
increasing until the failure of the specimen was
105
confirmed. The beams were tested with roller two LVDTs were used, as shown in Figure 1 (b). In
(simple) end supports. the load-displacement curve, the vertical
displacement was taken as the average value of the
displacements at each section.
From the applied load-displacement curve of the
test specimen, it can be found that measured
displacements in all three sections keep increasing
linearly with the increase of the applied load. All
three curves have similar rigidity though there are
small difference between D1 and D3. However, this
difference is relatively small and will not
significantly affect the structural behaviour of the
test specimen. On the other hand, the
displacement at D2 was slightly smaller than that of
D1 but larger than that of D3, nearly the average
value of these two results. Considering that the D2
Figure 4. Composite beams under combined was located at the centre section between D1 and
negative bending and torsional moments D3, the deck surface between two loading points
nearly remain flat during the loading test. After the
loading test, no visible cracks were observed on the
concrete slab.
(a) Without eccentricity
300
250
Applied Load (kN)
(b) With eccentricity

200
Figure 5. Two-point loading condition
150
3 Results and Discussion 100 D-1

D-2
As discussed above, two-point loading conditions 50 D-3
with and without considering eccentricities were
applied to investigate the mechanical behaviour of 0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
the test specimen under pure bending, and under Vertical Displacement (mm)
combined negative bending and torsional
moments respectively. Test results including the Figure 6. Load versus vertical displacement curve
applied load-displacement curves, the normal
3.1.2 Normal strain on bottom flange of steel
strain on bottom flange of the steel main girder,
girder
and shear strain development on stud shear
connections on different sections are discussed. In the pure negative bending moment region, the
strain gauges were attached on top flange, bottom
3.1 Under Negative Bending Moment flange, and the web. The normal strain (gauge-155,
158 in Figure 2) on the bottom flange in the mid-
3.1.1 Load-Displacement Relationship span section was summarized in Figure 7. The
The applied load versus vertical displacement results indicate that the strain on the steel girder
relationships of test specimen obtained from tests increase linearly with the applied load increases. To
are shown in Figure 6. Displacements on three verify the applicability of classic beam theory, the
sections, including the two loading sections (D1 theoretical values were also provided to make a
and D3 in Figure 2), and the span centre section comparison with the test results. Though slight
(D2), were measured. For each measured section, variation was observed in the applied load-strain
106
curves, the theoretical values agree well with the 3.1.3 Shear strain on shear studs
test results as a whole. Therefore, the classic beam
Strain gauges were attached on the foot of stud
theory can be used to predict the behaviour of such
shear connectors as shown in Figure 8, to measure
structures.
the shear strain distribution of stud connectors at
300 different sections. Shear strain of three stud shear
250
connectors (stud-1~3) was measured in the loading
Applied Load (kN)
test as shown in Figure 9, and the results were

200 summarized in Figure 10.
150 Zigzag increase of shear strains in studs were
100 confirmed in the loading test. Taking the results in
155
158 Stud-1 as an example, the shear strain of the shear
50
Theoretical value stud does not increase linearly with the load
0 increase, but remains as a certain value before the
-80 -60 -40 -20 0
Normal Strain (microstrain) next jump. This might be caused by the shear stress
distribution between steel-concrete interface and
Figure 7.Normal strain on bottom flange of main the stud connectors. Theoretical values were also
girder provided to make a comparison. In the theoretical
calculation, “perfect bond” was assumed on the
steel-concrete interface, which means the
chemical bond is assumed reliable in the elastic
loading stage. The comparison indicates that
theoretical results agreed well with the test results,
demonstrating that the elastic assumptions (no
crack on the concrete, and no slip on the interface)
were reasonable and can be used for predicating the
Figure 8.Shear strain measurement behaviour of the shear connectors in composite
beams designed as full shear connections.
Another interesting phenomenon is the shear
strain distribution on studs in different locations.
Stud-3 Stud-2 Stud-1 Theoretical speaking, the measured shear strains
should be similar to each other due to the same
Center line
shear forces in those sections. However, the
Figure 9. Shear strain measurement on studs
measured shear strain were different between
300 measured sections, which might be due to
250
influence of the reactions forces at the beam end
Applied Load (kN)
and the applied loads.

200
150 3.2 Under Combined Negative Bending and

Stud-1 Torsional Moments
100 Stud-2
Stud-3 When the test specimen subjected to combined
50 Theoretical value negative bending and torsional moments (two
0 point loads with eccentricities), the results are
0 2 4 6 8 10
Shear Strain (microstrain) discussed below.
Figure 10.Shear strain on the shear studs 3.2.1 Load-Displacement Relationship
When subjected to combined negative bending
and torsional moments, the applied load versus
107
vertical displacement relationship is shown in

Figure 11. From the results, it can be seen that in
the initial stage, the vertical displacement
increases gradually with the increase of the applied
load. Even though there are cracks on the concrete
slab, they affect little on the rigidity of the
specimens, which is different from the behaviour
observed in previous study with one point load in
the span centre [1~5]. This is also presumably
because of the deformation compatibility due to
the applied two eccentric loads in this study. After
the yielding of the test specimen, the vertical (b) Full depth cracks on the concrete slab
displacement increased rapidly with the increase of
the applied load. In the ultimate state, serve Figure 12. Test specimen after the loading test
cracking on the concrete slab and local Figure 12 shows the specimen after the loading
deformation on the flange of the steel main girder test. Full depth cracks through the concrete slab
were observed. However, the applied load was still and large local deformation of the steel bottom
stable and no sudden failure was observed, flange were also observed.
indicating that the test specimen was able to resist
the applied torsion moment.
5000
5000
4000
Applied Load (kN)
Applied Load (kN)
4000
3000
3000 155
2000 158
Theoretical value
2000
1000
1000
0
-8000 -7000 -6000 -5000 -4000 -3000 -2000 -1000 0
0
0 10 20 30 40 Normal Strain (microstrain)
Vertical Displacement (mm)
Figure 13.Normal strain on bottom flange of main
Figure 11. Load and vertical displacement curves girder
3.2.2 Normal strain on bottom flange of steel

girder
Under combined negative bending and torsional
moments, the normal strain on bottom flange of
the steel main girder (mid-span section) was also
measured and summarized as shown in Figure 13.
“Theoretical” values considering only the effects of
pure negative bending moment were also provided.
The results indicate that the stiffness of the applied
load-normal strain curve was smaller than that
(a) Deformation on bottom flange predicted by the theoretical calculation,
demonstrating the non-negligible effects of
torsional moment. The distortion of the steel I-
girder of a composite section under torsional
108
moment shall be considered in determining the 2 and stud-3, which might be due to the influence
normal strain. of the reaction forces near the girder end.
After the yielding was confirmed on the steel main 1000
girder, the normal strain increase rapidly with the
Applied Load (kN)

800
increase of the applied load. In addition, slight
decrease of the normal strain in gauge-155 was 600
also confirmed, which might be caused by the local
deformation that observed in Figure 12. 400 Stud-1
Stud-2
200 Stud-3
3.2.3 Shear strain on shear studs Theoretical value
When subjected to combined negative bending 0

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
and torsional moments, the applied load versus Shear Strain (microstrain)
shear strain relationships of shear studs were
shown in Figure 14. The theoretical values (a) P≤1000kN
considering the two-point loading condition with 5000
eccentricities were also provided. Applied Load (kN)

4000
When the applied load was no larger than 1000kN,
3000
the applied load versus shear strain relationships of
stud shear connectors were shown in Figure 14(a).
2000 Stud-1
The results indicate that when the applied load was Stud-2
smaller than 240kN, the measured shear strains on 1000 Stud-3
Theoretical value
stud-1, stud-2, and stud-3 agree well with the test
results. When the applied load reached to 240kN, 0
0 200 400 600 800
sudden increases of shear strain of stud-2 and stud- Shear Strain (microstrain)
3 and slight increase of shear strain of stud-1 were (b) Whole loading process
observed, which might be due to the breaking of
Figure 14. Shear strain of stud shear connectors
the chemical bond at the foot of stud connectors.
Thereafter, the shear strain of studs became stable
again and increases gradually with the increase of
4 Conclusions
the applied load. When the load increased to This paper presents preliminary results from an
around 880kN, another sudden increase of the experimental investigation of a steel-concrete
shear strain was observed again in stud-2 and stud- composite girder subjected to pure negative
3, which might be caused by another breaking of bending and combined negative bending and
the chemical bond on the steel-concrete interface. torsional moments. It was found that the classic
For the whole loading process, applied load versus beam theory with elastic assumptions (no crack on
the concrete and no slip on the interface) can be
shear strain relationships of stud shear connectors
used for predicating the behaviour of the
were shown in Figure 14(b). In addition the two
composite beams under pure negative bending
sudden shear strain increase discussed above,
moment.
another obvious slope decrease of those curves
was observed when the applied load was around For the composite beam subjected combined
1700kN. It can be found that the slope of the negative bending and torsional moments, severe
applied load-shear strain curves decrease cracking of the concrete slab and the local
obviously with the load increase, especially after deformation of at the loading points were
each sudden shear strain increase point. considered as the failure mode of test specimen. In
Another interesting phenomenon is that the shear addition, the normal strain of the steel girder and
strain of stud-1 was much smaller than that of stud- the shear of stud shear connectors were also
discussed in this paper.
109
The results obtained in this study can be used for World in Concrete & Structures: 28 - 29
understanding the behavior and promote the August 2003, Singapore.
applications of such structures in engineering
[7] Santhakumar, R., Dhanaraj, R.,
practice.
Chandrasekaran, E. (2007). “Behaviour of
retrofitted reinforced concrete beams under
5 Acknowledgment combined bending and torsion: A numerical
This research is sponsored by the Grant-in-Aid for study.” Electronic Journal of Structural
Young Scientists B (Grant Number: 15K18108, PI: Engineering, 7, pp. 1-7.
Weiwei LIN) from the Japan Science Society Japan [8] Nie, J., Tang, L., and Cai, C. S. (2009).
Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS). This “Performance of Steel-Concrete Composite
support is gratefully acknowledged. Beams under Combined Bending and
Torsion.” Journal of Structural Engineering,
6 References 135(9), pp. 1048-1057.
[1] Lin, W., Yoda, T., Taniguchi, N., Kasano, H., [9] Štefić,T.,Jurić,A., PavaoMarović, P. (2012).
and He, J. (2014). “Mechanical Performance “Experimental Analysis of Combined Action
of Steel-Concrete Composite Beams of Bending Shear and Torsion on Timber
Subjected to a Hogging Moment.” Journal of Beams.” Technical Gazette, 19(3), pp. 653-
Structural Engineering, ASCE.Vol.140, No.1, 658.
04013031.
[10] Zhou, W., Jiang, L., Kang, J., and Bao M.
[2] Lin, W., Yoda, T., and Taniguchi, N. (2014) (2014). “Distortional Buckling Analysis of
“Application of SFRC in Steel-Concrete Steel-Concrete Composite Girders in
Composite Beams Subjected to Hogging Negative Moment Area.” Mathematical
Moment.” Journal of Constructional Steel Problems in Engineering, Article ID 635617.
Research. Vol.101, pp. 175-183.
[11] Thivya, J., Malathy, R., and Tensing, D.
[3] Lin, W., and Yoda, T. (2013). “Experimental (2016). “Behaviour of Composite Beams
and Numerical Study on Mechanical under Combined Bending and Torsion.”
Behavior of Composite Girders under International Journal of Advanced
Hogging Moment.” International Journal of Engineering Technology, pp. 563-566.
Advanced Steel Construction. 9(4), pp. 309-
[12] Japan Society of Civil Engineers. Standard
333.
specifications for steel and composite
[4] Lin, W., Yoda, T., and Taniguchi, N. (2013). structures (First Edition), 2007.
“Fatigue Tests on Straight Steel-Concrete
Composite Beams Subjected to Hogging
Moment.” Journal of Constructional Steel
Research, Vol. 80, pp. 42-56.
[5] Lin, W., and Yoda, T. (2011). “Mechanical
Behaviour of Composite Girders Subjected to
Hogging Moment: Experimental Study.”
Journal of Japan Society of Civil Engineers,
Ser. A1 (Structural Engineering & Earthquake
Engineering (SE/EE)), JSCE, 67(3), pp. 583-
596.
[6] Tensing, D., Jayagopal, L.S. (2003). “Steel
Fiber Reinforced Concrete Beams Subjected
To Combined Bending and Torsion-Skew
Bending Approach.” 28th Conference on Our
110
Behaviour of metallic anchorage plates for prestressing CFRP

laminates under room and elevated temperatures
José Sena-Cruz, Luís Correia
ISISE, University of Minho, Guimarães, Portugal
Cristina Barris
AMADE, University of Girona, Girona, Spain
Contact: jsena@civil.uminho.pt
Abstract
The strengthening of reinforced concrete (RC) structures using fiber reinforced polymer (FRP)
composites is a viable reality, consolidated by many studies and practical applications. One of the
most common methods used to apply the FRP is the externally bonded reinforcement (EBR)
technique. The development of stresses at the anchorage zones of the EBR-FRP composite might
cause premature debonding. Two main situations required the use of mechanical systems to delay
(or avoid) premature failure: (i) when the EBR-FRP systems are prestressed and (ii) when higher
effective strain in passive EBR-FRP is required.
This works aims to assess the performance of a metallic anchorage plate commercially supplied by
S&P Clever Reinforcement Company by means of an experimental program composed of fourteen
pull-out specimens (concrete/CFRP/anchorage).
Each metallic plate is fixed to the concrete element through six prestressed bolts, creating
confinement in the anchorage region. All specimens are tested up to failure under two types of pull-
out configurations: (i) the steady-state temperature, where the laminate is pulled from the block
with increasing force under constant temperature (of 20C, 60C and 80C); and, (ii) the transient
temperature, where the laminate is pulled with constant force (0.5% and 0.6% of CFRP strain) and
the temperature is gradually increased. Besides temperature and test configuration, the influence
of the laminate width (50 mm and 100 mm) and level of transverse compression in the metallic plate
(torque level of 30 N∙m, 100 N∙m, and 150 N∙m is applied in the anchorage bolts) were also studied.
Keywords: Bond Behaviour, CFRP, EBR, Transverse Compression, Elevated Temperature,
Steady-state, Transient.
Carbon FRP (CFRP) in form of laminates are applied

1 Introduction according to the externally bonded reinforcement
Laminates and sheets made of fibre reinforced (EBR) technique. Epoxy resins are mostly used to
polymers (FRP) have become a viable alternative to bond the CFRP laminate to concrete substrate
material like steel and concrete for the because they provide the required load transfer
strengthening of existing structures. Generally, between both materials [1–3]. The main problem
111
of this technique is related to the development of present experimental work, two different CFRP
high shear stresses and tensile stresses normal to laminates were used (501.2 mm2 and
the interface plan, located at the anchorage zone 1001.2mm2).
that provokes premature failure. The use of end-
The specimens were grouped into three series (RT,
anchorage system can delay or avoid the
ET and TR) as shown in Table 1. The specimens
premature failure of the system. The load capacity
tested under a steady-state configuration at room
of an EBR system without end-anchorages is
temperature (20C) and at elevated temperatures
limited by its effective bond length. However, with
a mechanical anchorage (MA) the system’s (60C and 80C) were grouped into series RT and
capacity can be improved even further when ET, respectively. Series TR includes all specimens
transverse confinement is applied, mainly because tested using a transient test configuration. Each
the confinement level enables friction in the specimen was labelled with a generic
cracked interface [2,4,5]. Another concern related denomination: LX_TY_Z, where X is the laminate
to the EBR technique is the influence of moderate width in [mm] (50 or 100), Y is the torque level in
to high temperatures. The stiffness and strength of [N∙m] (30, 100, 150), and Z is the specimens’ series
strengthening system can be severely deteriorated (RT; ET1 for series ET tested at 60C; ET2 for series
when the temperature gets close to the glass ET tested at 80C; T5 for series TR with the CFRP
transition temperature (Tg) of the epoxy adhesive. strain of 0.5%; and T6 for series TR with the CFRP
Considering that these temperatures are easily strain of 0.6%).
achieved in outdoor applications or in roof
structures, the study on the behaviour of EBR
systems under the effect of high temperatures is of Table 1. Experimental program
utmost importance [1,6]. L. Width Torque
Series Specimen Test Set-up
This paper presents an experimental study on the [mm] [N∙m]
bond behaviour of a commercially available
RT L50_T30_RT 50 30 Steady state
mechanical anchorage (MA) system at room
temperature and at elevated temperatures (60 C RT L50_T100_RT 50 100 Steady state
and 80 C). The influence of the confinement level RT L50_T150_RT 50 150 Steady state
applied in the anchorage and the laminate
geometry on the overall bond-slip response was RT L100_T30_RT 100 30 Steady state
also studied. The tests are described and the RT L100_T100_RT 100 100 Steady state
obtained results are critically analysed.
RT L100_T150_RT 100 150 Steady state
2 Experimental investigation ET L100_T100_ET1 100 100 Steady state
With the mind-set of studying the bond behaviour, ET L100_T150_ET1 100 150 Steady state
fourteen prismatic concrete specimens
3
(200500800 mm ) with EBR-CFRP laminates ET L100_T100_ET2 100 100 Steady state
mechanically anchored to the concrete were tested ET L100_T150_ET2 100 150 Steady state
under a pull-out test configuration. The mechanical
anchorage plates are made of hard aluminium, TR L100_T100_T5 100 100 Transient
have a thickness of 12 mm and section of TR L100_T150_T5 100 150 Transient
270200 mm2. Each anchorage plate has six holes
of 18 mm of diameter to accommodate M16 8.8 TR L100_T100_T6 100 100 Transient
bolt anchors. Three levels of transverse TR L100_T150_T6 100 150 Transient
confinement were used through the torque level
applied to the bolt anchors (30N∙m, 100N∙m and
150N∙m). The transverse confinement is also
dependent on the laminate geometry and, in the
112
2.1 Materials scope of the present work the epoxy adhesive was
not characterized. Based on an assessment of its
The mechanical and geometrical properties of all
properties previously made in another
materials used the tests are presented in this
experimental program, a modulus of elasticity of
section. The fourteen concrete specimens were
7.2 GPa (CoV=3.7%) and a tensile strength of
casted in using two batches (B1 and B2). The elastic
22.0 MPa (CoV=4.5%) are expected [7].
modulus (Ec) and ultimate strength (fc) of the
concrete were determined through compressive
2.2 Specimen preparation
tests using the LNEC E397-1993:1993 and NP EN
12390-3:2011 recommendation, respectively. Six In the preparation of the specimens, the following
cylindrical samples of each batch (150 mm of procedures are followed:
diameter and 300 mm of height) were tested at the i. The first step consisted on the surface
same day of the pull-out tests. The results are preparation. The concrete surface was
shown in Table 2. enhanced using the sandblasting technique
and cleaned using pressurized air;
ii. Six holes were drilled to accommodate the
Table 2. Concrete properties. Note: the values
M16 bolt anchors in each specimen. HIT-HY
between parentheses are the corresponding
200-A® chemical bond agent was used to
coefficients of variation (CoV).
fix the bolts to concrete;
Ec fc iii. Then, the epoxy adhesive was prepared
Series Batch according to the requirements provided by
[GPa] [MPa]
the supplier and applied on the previously
RT B1 30.8 (2.8%) 33.4 (4.3%) cleaned CFRP laminate strip. The adhesive
ET, TR B2 32.8 (0.7%) 45.0 (1.2%) is also applied on the concrete surface and
on the surface of the metallic anchorage
plate;
The elastic modulus (Ef) and tensile strength (ff) of iv. The CFRP laminate strip was placed in its
the CFRP laminates were assessed through the ISO
final position and slightly pressed against
527-5:2009 recommendations. The CFRP laminates
the concrete substrate;
used in the present work came from three different
v. Finally, the anchorage plate was placed in
CFRP lots. For each CFRP lot, six samples were
its predefined location and the M16 anchor
tested, and the main results can be observed in
bolts were torqued with the aid of a
Table 3.
dynamometric key that ensured the target
level of confinement. The specimens were
Table 3. CFRP laminate properties. Note: the values ready to be tested after 7-14 days of curing
between parentheses are the corresponding at lab environment.
coefficients of variation (CoV). The final result was a concrete block with CFRP
laminate bonded to the concrete block in a total
CFRP Geometry Ef ff
Series length of 522 mm, where 250 mm corresponded to
lot [mm3] [GPa] [MPa]
the defined length of unconfined bonded region
RT A 50x1.2 176.4 (2.0%) 2222.4 (4.7%) that follows the anchorage plate (length of
272 mm). The unconfined bonded length surpasses
RT B 100x1.2 169.4 (1.4%) 2480.2 (4.0%)
the theoretical effective length (le) needed to
ET, TR C 100x1.2 187.2 (0.9%) 2895.2 (4.4%) achieve the maximum debonding load (according
to the CNR [8] le≈200mm).
The epoxy adhesive (type S&P Resin 220),
produced by the same supplier as for the CFRP 2.3 Test configuration and Instrumentation
laminate, was used as bond agent to fix the
The specimens’ geometry, instrumentation and
reinforcements to the concrete substrate. In the
test configuration are shown in Figure 1. The
113
instrumentation included: three linear variable a transient test, failure didn’t occur when the
differential transducers (see Figure 1a) to record temperature was being raised, the test conditions
the relative displacement of the CFRP laminate to were kept constant (temperature of 80 C and
the concrete surface at the loaded end (beginning predefined CFRP stress) for a period of one hour.
of the bonded length – LVDT-1), at the mid-end The elevated temperatures were achieved using an
(before the anchorage plate, at the end of the infra-red heating system. The heating system (see
bonded length – LVDT-2) and at the free-end (after Figure 1a and Figure 1c) was composed of by four
the anchorage plate); five strain gauges (S1-S5) infra-red heaters controlled by a thermostat that
evenly distributed on the bonded length (see measured the temperature in the anchorage
Figure 1b) to measure the strain evolution; four region. This system was developed to achieve the
thermocouples type k to measure the temperature predefined temperatures in the anchorage region
of the bonded length and inside the anchorage (see within a relative short period of time (from 20C to
Figure 1a); and a load cell of 300 kN to measure the 80C within 170 minutes), with a uniform
applied pull-out load. distribution of infra-red radiation over the tested
The behaviour of the strengthening system at specimens. Because the different materials that
elevated temperatures was assessed through a composed the strengthening system had different
pull-out test performed for both steady-state and thermal properties, the temperature measured in
transient conditions. In the steady-state tests, each the bonded length was different than the
specimen was heated up to a predefined temperature measured inside the anchorage.
temperature (60C and 80C for series ET) and then However, the temperature was uniform in all
loaded up to failure; whereas in the transient tests, unconfined bonded region as it was uniform in the
the specimens were first loaded to predefined anchorage plate. When the temperature in the
CFRP stress (0.5% and 0.6% of CFRP strain for anchorage region was 60C and 80C, the
specimens with the suffix “T4” and “T5”, temperature in the bonded length region was 53C
respectively) and then heated up to 80 C. If, during and 66C, respectively.
Figure 1. Set-up and instrumentation: (a) Side view, (b) top view and (c) photo of the heating system.
114
null instantly, series ET exhibits a failure with a high

3 Results and discussion degree of deformability where the load does not
decrease to zero, but stabilizes at a load level that
3.1 Steady state tests represents a residual and constant bond stress.
Studies have shown that high temperatures can Similar results have been observed in the literature
influence the stiffness and strength of EBR [2,4].
strengthening systems, especially when these
systems are exposed to a temperature higher than
the Tg of the epoxy adhesive. In order to investigate
the temperature influence, steady state tests were
carried out with the following three temperatures:
20C (room temperature), to study the behaviour
of the MA system at a temperature below the Tg of
the epoxy adhesive; 60C, to study the behaviour
of the MA system at a temperature around the Tg
of the epoxy adhesive; and 80C, to study the
behaviour of the MA system at a temperature
above the Tg of the epoxy adhesive. Figure 2. Load-slip behaviour for specimens
L100_T100_RT and L100_T100_ET1.
3.1.1 Load-slip behaviour
Figure 2 shows the load-slip behaviour of two 3.1.2 Debonding
specimens, the L100_T100_RT and the The main results obtained during the steady state
L100_T100_ET1. The response of the MA system tests are presented in Figure 3. According to the
observed in specimens L100_T100_RT and CNR [8], the effective bond length (le) for the tested
L100_T100_ET1 is representative of the behaviour specimens equals to 200 mm. As mentioned
seen in across series RT and ET, respectively. For before, each specimen has an unconfined bonded
both series, the pull-out test started with an almost region of 250 mm which means that the maximum
linear branch at the loaded end. Then the debonding load can be attained. In the current
debonding of the laminate from the concrete experimental programme, the debonding load
substrate starts to occur and, in the loaded end, the corresponds to the maximum load that is
registered slip increases while the load level supported by the bonded length, before the
remains almost constant. The complete debonding metallic anchorage starts to be solicited to support
of the FRP is observed when the mid end LVDT the pull-out force. In series RT the debonding load
starts to register displacements. From this point could be identified by the load for which LVDT-2
onwards, the slip increases in both locations starts to register displacements. At the same
(loaded end and mid end) and all the pull-out load instant, the strain gauge closest to the anchorage
is supported by the mechanical anchorage. At this plate (S1, see Figure 1) registers an abrupt increase
stage of the test, different behaviours are observed of strain. In general, for series RT, strain gauge S1
in both series: in series RT the load and slip increase presented null values until the debonding initiation
until rupture of the CFRP is attained. During this as seen in other research works [6]. In average, the
period, the LVDT-3 does not register any slip debonding load (Pdeb) observed in series RT is equal
displacement. However, in series ET the load and to 48.7 kN and 25.9 kN for laminates with the cross
slip at the loaded end and the mid end increase section of 1001.2 mm2 and 501.2 mm2,
until slippage in the anchorage is observed. respectively. As expected, the width of the CFRP
Immediately afterwards, the relative displacement laminate (w) is an important factor on the
at the free end starts to increase and, debonding load and a relation between w and Pdeb
simultaneously, the load decreases. In contrast to is observed (Pdeb/w=0.5 kN/mm, CoV=9.8%). In
series RT, where the failure is a fragile event and addition, the expected debonding load was
the supported load decreases from its maximum to computed based on the CNR [8] guidelines. For
115
laminate of 1001.2 mm2 the expected debonding

load is 53.0 kN and for the laminate of 501.2 mm2
the expected Pdeb is 27.0 kN. This shows that the
experimental results are in accordance with the
expected values.
Figure 4. Strain profile of specimen L100_T150_ET2.
3.1.3 Failure Modes

Two failure modes were observed in the steady
state tests: CFRP rupture and anchorage slippage.
These two types of failure are shown in Figure 5.
CFRP rupture (see Figure 5a) was attained when
the pull-out force matched the maximum tensile
Figure 3. Main Results for steady State Tests. Note: (a) the force supported by the laminate. This type of
ultimate load was not registered due to a technical problem - these failure was observed in all specimens from series
values correspond to the theoretically expected results. RT. In series ET all specimens failed by anchorage
In series ET, the debonding load could not be as slippage (see Figure 5b). As referred before, the
easily identified as it was with series RT. Figure 4 test temperature influenced the epoxy adhesive’s
shows the typical strain evolution across the properties and, consequently changed the
bonded length of specimens tested at elevated specimen’s failure mode.
temperatures. In series ET, all specimens showed The change of failure modes can be noticed in the
an almost linear strain evolution with the load on ultimate parameter, mainly in the ultimate load
the loaded end (location x=0mm, see Figure 4) and (Pu) and strain (εu). Whereas CFRP rupture is
a gradual decrease towards the anchorage plate marked by reaching the maximum tensile load and
(location x=250mm, see Figure 4). All strain gauges strain of the CFRP (Laminate 1001.2 mm2:
showed an increasing strain variation since early Pu=290.8 kN and εu=1.4%; Laminate 501.2 mm2:
load stages, even in the strain gauge S1. Pu=136.4 kN and εu=1.3%), the anchorage slippage
The difference between series RT and ET resides in occurred when the load was 58.5-44.5% of the
the fact that the test temperature changed the CFRP maximum tensile capacity. In addition, the
properties of the epoxy adhesive. In two recent ultimate parameters in series ET are highly
studies carried out by the authors [7,9] the S&P influenced by the level of confinement in the
Resin 220 was characterized and the adhesive’s Tg anchorage region: the increase of torque from
varied between 47C and 52C (epoxy cured at 100 N·m to 150 N·m lead to an average increase of
room temperature before testing). Series ET was 20.3% and 14.5% in the Pu of specimens tested at
carried out at the temperatures of 60C and 80C 60C and 80C, respectively. Nevertheless, the
and, for that reason, it is expected that the epoxy temperature is the major influential factor in all
adhesive is in a viscous state. This reduction in the ultimate parameters, as can be seen in Figure 3.
adhesive stiffness might be responsible for The failure by anchorage slippage did not result in
smoothing the shear stress/strain distribution. a swift decrease of load down to zero, but to a
softened reduction of the supported load down to
a residual value of 60.5-66.2% of its ultimate load.
The residual value is a consequence of the
116
transverse confinement stresses applied on the by the level of torque proves to be a major factor
anchorage region. For that reason, the specimens in the anchorage capacity: the specimen with the
with the torque of 150 N·m showed higher residual lowest torque level (L100_T100_T5) failed when
capacity (125.1 kN and 84.9 kN for specimens the temperature reached 67.7C, whereas the
L100_T150_ET1 and L100_T150_ET2, respectively) specimen L100_T150_T5 not only supported the
than specimens with the torque of 100 N·m highest predefined temperature (80C) but also
(103.3 kN and 75.7 kN for specimens endured almost one hour at those conditions
L100_T100_ET1 and L100_T100_ET2, respectively). before slippage failure. The remaining two
specimens, tested with the highest stress level of
0.6% of CFRP strain, failed shortly after the
temperature in the anchorage surpassed the
adhesive Tg. The specimen L100_T150_T6 failed at
64.2C and the specimen L100_T100_T6 failed at
63.4C. For this specific stress level, the
confinement level has a considerable lower
influence in the anchorage resistance when
compared with the specimens with the stress level
of 0.5% of the CFRP strain.
Figure 5. Failure modes observed: (a) in specimen

L50_T150_RT and (b) in specimen L100_T150_ET2.
3.2 Transient tests Figure 6. Slip evolution with the temperature

In the transient tests, two specific stress levels variation for series TR.
were imposed to the CFRP laminate and, for each
stress level, it was possible to observe the 4 Conclusions
maximum temperature supported. The slip This paper presented results of an experimental
evolution in the loaded end and free end with the study about the bond performance of a mechanical
temperature is shown in Figure 6 for specimens anchorage of EBR CFRP system to concrete
tested at a constant strain level of 0.5% and 0.6%. structures. The results obtained allow drawing the
Figure 5 also shows the time when the maximum following main conclusions: (i) the mechanical
predefined temperature was reached (tf) and when anchorage showed adequate transverse
failure was observed (tu) in minutes. It should be confinement of the laminate to the concrete
pointed out that in this analysis, the reference of substrate at room temperature. Regardless of the
time (t=0min) corresponds to the heating initiation. level of confinement (100 N·m or 150 N·m), the
Slippage from the anchorage was the failure mode anchorage allowed the use of the maximum
observed in all specimens tested under the capacity of the CFRP laminate; (ii) all specimens
transient configuration (see Figure 6b). tested at room temperature (series RT) failed by
The lowest stress level used in the transient tests CFRP rupture at its maximum tensile capacity,
corresponded to 0.5% of CFRP strain. For this whereas all specimens tested at elevated
specific stress level, the confinement level induced temperatures (series ET and TR) failed by
117
anchorage slippage; (iii) the ultimate load observed M. Mechanical performance of cold-curing epoxy
in series ET corresponds to 41.5-63.5% of the adhesives after different mixing and curing procedures.
average value obtained in series RT (same CFRP Compos Part B Eng [Internet]. 2016;98:434–43. Available
geometry); (iv) at room temperature, the from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2016.05.054
debonding load increased with the laminate width
[4] Biscaia HC., Chastre C., Silva MAG. Bond-slip model for
and a good correlation between the experimental
FRP-to-concrete bonded joints under external
values and the prediction from the literature;
compression. Compos Part B Eng [Internet].
(v) transient tests carried out with the lowest stress
2015;80(Supplement C):246–59. Available from:
level (0.5% of CFRP strain) failed by anchorage http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1359836815003674
slippage, but the confinement level played a critical
role in the anchorage capacity; (vi) transient tests [5] fib Model Code for Concrete Structures 2010. fib Model
carried out with highest stress level (0.6% of CFRP Code for Concrete Structures 2010. 2013.
strain) lead to the anchorage failure shortly after [6] Firmo JP., Correia JR., Pitta D., Tiago C., Arruda MRT.
reaching the adhesives Tg; (vii) based on the results Experimental characterization of the bond between
from both test configurations, the torque level externally bonded reinforcement (EBR) CFRP strips and
appears to be a relevant factor in increasing the concrete at elevated temperatures. Cem Concr Compos
anchorage capacity. [Internet]. 2015;60(Supplement C):44–54. Available from:
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0958946515000505
5 Acknowledgements [7] Silva P., Fernandesa P., Sena-Cruza J., Xavier J., Castro F.,
This work was supported by FEDER funds through Soares D., et al. Effects of different environmental
the Operational Program for Competitiveness conditions on the mechanical characteristics of a structural
Factors – COMPETE and National Funds through epoxy. Compos Part B Eng [Internet]. 2016 Mar 1 [cited
FCT (Portuguese Foundation for Science and 2017 Nov 21];88:55–63. Available from:
Technology) under the project FRPLongDur POCI- http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1359836815006666
01-0145-FEDER-016900 (FCT PTDC/ECM- [8] CNR. Guide for the design and construction of externally
EST/1282/2014) and partly financed by the project bonded FRP systems for strengthening existing structures.
POCI-01-0145-FEDER-007633. The second author 2013.
wish also to acknowledge the grant
[9] Emara M., Torres L., Baena M., Barris C., Moawad M.
SFRH/BD/98309/2013 provided by FCT. The third
Effect of sustained loading and environmental conditions
author acknowledges the Spanish Government
on the creep behavior of an epoxy adhesive for concrete
(Ministerio de Educación, Cultura y Deporte) for
structures strengthened with CFRP laminates. Compos
the grant José Castillejo ref. CAS16/00288. Finally,
Part B Eng [Internet]. 2017;129(Supplement C):88–96.
the authors also like to thank the S&P Clever
Available from:
Reinforcement Ibérica Lda. company for providing http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S135983681731764X
the materials.
6 References
[1] ACI 440.2R-08. Guide for the design and construction of
externally bonded FRP systems for strengthening existing
structures. ACI committee 440 2008.
[2] Correia L., Sena-Cruz J., Michels J., França P., Pereira E.,
Escusa G. Durability of RC slabs strengthened with
prestressed CFRP laminate strips under different
environmental and loading conditions. Compos Part B Eng
[Internet]. 2017;125(Supplement C):71–88. Available
from:
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S135983681730433X
[3] Michels J., Sena-Cruz J., Christen R., Czaderski C., Motavalli
118
Seismic behavior of Skew RC Bridges with CFRP piers
Mahmoud Reza Shiravand, Shima Mahboubi

Department of Civil Engineering, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran
Contact: m_Shiravand@sbu.ac.ir
Abstract
This paper aims to investigate the effect of retrofitting piers with CFRP on seismic damage in skew
reinforced concrete bridges. To this end, damage limit states of bridge piers in terms of drift ratio
are used. Finite element models of a whole bridge are developed for skew angles of 00 , 100 ,
200 and 300 and nonlinear time history analysis of the bridges with/without CFRP is performed,
using a series of selected ground motion records. Compressive and tensile damage of concrete
and drift ratio of bridge piers are estimated, and the results are compared with five damage limit
states to specify bridge damage levels under seismic loads. The results show that CFRP strips
decrease the compressive damage, the tensile damage, and drift ratio of bridge piers. Moreover,
retrofitting piers with CFRP decreases the level of seismic damage of bridge piers.
Keywords: Fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP); Retrofitting; Seismic load; RC Bridge.
withstand seismic excitements. Therefore, several

1 Introduction rehabilitation methods have been developed to
During the 1994 Northridge and 1971 San improve the seismic performance of existing
Fernando earthquakes, extensive damages were reinforced concrete bridges. Examples of these
observed in many reinforced concrete bridges, methods are covering columns with steel, fibre-
particularly in skew bridges, which showed that reinforced polymer (FRP), reinforced concrete
skew bridges are more vulnerable to seismic loads jackets and textile reinforced mortar (TRM) jacket.
than normal bridges. Skew bridges are defined as FRP composites are the most commonly used
bridges in which, the piers cannot be normally techniques, thanks to their high strength-to-
aligned to the longitudinal axis of the bridge decks weight and stiffness-to-weight ratios, high
and have some degrees of skewness due to durability, and corrosion resistance [7].
construction restrictions [1]. A wealth of studies Changdong et al. [8] studied the effect of CFRP on
has been done on the seismic behaviour of skew the ductility, hysteretic behaviour and energy
bridges (Ghobarah and Tso [2], Wakefield et al. dissipation capacity of 25 RC columns through
[3], Meng and Lui [4], Dimitrakopoulos [5], Kaviani experiments. The results indicated that the CFRP
et al. [6]). Many bridges were constructed prior to changes the failure modes of columns from brittle
seismic design codes or may have insufficient shear failure to bending failure and improves
deformation capacity, stiffness and strength to ductility, energy dissipation capacity and
119
deformation capacity of columns. Sauce et al. [9] height of piers are 10 m and are located 20 m
presented a method for designing FRP composites away from the end of spans. The rectangular pier
in columns to represent desired flexural behaviour caps are 2 m deep and 12.7 m long. The columns
and calibrated this method against a full-scale contain longitudinal reinforcement and transverse
experimental analysis. Wu et al. [10] studied the stirrups. The bridge columns are assumed to be
seismic response of retrofitted short circular fixed at soil foundation. Figure 1 displays the
columns with different numbers of CFRP layers detail of the bridge. The modulus of elasticity of
and found that one CFRP layer improves the concrete materials used in the bridge deck and
column strength capacity, but is not enough to piers is 25 MPa with the compressive strength of
change the shear failure mode to flexural mode. 28 and 25 MPa, respectively. The yield stress and
Mehdizad and Moghadam [11] carried out cyclic modulus of elasticity of steel reinforcement is 400
tests on RC columns with CFRP and AFRP strips MPa and 210 GPa, respectively.
and found that the FRP increases the lateral load
The bridge superstructures are designed based on
capacity of columns up to 20%.
AAHTO-LRFD [13]. The dead and live loads are
The existing studies have been limited to applied in accordance with AASHTO [13]. Seismic
examining the effect of FRP retrofitting on design of bridge is performed based on AASHTO
improving seismic behaviour of bridges, while it is specification [13]. The design spectra corresponds
imperative to compare the seismic vulnerability of to 10% probability of exceedance in 50 years
bridges in various states of damage before and based on Standard No. 2800. The bridge are
after retrofitting. In addition, the majority of designed for site class III (Vs=375 m/s). The
previous studies have been performed on non- response modification factors (R) of the bridge in
skew bridges, while the seismic behaviour of skew the longitudinal and transverse directions are
bridges is mainly dependent on the skew angle. considered 3 and 5, respectively.
Hence, broader studies are required to investigate
the efficiency of retrofitting in improving seismic
behaviour of skew bridges.
The main objective of this paper is to assess the
damage of skew bridges under seismic loading and
the effects of CFRP composites on reducing
seismic damage of skew RC bridges. To this end,
the finite element models of a RC bridge with
skew angles of 00 , 100 , 200 and 300 are
developed before and after retrofitting piers with
CFRP strips. In order to evaluate the seismic
damage of bridge piers, finite element models of
the bridge are analyzed using ground motion
records of ten earthquakes in two horizontal
directions. The drift ratios of piers before and
after retrofitting are calculated and the damage
limits suggested by Dutta and Mander [12] are
used to determine damage levels of piers.
2 Bridge model
A two-span typical concrete bridge with span
length of 20 m is modelled with skew angles
of 00 , 100 , 200 and 300 . The bridge
superstructure is supported on six girders and
composed of a 200 mm deep concrete deck. The
120
elements. The neoprene supports are considered

elastic springs. The columns are fixed on the soil
foundations in all six rotational and translational
directions. To simulate the bonding of the CFRP
strips with concrete, tie restraint is applied. The
bilinear model is selected for steel material. The
weight per unit volume, modulus of elasticity and
Poisson’s ratio of steel material are considered—
7850 kg/m3, 210 GPa and 0.3 respectively.
(a) Concrete damage plasticity model is used to
define the nonlinear behaviour of concrete in
ABAQUS[14]. This model describes the inelastic
behaviour of concrete using isotropic damage and
plasticity model in tension and compression. The
typical stress-strain relationship for confined
concrete is defined on the basis of the model
developed by Mander et al. [15]. CFRP materials
are modelled using the four-node shell elements.
The CFRP composites are unidirectional and their
(b) strength is extensively larger in one direction
compared to the other direction. Table 1 defines
the strength properties of CFRP composites on the
basis of the Hashin criteria [16-18].
Table 1. The strength properties of CFRP
composites based on Hashin hypothesis [16-18].
G12
E1 E2 G13 G23
Nu (MP
(b) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa)
a)
Figure 1. a) Plan view of skew bridge b) detail of
the bridge piers 327
62000 4800 0.22 3270 1860
0
3 Finite Element analysis under Longitudinal Transverse
Seismic Loading
Finite element models of the bridge with skew
angles of 00 , 100 , 200 and 300 are developed in Tensile &
Shear
Tensile & Shear
ABAQUS [14]. Bridge piers are wrapped with a Compressive Compressive
Strength Strength
Strength Strength
single layer of CFRP strips to investigate the effect
(MPa) (MPa)
of strengthening bridge piers with CFRP in (MPa) (MPa)
different skew angles. Bridge superstructures
including the diaphragm, girder, stiffeners,
supporting neoprene, cap column, stirrups, steel 958 96 74 48
reinforcement and CFRP strips, are modelled. Shell
elements are used to model the deck, girders,
CFRPs and stiffeners. Solid element is used to
model the caps and columns. The longitude and Under uniaxial compression, the stress-strain
transverse reinforcements are modelled by beam response of concrete materials follows a linear
relationship until the stress reaches the value of
121
initial yielding (σc0). The plastic response is time history responses of the bridge piers in terms
governed by stress hardening followed by strain of the longitudinal displacement time histories at
softening after the ultimate stress (σcu). The top of the pier are plotted for the bridges with
stress-strain relationship under uniaxial tension skew angles of 00 , 100 , 200 and 300 before and
and compression loading is presented below: after retrofitting piers with CFRP strips for Kobe
earthquake(Figure.3). As observed, the maximum
displacement is around 210 mm in the per-
𝑝𝑙
𝜎𝑡 = (1 − 𝑑𝑡 )𝐸0 (Ԑ𝑡 − Ԑ𝑡 ) (1) retrofitted pier with skew angle of 00 , while after
𝑝𝑙 retrofitting the pier, the maximum displacement
𝜎𝑐 = (1 − 𝑑𝑐 )𝐸0 (Ԑ𝑐 − Ԑ𝑐 ) (2) decreases to 110 mm. For the skew angle of 100 ,
𝑝𝑙 𝑝𝑙 the maximum displacement of the bridge pier
Where E0 is the initial elastic stiffness, Ԑ𝑡 and Ԑ𝑐
are the equivalent plastic strain in tension and before retrofitting is 160 mm and, CFRP decreases
compression respectively. The model the maximum displacement of the pier up to 50%
characterized the reduction of the elastic modulus and the pier displacement reaches to 80 mm. For
under tension and compression loading by two the skew angle of 200 , the maximum
damage variables, 𝑑𝑡 and 𝑑𝑐 . The damage displacement of the pre-retrofitted and the
variables are proposed as functions of the plastic retrofitted piers are 130 mm and 75 mm,
strain, temperatures and field variables [14]. The respectively. Moreover, the maximum
equation proposed by Kent and Park [19] for displacement of the pier with skew angle of 300 is
stress-strain relation of unconfined and confined 100 mm which decreases to 55mm after
concrete is used to calculate the compressive and retrofitting the pier with CFRP.
tensile damage variables. Moreover, according to
equations (1) and (2), the values of 𝑑𝑡 and 𝑑𝑐 ,
increase with increasing the equivalent plastic
𝑝𝑙 𝑝𝑙
strain in tension and compression(Ԑ𝑡 and Ԑ𝑐 ),
Hence, the damage variables in compression and
tension are estimated using the following
equations:
𝜎𝑡
𝑑𝑡 = 1 − (3)
𝑓𝑐∙
𝜎
𝑑𝑐 = 1 − 𝑓𝑐∙ (4)
𝑐
Figure. 2 (a) and (b) show the obtained values of (a)

damage variables in compression and tension Figure.2 a) Compressive damage parameter (b)
versus plastic strain for two types of concrete Tensile damage parameter of concrete materials
materials (C25 and C28). The curves are used to
define stress-strain models of unconfined and
confined concrete in ABAQUS.
Ground motion records of ten earthquakes are
selected from the Pacific Earthquake Engineering
Research (PEER) Center strong motion database
[20]. This set contains strong ground motion
records from earthquakes with dominant
frequencies in accordance with the bridge
(b)
frequency. The selected ground motion records
are presented in Table 2. The records are scaled to Figure.2 a) Compressive damage parameter (b)
PGA (Peak Ground Acceleration) value equal to Tensile damage parameter of concrete
the design PGA value of 0.35g. As an example, the materials(continued)
122
Table. 2 Earthquake records characteristics
Record Earthquake Year Distance Magnitude PGA PGV PGD

No. (km) (Mw) (g) (cm/s) (cm)
1 San Fernando 1971 39.45 6.61 0.101 4.04 1.34
2 Tabas 1978 20.63 7.35 0.328 20.6 12.56
3 Coalinga 1983 30.06 6.36 0.116 4.8 4.95
4 Morgan hill 1984 45.47 6.19 0.038 0.78 0.066
5 Loma prieta 1989 47.41 6.93 0.054 2.07 0.45
6 Big bear 1992 49.35 6.46 0.112 2.12 0.35
7 Lander 1992 54.25 7.28 0.081 2.09 4.75
8 Northridge 1994 40.68 6.69 0.568 52.1 4.21
9 Kobe 1995 98.9 6.9 0.07 4.4 1.54
10 Bam 2003 47.18 6.6 0.123 5.23 0.92
0
0 b) Skew angle 10
a) Skew angle 0
0 0
c) Skew angle 20 d) Skew angle 30
Figure. 3 Comparison of displacement time history responses of pre-retrofitted and retrofitted piers a) skew
angle of 00 b) Skew angle of 100 c) Skew angle of 200 and d) Skew angle of 300 .
123
The compressive and tensile damage of piers angles for all ten earthquakes. The effect of skew
before and after retrofitting with CFRP are angles is visible in the average base shear of the
obtained for all skew angles in accordance with bridge piers. As the skew angle increases from 00
concrete plastic strain. The average values of to 300 , the base shear of piers increases
compressive and tensile damage in the skew approximately by up to 20%. The average base
angles of 00 , 100 , 200 and 300 are calculated for shear of bridge piers decreases after retrofitting
all ten earthquakes based on plastic strain. Figure piers with CFRP, particularly in the skew angle of
4 shows the average compressive damage and 200 and 300 .
tensile damage of pre-retrofitted and retrofitted
piers. As observed, retrofitting piers decreases
the compressive and tensile damage of bridge
piers in all skew angles. According to Figure 4, the
decrease in the compressive damage is significant
compared with tensile damage. The decreases in
the average compressive and tensile damage of
piers after retrofitting are respectively around
80% and 17%, compared with pre-retrofitted
piers.
Figure 5. Average base shear of piers -skew angle

diagram
In order to determine the damage states of
bridge piers in accordance with damage limits
proposed by Dutta and Mander[12] the average
drift ratios of piers before and after retrofitting
with CFRP are presented in Figure 6. Dutta and
Mander [12] defined five damage states include,
almost no, slight, moderate, extensive and
(a) complete which correspond to drift ratio of
0.005, 0.007, 0.015, 0.025 and 0.05, respectively.
As seen in Figure 6, after retrofitting the bridge
piers with CFRP, the drift ratio of piers decreases
which results in improving damage states of
piers. According to Figure 6, in the skew angle of
00 , the average drift ratio of pre-retrofitted piers
is 0.028, while after retrofitting, the average drift
ratio decreases to 0.0107. Therefore, after
retrofitting the damage states of piers changes
from extensive to slight. In the skew angle of 100 ,
the average drift ratio of pre-retrofitted and
(b) retrofitted piers is 0.0197 and 0.009 respectively
and the damage state of piers changes from
extensive to slight damage state after retrofitting
Figure 4. a) Average compressive damage b) with CFRP. In the skew angle of 200 , after
Average tensile damage of piers -skew angle retrofitting piers with CFRP, the average drift
diagram ratio of piers decreases from 0.015 to about
Figure 5 shows the average base shear of pre- 0.008, and the damage state of piers changes
retrofitted and retrofitted piers in different skew from moderate to slight. In the skew angle of
124
300 , the average drift ratio of pre-retrofitted is and tensile damage of piers after
0.011, while after retrofitting, the average drift retrofitting are respectively around 80%
reaches 0.007. Although retrofitting decreases and 17%, compared with pre-retrofitted
the drift ratio but the damage states of piers are piers.
slight before and after retrofitting.
5 References
[1]. Yang, Ch.W, Werner, S.D., and DesRoches,
R. Seismic fragility analysis of skewed
bridges in the central Southeastern
United States. Engineering
Structures.2015; 83, 116-128.
[2]. Ghobarah, A.A. and Tso, W.K. Seismic
analysis of skewed highway bridges with
intermediate supports. Earthquake
Engineering and Structure,1973 ; 2(3),
235–48.
Figure 6. Average drift-skew angle of pre- [3]. Wakefield, R., Nazmy, A., and Billington,
retrofitted and retrofitted piers. D. Analysis of seismic failure in skew RC
bridge. Journal of Structural Engineering
4 Conclusions (ASCE), 1991; 117(3),972–86.
The main results are summarized below: [4]. Meng, J.Y, and Lui, E.M. Seismic analysis
and assessment of a skew highway bridge.
 A comparison of the drift ratios of pre- Engineering
retrofitted and retrofitted piers in
Structure,2000; 22(2), 1433–52.
different skew shows that strengthening
bridge piers with CFRP improve seismic [5]. Dimitrakopoulos, E. G. Seismic response
behavior and decreases the damage level analysis of skew bridges with pounding
of bridge piers with skew angle of 00 , deck–abutment joints. Engineering
from extensive to slight. In the skew Structure, 2011;33(3), 813–826.
angle of 200 , the damage state of piers [6]. Kaviani, P., Zareian, F.and Taciroglu, E.
changes from moderate to slight, and in Seismic behavior of reinforced concrete
skew angle of 300 , although the CFRP bridges with skew-angled seat-type
decreases the drift ratio of the bridge abutments. Engineering Structure, 2012;
piers, but the damage level of piers 45, 137–50.
before and after retrofitting with CFRP is [7]. Moran D.A, Pantelides,C. P. Stress-Strain
slight. model for fiber-reinforced Polymer
confined concrete. Journal of Composite
 The base shear of bridge piers decreases Construction (ASCE).2002; 4, 233-240.
after retrofitting piers with CFRP,
particularly in the skew angle of 200 and [8]. Changdong, Z., Xilin, L., Hui, Li., Teng, T.
300 . Experimental study on seismic behavior of
circular RC columns strengthened with
 Retrofitting piers with CFRP decreases pre-stressed FRP strip. Earthquake
the compressive and tensile damage of Engineering and Engineering
bridge piers in all skew angles. The Vibration.2013; 12(4), 625-642.
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[9]. Sauce, R., Kent, A.H, Stephanie, L.W, Applications. Elsevier Science Publishers,
Stephen, P. James, M.R. Flexural behavior LTD, Essex, England; 1989.
of concrete columns Retrofitted with
[19]. Kent, D.C., and Park, R. Flexural members
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[10]. Wu, G., Lu, Z. T., Wu, Z. S. Strength and
[20]. Pacific Earthquake Engineering Research
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[11]. Mehdizad, S., Moghadam, H.
Experimental and analytical investigation
of square RC columns retrofitted with pre-
stressed FRP strips. Eighth International
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concrete structures, University of Patras,
Patras,Greece; 2007.
[12]. Dutta, A., Mander, J.B.Seismic fragility
analysis of highway bridges. Proceeding of
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[13]. American Association of State Highway
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(AASHTO)(2012). AASHTO LRFD Bridge
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Washington;2012.
[14]. Dassault Systems. Abaqus Analysis User’s
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Theoretical stress-strain model for
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[16]. Billah, A.H.M.M, Alam, M.S., Bhuiyan,
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126
Fully Stress Laminated Timber Bridge

Dario Feliciangeli, Krzysztof Mierzwa, Mariana Antunes
Meinhardt UK Ltd, London, UK
Contact: dario.feliciangeli@meinhardt.co.uk
Abstract
The combination of zero carbon emission infrastructures and low construction costs has become
the most important challenge for civil engineers. Specifically, in developing countries,
governments and communities should demand infrastructures which embrace a different design
methodology using low impact materials and innovative building sequences to achieve
sustainable, safe and accelerated constructions. The proposed footbridge, located in Central
Africa, is a timber truss based on local materials which extends the timber stress lamination
technology to all its parts. The resulting system is a structure made of small and light timber
components that ease the construction and reduce the cost, representing a feasible solution for
pedestrian bridges in developing countries. This design underlines the importance of concepts like
constructability, sustainability and safety which should be shared by any construction in the 21th
century.
Keywords: Timber, Bridges, Stress Laminated Timber, Sustainability, Constructability, Safety,

Truss, Innovation, Construction.
impact materials and innovative building
1 Introduction sequences to achieve safety and accelerated
constructions respecting the surrounding
Engineers are called to use their knowledge to environment led to the proposed footbridge. This
design sustainable developments with specific footbridge extends the timber stress lamination
attention to the environment. Specifically, in technology, usually applied only to decks, to all its
developing countries, governments and parts. Therefore, the resulting system is a
communities should demand infrastructures structure made of small and light timber
which embrace a different design methodology. components that ease construction, minimise
Most of the structures built in the last century material waste and reduce construction cost.
have been realized using concrete or steel as main
materials, resulting in resources depletion and The bridge design combines the easiness of stress
several unrepairable natural issues as global ribbon bridges construction with the peculiar
warming. In recent years, timber has been rapidly robustness of a stress laminated timber deck
growing as an alternative material to reduce the achieving an exceptional balance between
environmental impact in the construction reliability of the structural system, construction
industry. Timber is a renewable resource and the cost and sustainability.
increase in its usage would results in a significant
reduction of carbon emission. Furthermore, it is 1.1 Developing Countries
one of the few materials involved in the There is not a clear explanation of what a
infrastructure industry which combines high developing country is. Even the definition itself of
mechanical properties, low production cost and “developing country”, has been criticized in the
aesthetic qualities. The necessity of using low past because the term “developing” implies
127
inferiority with the respect of the “developed materials enhances local economy, minimising
countries”. At the beginning, the distinction was carbon footprint and energy consumption of
only based on the industrial development but constructions. This is the reason why the main
recently, Indian economist A. Sen proposed the footbridge material is Ebiara (also known as
Human Development Index (HDI) [1], which Berlinia or European Red Oak). Ebiara includes
combines life expectancy, average annual income about twenty species and it naturally grows in
of a country and average level of education. In this West and Central Africa. This material has been
paper, the distinction between “developed” and used in constructions for many years due to its
“developing” countries, is based on the HDI as it high mechanical properties and good durability
accounts on potential human development and against insect and beetles. Ebiara trees are usually
not only for economic advances. small to medium size, up to 30m in height and 1m
in diameter; its heartwood varies in colour from
In our view, developing countries are those
red-brown to pink-brown with grey sapwood and
countries that have maximum potential of
its grains are straight with light interlocks [2]. This
improvement. As it is shown in Figure 1, there is a
timber is considered hardwood.
high concentration of developing countries in
central Africa. Therefore, the footbridge design is According to TROPIX 7 database developed by
located in this region. CIRAD (French Agricultural Research Centre for
International Development) [3], Ebiara has a mean
modulus of elasticity at 12% moisture content of
12,87 GPa.
1.3 Span
Central Africa has many little rivers and torrents,
which nowadays, represent an insuperable
obstacle for many people. Infrastructures, like
Figure 1. HDI by country (2015/16 data). Highly bridges, provide connections and so, they could
developed (dark blue) to developing countries affect the economy, the culture and the life of
(lightest blue). local communities. The proposed bridge can span
over these natural obstacles to enhance materials
1.2 Materials and goods transportation, social connection and
cultural exchange between separated
Through the history, construction materials have communities. The decision of a 30m span bridge is
always been a reflection of the culture of a place due to a small research made on rivers and
in term of aspirations, resources available and torrents in Central Africa. The length of the bridge
manufacturing industry. represents a good balance among a span which
Nowadays, one of the effects of globalization and would be able to provide connection over natural
modern means of transportation is the brake of barriers, the possibility to use local timber and
the link among materials, place and local culture. constructability.
Learning from the past, humans found ways to
bridge over natural barriers like rivers and 2 Stress Laminated Timber Deck
torrents, without great tools, just by using what
they had around, mainly timber and stones. 2.1 History of SLT Deck Bridges
Central Africa abounds of various species of Stress lamination technology has been developed
timber with a broad spectrum of properties. Many to overcome the high maintenance cost of nailed
of these species have been employed in African decks also suffering of delamination issues. An
constructions due to their strength, light weight alternative to nail-laminated decks was found in
and energy absorption which are also properties stress laminated timber (SLT) decks. In SLT decks,
desirable for bridge structures. The use of local separate laminations are taken together by a
128
transverse force applied by a prestressing rod. The research programme on timber bridges with the
clamping force allows the separate laminations to same need of rehabilitating old and deficient
sustain transverse bending moment and to infrastructures leading to several timber
transfer shear by friction. In addition, SLT bridges structures in the last 15 years [10].
avoid long term problems due to nails and timber
Nowadays, probably the most active country in
delamination, but their behaviour relies entirely
term of timber bridges research is Norway which
on the lateral clamping force which therefore shall
has been focusing specifically on SLT deck bridges
be guaranteed for the entire service life of the
[11] following the worked done previously in
bridge. Despite SLT decks are considered “low-
collaboration with Denmark, Sweden and Finland.
tech” systems, they are relatively new in the
construction industry. This system does not
2.2 Structural Behaviour
involve any industrial process other than timber
drying which can also be done naturally. In 1982, SLT deck structural behaviour relies entirely on
24000 bridges in the United States (US) were the transverse prestressing force. The transverse
assessed as structurally inappropriate with an force is usually applied with a prestressing rod
estimated cost of retrofitting of almost 20 billions bearing on a steel plate in contact with the lateral
of dollars [4]. SLT decks where used for the first face of deck external laminations. The steel
time in Canada, in 1983, to rehabilitate an existing bearing plate redistributes the prestressing force
nail-laminated timber bridge. The replacement to a large portion of the timber lamination
proved to be successful bringing this new avoiding problems of local crushing of the material
technology inside the construction market, perpendicular to the fibre direction.
especially for bridge applications. US government Prestressing force clamps timber laminations
considered SLT decks as a possible solution to together allowing a singular lamination to transfer
their decaying infrastructures due to low building its shear force to adjacent laminations by friction
cost, reduced maintenance and accelerated and resist transverse bending moment. In this
construction. For these reasons, U.S. funded many way, SLT decks behave as a thick orthotropic
studies on this new technology. plate. Many studies between 1980s and 1990s
In 1983, Gutkowski and Williamson [5] developed [12, 7, 13] demonstrated that low prestressing
many researches on the state of art of timber force (between 300kPa and 700kPa) is required
bridges in US. In 1988 Oliva Dimakis performed a for the laminations to start behaving as an
detailed study on SLT decks involving for the first orthotropic thick plate. Eurocode [14] prescribes a
time full scale tests [6]. In 1990 the same authors minimum equally distributed lateral pressure of
were financed by US Department of Agriculture to 350kPa which is also the lateral pressure assumed
develop a report for Forest Products Laboratory for the design of the footbridge. The same code
(FPL) on developments of SLT decks for highways [14] considers two failure modes for this type of
applications. The report “Stress-Laminated Wood deck: transverse gaps between laminations (net
Bridge Decks” [7] underlined the importance of transverse tensile stresses) and excessive vertical
additional researches on the long term properties slip. Therefore, the design of SLT deck in this
of the system regarding prestressing losses. It also paper is solved by finding the level of transverse
pointed the lack of simple design guidelines for prestressing such that the deck does not show any
this structural system. During 1990s, FPL and the tensile transverse stresses and that the friction
Federal Highway Administration (FWHA) worked between laminations does not allow for vertical
together to develop a programme on timber slip. Finally, SLT deck shows a highly redundant
bridges resulting in many developments in the behaviour that is crucial to guarantee safety for
area and also design guidelines that are still in use. accidental or extreme events. Elkhom [15] and
Outside US, during the same period, other Crews [16] developed independent full scale load
countries as Australia [8] and Scandinavian tests demonstrating that after failure, SLT decks
countries [9] developed independent researches are able to sustain more than 60% of the failure
on timber bridges. More recently, Brazil started a loading.
129
3 Fully Laminated Timber Bridge waste of material coming from the cut of deck
laminations. Deck laminations should be cut to a
Fully Laminated Timber (FLT) bridge is the effort of certain length leading some part to remain and to
extending the SLT deck technology to all be reused in SLT legs. The latter are assembled
components of the bridge; so the resulting system together by a 15mm diameter prestressing rod
is a structure made of small and light timber similarly to the SLT deck.
components that ease construction and reduce
cost and material waste. Top connections between the deck and legs are all
identical made of weathering or galvanized steel
3.1 Description and they are assumed to be moment connections.
The bridge is a 30m long three-dimensional truss Bottom connections between legs and cables are
with varying depth, composed by a butt jointed made of the same material of top connections and
SLT deck, underslung locked coil cables and stress they have a high-density polyethylene (HDPE)
laminated timber legs connecting cables with the block between the two members to allow the
deck (Figure 2). The SLT deck is 2500mm wide, cable to slide.
with an available pedestrian width of 2000mm, In cross section (Figure 3), top connection of one
350mm thick resulting from 50x350x1200mm leg is connected to bottom connection of the
laminations of Berlinia timber. Longitudinal joints opposite leg by a 10mm diameter tie rods in “X”
(i.e. butt joints) are used to span the intended arrangement working as transverse bracing.
length out of small individual members. Butt joints
are staggered every 300mm in four adjacent
laminations in a pattern called “1 in 4” as
recommended by Eurocode [14]. Transverse rods
of 15mm diameter are spaced every 600mm and
they are prestressed to get their yield value (i.e.
0,1% proof stress) to achieve the required
transverse pressure. SLT legs, with a length from
580mm to a maximum of 1880mm at midspan,
are rotated thirty degrees in cross section (Figure
3) to improve the lateral stability and to give a
slender appearance to the structure. SLT legs have
a maximum area of 350x350mm at the connection
with the deck and they taper to a minimum
section of 200x200mm at the connection with the
cable. Figure 3. FLT Cross Section at Midspan
The choice of extending stress lamination

technology to these legs aims to minimise the
Figure 2. FLT Cross Elevation
130
Cable anchorages are installed at the four corners supported vertically and laterally at deck ends and
of the deck as a single steel block replacing four free to move longitudinally at one end.
longitudinal laminations.
4.2 Dynamic assessment
4 FEM analysis In this paper the dynamic assessment of the
structure is developed using SYNPEX guidelines
4.1 Global Model [19]. Results of the modal analysis for the first
Three dimensions Finite Element (FE) model was three modes are shown in Figure 4,5,6. Modal
developed in GSA [17] to analyse the structure. mass considered in the analysis includes 10% of
Laminated deck is represented using orthotropic pedestrian loading.
thick plates elements. The Mean Elastic Modulus
of the deck in the longitudinal direction is 12.87
GPa [3]. For sawn laminations, Eurocode [14]
prescribes the followings:
 Mean Elastic Modulus in the transverse
direction as equal 1,5% of Longitudinal
Elastic Modulus (0,19 GPa)
 Shear modulus as 6% of Longitudinal
Elastic Modulus (0,77 GPa) Figure 4. Mode 1 (fTC3 = 0,95Hz, fTC4 = 0,91Hz)
Full scale testing on SLT decks [18], demonstrated
that butt joints affect the longitudinal bending
stiffness of the deck. Specifically, for a “1 in 4”
butt joint pattern, it is suggested a 20%
longitudinal bending stiffness reduction. Tests
comparing SLT butt jointed and SLT solid decks
show a difference in stiffness above a load level of
20kN applied at midspan. Therefore, the
longitudinal bending stiffness reduction is Figure 5. Mode 2 (fTC3 = 1,28Hz, fTC4 = 1,20Hz)
accounted just at Ultimate Limit State. Same tests
[18] demonstrated also that with lateral
prestressing pressure of 300kPa, the deck
behaviour is linear until a concentrated force of
200kN is reached. Therefore, under a pedestrian
design load of 5kN/m2, the deck is assumed to
behave linearly.
Thick beam elements are used to represent
supporting legs; cable members instead (i.e.
tension only members) are used to represent Figure 6. Mode 3 (fTC3 = 2,36Hz, fTC4 = 2,21Hz)
underslung cables. Cable elements are free to Design standards provide frequency ranges where
slide along their longitudinal axis at the the natural frequency of the bridge could be
connection with supporting legs minimising resonant with pedestrian loading frequencies.
bending moment transferred to the SLT legs. SYNPEX guideline [19] suggests a frequency range
Because the flexible nature of the structure, the between 0,5 to 1,2Hz in the horizontal direction
model was analysed, under static loading and between 1,3 to 2,3Hz in the vertical direction.
application, in first and second order analysis (i.e. In the horizontal direction, the bridge natural
geometrical non-linear analysis) to appreciate the frequencies are outside the pedestrian loading
effect of deflections. The bridge is assumed to be frequencies, therefore further analysis is not
131
required. In the vertical direction instead, the diameter steel bars which can develop up 159kN
third mode for TC4 is within the vertical frequency [22]. Every bar has a prestressing influence area of
range. This was expected because all underslung 350x600mm which leads to a maximum
cable bridges tend to be flexible in the vertical distributed pressure of 757kPa. To account for
direction; so a further analysis needs to be done long term prestressing losses, the design considers
to assess the comfort of the structure. conservatively a value of 350kN/m2 which
corresponds to the minimum lateral pressure
The bridge is designed to have a medium comfort
required by Eurocode [20]. This pressure is
level (vertical acceleration between 0,5m/s2 and
proved to be enough to have the deck in
1m/s2) for a T3 traffic class (0,5 person/m2) and
permanent compression under all load
minimum comfort level (vertical acceleration
combinations and to satisfy the Eurocode
between 1m/s2 and 2,5m/s2) for T4 traffic class (1
condition (1) preventing both deck failure modes
person/m2). A 3% damping ratio is used for timber
considered in this paper (see section 2).
bridges as suggested by SYNPEX guidelines [19].
Vertical accelerations produced by loading applied 𝐹𝑣, 𝐸𝑑 ≤ 𝜎𝑝, 𝑚𝑖𝑛 ∗ ℎ (1)
to the full bridge in phase with the natural
Timber legs are members subject to compression
frequency of the analysed mode are shown in
transferred by underslung cables and bending
Table 1.
moments. These elements are under permanent
Table 1. Dynamic Assessment Acceleration compression and they satisfy Eurocode slip
condition (1) under all loading scenarios.
Max
Mode 1 Mode 2 Mode 3 Therefore, the member check is developed
Load Allowed
m/s2 m/s2 m/s2 considering legs as solid members with a
m/s2
longitudinal modulus of elasticity of 0,19GPa.
T3 N/A N/A N/A 1,0
Linear eigenvalue buckling analysis of the leg is
T4 N/A N/A 1,98 2,0 performed under the assumption to be fixed at
one end and pinned at the other end.
In Eurocode [14] vibration assessment is Cables are assumed to be 35mm diameter lock
considered a Serviceability Limit State, and so no coil strands with a minimum braking load of
flexural longitudinal stiffness reduction due to 1170kN and modulus elasticity equal 164GPa both
butt joints is considered. taken from manufacturer testing [23]. Cable
replacement is considered in the design as one of
the possible loading scenario.
5 Design
Steel connections are not designed in this paper
The bridge design is based on Eurocode EN 1995
since they do not represent critical members of
[20, 14] (UK National Annexes) considering Ebiara
the footbridge. This bridge is not subject to
as a D35 Hardwood species [21]. Design followed
frequent stress variations from live loading
principles of limit states as described in [20]. Dead
therefore fatigue failure was not considered in the
load and underslung cable prestressing force are
design. Maximum deflection at Service Limit State
considered permanent loads, whereas pedestrian
is 100mm which is less than the required limit of
traffic and initial transverse prestressing are
Span/250 [14].
considered short term actions. Design pedestrian
load is 5kN\m2 applied to the deck in different
ways to maximise effects in structural members. 6 Construction Sequence
Timber laminations in the deck are assumed to The bridge innovative construction sequence
have a maximum of 12% moisture content which integrates stress ribbon bridges and SLT decks
leads to 0,3 coefficient of friction perpendicular to building methodologies.
grains (i.e. deck vertical direction) and 0,23
parallel to grain (i.e. deck longitudinal direction) The first step would be to build abutments on
[14]. Lateral prestress is applied with 15mm both sides and connect them with bearing cables.
Bearing cables are used only during construction
132
as temporary supports of timber blocks and to produce a condition where dry and wet rot cannot
prevent excessive deflections of the deck before live and grow, therefore no preservative
underslung cables are installed. The bridge is treatment against rots shall be applied too.
composed by three different types of deck blocks:
Termites instead could represent a real problem,
 Deck Blocks especially in Africa where they are very common.
 Leg Blocks In this case, to achieve the intended minimum
 End Blocks service life of 50 years, timber should be treated
The Deck Block is composed by a segment of SLT with anti-termites coatings which can be easily
deck only, and the Leg Block is composed by a applied in form of paint/oil or even spray.
Deck Block with SLT legs attached to it. These two Steelworks are protected against corrosion by
blocks can be slid on bearing cables following a galvanization or using weathering steel which
determined sequence. When all deck blocks are would be the preferable option for this design.
on bearing cables, End Blocks can be installed at
Underslung cables and prestressing rods are
both bridge ends; these include underslung cables
anchorages. At this stage of construction, all deck galvanized against corrosion too. Generally, SLT
blocks would be separated and resting on bearings decks suffers of transverse prestressing losses
cables and it would be possible to walk safely on which is a critical factor to assure a reliable long
top of these blocks. To guarantee the structural term behaviour of the bridge. For this reason,
continuity of the deck, additional prestressing prestressing force developed by a rod is more
roads are installed and prestressed between than double the value used in the design (i.e.
timber blocks. Underslung cables are installed 350kN). This should guarantee the long term
from the top of the deck and anchored into End
safety of the structure. Under the following
Blocks to be prestressed. After these cables are
conditions the structure is expected to have low
prestressed to the required level, bearing cables
would become completely redundant. Finally, maintenance and to provide a minimum of 50
railing and finishing could be installed to begin years service life.
service.
8 Cost
This methodology allows an accelerated
construction avoiding temporary works and In 1990 Edward [24] developed a research about
cranes. the cost of a stress laminated timber deck. SLT
superstructure cost was found to be 32% less
7 Durability expensive than the average bridge superstructure
cost in Connecticut (U.S.).
Bridge materials involved in this design are Ebiara
FLT bridge would enhance the intrinsic cost
timber and steel. According to CIRAD report [3],
effectiveness of the SLT deck bridges, avoiding
Ebiara heartwood is catalogued as moderately
temporary supports and cranes, proposing an
durable against fungi and termites and durable accelerated construction sequence and reusing
against wood borers; so this does not need to be remaining timber from the cut of deck laminations
treated against wood borers. Regarding rot fungi, in the SLT legs.
all rots generally need a minimum moisture
content of 20% with a temperature below 25°C to 9 Conclusion
live. In Central Africa, the temperature is very high This paper presents a preliminary design for a FLT
through the entire year (i.e. Nigeria has an bridge which could be a feasible solution to
average minimum temperature of 25°C) and facilitate connections in developing countries.
timber used in the footbridge is assumed to have Furthermore, the design underlines the
a moisture content under 12%. The combination importance of constructability, sustainability and
of a dry environment and high temperature
133
safety which should be values shared by any kind [13] Batchelor B, Van Dalen K, Morrison T, Taylor
of construction in the 21th century. R. Structural characteristics of red pine and
hem-fir in prestressed laminated wood
10 Acknowledgements bridge decks. OJT and CRT Proj. 1981;23122.
[14] de Normalisation CE. Eurocode 5–Design of
Authors thank Meinhardt for its support on this timber structures–Part 2: bridges. ENV;
research from the very beginning. 1995.
[15] Ekholm K, Kliger R, Crocetti R. Full-scale
11 Bibliography ultimate-load test of a stress-laminated-
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[4] Rehabilitation HBRa. 3rd Annual Report of [18] Ekholm K, Kliger I. Effect of vertical
Section of Transportation to Congress. 1982. interlaminar shear slip and butt joints in
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bridges: state-of-the-art. Journal of decks. Engineering Structures. 2014;72:161-
Structural Engineering. 1983;109(9):2175- 70.
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[6] Oliva M, Dimakis A. Behavior of stress- design guide for footbridge vibration.
laminated timber highway bridge. Journal of Proceedings of Footbridge. 2008.
Structural Engineering. 1988;114(8):1850- [20] de Normalisation CE. Eurocode 5–Design of
69. timber structures–Part 1-1: General rules
[7] Oliva MG, Dimakis AG, Ritter MA, Tuomi RL. and rules for buildings. prEN 1995-1-1.
Stress-laminated wood bridge decks. Bruxelles, Belgium; 2003.
Experimental and analytical evaluations. [21] EN B. 338 (2003) Structural timber. Strength
Stress-laminated wood bridge decks classes. British Standards Institute, London.
Experimental and analytical evaluations. 2013.
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Application. International wood engineering DSI-
conference, New Orleans, LA, USA; 1996. UK_Prestressing_Steel_Threadbar_System_
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19.
134
Experimental Study on Hybrid Masonry Structure with RC Frame

under Lateral Reversed Cyclic Loading
Fei Zhang, Jianxun Ma
Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, P.R. China
Contact: 490036116@qq.com
Abstract
As a new type of structural system, hybrid masonry (HM) structure with reinforced concrete (RC)
frame is constructed of reinforced block masonry wall and reinforced concrete frame. This
structural system combines the advantages of reinforced concrete frame structure and reinforced
concrete block masonry structure, also overcomes some limitations of them. In order to study the
seismic performance of the structural system, the lateral reversed cyclic loading experiment on
the HM structure with RC frame was conducted. In the experiment, two specimens that were
constructed with different connecting type were designed and tested, in one of them the masonry
blocks was separated from the RC frame and only connected with steel keys at the top part of the
specimen, while in the other there was no spacing between the RC frame and the masonry blocks.
According to the data of the experiment, the paper analyzed the failure process and patterns,
hysteretic characteristic, skeleton curve, stiffness degradation and displacement ductility of the
structural system, and compared the results of the two specimens. The experimental study
indicated that the HM structure with RC frame showed extraordinary good seismic performance
during testing, and this form of construction had fairly good displacement ductility and energy
dissipation, which would provide a basis for further theoretical analysis and design method.
Keywords: hybrid masonry; lateral reversed cyclic loading; hysteretic characteristic; skeleton
curve; stiffness degradation.
researches on the special characteristic of the

1 Introduction reinforced concrete frames with masonry infill
There are many types of structures in civil walls were investigated by many researchers in
engineering, including frame structure, shear wall different parts of the world, although
structure, frame-shear wall structure, tube controversial arguments already exist on the role
structure, shell structure and other types of of infill walls modifying the seismic response of
structures. Reinforced concrete frame structures reinforced concrete frames.2,3 According to the
with masonry infill walls are one type of the most Code for Seismic Design of Buildings of China
popular structural systems in the world. In the civil GB50011-2010,4 masonry infill walls serve as non-
structural systems, masonry infill walls are used as structural elements. However, in most cases,
partition walls, and they may affect the strength, when the structures are subjected to earthquakes,
stiffness, and displacement ductility of the they interact with the surrounding reinforced
structures.1 Some experimental and theoretical concrete frames, which can result in different
135
failure patterns. Therefore seismic performance of and reinforced block masonry wall with different
these structures should take into account the connecting types, this structural system combines
influence of masonry infill walls. the advantages of reinforced concrete frame and
reinforced block masonry, and overcomes their
The failure patterns of masonry infill walls under
limitations: low lateral stiffness of the frame and
an earthquake, as well as the unexpected damage
inflexible layout of reinforced block masonry shear
of reinforced concrete frames because of the
walls. As an innovative seismic structural system,
unsatisfactory arrangement of the masonry infill
research on the HM structure with RC frame is in
walls were investigated by Yuan et al.5 The
its infancy. In order to understand the load
investigation revealed that the masonry infill walls
transfer mechanism of the hybrid masonry
had a significant effect on the seismic
system, some researchers have studied the
performance of the structures. The investigation
seismic behaviour and the connection of the
about the effect of masonry infill walls on the
structural system.15
natural vibration period of reinforced concrete
frame was conducted as well. From the existing In this paper, horizontal lateral reversed cyclic
researches and reviews, we can see the vibration loading was imposed to two specimens of HM
periods of the structures are always reduced due structure with RC frame under constant vertical
to the influence of the masonry infill walls on the loading, with the hope of investigating the failure
structural lateral stiffness. The contribution of process and patterns, hysteretic characteristic,
masonry infill walls in increasing the lateral skeleton curve, stiffness degradation and
stiffness of the frames, the stress redistribution of displacement ductility of the two specimens,
reinforced concrete frames with masonry infill aiming at providing a basis for further theoretical
walls under horizontal loads, and even the factors analysis and design method.
affecting the failure patterns of the structures also
have been studied. 6,7 2 Experiment overview
Due to the constructional convenience and low
cost over concrete and steel structures, concrete 2.1 Design of the specimens
block masonry is used widely in the world. The In the experiment, two specimens in which the
seismic performance of reinforced block masonry reinforced concrete frames and reinforced block
walls has been discussed by many researchers.8,9,10 masonry walls were combined with different
The stiffness of shear wall structures is higher connecting type were designed and tested. HMRC-
than frame structures, therefore their layout is 1 was key-connected, the masonry blocks was
somewhat inflexible yet. In this case, masonry separated from the RC frame and connected with
walls were used in combination with steel or steel keys. HMRC-2 was fully-connected, there
concrete frames to create an efficient hybrid was no spacing between the RC frame and the
structure. Hybrid masonry structures, which were masonry blocks. See Figure 1 for description of the
first proposed in 2007 by Biggs,11 is an innovative two specimens.
lateral-load resisting system. Hybrid masonry HMRC-1 was constructed by the reinforced block
offers many benefits to framed construction. By masonry wall and the reinforced concrete frame,
using masonry as a structural element for in-plane which was provided with sufficient gap between
loads, the lateral stiffness increases, the reinforced block masonry wall and the reinforced
redundancy is improved, and opportunities for concrete frame and connected with the
improved construction cost are created.12,13 connecting element at the top part of the
Hybrid masonry systems have been studied by specimen. By this special construction, the
many researchers, but emphasis of them was the columns in minor earthquakes will not load the
steel frame with hybrid masonry systems.14 reinforced block masonry wall, and the beam was
Under such conditions, based on the idea of Biggs, not contact with the reinforced block masonry
this paper introduces a new structural system, wall under loading. Only a shear force was be
which is combined with reinforced concrete frame transmitted between the beam and block
136
masonry shear wall. The connecting element plays

a very important role on the force transmission, so
designing a reasonable frame-wall connecting
element to realize the expected load transfer path
is vital. In the experiment, the gap was 0.02m and
the key was conducted by two steel plates. Due to
the characteristic of the key, vertical load is born
by frame, horizontal load is born by frame and
reinforced block masonry wall together based on
the lateral stiffness ratio.
(a) HMRC-1
In HMRC-2, a reinforced block masonry wall was
connected tightly with a reinforced concrete
frame. This combination is similar to the
reinforced concrete frame with masonry infill wall
considering the lateral stiffness of the masonry
infill wall. In this type of combination, the role of
masonry infill wall is considered in seismic design.
At the same time, the stiffness and strength of
reinforced block masonry wall are usually larger
than a typical masonry infill wall.
For the two specimens, the height of the column
(b) HMRC-2
was 1.45 m and the sectional dimension of the
column was 0.25 m ×0.25 m. The span of the Figure 1. The sketch map of the two specimens
beam was 1.70m and the sectional dimension of The reinforcement and specific details of the
the beam was 0.20 m ×0.25 m. The grade of specimens are shown in Table 1 and the
longitudinal steel bars was HRB400 and the grade mechanical properties and parameters of
of stirrups was HPB300. The grouted reinforced materials for the two specimens were measured
block masonry panel had a thickness of 0.19m. and are presented in Tables 2-4.
The grade of vertical distributing steel bars was
HRB400 and the grade of horizontal distributing
steel bars was HPB300.
Table 1. The Reinforcement and Specific Details of the Specimens
Reinforced concrete frame Block masonry wall

Specimen Connecting type
Bars of Bars of Vertical Horizontal Grouting
Stirrups
column beam bars bars ratio
HMRC-1 Key-connected 4φ20 4φ16 φ8@100 φ12 2φ8 100%
HMRC-2 Fully-connected 4φ20 4φ16 φ8@100 φ12 2φ8 100%
column. The horizontal load was applied at the

2.2 Equipment applied
top beam ends by an actuator with 600kN
To simulate gravity loads, a vertical jack with tension/compression capacity. See Figure 2 for the
rollers was used. With the help of a steel girder, loading device.
the vertical load was distributed equally to each
137
2.3 The loading pattern

The constant vertical load simulates dead weight
of the structural system by the two concentrated
loads of 20kN. In the experiment, the fixed vertical
load was applied to the two column tops in the
process of testing.
The horizontal load was applied with the
displacement-control approach. The displacement
was increasing with 2mm each time. The
operation was repeated until the corresponding
load decreased to a 15% drop of the peak load.
See Figure 3 for the horizontal displacement-
Figure 2. The test device
control loading curve for the two specimens.
Table 2. Test Parameters of the Concrete
Compression
Major Elastic modulus
strength
member [MPa]
[MPa]
Beam and
14.08 22000
column
Grouting
14.07 22000
concrete
Table 3. Test Parameters of the Steel Bars Figure 3. The displacement-control loading curve
Yield Strength Elastic 3 Analysis of the experiment’s

Specification strength limit modulus Results
[MPa] [MPa] [MPa]
3.1 Hysteretic characteristic
φ8 326 465 210000
The hysteretic curves of the specimens reflect the
φ12 345 475 200000 seismic performance of the structures in many
respects, such as peak bearing capacity,
φ16 455 605 200000 deformation, and stiffness degradation.
The elastic hysteretic loops of the specimens
φ20 455 610 200000
showed in the Figure 4 were long and narrow. At
the same time, there was no distinct change in the
lateral stiffness and the residual deformation was
Table 4. Test Parameters of the Blocks small as well. In the elastic stage, the integrity of
the specimens was very good, hysteretic curves
Dry Compression Tensile Elastic were substantially linear, and the stiffness was
density strength strength modulus basically unchanged. As the displacement
[kN/m3] [MPa] [MPa] [MPa] increasing, the specimens gradually ran into the
elasto-plastic stage, hysteretic curves became
10.81 2.79 0.09 4743 fusiformis, area of hysteretic loops also
138
significantly increased, residual deformation 3.2 Skeleton curve

emerged, stiffness degraded. As displacement
From the skeleton curves, we can see the main
continued increasing, cracks extended and area of
seismic characteristic parameters of the
hysteretic loops became larger.
specimens, such as bearing capacity, energy
dissipating capacity. See Figure 5 for the skeleton
curves of the two specimens.
(a) HMRC-1
Figure 5. Skeleton curves of the two specimens

The skeleton curve is connected with the every
peak loading points at the first cycle of hysteretic
curves, which can directly reflect main seismic
states, such as cracking, yield, peak, and damage
states. The major seismic parameters of the two
specimens are displayed in Table 5.
Peak bearing capacity of the two specimens was
subject to the average of the measured absolute
value of the positive and negative loads on the
pushing and pulling directions of the testing. In
the Table 5, Pcr, Py, Pmax and Pu stand for the
(b) HMRC-2 cracking load, the yield load, the peak load and
Figure 4. Horizontal displacement hysteretic curves the load corresponding to the maximum
displacement. Δcr, Δy, Δmax and Δu stand for the
When the load reached yield, the hysteretic loops
cracking displacement, the yield displacement, the
expanded horizontally, the specimens displayed
displacement corresponding to the peak load, and
an extraordinary performance in energy
the displacement corresponding to the load
dissipating capacity. When the load reached the
decreased to a 15% drop of the peak load.
peak bearing capacity, due to the yield of the
reinforcing steel, and the open and close of the In the elastic stage, almost no cracks appeared. As
cracks in the wall, load-displacement curve slight cracks happened, the inflection point
presented “pinching” phenomenon, displacement appeared obviously in the skeleton curve.
growth accelerated, and hysteretic loops turned Compared to block masonry, the tensile strength,
to the reverse S-shape. Thereafter, the bearing compressive strength and elastic modulus of the
loading decreased slowly, displacement increased reinforced concrete frame were large, which can
faster and the specimen showed good ductile effectively constrain the development of cracks in
manner. block masonry. As the displacement increasing,
the internal cracks of block masonry continued to
develop, the stiffness degraded obviously, and
139
residual deformation was large, the specimens the displacement was increased finished, many
were yielded and became elasto-plastic. When the horizontal cracks appeared in the column, the
horizontal load reached the peak bearing capacity, concrete of column foot crushed locally, and
cracks in the wall ran through, the masonry wall loading was stop.
began to flake and loose strength gradually. With
Table 5. Parameters of the Two Specimens
Cracking Yield Peak Damage
Specimen Pcr Δcr Py Δy Pmax Δmax Pu Δu

[kN] [mm] [kN] [mm] [kN] [mm] [kN] [mm]
Pressures 36.04 1.32 76.39 3.94 216.47 21.84 183.36 27.28
HMRC-1 Tensions 38.45 0.76 76.32 4.52 209.67 21.80 173.76 29.73
Mean 37.25 1.04 76.36 4.23 213.07 21.82 178.56 28.51
Pressures 33.55 0.97 80.54 4.60 323.65 19.85 273.91 25.92
HMRC-2 Tensions 57.90 0.76 142.26 5.18 291.22 19.82 245.58 28.00
Mean 45.73 0.87 111.40 4.89 307.44 19.84 259.75 26.96
3.3 Stiffness degradation

Lateral stiffness degradation rule of specimen
reflects the performance degradation process of
the specimen structure. As cracks were developed,
the stiffness degradation took place. With the
hope of displaying the stiffness degradation
patterns under lateral reversed cyclic loading,
average stiffness values at the same displacement
as follows
P  P
K (1)
  
Figure 6. The stiffness degradation curve
Figure 6 displayed the stiffness degradation curves At the initial stiffness contribution stage, the
based on the Equation (1). Similar stiffness reinforced block masonry walls and the reinforced
degradation can be seen in the two specimens. concrete frames were in good bond. They formed
Under the horizontal load, interaction of the an integral and the block masonry walls were the
reinforced block masonry walls and the reinforced main members of the resisting force. At the
concrete frames can be divided into three stages: stiffness degradation stage, referring to block
initial stiffness contribution stage, stiffness masonry walls cracking, stiffness decreased
degradation stage and large deformation stiffness rapidly, and cracking of block masonry walls
support stage. caused internal forces redistribution, at the same
time, the columns gradually became the main
140
lateral force resisting members. At the large compared to those in the negative direction. The
deformation stiffness support stage, bearing load reason may be that the beams were subjected to
began to decline. And the structure was damaged axial compressive forces during the positive and
until it reached the damage load. negative loading as a result of the damage
accumulated in the positive loading process.
From Figure 6 we can see: the stiffness
degradation of the specimens take place rapidly Generally speaking, in the structural system of
later than the specimen yield, in addition, the hybrid masonry (HM) structure with reinforced
stiffness of HMRC-2 is stronger than HMRC-1. concrete (RC) frame, the reinforced concrete
frame constrained the block masonry and
3.4 Displacement ductility increased the load bearing capacity. The opening
and closing of the cracks under the loading
Displacement ductility coefficient is a measure of
resulted in energy to dissipate, and established
an important indicator of deformation tolerance
the characteristic of the multiple seismic defence
capacity. The paper referred to the Equation (2)
lines. Process of the cracking until the damage,
and summarized the displacement ductility
and the fairly good deformation tolerance
coefficient values for the pushing and pulling
capacity indicated that the displacement ductility
directions even the average displacement ductility
was preferable.
coefficient values in Table 6.

u  u
 4 Conclusions
   (2)
y  y In this paper, an experimental study was
described where two specimens of the HM
As can be conducted from Table 6, the structural structure with RC frame constructed with
system was elaborately designed in terms of different connecting types. By comparing the
deformation capacity and displacement ductility, failure process and patterns, hysteretic
therefore ensured a delay of any impediment that characteristic, skeleton curve, stiffness
may happen. The displacement ductility of the degradation and displacement ductility coefficient
two specimens was relatively high. The ductility of the two specimens, the conclusions can be
coefficients of HMRC-1 and HMRC-2 reached drawn as follows:
approximately 6.75 and 5.52 respectively. (1) The HM structure with RC frame not only
Table 6. Displacement Ductility Coefficients bears the external force with the frame, but also
takes the masonry as a structural element. In this
Specimen HMRC-1 HMRC-2 way, the structural elements performance
coordinated working performance, so the HM
Loading ＋ — ＋ — structure with RC frame has the characteristic of
dual resistances to lateral force, and has
Δy (mm) 3.94 4.52 4.60 5.18 established the multiple seismic defence lines
effectively.
Δu (mm) 27.28 29.73 25.92 28
(2) By comparison of the two test specimens with
μ 6.92 6.58 5.63 5.41 two different constructed types, the HM structure
with RC frame of fully-connected type was
Mean of μ 6.75 5.52 superior to the structure of key-connected type in
bearing capacity, and the structural systems have
fairly good displacement ductility.
Both yield displacements of the two specimens (3) From elastic stage to plastic stage, the
during negative loading were larger than those hysteretic loops expanding horizontally, the
during positive, which led to higher displacement specimens show relatively excellent performance
ductility coefficients in the positive direction in energy consumption.
141
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structural element, the lateral stiffness of the HM M. The influence of masonry infill walls in
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[8] Haach V.G., Vasconcelos G., and Lourenço
The experimental results provide a basis for P.B. Experimental analysis of reinforced
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which mechanical properties and modelling 462.
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5 Acknowledgements reinforced concrete block masonry walls in
This study was supported by the National Natural shear. Advances in Structural Engineering.
Science Foundation of China (No. 51178390), 2012; 15(3): 389–398.
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142
Research on the automatic tension control and management

integrated system of railway prestressed concrete beam
Yi Zhuo
Bridge Engineering Design and Research Institute, China Railway Design Corporation, Tianjin 300142,
CHINA
Abstract
Pre-stressed tension construction is the key link of the production process of pre-stressed concrete
precast beams. The traditional manual operation has many disadvantages, such as low precision,
low efficiency, complex operation, and poor synchronization, high frequency of calibration and
uncontrollable authenticity of results. In view of the problems existing in the traditional pre-stressed
tensioning of railway bridges at present. In this paper, based on big data, cloud technology and radio
frequency identification technology, the Railway Pre-Stressed Concrete Beam Intelligent Tensioning
Control and Management Integration System (BPS) was developed. The current BPS system includes
intelligent tensioning pump station, intelligent tensioning jack equipment, intelligent software
platform and intelligent handheld device. Furtherly, the BPS system has been tested and applied in
Shijiazhuang-Jinan passenger dedicated line girder yard. The test verification results show that the
tension control accuracy, construction quality and work efficiency has been improved due to the
realization of automation, informatization, remote and real-time operation of the tensioning
process. The BPS system has been developed according to the specifications and processes of the
pre-stressed tensioning of railway bridges, the applicability of the railway beam field is strong. And
the validity of the system is verified through automatic and manual tension test. Moreover, the
system has been successfully applied to large beam fields of Shijiazhuang-Jinan, Jinan-Qingdao and
other passenger dedicated line, the effect is good. Therefore, a solid foundation for the
popularization of the Internet of things technology in the railway field in China has been laid through
research and development of BPS system.
Keywords: high-speed railway; beam plant; post-tensioning method; automatic tensioning control;
cloud computing; RFID technology.
beam production process. The precision and

1 Introduction synchronization of the tensile force has a direct
As a major form of superstructure, pre-stressed influence on the load capacity and crack resistance
concrete precast beam has been widely used along of pre-stressed concrete beams, determining the
with the rapid development of railway engineering safety and durability of pre-stressed structure [1-
construction. The prestressed tension construction 5].
is a key link to the precast prestressed concrete
143
At present, there are two types of pre-stressed the Jinan-Qingdao passenger railway line,
tensioning equipment available in the domestic Yangquan-Dazhai passenger railway line, and
bridge construction field [6,7], one is the traditional Zhengzhou-Fuyang passenger railway line, etc.
manual tensioning equipment, the other is the
automatic tensioning equipment commonly used 2 Design of the BPS intelligent
in highway construction. The manual tensioning tensioning system
equipment is based on a tension system composed
of oil pump and jack, and the construction process
2.1 Constitution design and working
are as follows: 1) Hand-driven oil pump. 2) Tension
principle of the system
force is obtained by reading the oil pressure of
pressure gauge. 3) Tensioning elongation is The BPS intelligent tensioning system is made up of
measured by a steel ruler when the oil pressure intelligent tensioning hardware device and
reaches a pre-determined value. 4) Manual record. software platform. The hardware device is made up
5) Sort out evaluation result by manual approach. of four parts: intelligent main pump station,
In the process of traditional manual operation, the intelligent deputy pump station, intelligent jack
oil pressure is measured by the traditional and intelligent handheld device. The software
mechanical pressure gauge and tensioning platform is consist of five parts: SPT software of the
elongation of the pre-stressed steel is measured by intelligent tensioning pumping station, station
a steel ruler in the construction site. Therefore, the client software of operation centre, cloud client
reading errors are difficult to be controlled because software of the cloud server, client software of the
the reading accuracy of the pressure gauge and personal computer platform, and portable client
steel ruler is affected by human factors. So the software of the personal phone platform.
discrepancy between the effective prestressing of The working principle of the system is to set the
anchors and the design value is considerable in the tensioning parameters of the beam using the
anchor construction process of the prestressed station client software, synchronize the data using
tendon, and the stability and reliability of the the cloud client software of the cloud server, and
prestressing construction quality are hard to transfer the tensioning input data to the SPT
control. Furthermore, the aforementioned manual software of the intelligent tensioning pumping
method wastes a large amount of labour, and station. Based on the principle of tensioning
cannot guarantee production efficiency. For control and an elongation check, the pressure
example, at least 8–10 workers are generally sensors of the intelligent jack are used to measure
needed in the manual pre-stressed tensioning
the tensioning force, and the displacement sensor
procedure of high-speed railway bridges. is used to measure the elongation of the tendon
Meanwhile, the pre-stressed tensioning records, and clip retraction. The tensile process is controlled
filled by the on-site operators, cannot ensure or using SPT software, and the process strictly obeys
verify the authenticity of the data. the specifications and standards for the railway
In this paper, incorporating cloud technology and beam construction. When the tensioning process is
radio frequency identification technology, an completed, the resulting tensioning data can be
intelligent tensioning control and management automatically uploaded to the cloud server for
integration system for the pre-stressed concrete calculating and synchronising to the intelligent
beam (BPS) of a high-speed railway was developed, pump station and other client software, and the
which includes an automatic tensioning pumping calculation results can be read in real-time. A
station, tensioning jack equipment, a software tensioning report can be automatically generated
platform, and an intelligent handheld device. and queried by the client based on the different
Furtherly, the developed BPS system has been roles of the project.
verified through comparative experiments in
Shijiazhuang-Jinan passenger railway line. At the
same time, the system has been widely applied in
other large-scale prefabricate girder yards, such as
144
4) This system operation of the hardware device

and the software platform is very reliable, and can
increase the system stability. ① the functions of
the fault prompt and alarm are set in the tensioning
system. ② the system has an overload safeguard
to prevent electrical instability. ③ the system has a
pressure protection switch to prevent an over-
pressure operation. ④ the system has a travel
protection switch to prevent exceeding the stroke
of the jack. ⑤ the system includes displacement
transducer failure protection to prevent any
inaccuracies of the displacement data. ⑥ the
Figure 1. Logical architecture diagram of the BPS system has a return pressure protector to prevent
intelligent tensioning system excessive return pressure, and the protector is
divided into five protection stages.
2.2 System function characteristic of the 5) By building an Internet of Things platform, the
BPS system information management can be realized: ①
1) High-precision tensioning guarantees high- Automated tensioning can be implemented. ②
quality tensioning: ① the deviation of the actual Real-time queries of the tensioning result can be
measurement tensioning force ranges from 0.3% to realized. ③ Remoteness and visualization of the
1.0%. ② the dyssynchrony rate of both ends of the beam plant management can be achieved. ④ an
anchorage is less than or equal to 5%, which makes accurate operation of the tensioning construction
up 94.4% of the total samples. ③ the deviation of can be implemented. ⑤ the identity of each beam
the actual measurement elongation is less than or can be authenticated using RFID technology, and its
equal to 6%, which is 94% of the total samples. ④ life cycle management can be realized.
by strictly observing the standard requirement and
the tensioning program set by the system, the 3 Research and development of the
degree of human intervention is reduced, which BPS intelligent tensioning
ensures the validation of the tensioning data.
hardware device
2) Through the one-click operation, the work
The hardware device of the pre-stressed automatic
efficiency is improved: ① one button automatic
tensioning control and management system is
control, uninterrupted continuous control,
made up of four parts: intelligent main/deputy
improved operation efficiency, and reduced labour
pump stations, an intelligent jack, a piston
intensity are achieved. ② a tensioning report can
protrusion measuring device and a clip retraction
be automatically generated through a one-click measuring device.
operation, and the time of the data recording and
the sorting is saved. 3.1 Intelligent pump station
3) By saving labour costs, the economic An intelligent pump station is a source of power,
performance is improved. ① the labour force is which includes the main pump, deputy pump, and
reduced by four workers when using automatic jack cylinder. The jack is driven based on the output
tensioning equipment, and the human cost of the hydraulic pressure of the pump station. An
pre-stressed tensioning construction is decreased intelligent pump station consists of an industrial
by 50%. ② the calibration frequency of all tablet computer, an oil tank, a motor, a hydraulic
equipment is significantly reduced, and the pump, a hydraulic valve group, a pipeline system,
calibration tasks will correspondingly be and an electric control box. The automatic control
decreased. Thus, the construction cost is further hardware of the intelligent pump station is made
reduced. up of two parts: a control box and a control panel.
145
The control box is assembled from a PLC Figure 2. The piston protrusion measuring device
microcomputer control unit, analogue
measurement detection unit (including 3.4 Clip retraction measuring device
displacement and pressure test), motor control
The clip retraction measurement device is based on
unit, power protection unit, communication unit,
a displacement sensor, and employs a three-point
and temperature and humidity control unit. The
method to measure the retraction of the clip, as
control panel is made up of an industrial tablet
shown in Figure 6. There are two parts in the
computer and a control button, which can realize a
external clip measurement device. The first part is
human-machine interface function. The intelligent
the fixing body, which is composed of a fixing seat,
pump station can accurately execute the
a protecting guide sleeve, an end cover, and a
instructions of the pre-set programs.
pressing cover. The second part is the motion body,
including a measurement adjusting seat, a sliding
3.2 Intelligent jack
expansion plate, a connecting plate, a plug head,
The intelligent jack is made up of a 350-tonne jack, and a piston sleeve. The clip retraction value will be
a piston protrusion measurement device, a clip measured automatically using the clip retraction
retraction measurement device, and a connecting measurement device.
cable. During the tensioning, the displacement
data will be transferred to the control system of the
intelligent pump station through a cable in real-
time, and the system may carry out real-time
monitoring.
3.3 Piston protrusion measuring device

During the tension process of the intelligent pump
Figure 3. The retraction value measuring device of
station used in railway, the piston protrusion
clip
measurement device collects the piston
displacement of the stretching cylinder and
shrinking cylinder in real time. The device has high 4 The BPS intelligent tensioning
precision, and meets the requirement of real-time software platform
measurement accuracy of 0.1 mm. The higher
measurement precision shown not only meets the 4.1 Software function
requirements of the specifications concerned, but Considering the need for operating workers,
also avoids manual measurement errors caused by administrators, and supervisors, different
using a traditional steel ruler and eliminates the application software was developed for the BPS
error record. The piston protrusion measurement intelligent tensioning software platform. According
device is made up of a fixed seat, protective to the hardware running environment of the
cylinder, guide tube, linear displacement sensor, software program, the BPS intelligent tensioning
clamp nut, and connecting plate. A fixed seat and a software platform can be divided into five types: 1)
guide seat are fixed to the oil cylinder of the jack SPT software operated in an intelligent pump
with screws, and the connecting ring is fixed to the station, 2) BPS station software operated in the
piston. server of the beam field, 3) BPS cloud software
operated in the cloud server, 4) BPS client software
operated in the remote client, and 5) BPS portable
client software operated in the handheld terminal.
146
5) Remote: The BPS system is supported by cloud

technology. Thus, the tensioning data, progress
information and construction of the site video
surveillance can be obtained anywhere in the world
with an Internet connection.
5 Comparison with the traditional

manual tension
In August of 2015, the research and development
work of the BPS intelligent tensioning system was
completed, and the system has been applied and
verified in the Shijiazhuang-Jinan passenger
Figure 4. The interface of the intelligent tensioning dedicated line beam field. Between August 2015
platform and January 2016, tensioning field experiments of
four beams were conducted by our research team
4.2 Software characteristics using the BPS system. The test beam used in the
railway is a post-tensioned pre-stressed concrete
1) Automation: The automatic tensioning device of box beam with a ballasted track (“General bridge
BPS system is based on the construction of a drawing (2009) 2229-1 straight silent barrier” beam
precast pre-stressed beam with automatic tension type). A tensioning test process is applied
control, automatic calculation of the index according to the post-tensioned pre-cast concrete
compilation tension data reporting and other simple-support girder for railway bridge pre-stress
functions, which realized automation of tensioning specifications.
process control.
Table 1. The test contents
2) Precision: Because the oil pump is monitored in
real time using a precise sensing system, the Test
automatic tensioning equipment makes the tensile Test name Sub test name
NO.
force vary within a narrow range of around 1%, and
multiple jacks can work together simultaneously to Contrast test of Manual prestressed
achieve tension synchronization. Furthermore, the manual and tension test
Test
tensile elongation of the tendon is measured using automatic
1
a high-precision displacement sensor. Naturally, prestressed Automatic prestressed
the tensioning process is precisely controlled and tension tension test
accurately measured.
Static load Static load bending test
3) Informatization: Using RFID technology, the BPS bending test of of the beam tensed by
system can track the identity, beam-type the beam tensed manual tension
Test
information, progress information, and quality by manual
2
information of the beam body in different periods, tension and the Static load bending test
from the construction to the operation phase. beam tensed by of the beam tensed by
automatic tension automatic tension
Consequently, life-cycle management of the bridge
can be realized.
The test beams were tensed using traditional
4) Visualization: The BPS system is equipped with manual tension and BPS intelligent tension
video monitoring equipment, and can obtain the systems, respectively. The tendon elongation,
video information of the construction site using the tendon tensile force, concrete strain, and static
cloud platform operation function and video replay load bending test deflections of these test beams
function of the system software. were measured. During the test, the tendon tensile
force was monitored using a magnetic flux sensor
(18 sensors were needed per beam), and the strain
147
of the beam body was monitored using a vibrating

wire strain gauge (24 strain gauges were needed
per beam).
Table 2. The basic information of the test beam
Test information
Beam Design
Beam ID Beam type Span
NO. speed Carry out static
Tension method
load bending test
PY31.5ZW-
1 Manual Yes
DP100
The post-tensioned
PY31.5ZW- prestressed concrete
2 Automatic(BPS) Yes
DP108 box beam with ballasted
track (beam type as " 250km/h 31.5m
PY31.5ZW- General bridge drawing
3 Automatic(BPS) No
DP107 (2009) 2229-1 straight
silent barrier ")
PY31.5ZW-
4 Automatic(BPS) No
DP109
number of deviation values exceeded criterion

restrictions accounted for 6% by the BPS intelligent
tension system. While the number of deviation
values exceeded criterion restriction accounted for
48% by the traditional manual tension. The over-
limit results were significantly higher than that
tensed by the BPS intelligent tension system. It was
proved that the elongation was precisely
controlled by the intelligent tension system, and
the result was shown in Figure 8.
Figure 5. The intelligent tensioning test of the test
beam
0.5 Manual tension method
Automatic tension method
Distribution proportion (%)
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
0%~1% 1%~2% 2%~3% 3%~4% 4%~5% 5%~6% >6%
tendon elongation deviation of the measured value

and the theoretical value (%)
Figure 6. The static load test of the test beam Figure 7. The comparison diagram of tendon
In terms of the tendon elongation deviation, the elongation deviation of the measured value and
results of comparison tests revealed that the the theoretical value between manual tension and
automatic tension by BPS
148
In terms of the tendon tensile force, the results of Through actual measurements, samples in which
the comparison tests revealed that the tensile the dyssynchrony rate of displacement of both
force of the beam applied by the BPS intelligent ends of the beam was less than or equal to 5%
tension system approached the theoretical value reached 94.4%, the result of which is shown in
more compared to that tensed using traditional Figure 11.
manual tension. The actual measurement showed
that the deviating values of the tensile force ranged 0.25
Distribution proportion
from 0.3% to 1.0%, suggesting that the tendon

0.20
Distribution proportion
tensile force was precisely controlled by the
intelligent tension system, the results of which are 0.15
shown in Figure 9. 0.10
Manual tension method

Automatic tension method 0.05
1.00
0.00
0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06
measured and theoratical force(%)
0.95 Dyssynchrony rate of elongation displacement of both ends of the beam tendon
Tendon tension ratio of
0.90
Figure 10. The deviation comparison diagram of
the dyssynchrony rate of measured displacement
0.85 of both ends of the beam
0.80
The results of the tension and static load tests are
N10 N1a N2b N6 N10 N6 N10 N1a N2b N6
Large mileage end Midspan Small mileage end as follows: The static deflection test results of the
Different tensile tendon of beams at different section location
test beams respectively tensed through traditional
Figure 8. The comparison diagram of the deviation manual tension and the BPS intelligent tension
between the measured tensile force value and the system showed that all evaluation indexes meet
theoretical tensile force value of tendon the standard requirements. Compared with the
test beams tensed using traditional manual
In terms of the deflection deformation of a beam,
tension, the tendon tensile force and elongation of
the results of the comparison tests revealed that a
the test beams tensed using the BPS intelligent
static deflection of the beam tensed by the BPS
tension system approach the theoretical value
intelligent tension system approached the
more during the pre-tensioning, primary
theoretical value more compared to that tensed
tensioning, post-tensioning, and static load test.
using traditional manual tension. It was proved that
The BPS intelligent tension system has higher
the quality of an intelligent tension is better
precision than that obtained using a traditional
guaranteed than that of traditional manual
method. The developed BPS intelligent tension
tension, the result of which is shown in Figure 10.
system performs well in a beam plant, meets the
24 requirements of the tension processes, and
Theoratical value
22 Automatic tension method ensures the pre-stressed tension construction
Manual tension method
20 quality of a precast beam. Furthermore, the BPS
Deflection variation(mm)
18 intelligent tension system reduces the number of

16
tension workers required by half, largely increases
14
the working efficiency, and obtains a good effect.
12
10
8
6 Conclusions
S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8
In this paper, according to the pre-stressed tension
Load stage
technology characteristics and requirements of the
Figure 9. The comparison diagram of the deviation railway beam, based on big data, cloud technology,
between the deflection deformation of beam and and RFID technology, the Railway Pre-Stressed
the theoretical value during each stage of the Concrete Beam Intelligent Tensioning Control and
static bending load test. Management Integration System (BPS) was
149
developed, which includes an intelligent tensioning Construction. Railway Engineering,

pumping station, intelligent tensioning jack 2016(4):5-8[in Chinese].
equipment, intelligent software platform, and an
[3] Ye Yangsheng, Han Zili, Cai Degou, et al.
intelligent handheld device. Further, the BPS
Automatic Monitoring Technology Research
system has been tested and applied to a
on the Key Progress of Construction of
Shijiazhuang-Jinan passenger dedicated line beam,
Railway Bridge, Subgrade and Tunnel.
and the research conclusions are as follows: (1) The
Journal of Railway Engineering Society, 2015,
developed BPS system has realized the
32(5):59-64[in Chinese].
automation, informatization, and remote and real-
time operation of the tensioning process, [4] Liu Xuehong. Application of Automatic
improving the tension control accuracy, Stretching-Control System in Prefabrication
construction quality, and working efficiency. of Box Girder on Datong-Xi’an Passenger-
dedicated Line. Railway Standard Design,
(2) To solve the problem of an automatic
2012(10):57-60[in Chinese].
measurement of a clip retraction, a new sensor for
the retraction value measurement of a clip was [5] Wan Chenggang, Yao Fahai. Calculation and
developed for the BPS system. Analysis of Impact of Presstress Tension on
Cast-in-place Falsework. Journal of Railway
(3) The BPS system is fully developed according to
Engineering Society, 2012(5):30-34[in
the specifications and processes of the pre-
Chinese].
stressed tensioning of railway bridges, and its
applicability to railway beams is strong. [6] De Backer H, et al. A case study on strain
gauge measurements on large post-
(4) Automatic and manual tension tests verified
tensioned concrete beams of a railway
validity of the system, and successfully applied to
support structure. Insight: Non-Destructive
the large beams of the Shijiazhuang-Jinan, Jinan-
Testing and Condition Monitoring, 2003,
Qingdao, and other passenger dedicated lines,
45(12):822-826.
which indicate the good performance of the BPS
system. [7] Guo Quanquan, Li Zhu, Duan Lian. Automatic
Post-Tensioning in Prestressed Concrete
The developed BPS intelligent tension system has
Structures. Structural Engineering
strong stability and applicability, provides a set of
International: Journal of the International
hardware and software equipment with high-
Association for Bridge and Structural
precision, and is practical, effective, and reliable for
Engineering(IABSE), 2004,14(1):37-41 [in
the pre-stressed tension construction of a high-
Chinese].
speed railway bridge; in addition, an advanced
control and management platform is obtained
through the system. Overall, research and
development of the BPS system has laid a solid
foundation for the development of intelligent high-
speed rail and high-speed rail information
technologies.
7 References
[1] Wu Chong, Xiao Xianglin. Research on
Prestressed Automatic Tensioning System of
Railway Prefabricated Beam. Railway
Engineering, 2014(11):11-13[in Chinese].
[2] Xiao Xianglin. Research on Information
Technology in Railway Bridge Prestress
150
Economy and Elegance in Bridge Design: The Beauty of Practical

Objects that Do Their Job Well
Paul Gauvreau
University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
Contact: pg@ecf.utoronto.ca
Abstract
The vast majority of bridges are works for which owners have allocated no funds specifically for
aesthetics. The visual impression created by these “practical bridges” is nonetheless important.
Designers find it difficult to create bridges of high visual quality when no aesthetic premium is
available. The key to designing bridges that are both economical and aesthetically significant is to
incorporate new ideas into the design that enable the bridge to perform its practical function
better than what had previously been possible. These new ideas can be a source of new and
pleasing visible forms and can also take on aesthetic significance simply by virtue of their newness.
Keywords: Bridges, bridge aesthetics, practical bridges, premium bridges, aesthetic premium.
1 Introduction It projects a visual impression of heaviness and

lack of imagination, and there is little evidence
In recent years, our profession has produced an that the designer of this bridge gave serious
increasing number of articles, conference consideration to its visual qualities. The way it
presentations, and awards devoted to bridge looks is nonetheless important. It is a highly visible
aesthetics. Practically all of this activity, however, structure that will be seen by hundreds of
has been focused on a relatively small number of motorists every day. As with all visible objects, it
bridges for which creating a novel visual will evoke an emotional response within the
impression was an important design requirement. people who look it, which implies that the visual
For these bridges, construction cost generally impression that it and all practical bridges create
included a substantial aesthetic premium1, i.e., will have an impact on quality of life.
money spent in addition to the amount that
would have been required merely to perform the
intended practical function. This type of bridge
will be referred to as premium bridges1. The vast
majority of bridges, for which no aesthetic
premium was paid, has largely been neglected by Figure 1. A typical practical bridge:
this recent focus on aesthetics. This type of bridge Estaire Road over Highway 69, Ontario, Canada
will be referred to as practical bridges1.
This article considers the question of how to
As might be expected, the visual qualities of the enhance the aesthetic quality of practical bridges.
bridges for which no aesthetic premium was paid At first glance, it would appear that the solution to
are generally mediocre. The bridge shown in this problem would be simply to transform
Figure 1 is a typical example of this type of bridge. practical bridges into premium bridges by paying
151
an aesthetic premium. This would involve formally federal government. The National Gallery of
defining aesthetics as a design requirement and Canada, an agency of the federal government, is
then providing funds for the features required to one of Canada's most important museums
create the desired impression. It is not obvious, dedicated to the visual arts. Their 2016 budget for
however, that society is prepared to pay the cost new acquisitions was eight million dollars4, or a
associated with a dramatic increase in the number mere 20 percent of the estimated aesthetic
of premium bridges, since it already spends a lot premium for the Champlain Bridge. Another
of money for aesthetic premiums. Canadian federal agency, the Canada Council for
the Arts, is the country’s primary source of funds
The Champlain Bridge provides an indication of
for the creation of new works of art. Their 2016
how high aesthetic premiums can be. This bridge
budget for projects in the visual arts is twenty-two
is expected to cost four billion Canadian dollars2.
million dollars5. So the greatest single expenditure
The approach span piers, shown in Figure 2,
made by the Canadian government for visual art in
incorporate inclined legs and a unique triangular
recent years is likely to have been for artistic
arrangement of members transferring load from
enhancements to a single bridge. By this measure,
the girders to the legs. These features are
the public funds allocated for aesthetic premiums
structurally inefficient. It can thus be inferred that
for bridges are indeed significant.
they were provided to create a visual impression.
The difference in cost between the piers shown Even if society were willing to pay an aesthetic
and a more efficient type of pier contributes to premium for every bridge, it is not clear that this
the aesthetic premium associated with this bridge. would result in a significant increase in visual
quality. Many premium bridges appear awkward
and ostentatious, especially when built next to
bridges that perform identical practical functions
using more modest structural systems. Others,
which use ornamentation to hide a commonly
used structural system, project a distinct
impression of falseness.
In most cases, the decision to pay an aesthetic
premium for a given bridge is based on a false
premise, namely, that this is the only way to
endow a bridge with aesthetic significance. Works
such as the Salginatobel Bridge (Fig. 3) and the
Firth of Forth Bridge (Fig. 4) demonstrate that this
premise is indeed false. The visual impression
created by Salginatobel is one of grace and
Figure 2. Approach span pier of the Champlain elegance combined with almost effortless
Bridge, Montreal, Canada. Source of image: strength. Firth of Forth, on the other hand,
Signature on the St. Lawrence projects an impression of boldness, strength, and
a raw honesty that arises from its unique three-
Menn suggested that an aesthetic premium equal dimensional form. The visual impression of both
to about ten percent of total construction cost can bridges is intimately related to the practical
be considered acceptable3. The aesthetic premium function they perform. Both works have received
associated with the Champlain Bridge can thus be high praise from engineers and scholars of the
conservatively estimated by taking only one visual arts for their aesthetic significance. Both
percent of construction cost, or 40 million dollars. works were designed within tight economic
To gain insight into the significance of this constraints and it is well documented that no
estimated premium, it is compared to two other aesthetic premium was paid for either.
recent expenditures related to the visual arts
made by the owner of this bridge, the Canadian
152
If the owners of these bridges had insisted that materials that Billington associated with
they be designed to project a specific visual efficiency. Low construction cost is determined to
impression and had paid a corresponding a large extent by the rational use of labour, which
aesthetic premium, the unique visual forms of often favours simple member shapes and
Salginatobel and Firth of Forth are likely never to repetitive details over minimizing material
have been created. By insisting that the only way quantities. Likewise, economy is often in conflict
of enhancing the aesthetic quality of bridges is to with visual elegance. For many common types of
pay aesthetic premiums, therefore, we prevent bridge, the solution that is known to be the most
engineers from drawing from the source of economical has visual qualities that are mediocre
aesthetic significance from which emerged works at best. Figure 1 shows an example of a system
such as Salginatobel, Firth of Forth, and many that is currently regarded to be the most
other great bridges. economical means of building freeway overpasses
in most parts of Canada. It is a bridge of relatively
low visual quality. Most engineers would agree
that improving the way this bridge looks will
require an increase in cost, i.e., payment of an
aesthetic premium.
Figure 3. Salginatobel Bridge, Switzerland. Design:

Robert Maillart
2 The Origin of Aesthetic Significance

in Practical Bridges
Figure 4. Forth of Forth Bridge, Scotland. Design:
To answer the question of how to enhance the Benjamin Baker and John Fowler.
aesthetic quality of practical bridges, i.e., how to Source of image: Over Doz
endow bridges with aesthetic significance without https://www.flickr.com/photos/overdozoverdoz/1
paying an aesthetic premium, it thus makes sense 1247265805/. Creative Commons BY-NC 2.0.
to study bridges such as Salginatobel, Firth of
Forth, and others that are clearly practical bridges, What is missing from Billington’s characterization
yet which have received broad recognition for is a description of how economy and elegance are
their visual quality. If we can identify the origin of related in Salginatobel and other great bridges. To
the aesthetic significance of these works, then we gain a basis for defining this relation, a work from
can use this knowledge in the design of new another discipline of engineering will be
bridges. examined, namely the helicopter shown in Figure
5. This work was chosen instead of a bridge for the
Billington identified efficiency, economy, and following two reasons. First, there is incontestable
elegance as the qualities that distinguished works evidence that this particular helicopter is widely
such as Salginatobel from their more mundane regarded for both its ability to perform its
peers6. Although this is generally an accurate practical function as well as its high aesthetic
characterization, it does not provide much help to quality. Second, the use of a work from a different
designers who wish to create practical bridges discipline of engineering as a basis for describing
that embody aesthetic significance. Economy is the relation between economy and elegance
often in conflict with the minimum use of establishes that this relation has a universal
153
character that goes beyond the mere set of doubt a work of engineering for which no
practical bridges. aesthetic premium was paid.
Because all of the visible features of the Bell 47D1
are completely defined by decisions made to
ensure that the helicopter could perform its
intended practical function, we can infer that the
aesthetic appeal of this helicopter originates from
purely practical considerations. There must
therefore be something about performing a
practical function that creates the potential for
aesthetic expression.
Although there exist many visible objects that
perform practical functions, most of these objects
are devoid of aesthetic significance. Because the
aesthetic significance of the Bell 47D1 originates
Figure 5. Bell 47D1 Helicopter. Source of image: entirely from its practical function, it is proposed
Neil R that its superior aesthetic qualities must be
https://www.flickr.com/photos/islespunkfan/3775 associated with superior performance of its
270749/. Creative Commons BY-NC 2.0. practical function. In fact, this helicopter was an
The work shown in Figure 5 is the Bell 47D1 exceptional engineering achievement. The Bell
helicopter. It was first produced in 1947. The 47D1 was the first helicopter certificated for civil
photograph was taken in the Museum of Modern aviation, was in production for 28 years, and ranks
Art in New York, where this helicopter is exhibited fourth in terms of all-time total production for
as part of the museum’s permanent collection. rotorcraft. It is thus one of the most famous types
of helicopter ever built. It effectively created the
The presence of this helicopter in one of the
market for the civilian use of helicopters more or
world’s most important art museums is clear
less on its own and lead that market for many
evidence that people who have a deep
years.
understanding of the visual arts and who have
been entrusted with managing a collection worth These facts in themselves do not have any visual
hundreds of millions of dollars consider that the expression. The practical accomplishments of the
Bell 47D1 has aesthetic significance that is Bell 47D1 could not have been achieved, however,
commensurate with that of other works in this if the design of this helicopter had not
museum’s collection, including paintings by incorporated significant engineering innovations.
Picasso, Mark Rothko, and Jackson Pollock. From New ideas were what enabled the Bell 47D1 to
this, we can only conclude that this is a work of perform practical functions better than had
high visual quality. previously been possible. Many of these new
ideas had direct visual expression. The bubble
This visual quality originates, however, from an
canopy and the tapering truss tail are two
unlikely source. In contrast to the works of Picasso
examples of new ideas incorporated by this
and other artists in the museum’s collection, the
aircraft that enabled it to perform its function
Bell 47D1 was never intended by its creators to be
better than what had previously been possible.
regarded for its aesthetic significance. It was
These new ideas, created in response to practical
designed by engineers to perform a specific
challenges, also define its visible form.
practical function at a cost that would make it
competitive in the marketplace. It contains no It thus follows that practical objects can be
features intended to enhance its appearance endowed with aesthetic significance by virtue of
(except possibly for the colour of the paint), since embodying new ideas that enable these objects to
such features would result in a decrease in the perform their function better than what had been
ratio of performance to price. It is thus without a previously possible. The aesthetic appeal of this
154
kind of object can be appreciated by all people, section and remove a significant portion of the
not just those who understand the technical webs in the outer quarterspans, thus reducing
rationale that underlies the new ideas. The Bell significantly the quantity of concrete required. The
47D1 is exhibited by the Museum of Modern Art visible form thus created was unlike that of any
for the appreciation not just of aviation previously built bridge. Because of its intimate link
enthusiasts or aeronautical engineers, but rather with the practical function of the bridge, it is
of all people. So even though engineering unlikely that this form could have been created on
innovation is central to the presence of the the basis of purely aesthetic considerations of
helicopter in the museum, it is not the innovation abstract or symbolic forms.
itself that is to be appreciated in this case, but
The visual expression of new practical ideas can
rather the visible expression of that new idea.
also be regarded as having intrinsic aesthetic
These principles, developed with reference to the value, apart from any consideration of the visual
Bell 47D1 helicopter, apply generally to all visible qualities of abstract or symbolic forms. In this
objects that perform a practical function. These sense, it is newness itself that creates aesthetic
objects all hold the potential for aesthetic significance. This perspective on new practical
significance that originates from the visible ideas can be helpful in understanding the visual
expression of new ideas created to enable the appeal of bridges such as the Firth of Forth, which
object to perform its function better. These was described by architectural historian Elizabeth
principles thus apply to bridges. In the great works Mock as a work that “is not conventionally pretty
of bridge engineering such as Salginatobel and or graceful”, yet which evokes “a deep emotional
Firth of Forth, which have been recognized for satisfaction in its powerful lines” 7. Indeed, this is
their aesthetic significance, we can likewise not a pretty bridge, yet its contribution to the
identify significant new ideas that enabled these visible environment is generally regarded as highly
works to perform their practical function better positive. The aesthetic appeal of this bridge
than what had previously been possible. originates not the aesthetic qualities of its
abstract form, which can be considered to be
3 The Significance of New Practical rather dense and heavy, but rather from the visual
Ideas expression of the qualities embodied in its
solution to the practical problem.
In the remainder of this article, new ideas that
A rigorous explanation of the aesthetic appeal of
enable works of engineering to perform their
new practical ideas is beyond the scope of this
practical function better than what had previously
article, and for the purposes of bridge design is
been possible will be referred to using the more
probably not necessary. Suffice it to say that the
compact expression new practical ideas. The
human spirit has a special affinity for new ideas,
significance of new practical ideas in bridge design
perhaps because the fruits of creative endeavour
will be discussed in this section.
have been instrumental to the survival and
development of the human race. Our propensity
3.1 New Practical Ideas and Aesthetics
to find beauty in new ideas is one way we enable
The preceding section identified a link between and reward an activity that is so important to our
new practical ideas and aesthetic quality. This link existence. In a similar manner, we find beauty in
can be understood in two different ways. things that work well. This tendency is particularly
New practical ideas can be regarded as a source of strong with structures of all types, perhaps
new and pleasing visible forms that would because we experience the effects of gravity
otherwise have been difficult to imagine. The directly and almost constantly in our lives.
shape of the arch of the Salginatobel Bridge, for We can thus regard the role of new practical ideas
example, originated from requirements related to in the creation of aesthetic significance to be both
strength, stiffness, and economy. Maillart's new a means to an end and an end in itself. In the
idea was to take an arch with hollow box cross- former case, the new practical ideas are a source
155
of pleasing visible forms. In the latter case, it is the relative to other structural systems used at that
visual expression of newness that creates the time for similar situations.
aesthetic appeal, independently of whether or not
By the time the bridge in Figure 7 was built, other
visible form thus created is “pretty or graceful”.
structural systems had been developed that were
The newness of the visual form is often more
more economical for the given topography and
important than the intrinsic aesthetic qualities of
span lengths. In other words, Maillart’s arch
the visible form. From this perspective, the
system had become effectively obsolete. For the
problem with the bridge shown in Figure 1 is not
bridge in Figure 7, therefore, the choice of
so much that the girders appear heavy, but rather
structural system was made not on the basis of
that it is a copy of a design that has been repeated
what created the best economic value, but rather
hundreds of times already.
on the basis of creating a predetermined visual
impression. It must therefore be regarded as a
premium bridge. Ironically, although this bridge
was apparently designed to create a specific visual
impression, its visual statement lacks in strength
and clarity compared to that made by
Salginatobel. Although Salginatobel is several
decades older, it somehow appears fresher and
more modern than the other.
Based on this example, therefore, it appears that
the aesthetic appeal of new practical ideas
persists long after the underlying technology has
Figure 6. Salginatobel Bridge. Design: Robert been superseded by other new ideas. We
Maillart. Source of image: Ref. 8. continue to derive fascination from bridges such
as Salginatobel and Firth of Forth even though we
have since developed newer and better ways to
perform similar practical functions.
3.2 New Practical Ideas and Economy

Works of engineering are built to perform a
Figure 7. Bridge over the Chaudiere River, Quebec, specified practical function within a defined
Canada budget. A given work is regarded as better than
The importance of newness over abstract visible another when it either does more for the same
form is illustrated in Figures 6 and 7. Figure 6 amount of money or it does the same for less
shows the Salginatobel Bridge, built in 1930. money. In most bridge design situations,
Figure 7 shows a bridge that was built some 30 to requirements governing practical function are
40 years later. The two arches are practically defined in detail before design begins. There is
identical, with regard to both structural behaviour thus little benefit to be gained from designs that
and overall visible form. When Salginatobel was do more than what was expected. Economy is
designed, the form was essentially new. This thus usually understood in terms of choosing the
structural system was created by Maillart himself lowest cost option among alternatives that all
and Salginatobel was the longest span he ever perform essentially the same function.
built using it. The newness embodied in In most cases, designers and owners consider the
Salginatobel was thus to adapt the structural “lowest cost” alternative to be known from the
system he had developed previously to an outset of the design process. For freeway
extremely challenging crossing with a span longer overpasses in most parts of Canada, for example,
than he had heretofore attempted. The goodness the most economical structural system is believed
resulted from a significant gain in economy to consist of parallel precast/pre-tensioned
156
concrete I-girders with a composite cast-in-place which are the key to designing bridges that
reinforced concrete deck slab. In almost all cases, embody both economy and elegance.
this system is chosen in favour of all others on the
But this does not mean that designers of bridges
basis of this prior knowledge. The solution thus
should not develop their aesthetic sensibilities.
does not embody any significant new ideas.
For just as performing a practical function well can
This is a way of achieving economy without new be a source of beauty, so can a sense of beauty
practical ideas. It is therefore unlikely that these guide us towards better practical solutions. If it
works will be of high aesthetic quality. This usually does not look good, it probably does not work
turns out to be the case. well.
The lack of significant new ideas also implies that The bridges shown in Figure 8 illustrate this
bridges that are designed in this way can do no proposition. The arch bridge was built some
better in terms of creating value than what had twenty years before the girder bridge. When it
previously been done. If we are always designing came time to design the second bridge, the set of
the same structural system, it should come as no known solutions did not include arches, which
surprise that the value we create through the were considered to be too expensive, so they
design is no better than what we have always chose the most economical bridge from the set of
achieved. known solutions, which was the steel girder on
two-column bents. The visual impression is
When we achieve economy through the use of
mediocre at best. Here, the designers sacrificed
new practical ideas, which perform the practical
elegance for economy.
function better than what had previously been
possible, we are generally able to create value
over and above what had been done using
previously known technology. This implies greater
economy than when we re-use familiar solutions.
As discussed previously in this article, the use of
new practical ideas also creates the potential for
bridges of high aesthetic quality. Only when
economy is achieved in this way, i.e., through new
practical ideas, are economy and elegance likely to Figure 8. Highway 400 over Severn River, Ontario,
co-exist in the same bridge. Canada.
Another arch bridge, not necessarily identical,
4 The Role of Aesthetic Sensibility would most likely have been superior visually. But
simply to have built an arch using available
This article puts forth the proposition that for
technology for more money would obviously have
practical bridges, aesthetic significance must
resulted in a sacrifice of economy to gain
originate from purely practical considerations. It
elegance. Rather, the solution could have been for
would therefore appear to follow that any
the designers, motivated by their sense of
aesthetic sense in bridge designers is more or less
aesthetics, to have developed a means of building
irrelevant. In fact, there is an important role for a
an arch for less money than the girder solution.
designer’s aesthetic sense, but it is not an obvious
one. This of course is no trivial task, but it illustrates
how a well developed sense of aesthetics can be
It is important to keep the creative focus on
used to provide additional impetus and guidance
practical matters throughout the design process.
in the process of developing solutions that
When we make design decisions based on
perform the required practical function better
aesthetic considerations, we will be effectively
what is possible with existing solutions.
guided by what we think looks best rather than
what creates the greatest increment of value. This For engineers, therefore, the purpose of aesthetic
will impede the creation of new practical ideas, sensibility is extremely contradictory. It must not
157
be used to make our bridges pretty. Rather, it There are two primary impediments to an
must always serve our primary task, which is to increase in adoption of new practical ideas: a
create value through new solutions to practical public sector administration that is averse to
problems. practically all risk and thus prefers not to adopt
new ideas, and universities that do not properly
5 Concluding Remarks educate future engineers to create and validate
good new ideas.
The way bridges look is important. Although it is
possible to endow bridges with aesthetic Of course, it will not be possible to invent radically
significance by paying an aesthetic premium, this new structural systems for every bridge we
kind of funding will most likely not be available for design. The process we follow in designing every
the vast majority of bridges. Our profession has bridge should, however, be guided by a conviction
struggled to make practical bridges pretty with that incorporating new practical ideas into the
little success, because our methods have design is a fundamental part of our profession's
prioritized the creation of a specific visual duty to society.
impression over the creation of economic value.
Economy and aesthetic significance can co-exist in
6 References
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through new ideas that enable the bridge to Good Looking Bridges. Structural
perform its practical function better than what Engineering International. 2016; 26(3): 198-
had previously been possible. This proposition 206.
applies generally for all practical objects, not only [2] Mailhot, G. The New Champlain Bridge—
for bridges. Technical Requirements and Delivery Status
Report. Canadian Civil Engineer. 2017;
When they are visible, new practical ideas can be
34(1): 22-25.
a source of new and pleasing forms that could not
[3] Menn, C. Prestressed Concrete Bridges.
otherwise have been imagined. Perhaps more
Basel, Boston, Berlin: Birkhäuser Verlag;
importantly, though, new practical ideas can be a
1990.
source of aesthetic significance simply by virtue of
their newness. The problem with many bridges of [4] National Gallery of Canada. Annual Report
mediocre visual quality is thus not so much due to 2015-2016. Ottawa: National Gallery of
heaviness, lack of transparency, or other formal Canada; 2016.
characteristics, but rather because they project a
[5] A New Chapter: Annual Report 2016-17.
visual impression that is the same as countless
Ottawa: Canada Council for the Arts; 2016.
other bridges.
[6] Billington, D. P. The Tower and the Bridge.
Notwithstanding the key role played by new
New York: Basic Books; 1983.
practical ideas in the creation of aesthetic
significance, aesthetic sensibility remains [7] Mock, E. B. The Architecture of Bridges.
important and should be developed in all New York: The Museum of Modern Art;
designers. A well developed sense of aesthetics 1949.
can alert designers to the presence of poor [8] Bill, M. Robert Maillart. Zurich: Verlag
practical solutions and guide them towards better
Girsberger; 1955.
solutions.
The key to all of this is to increase dramatically the
pace at which new practical ideas are
incorporated into bridge designs. This will bring
about two benefits, namely, it will increase the
economic value created by our designs and
improve the visual quality of practical bridges.
158
Architecture of Roman Catholic Cathedrals and Basilicas in Developing

Countries
Eva Vertatova
Faculty of Architecture, Czech Technical University in Prague, Prague, CZ
Contact: eva.vertatova@seznam.cz
Abstract
This article reflects the forms and shapes of the Roman Catholic cathedrals built in the 20th and
21st century in the Third World countries and the approach to its ideal design. Selected examples
from the different developing countries all over the world are expounded on the background of
the interference of the former colonizers countries architecture (e.g. Sacred Hearts Cathedral,
Casablanca, Morocco), inspiration from the traditional architecture and materials (e.g. Basilica of
Uganda Martyrs, Namugongo, Uganda), creating the own style (e.g. St. Paul’s Cathedral, Abidjan,
Côte D’Ivoire) or following world trends (e.g. Sacred Heart Cathedral, Kericho, Kenya). The
question of the life cycle of the architecture, its subsequently costs and well considered choice of
the proper material as well as the shape and resulting form is discussed.
Keywords: sacral architecture, Roman Catholic cathedrals, basilicas, 20th and 21st century,
modern sacral architecture, developing countries
developing countries around the world. Finally,
1 Introduction the comparison of the distinctive cathedrals and
Even though there are 138 developing countries in basilicas built in the countries from these two
the world among the information from the groups was made.
International Statistical Institute [1] which This paper discusses different forms, shapes and
represent different nations, different culture or material solutions of selected Roman Catholic
different habits, the architecture of Catholic cathedrals or basilicas built in the 20th and 21st
cathedrals, churches or chapels has the same goal century in the developing countries and present
– to create dignified space for worshipping close comparison of the distinctive examples of sacral
to its visitors. A particularity of Roman Catholic objects that emerged from the two mentioned
Church architecture of the lower economy groups. All selected cathedrals and basilicas from
countries consists in the funding of the projects. the different developing countries all over the
While there are many secular building intentions world are expounded on the background of the
or projects dealing with complicated financing, a interference of the former colonizers countries
lot of churches, especially cathedrals or basilicas architecture, inspiration from the traditional
can boast their greatness thanks to the Catholic architecture and material, creating the own style
Church itself, donations of enlightened leaders of or following (defining) the world trends.
the countries or many anonymous foreign donors
etc. 2 Cathedrals and basilicas in the
At the beginning two groups of developing least developed countries
countries were made according to the United
Nations list of the least developed countries (as of Majority of the least developed countries are
June 2017) [2]. First group represents cathedrals situated in Africa, where the countries were
and basilicas selected from the 47 least developed influenced by the colonization of France or British
countries. The second contains almost 100 other Empire in the 19th and 20th century. Most of the
159
Roman Catholic cathedrals and basilicas were built Other formidable example of the sacral
in this period (predominantly in the 20th century), architecture in these poor countries presenting a
because until the late 19th century the Christian combination of traditional techniques and
influence on African architecture was minimal. [3] innovations in Europe is the basilica of St. Anne in
The plurality and diversity of this sacral Brazzaville, Republic of the Congo from the 1940s.
architecture is mostly grounded in a combination Design of the basilica was entrusted to a French
of the colonization architecture and national architect Roger Erell who was well known for his
architectural identity. harmonious access to the architectural design in
Congo combining the western technical
2.1 Sacral architecture influenced by the knowledge (concrete shell) with traditional local
colonization countries material and art (red bricks for vaulting and
Interconnection between the countries and their
colonizers is clearly readable in architecture of
some sacral buildings. One of the apposite
examples is the cathedral in Benguela, Angola.
Our Lady of Fatima Cathedral from the 1960s
designed by Mario de Oliveira represents a tent-
like structure primarily inspired by the
architecture of the Cathedral of Our Lady of the
Conception in Sumbe, Angola (architect Francisco
Castro Rodrigues, structure engineer Resende de
Oliveira). [4] Some similarities can be seen Figure 2. Basilica of Brazzaville, Republic of Congo
facade). The shape of the pointed arches refers to
the French gothic but also to the vernacular
buildings from the surrounding countries (e.g.
musgum mud houses in Cameroon or shell hut in
Chad).
Figure 1. Cathedral of Benguela, Angola

between this cathedral and modern church
architecture in the world (e.g. Cathedral of Sacred
Heart of Jesus in Londrina, Brazil from the 1960s
designed by architects Eduardo Rosso and
Yoshimasi Kimati or Felix Candelas church of Our
Lady of the Miraculous Medal in Mexico City from
the 1950s). The thin concrete tent-like shell Figure 3. Basilica of Namugongo, Uganda
structure of the cathedral presents a modern type
of architecture which is in contradiction to the The third notable example is the basilica of
poor surrounding buildings. One the other hand Uganda Martyrs from the 1960s (completed in
the rough expression of the architectural concrete 1970s). It was designed by the Swiss architect
reflects everyday tough life of the local people and Justus Dahinden in a form of the traditional
can be meant as shelter against the tropical sun. vernacular architecture – a hut – but in a modern
style with visible steel space frame structure. A
160
raw material used for the structure that holds the countries whether there is no more native
conical roof expresses tragic history of the native architectural language and exist only a
Christian martyrs to whom is the cathedral “multinational” style containing modern
dedicated. architecture design without any links to a national
and local architectural tradition.
Finally there is a group of many similar cathedrals
from different countries whose forms are
influenced by the revival of the European gothic, 3 Cathedrals and basilicas in other
renaissance, baroque and classical architecture. developing countries
This European design is very often supplemented
While there were mentioned only the African
by the local material (e.g. red bricks). As a
cathedrals and basilicas from the least developed
characteristic building it can be mentioned
countries, between the other developing
cathedral of the Immaculate Conception in
countries it is possible to follow the design of the
Ouagadougou in Burkina Faso, Christ the King
sacral buildings from almost all continents (Africa,
cathedral in Gitega in Burundi or St. Mary
Asia, South America etc.). Unlike the African
cathedral in Wau in South Sudan.
countries, most of the developing countries in
South and Central America were colonized from
the beginning of the 16th century by the Spanish
and Portuguese monarchy until the 19th century.
Majority of the cathedrals and basilicas are from
this era and there are only few modern sacral
buildings of this type. Different situation is in the
area of Indochina which belonged from the end of
the 19th century to the French colonial empire
where the influence of the revival of the French
Figure 4. Cathedral of Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso
gothic architecture [6] is well visible at many
Despite the fact, that the presented cathedrals places and majority of the cathedrals are from this
and basilicas were built in the least developed era. Very similar influence had missionaries in
countries, there can be found many high quality China where the most cathedrals are from the end
sacral buildings combining the knowledge from of the 19th century. The specific attitude to the
the colonizers architecture (structural and design of sacral architecture (characteristic for a
material engineering) with the national local architecture) has some of the Arabian
architectural identity (use of traditional materials; countries and India.
special forms and shapes of the buildings
respecting the area, where it is built). 3.1 Modern cathedrals and basilicas of
At the very end of this chapter there will be a brief Africa
note dedicated to a small island country Haiti in Between the cathedral and basilicas built in the
the Caribbean Sea. After the devastating least developed countries and in developing
earthquake in 2010 a lot of landmark buildings countries are only little differences. Sacral
were damaged or destroyed. One of the buildings from the 20th and 21st century can be
significant building which suffered extensive divided into two distinctive groups. The first one
damages was Port-au-Prince cathedral from the represents churches influenced by the colonizing
turn of 19th and 20th century. In 2012 there was a countries architecture (especially the revival of
design competition for a new cathedral where European gothic style) and the second one follows
over 130 submissions were review. The first prize the modern architecture style that combines with
won a Puerto Rican architectural team with the local architecture standards. There are a few
historicizing architectural design. [5] This cathedrals and basilicas that are completely
competition opens a query of contemporary different from the rest architectural production in
design of sacral architecture in the developing a field of sacral buildings in Africa and these are
161
here presented (St. Paul’s Cathedral in Abidjan in coloured facade with art deco and Moroccan
the Ivory Coast and the basilica of Our Lady of Muslim architecture influence makes the
Peace in Yamoussoukro in the Ivory Coast). cathedral unique.
The second group of the African cathedrals and
basilicas follows selected sacral objects without
including native designs or symbolism (connection
to the local people or place) and with their
indeterminateness they could be built almost
anywhere all over the world.
Figure 5. Cathedral of Mbalmayo, Cameroon

Traditional revival of gothic architecture is
embodied in the cathedral of the Holy Rosary in
Mbalmayo in Cameroon from the 1930s. The
building combines European Neo-gothic-style with Figure 7. Basilica in Yamoussoukro, Ivory Coast
the native red brick on the facade.
The first example belonging to this group is a
megalomaniacal sacral project in Africa - basilica
of Our Lady of Peace in Yamoussoukro in the Ivory
Coast. The building was initiated by a former
catholic president of the Ivory Coast in the 1980s.
The biggest Roman Catholic Church in the world is
built of white marble cost approximately §600
million and the president of the country insisted
that the coasts were funded from his family
fortune. [7] Basilica designed by a
Lebanese/Ivorian architect Pierre Fakhoury is
inspired by the Basilica of St. Peter in Vatican City
was built in revival renaissance and baroque style.
The lavish architecture looks inappropriate in the
Figure 6. Cathedral of Kumbo, Cameroon poor surroundings.
Other notable example referring to the European
revival architecture (with some characteristic signs
of the first Christians basilicas) is the cathedral of
St. Therese of the Child Jesus in Kumbo also in
Cameroon built entirely in stones in the 1950s.
Both of these mentioned cathedrals represent in a
suitable way an extensive group of the brick and
stone sacral architecture often built in African
lands during the 20th century.
The last example belonging to the first group is
the cathedral of the Sacred Heart of Jesus in Figure 8. Cathedral of Abidjan, Ivory Coast
Casablanca in Morocco from the 1930s built in
The second sacral building is the example from the
Neo-gothic style (compare e.g. gothic cathedral in
same country but with one important difference.
Palma de Mallorca) by a French architect Paul
The scale and the form are for the local people
Tournon. Interesting combination of the white
162
much closer. Also the costs of this cathedral with world design of sacral buildings is embodied in
6000 seats were about 5bil FCFA. [8] The well known Metropolitan cathedral of Our Lady of
cathedral of St. Paul in the City of Abidjan was Aparecida in Brasilia (Brazil) from Oscar Niemeyer
designed in the same era as the basilica in from 1960s but there are more original projects
Yamoussoukro in 1980s by an Italian architect that were realized.
Roberto Franzosi and engineer Aldo Spirito.
Material chosen for this cathedral was concrete,
steel and travertine with its typical almost white
colour.
Figure 10. Cathedral of Londrina, Brazil

First example is Brazil cathedral of the Sacred
Figure 9. Cathedral of Kericho, Kenya Heart of Jesus in Londrina from the 1960s. The
form of this building is very much like an already
The last example from the African sacral mentioned cathedral in Benguela, Angola from the
architecture is the cathedral of the Sacred Heart in same era. As the both countries belonged under
Kericho in Kenya newly built in 2015. The total the colonial rule of Portugal, the accidental
cost of §3 million were given by an anonymous resemblance would be very surprising. But it is
donator. [9] Considered design of the cathedral necessary to confess that the connection between
was made by an British architect John McAslan the designs of these two cathedrals failed to trace.
and ARUP engineers and combines thin shell
structure with glass and wood. Trapezial shape
with conical ascending roof represents a simple
modern style of the sacral architecture.
3.2 Modern cathedrals and basilicas of the

20th and 21st century in South and
Central America
In consequence of the conquering countries in the
South and Central America by the Spaniel and
Portuguese nations from the 16th century, there
were built many Roman Catholic cathedrals and
basilica until the 20th century (between almost 350 Figure 11. Cathedral of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
cathedrals and basilicas in Brazil, almost 100 in
Other notable example from the turn of 1960s and
Mexico and over 100 in Colombia or Argentina
1970s is the Metropolitan Cathedral of
[10] there are only few built in the 20th and 21st
St. Sebastian in Rio de Janeiro (Brazil) inspired by
century the others are built in baroque style –
the ancient Mayan pyramids architecture. The
influence by Jesuit missions or Neo-gothic style).
modern stylization of the traditional pyramid to
Except the Neo-gothic style sacral architecture the conical form was designed by an architect
from the beginning of the 20th century there were Edgar Fonseca. Using the mass of raw reinforced
built some interesting cathedrals and basilicas in concrete achieved Fonseca very similar look of the
the South and Central America. The top of the cathedral and stone pyramids.
163
3.3 20th a 21st architecture of the basilicas Chinese ancestral temples. In a question of the
and cathedrals in Asia implementing of local style into the Roman Church
sacral architecture said Pope Benedict XV
Three main distinctive groups based on the important thing that the “The Catholic Church is
different cultural background are followed in the not an intruder in any country; nor is she alien to
sacral architecture in Asia. The first one contains any people” [11]
countries from former French Indochina and other
surrounding countries close to East China Sea. The This specific approach to the design of the Roman
second group embraces a specific architecture of Catholic architecture is well visible at many
the basilicas and cathedrals in India and the last cathedrals and basilicas built in India in the 20th
group is devoted to the specific Christian and 21st century. Various shapes and forms
architecture in Arabian countries. referring to the local architectural terminology
that are usually combined with different elements
from other religions and their unconventional
colourfulness present the trueness of these sacral
building serving people in India.
Figure 12. Cathedral of Hue, Vietnam

Modern style architecture without any native
architectural symbols represents the cathedral of
the Immaculate Heart of Mary in Hue in Vietnam.
Concrete and brick facade of the cathedral refers Figure 14. Cathedral of Rajkot, India
to an expressive post war European sacral
architecture concerning of concrete mass and
bricks. The design of the cathedral was made by
an architect Ngo Viet Duc in the 1960s.
Figure 15. Cathedral in Hyderabad, Pakistan

The Sacred Heart Cathedral from the beginning of
the 21st century in Rajkot is one of the suitable
examples of the modern sacral building in India.
Well visible inspiration in traditional Buddhist
Figure 13. Cathedral of Dali, China stupas and architectural terminology of the Hindu
Very special example of the South East Asia temples is non-violently combined with the
architecture is a cathedral of the Sacred Heart in Christian space of the cathedral.
Chinese city Dali in close to the borders with The last group of the modern basilicas and
Myanmar, where is a significant Roman Catholic cathedrals in Asia in its Arabian part is introduced
cathedral entirely built in the style of southern on the cathedral St. Francis Xavier in Hyderabad in
164
Pakistan. Relatively small cathedral serves for the most important role has a Roman Church itself
Christian living between the majority Muslim with its public collections, funds etc.
believers. The form of this building architecture
Because majority of the developing countries are
was appropriately chosen according to the
situated in the warm climate, there are no such
traditional secular houses.
big operating expenses. The most important issue
in architectural design is an appropriate choice of
4 Conclusions the building material (respecting the climate) as
Majority of the Roman Catholic cathedrals and well as the shape resistant to external influences.
basilicas built in the developing countries were Only by the respecting these main principles can
influenced by their former colonizers architecture. be built a sacral building (basilica or cathedral)
Despite that fact they were able to maintain and which will perfectly serve its people for a long
implement the local architectural principles into term in undamaged condition without the need
the many sacral buildings – cathedrals and for greater intervention.
basilicas. The final design of these buildings
(primarily in African countries) smartly combined 5 References
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166
STRUCTURAL, TECHNOLOGICAL AND AESTHETICAL

CONSIDERATIONS FOR THE DETAILING OF STEEL TUBULAR
JOINTS
Structural, technological and Aesthetical Considerations for the

Detailing of Steel Tubular Joints
Vasil Georgiev, Dimitar Dakov, Yavor Mihov
University of Architecture Civil Engineering and Geodesy, SO, BG
Contact: dakov_fce@uacg.bg, v_georgiev_08@abv.bg, mihov_fhe@uacg.bg
Abstract
For the majority of steel outdoor facilities (towers, masts, billboards and traffic-sign supporting
structures) wind loading is the governing factor for determining their resistance and stiffness. In
many cases fatigue-related issues appear, with cracking and failure in the welded connections of
tubular joints or in the parent metal adjacent to the welds.
Structural detailing of the joints in steel tubular structures subjected to repeated cyclic loading is
of great importance for their fatigue strength. Sharp changes in the shape, sharp turns in the
welds and notches give rise to high stress concentration. The combined effect of discontinuities
and stress concentration is the main cause for the formation and propagation of fatigue cracks.
When detailing the erection joints it is also necessary to observe technological requirements
related to efficiency of fabrication. For the civil engineering works exposed to public it is
indispensable to include additional requirements for the aesthetic appearance of their visible
structural parts. The design experience shows that applying aesthetic considerations to steel
tubular joint detailing may contribute to satisfying the increased fatigue strength requirements.
The paper presents a study on the wind action on a specific kind of civil engineering works (traffic-
sign supporting structures) and the approach used for its determination. The leading structural,
technological and aesthetic criteria to be implemented in the detailing of tubular erection joints
are formulated. An example of tubular joint destroyed due to propagation of fatigue crack is given
and possible options for the joint repair are proposed. Numerical modeling and analyses of the
original and repaired joints have been carried out in order to make conclusions for the advantages
and shortcomings of the joint repair options.
Keywords: Lightweight structures, traffic-sign supporting structures, fatigue of tubular joints,

detailing
167
Poor structural shaping can reduce several

1 Introduction times the strength of the joints and
Outdoor steel facilities of various types are respectively, the bearing capacity of the
usually made of tubular hollow sections structure as a whole. The basic criterion for
because of their better aerodynamical good structural shaping of joints subjected to
efficiency under the pressure of wind, higher fatigue is the stress concentration factor (SCF).
corrosion resistance, possibility for direct An optimal fatigue design is obtained when
welding between members, etc. The SCF is as low as possible. The classification
experience in operation of outdoor steel method can be used to determine the fatigue
facilities where the load of frequently repeated resistance of welded structures [1]. The
wind impact is crucial indicates that the main classification method is based on structural
damages or failures occur as a result of steel details for different types of joints, which fall
fatigue in the areas of high stress concentration. into various detail categories with approximately
It is known that fatigue strength cannot be the same fatigue life.
defined precisely in a theoretical way. It is In tubular joints with direct connection
assumed that fatigue failure takes place in two between the members, a smaller SCF and
stages - formation of an initial crack as a result of respectively, higher bearing capacity of the
repeated loads followed by rapid development structure can be obtained if the following
of the crack till failure in the connection or in the requirements are met [2]:
member.
- Select relatively thicker-walled chord tubes;
The manner of structural shaping of the joints is a
key factor for the fatigue strength of steel - Adopt diameters of the connected tube close
structures. Unsuitable structural shaping of the to the chord tube diameters;
joints exposed to frequently repeated loads can - Accept as small as possible wall thickness of
be fatal for their bearing capacity. the bracing with respect to that of the chord;
The report discusses the effect of cyclic wind load - Select butt(groove) welds over fillet welds
on highway cantilever sign structures, where
some damages have been observed after three In order to achieve a higher degree of reliability of
years of service. The effect of natural wind the joints subjected to fatigue, a lower level of
loading and transient wind loading induced by nominal stresses in the area of welds must be
passing vehicles is investigated. Numerical provided.
modeling for critical joints has been made and Facilities situated in public habitable areas fulfill
stress concentration in the risk zones is analyzed. not only serviceability functions. They have a
Several variants of structural solution for repair direct visual impact on the environment with their
of the damaged joints is proposed. The repair appearance. When higher architectural
options are concurred with the Contracting requirements to the designed facilities are set,
Party’s requirements for retaining the integrity the designer shall adhere to the following
of the undamaged part and for minimum principles [3]:
additional operations for restoration of the
- Simplicity and unobtrusivness of the joints;
damaged part.
- Proportionality between the size of joints and
2 Basic requirements towards the the size of facilities;
design of tubular joints subjected - Smooth transition of the structural elements
to fatigue to the joint areas;
In the designing of tubular joints subjected to - Innovative design.

fatigue the design requirements, related to their In some cases the aesthetic requirements can be
structural shaping are of primary significance. leading (Fig.1).
168
. 3 Investigation of fatigue damages

in the site tubular joints of
highway cantilever sign structures
3.1 Brief description of the structure
The highway cantilever sign supporting
structures subject of the study are intended for
service on the circular road of Sofia and consist
of two main parts (Fig. 2):
-Tubular vertical strut;
- Horizontal cantilever, virendel type.
The vertical strut represents a circular tube
Figure 1. Architectural shaping of a message sign Æ219*8 fixed into a reinforced-concrete
structure foundation. The height of the strut is 6.7m. The
horizontal cantilever consists of two chords
The quantity of materials used is of great Æ140*6.3 and four vertical bars of the same
significance for the total cost of the facilities. size. The length of the horizontal cantilever is
The pursuit for lightness of the structure is a 7.5m and the height is 1.34m . The facility is
constant trend in structural detailing which made of steel S235JO. The two parts have been
leads to clearer and closer to perfect structural assembled on the site. For that purpose two
shape. At the same time one should have in assemblies with end-plate connections have been
mind the technologicality of the structure which used. The plates are 20mm thick and are
is related to the labor costs for fabrication connected to each other by means of four
and erection. Properly designed joints are light- M16 bolts, class 8.8.
weight and technological at the same time. For
designing of technological assembly joints the
following principles have been applied:
- unification of the joints;
- repetition of details;
- convenience for fabrication and erection.
The skillful combination of structural,
technological and aesthetical requirements
leads to harmonious structural detailing of the
joints. The design experience shows that
applying aesthetic considerations to steel
tubular joint detailing may contribute to
satisfying the increased fatigue strength Figure 2. Cantilever highway sign supporting
requirements. The design engineer should apply structure
more creativity, structural sense of detail and
considerable additional efforts in the process of 3.2 Findings from the investigation
designing.
After three years of service sagging in the
post wall near the connection of the horizontal
stiffener have been noticed in some facilities
(Fig.3). Subsequently some cracks leading to
failure have developed in these areas.
169
The Bulgarian building codes do not contain any

special prescripts for calculation of highway
facilities, so they were calculated by the
common method without recognizing the fatigue
hazard. The verification found that the stresses
detrmined by the natural wind load did not
exceed the respective strength of the steel. If,
however, the repeated wind load from the
passing vehicles is taken into account, the fatigue
threshold would be considerably lower as
compared to the stresses across the hazardous
cross-section.
Figure 3. Sagging into the post’s wall 3.3 Variants of structural solutions for
repair of joints
Three variants have been developed for repair of
The inspection of the damaged areas showed
damaged joints, as follows (Fig.5):
that the failure resulted from fatigue of the
steel (Fig.4). The cause of the fatigue was the - Short tubular stub and reinforcing collar plate
high stress concentration of the normal and (Fig.5b);
shear stresses in the wall of the tubular strut
- Stiffeners and bandage (Fig. 5c);
in the place of connection of the horizontal
stiffener. - Short tubular stub and horizontal ring (Fig. 5d)
The variants are designed in conformity with the
Contracting Party’s requirement to preserve all
undamaged parts. The variant with reinforced
horizontal ring is proposed. It should be noted
that in a new design only one site joint below
the horizontal cantilever is enough and the
additional stiffeners can be omited.
Figure 4. Fatigue failure into the site tubular joint
170
Figure 5.Proposals for repair аExisted joint; b, c ,d variants for repair
171
4 Wind Effects on Outdoor Steel and its value is zero at the level 10 m above the
road surface. In the middle of the sign plate the
Structures pressure is
The wind impacts that cause cyclic loading on
outdoor steel facilities and lead to fatigue of the , 0,024. . 0,024.1,7.1,0
(4)
structural material are natural wind gusts and 0,0408 /
truck induced gusts loading.
This pressure is often neglected in the calculations
4.1 Natural wind gusts due to its low value.
Their action is a horizontal one, in the direction of - in the vertical direction the pressure caused by
the wind, perpendicular to the plane of the sign traffic is [4], [5]:
plate. The motion of the structure points is
horizontal, in the wind direction. For the region of p , 18,8. C . I psw
(5)
Sofia the characteristic wind velocity is 26,1 m/s. 0,9193. C . I kN/m
This corresponds to a characteristic pressure of
0,43 kN/m2. For determining the action of natural In our case the vertical loading on the horizontal
wind gusts AASHTO [5], [6] recommends the structural elements made of a pipe section with a
following pressure: diameter of 0,14 m is:
5,2. C . , 0,9193.1,7.1,0.0,14
(6)
0,2543. . /
(1) 0,219 /
where Cd is the drag coefficient with That loading caused by road traffic in a road near
recommended value 1,7. IF is the importance Sofia is repeated 1305 times in 24 hours, or
factor for structures with 50 years service life; its 477000 times per year.
value is 1,0.
5 FEA (Finite Element Analysis) of
The natural wind can also cause vibrations in
directions transverse to its bearing. Vortex tubular joints of highway
shedding leads to horizontal vibrations, and the cantilever sign structure
motions in the vertical direction are called A numerical 3-Dimesional spatial FE model of the
galloping. In the presented paper, the last two above-mentioned highway cantilever sign
motions are not taken into account. The natural structure has been prepared for the purpose of
wind gusts are determined by the pressure in the design. The design software ANSYS APDL was used
wind bearing for the FE modeling. A nonlinear time step static
analysis was performed incorporating both non-
0,2543.1,7.1,0 0,4323 / (2)
linear material properties and geometrical non-
linearity with large deformation allowance. The
4.2 Truck induced gusts loading steel for the facility, S235JO, was represented by
Such loading is not covered by the Bulgarian bilinear stress-strain curve in accordance with the
codes. AASHTO recommends the pressure: isotropic hardening laws. Geometric non-linearity
is introduced through the “large displacement
- in the horizontal direction at the road surface control”. “Full Integration” option has been used
level [4] for the solid element and full Newton Raphson
frontal equation solver. Eight-node solid brick
1,23 0,06 / (3) elements (SOLID 45) were used in the FE model.
Every node is with three translation degrees of
freedom.
172
The natural wind and road traffic load acting on

the highway cantilever sign structure is presented
as a point forces joint load in the FE model. Joint
loads are situated in the cross points of truss
chords and vertical tube elements. A general view
of the FE model is presented on Fig.6.
Figure 7. Von Mises Stress distribution in the joint

area
As a result of the analysis the values of the
Figure 6. 3D ANSYS FE model average amplitude stresses (alternating stress) in
The resulting Von Mises stress distribution in the five critical points (NLOCs) of the joint on annual
joint area shows that the maximum values are basis are shown in table 1. FE fatigue model view
located in a region near the end of the horizontal and position of NLOCs are depicted on Fig.8. The
joint plate in the welding seam area between the alternating stress amplitudes have their maximum
plate and the vertical tube column (Fig. 7). That values exactly in the failure area of the tubular
corresponds to the crack and destruction area joint shown on Fig.4.
shown in Fig. 4. It can be seen that the local
stresses in the joint area exceed the steel yield
strength. That could have a strong negative effect
leading to crack initialization in the zone of weld
toe due to high cyclic wind effect on the traffic
sign supporting structure.
Another FE model was made to evaluate the
influence of the fatigue effect. It includes the joint
with the flange plate and part of the vertical
column of the sign supporting structure. The
tubular part of the model extends over 2Do on
each side beyond the joint itself where Do is the
tube diameter. A non-linear Transient analysis was
made using the Ansys Apdl fatigue module. The
generally adopted practice is to use the horizontal
load of natural wind and vertical load by road Figure 8. 3D Asnsys model for fatigue analysis and
traffic in that type of analysis. The moments Mz NLOC’s position
and My on the flange plate connected to the tube
joint are represented as a pair of force loads
acting in the numerical model. The accepted
fatigue category of the detail under consideration
is 36 according to [1].
173
Table 1. Alternating Stress Amplitude [5] Guidelines for the Installation, Inspection,
Maintanance and Repair of Structural
σa
NLOC Supports for Highway Signs, Luminaires and
[MPa]
[position] Traffic Signs, Publication №FHWA NHI 05-
(alternating stress)
036, March 2005,
NLOC1 163,56
[6] Mc Lean, Park J., Stallings J.M., Fatigue
NLOC2 43,05
Evaluation of Two Variable Message Sign
NLOC3 94,73 Structures, The Alabama Department of
Transportation, Montgomery, Alabama, July
NLOC4 42,71
2004.
NLOC5 23,62
[7] ANSYS, Swanson Analysis Systems,
release 12.0, 2009
Our proposal for theoretical investigation for
determining a potential fatigue areas in the
tubular joint of the analyzed type of highway
cantilever sign structure has a similar coincidence
with the fatigue failure mode reported above.
6 Conclusions
Vehicle induced gust loads on the highway
cantilever sign structure is great enough to
produce high displacement responses of the
structure and to involve danger from fatigue
failure.
The joints in the highway cantilever sign structure
must be detailed as like structure subjected to
fatigue loads.
Fatigue limit-state stress ranges induced by
dynamic wind loads can be estimated with static
loads, that would create similar stress response.
7 References
[1] BDS EN 1993-1-9 Design of steel structures.
Part 1-9: Fatigue
[2] Design guide for circular and rectangular
hollow sections welded joints under fatigue
loading; CIDECT Publications; 2000
[3] Design manual for road and bridges Volume
2. Highway structures. Sections. Spatial
structures.
[4] Creamer M., Frank H., Richard E., Klingner R.
Fatigue Loading on Cantilever Sign
Structures from Truck and Wind Gusts,
Center of Highway Research, The University
of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas, 78712.
174
BEAUTY CREATE THE WORLD

Luo hui
The 4th Railway Survey and Design Institute Group Co, Ltd of China
Contact: luohui_robert@163.com
ABSTRACT:
The main section of the ZhiCheng Yangtze river bridge is 1742 m steel beam bridge. By now, with the influence of
the overhead catenary system, the steel bridge maintenance must be operated in cooperation with the power supply
maintenance department at power–off maintenance gap. Considered the power–off maintenance gap is adjust to
mid-night in the new railway operation plans, it is difficult to do the painting maintenance for the bridge, this leads to
the lack of painting maintenance of the steel bridge. The ZhiCheng Yangtze river bridge is under threat of lost service
life. In order to save the service life of the ZhiCheng Yangtze river bridge, a project with some new designs to improve
the maintenance circumstance of the bridge must be carried out.
The comprehensive system research and design with new concepts of safety, low carbon footprint, economical
efficiency, economy of the whole life cycle, is a new aesthetic concept of design in this new era. By application this
new design aesthetics, a new level of comprehensive harmony of safety, function, cost, and carbon footprint and
economy of the whole life cycle of Bridges can be achieved. This article will introduce the ZhiCheng Yangtze river
bridge maintenance design project, to show this new design aesthetics. The bridge links our past and future. The
human must be in harmony with nature, and will have a promising tomorrow.
KEYWORDS: Bridge, Aesthetic Concept, Design, Low Carbon Footprint, Maintainability
Fig1 the Zhaozhou bridge
175
1. INTRODUCTION ZhiCheng Yangtze River Bridge is steel truss bridge.

Each side of the bridge has a cantilever to support a
In 1978, China began to reform and open, China's single lane road. The two track electrified railway is
economy is growing by an average 9.8%, even in 2014, settled in steel truss girder. Both sides of the rail in the
since entering the new normal, China's economic steel truss have been hung with power cable,
growth rate is 6.7%, much higher than the international communication cable, signal cable and pipe (to line
average level. In China, everything is changing day by center distance is about 2.65 meters).
day. With the high-speed economic development,
many new problems are also created at the same time.
Some problems involved in all aspects of society and 3. THE ENLIGHTENMENT OF ZHAOZHOU
life. Change happens quietly. BRIDGE
This paper will introduce the return line The Zhaozhou Bridge locates in Zhao country, Hebei
transformation project of the electrified railway system Province, across Xiao water. The Zhaozhou Bridge is the
on ZhiCheng Yangtze River Bridge, and give an example world's oldest open-spandrel stone segmental arch
to show that design will play a key role in China's future bridge with open shoulder. Credited to a craftsman
development. named Li Chun, the bridge was constructed in the years
Design will play an important role of China's 595-605 during the Sui Dynasty. Stand for about 1400
development in the new period. In the design world, years. The aesthetic design of bridges is great. Although
the design aesthetic is the core of the design. What Zhaozhou Bridge has been built for thousands of years,
kind of aesthetic concepts lead to what kind of the the design aesthetics of Zhaozhou Bridge can still be
future. used for today’s construction.
2. PROJECT BACKGROUND AND PROFILE In summary, Zhaozhou bridge has follow

characteristics:
ZhiCheng Yangtze River Bridge is a through deck
 All service function;
steel bridge. It is a highway / railway
 Innovation and Creation;
combined bridge for Jiaozuo-Liuzhou railway, and is
 Safe and reliable. Follow the natural law, holding
opened in December 1971. In December 2009, the
the bridge scientifically. The force system of the
Jiaozuo-Liuzhou railway is completed electrification
bridge is simple and reasonable, makes the
transformation.
bridge be safe and reliable.
Main technical standards of Jiaozuo-Liuzhou  Artistic conception ingenious idea, two side arch
railway: on each should of the main arch, both advantage
to draw off flood, and to be built economically
 Railway rate: Ⅰ level;
and easily
 Number of line: double;
 Easy to maintenance, the stone size is
 Limit grade: 6 ‰.
reasonable, make it easy to get and be
 Minimum curve radius, 120 km/h section is
convenient for replacement
800 m, 140 km/h section is 1200 m;
 Beautiful, arched shape with two small side
 Traction type: electric power;
arches on the shoulder, make it be light,
 Locomotive types: Guest SS8; Cargo SS4;
ingenious, tension grand, and be harmony with
 Effective lengths of receiving-departure track:
the environment. Looks like a rainbow on the
1050 m, 850 m part;
water.
 Block type: automatic.
The technical standards of the electrification 4. THE DESIGN AESTHETICS USED IN
railway system: ZHICHENG YANGTZE RIVER BRIDGE RETURN
 The power supply method: Direct power
LINE RECONSTRUCTION PROJECT
supply with return line, On August 12, 2014, the author carried a site
 Catenary suspension system: simple catenary investigation for the maintenance problem of ZhiCheng
suspension with full compensation, JTMH- Yangtze River Bridge, along with relevant personnel of
95+CHAH-120（15kN+15kN） Wuhan railway administration. The situation is that: the
 The catenary suspension support structure bridge maintenance unit is responsible for the
on bridge: davit + wrist arm installation maintenance for the ZhiCheng Yangtze river bridge, but
 Return line type: LBGLJ – 185 maintenance work must be carried with escort of the
 Earth wire type: LGJ - 70. electrification maintenance unit. In recent time, the
176
bridge maintenance unit of the ZhiCheng Yangtze river

bridge was failed to finish its maintenance plan, was
criticized by the administrative department , and was
asked to solve the problem within a time limit. These
triggered a series of contradictions and conflicts.
Fig3. Transverse section of ZhiCheng Yangtze River

Bridge and catenary, earth wire, return line
installation diagram
According to the current management mode of
railway construction projects in China, there is no need
Fig2 ZhiCheng Yangtze river bridge maintenance
to consider operation and maintenance cost of the
channel and the catenary, the earth wire, and the
project at operational phase. As for return line
return line installation
disabling the ZhiCheng Yangtze river bridge
In technical view, the results of the preliminary maintenance issues, during the process of
investigation at the site is that, the current power investigation, each one involved of the interior parties
supply mode of electrified railway with direct supply of railway administration had their own claim, because
with return line, the return line type is LBGLJ - 185, the interests of related parties are different in respect
overhead installation, and the distance between the of maintenance.
return line to the steel bridge maintenance access is
The problem is that, since there is no precedent
less than 1m, and the distance between the return line
case to deal with this problem, because lack of
to the workspace of the steel bridge maintenance
approval of authorities, following the traditional
hanging cab is less than 1 meter, as shown in figure 2
processing method of railway engineering, it is hard to
and figure 3. In the operation of the locomotive, the
deal with the interests of related parties very well in
Voltage on return line will exist up to a few hundred
the process to resolve this problem. Every design
volts, directly threats the safety of bridge maintenance
scheme may change the interests of related parties, in
workers. Therefore, the steel bridge maintenance work
short or long term. New contradictions and conflicts
should be carried out with the escort of electrification
may be triggered and upgraded.
maintenance unit in a given time window.
ZhiCheng Yangtze river bridge return line affect
At this time, the given time window for the
bridge maintenance problem is, in fact, a very small
ZhiCheng Yangtze river bridge section is adjusted to the
problem in the process of the reforming and opening
night, just a V-type time window. Night operation lead
up, and is a small microcosm of that China is
to low efficiency of the maintenance work, especially
completing the transition from planned economy to
has a great impact on the steel bridge painting work.
market economy. In fact, the market economy is
This cause that the maintenance plans of ZhiCheng
competitive economy, only advanced product can win
Yangtze River Bridge was not well executed. Yangtze
the user. Innovation is the "new normal" in this new
River Bridge was in danger of disrepair.
period. And innovation may change the benefit and
In fact, there are lots of reasons cause the problem interest of the parties involved. Under the condition of
of ZhiCheng Yangtze River Bridge return line to prevent the "new normal", how to deal with the contradiction
ZhiCheng Yangtze river bridge maintenance. and conflicts of project parties, is a complicated
problem.
177
"We cannot assume that the principles of simple influence of grounding and return line to the safety of
application itself will create a beautiful bridge. the maintenance workers of ZhiCheng Yangtze river
Designers must have imagination, intuition, feeling, and bridge. All these work, make the project participants to
forms and feeling of beauty... Standards, however, give have a comprehensive and detailed understanding on
us a good starting point, to help us for critical the safety of the project and lay a solid foundation for
evaluation of our design, particularly in the model examination and approval of the feasible research.
phase, it can make us perceive aesthetic design mistake
Beauty is the eternal pursuit in the heart, "smart" is
". - Leonhardt (Germany).
the specific show of beauty. Only ingenious idea on
At present time, the China’s economy is facing many concept can catch the heart.
risks, like slow industrial upgrading, resources and
In the project of ZhiCheng Yangtze river bridge
environment deterioration, increasing social
return line transform, the “Cut” strategy is used, and
contradictions and conflicts, etc.
“simple is beauty” is used as the main design principles,
With safety, low carbon, saving economy as the in the project design and project decisions making. All
goal, the total life-cycle value theory of project is one of of these show: the design aesthetic play the key role in
design aesthetics of this new era. By introducing this design.
new design aesthetics, project can achieve the goals of
Using “Cut” strategy, by using the job partitions
safety, function, whole life-cycle cost, low carbon, and
management method, reduce the relationship of the
make our life better. It is a good way to deal with
bridge maintenance work and power supply system
development problem of Chinese economic in the
maintenance work of electrical railway, lots of
future.
maintenance work can be done without the escort of
In ZhiCheng Yangtze river bridge return line the power supply maintenance unit. By means of the
reconstruction project, inspired by the Zhaozhou bridge job partitions management method, most of the bridge
aesthetic concepts, formed the conceptual plan for the maintenance work (painting) can be conducted in
ZhiCheng Yangtze river bridge return line daytime, bridge maintenance efficiency can be improve
reconstruction project, the main concepts are as greatly, bridge section maintenance costs can be
follows: reduced significantly the working condition and staff
quality of life can be improve effectively.
First of all, take innovative measures to break through
the engineering problems. Based on basic aesthetic concepts "simple is
beautiful", the Scheme 1 Overhead return line
With enlightenment from the spirit of innovation of
insulation wire scheme was selected as the main
Zhaozhou bridge construction, combined with the
recommendation.
modern international engineering advanced concepts,
total project life cycle cost analysis and activity-based
costing tools are used, seize the opportunity of project.
According to the current situation of China railway 5. ZHICHENG Yangtze RIVER BRIDGE
construction, break the routine of railway construction RETURN LINE RECONSTRUCTION PROJECT
projects, through careful investigation and PLAN RESEARCH
comprehensive analysis, by using activity-based costing
tools, the maintenance benefits are studied carefully in There are 4 technical solutions for this project:
the feasibility research, the maintenance cost of each Scheme 1, Replacing overhead return line with
design scheme is considered as one of the important insulation wire solution;
elements of project decision-making.
Scheme 2, Changing the position of overhead return
Second, seek truth from facts, from practice to line solution (with support insulator);
practice, have the spirit of science, follow the natural
Scheme 3, Changing overhead return line from support
law, resolve the risks, ensure the safety of the project.
insulator installation to direct installation solution;
To be success in the project, the key is that seize
Scheme 4, Changing overhead return line to cables
the core elements of security. In the feasibility study of
solution.
this project, 4 design schemes are studied. In each
design scheme, the safety is the key clue, from the The schemes are listed and compared in follow table.
investigation of the project, the analysis of the Scheme 1 is selected as the final solution.
problems, comprehensive and detailed technical
analysis are made on safety theme, especially on the
178
Table1.Design schemes
Scheme 1, Replacing overhead return line with Scheme 2 Changing the position of overhead return line
Scheme
insulation wire solutions solution (with support insulator)
aluminum wrapped steel core aluminum stranded wire

Return line wire 185mm2 copper core rubber insulated wire
LBGLJ - 185
4 line km LBGLJ - 185

Work amount 4 km 185mm2 copper core rubber insulated wire
aluminum wrapped steel core aluminum stranded wire
Return line frame and shoulders to remove, a special

By using the return line shoulder, dismantled both base and steel girder bracket in the middle shelves
Design proposal return line, replace it with 1 kV copper core rubber design new return line (insulation), and ensure the
insulated wire. return line installation position of steel bridge
maintenance channel is greater than 1 m.
Construction Direct purchase shape wire and parts, short Use special support part of return line installation,
period construction period, about 3 months. longer construction period, about 6 months.
Influence to The return line is across the catenary to avoid

other existing NA maintenance access on side beam, need regular safety
facilities check to prevent return wire break.
Most of maintenance work like painting steel beam can

be executed at daytime without time window; only
Most of maintenance work like painting steel middle cross beam, X beam and side beam occupied by
beam can be executed at Daytime without time the catenary system and locomotive needs time
window; only middle cross beam and side beam window to checking and painting , compared to scheme
Maintainability of occupied by the catenary system and locomotive 1,less improvement to steel bridge maintenance
the Steel bridge needs time window to checking and painting , condition;
Significantly improve steel bridge maintenance
Because of return line new installation position,
condition
restrict active space of maintenance car. In order to
ensure safety of workers of bridge maintenance unit,
need more safety education to staff, and more escort
by power supply maintenance unit.
The installation position of overhead return line is

A maintenance system should be established, to
changed to middle of steel truss, the overhead return
check the insulating ability of insulated wires.
Maintainability of line can not be checked with the maintenance vehicle
When the insulation leakage current of the wire
grounding and maintenance, the painting work for middle cross beam
exceed safe value, insulated wires should be
return line and X beam still need the time window, more
replaced in time. A inspect files system should be
maintenance time window are needed than that of
established to improve safety level.
scheme 1.
The project cost About 400000 Yuan About 260000 Yuan
Saving of
operating costs（ more than 400000 Yuan About 400000 Yuan
per year,）
179
Table2. Design schemes
Scheme 3, Changing overhead return line from

Scheme 4, changing overhead return line to cables
Scheme support insulator installation to direct installation
solution.
solution,
LBGLJ - 185 aluminum wrapped steel core aluminum

Return line wire 240 mm2 1kv single-core cable (with sheath)
stranded wire
About 10 km integrated earth wire laying and

Work amount about 4 kilometers 240 mm21kv single-core cable
grounded
Every bridge pier need add a grounding (10 ohm), Demolition of both return line and its shoulder.
link to a new comprehensive grounding wire, Need a new cable duct mounted on cantilever beam
reliable equal potential bondings are need to link all of the road or in the bottom truss of the bridge. To
Design proposal of the structure of steel bridge, the return line, the eliminate the influence of cable induced electricity,
communication cables, the signal cables, the electric Need to increase the cable joint, and the
power cable and pipes on the bridge, facilities are corresponding grounding, for about every 500
integrated ground wire. meters, add one 4 ohms grounding for the safety.
Should increase about 25 groundings in water. Since

A cable duct and two return line cables should be
Construction construction of grounding in water is very difficult,
installed, and should increase 3 grounding in water,
period the construction period maybe more than 18
the construction period maybe about 12 months.
months.
regular checking on equal potential bondings of steel

Influence to bridge, communication cables, signal cables, electric A cable duct is installed on cantilever beam of the
other existing power cables, water pipes (including road) and other road, in order to maintain the return cable, needs the
facilities facilities, lots of checking work, Lots of coordination permission of road administration
work, complex work on earthing reliability
Most of maintenance work like painting steel beam Most of maintenance work like painting steel beam
can be executed at Daytime without time window; can be executed at Daytime without time window;
Maintainability of
only side beam occupied by the locomotive needs only side beam occupied by the locomotive needs
the steel bridge
time window to checking and painting , Significantly time window to checking and painting , Significantly
improve steel bridge maintenance condition improve steel bridge maintenance condition
Regular check on equal potential bondings to

Regular check on return line cable. Regular check
Maintainability of comprehensive grounding wire; Regular check and
grounding pole and steel bridge and steel bridge
grounding and test to bridge pier grounding electrodes (about 25),
cable slot connection. Regular check and test to
return line lots of maintenance work increased for power supply
bridge pier grounding electrodes (about 5),
maintenance work.
The project cost About 500 Yuan to 10 million Yuan About 200 Yuan to 4 million Yuan
Saving of
less than scheme 1(but increase maintenance work
operating costs（ less than the scheme 1
to road system)
per year,）
will greatly enhance the painting working efficiency of
6. BENEFIT EVALUATION the bridge maintenance, reduce the operation and
maintenance cost. It will ensure that annual the
The scheme 1 is selected as the finial solution. After painting tasks of ZhiCheng Yangtze River Bridge are
the completion of the project, most of the normal finished on time.
maintenance task of ZhiCheng Yangtze River Bridge can
be executed at daytime. This will make bridge After finished the project, lots of the cooperating
maintenance work time is from less than two hours at works and annual maintenance works for Xiangyang
night (repair time window) extend to eight hours daily, power supply maintenance unit can be reduced, and
the operating costs for both of power supply
180
maintenance unit and bridge maintenance unit can be to the construction stage, is carried smoothly and
cut down. quickly.
In view of economic, one Yangtze River Bridge costs Time is money, efficiency is life.
several billions Yuan. This project can ensure the
The ZhiCheng Yangtze river bridge return line
completion of the bridge maintenance plan to extend
the life of ZhiCheng Yangtze River Bridge. The transform project has achieved its goal, balance very
well on safety, function, low cost, low carbon and total
investment cost-effectiveness ratio is extremely high.
life cycle economy. The economic benefit, social
In view of social benefits, the project can significantly benefit and environmental benefit are highly
improve the worker's working condition of bridge consistent.
maintenance unit and xiangyang power supply
While the Chinese economy is moving in the "new
maintenance unit, cut down the working hours in night,
improve life quality of the maintenance worker, and normal", economy faces the risk of falling. There is an
urgent need that we find out high quality projects, and
can dissolve the social contradictions and conflicts
implement them quickly.
between the bridge maintenance unit and power
supply maintenance unit, caused by the rapid Although the ZhiCheng Yangtze river bridge return
development of market economy. line renovation project is very small, there is an urgent
need to solve the problem immediately.
7. EXISTING PROBLEMS AND REFORM
From any point of view, the development of a
Railway is the lifeblood of China's economy, is country's economy depends on every effort made by
operated in highly centralized management mode for a the various economic organizations within the country.
long time. It is difficult to make any change. There exist The every effort is a Project. The national economy is a
lots of difficulties for this kind of project. flood of these efforts. If these efforts are to be
At present, total life cycle value theory is not used rewarded, the Chinese economy must be stable. [5] We
in the construction of railway engineering yet, and the should not have any relax and any hesitate, even the
maintenance costs is not considered as an important project is small, and there is no precedent.
factor in project study. If we are good at finding opportunities to develop
Because survey design fee is proportional to good projects in our production and life, keeping our
investment, small project maybe "ignored" for lack of focus on our goal and original idea, the Chinese
money on design and survey. economy will be full of flowers and vitality.
In this project, because lack of long running test Reviewing the work of ZhiCheng Yangtze river
and inspection on insulation safety of using insulated bridge return line transform project, from investigation,
wires as return line by railway administration, some survey, feasibility study, conceptual design,
experts were skeptical about the safety of the return construction drawing design, construction, to the end,
line using insulated wires in review the feasibility study. it is easy to find out lots of problems, such as: it lack of
In the railway organization, security can deny construction regulations for small project, small project
everything. Undoubtedly, using the scheme 1, the is easy to be ignored, small project execution is easy to
designer and local railway administrations bear the be interferenced, it is difficult to realize the designer's
huge risk. "original intention " in small project and so on..
Uphold the "innovation, harmonious and green, The goal of the development of market economy is
open, sharing" development concept, with the just that let us depend on each other, under the banner
"harmony" beginner's mind, the designer introduce the of one country, to play respective special skill, to make
design concept of the total project life cycle cost in the progress together, to share good life [5]. At present,
project creatively. The designer is very low-key. No there is a great room to reform in the railway
piece of words of “total project life cycle cost" concept construction area in China, the reform direction is to
is used in the design document, while only save strengthen marketization.
operating cost column is added in the scheme table. By To achieve economic development by "innovation",
doing "subtraction", cut down the project operating strengthen the combination of state economy and
costs successfully, solve the core contradictory and private economy, can promote the level of railway
conflicts of the project, and introduce the successful construction unceasingly, improve production
experiences of the insulated wire used in electric efficiency of railway system, reduce the rail system
power industry, finally win the support of local railway production operation and maintenance costs, and
management. ZhiCheng Yangtze river bridge return line promote the sound development for the railway
affect ZhiCheng Yangtze river bridge maintenance enterprises.
problem was well solved. The project of ZhiCheng
Yangtze river bridge return line transform, from  In the field of railway construction, study
research, feasibility study, construction drawing design advanced management theory from the
developed countries, the introduction of the
181
total life cycle theory, strengthen the analysis With the goal of safety, low carbon, saving and
and research of project operation and economy, the total life cycle cost management theory
maintenance cost, and improve total life cycle for project research and system design is new design
value of the project. aesthetics of this new era.
 In the field of railway construction, strengthen With "innovation, harmonious and green, open,
the research on small projects, especially, on the sharing" development philosophy, by using of design
construction of laws and regulations for small aesthetics of the new era, there are lots of
projects. opportunities to be finded, lots of chances to be
 In the field of railway construction, fully utilize catched. The designer’s innovation action and the
benign interaction between the parties of the project
the small projects, opening wider to the outside,
will make our world be more colorful and more
to strengthen the cooperation with private beautiful.
enterprises, and take this opportunity to
establish a new market-oriented mechanism of The bridge connects our past to future.
"innovation" for the railway system. Combined The human must be in harmony with nature, and
with the "mass entrepreneurship and will have a wonderful tomorrow.
innovation” activities, many problems can be
The beauty of the Zhaozhou bridge shows that:
solved to promote innovation, to enlarge beauty comes from nature, beauty is in our heart, and
employment, to boost economic growth, etc. beauty will create a new world!
 In the field of railway construction, strengthen
the construction of legal system adapted to the 9. REFERENCES
market economy operation of construction, [1] Bai sijun,Modern Project Management Beijing:China
strengthen the legal protection, promote Machine Press,2002
marketization construction constantly.
[2] Friedrich Kieβling,Rainer Pusschmann,Axel Schmieder
 Systematically strengthen the research on
Electrified railway catenary. China Electric Power Press,
market economy theory on how to investigate
2004.1
market and to establish a multiple market, and
constantly improve the socialist market [3] Hartmut Freystein，Martin Muncke，Peter Schollmeier
economic system, etc German Railway Infrastructure Design Manual[M].
Beijing: China Railway Press,2007.4
With the "innovation, harmonious, green, open,
sharing" development philosophy, building up the [4] Luo hui The Prospect Analysis of The Rail Transport
social environment of "innovation driven" is the only Network for City. Proceedings of the Rail Transportation
road of reform in "new normal" period. In this regard, Development Conference for Beijing、Taiwan、Hong
lots of work can be done in railway construction. Kong and Macau [C] China Chemical Industry Press,
2014.10,
"A single flower does not mean the spring, while all
flowers blooming in garden means a lot." [5] Luo hui Enhance the country's economic stability and
Strengthen the control of project management decision-
Only with an open attitude to face the world, and making. Proceedings of the 8th China Congress on
with a globalization view to look forward to the future, Project Management [C] China Weapons industry press
by actively supporting the designer's design aesthetic 2010.6,
as the core system of "innovation" in different projects,
our world will be colourful, prosperous and vibrant. [6] Luo hui Smart City and Rail Transit[C]//.《Smart City and
Rail Transit 》 The proceedings of the 2015 annual
8. CONCLUSIONS meeting of the Smart City and Rail Transit of the Rail
Transit group, China city press 2015.7,16-19.
The greatest truth is the simplest, it comes into the
heart. [7] Luo hui Harmonious Society and Project Management
PMRC Proceedings of the 6th China Congress on Project
Beauty comes from the love of life. The pace of Management [C] 2007 Beijing Newspapers Joint Press
human pursuit of beauty will never stop. No425
Simple is beauty. In ZhiCheng electrified railway [8] Luo hui Strengthen Academic Research To Promote the
Yangtze River bridge return line reconstruction project, Construction of Smart City [C]//.《Smart City and Rail
this aesthetic concept has the great power to hit the Transit》The proceedings of the 2017 annual meeting of
hearts. the Smart City and Rail Transit of the Rail Transit group,
Now, the world is drifting profusely and disorderly, China city press 2017.5,100-107.
and the opportunities are infinite. [9] China Railway Corporation Regulations on Railway
Technical Management, Beijing China Railway Press
2014.
182
Pro Value of state of the art Bridge Bearings and Expansion Joint
Solutions
Rainer Roos, Peter Guenther

MAURER SE, Frankfurter Ring 193, 80807 Munich, Germany
Contact: p.guenther@maurer.eu
Abstract
The MEGA cities in South East Asia are more and more faced with the limited capacity of their
infrastructure. Above all massive investment is spent on the public transport system, which expands at an
enormous speed.
Caused by limited space and economic reasons, more and more roads and railway lines are built elevated.
Approx. the same huge funds are necessary to improve existing structures to the needs of the next
centuries.
The choice of bearings and expansion joints may jeopardize the economy during operation. The right choice
on behalf of sustainability results in a pro-value for the road or railroad operator in the name of reliability,
durability and maintenance costs of the device and the entire project.
Especially for railroad projects, the focus on the interaction between the bridge bearings and the track is
essential not only for the device, but for the entire track reliability.
To get the pro-value for the structure, the European standard, EN1337 and EN1090, classify performance in
dependence to the structure. This classification is decisive for the sustainability of structures, regardless if
for new projects or rehabilitations.
The presentation would highlight the innovations of modern bridge bearings and expansion joints on
reliability and cost-effectiveness during operation. Latest technology guarantees a low carbon footprint.
Keywords: structural bearings; expansion joints; working life; EN 1337; European Technical Assessment;
European Technical Approval; ETAG European Assessment Document
In 2014, the financial loss of the city of Sao Paulo,

1 Introduction caused by the daily jams, was 31 milliard dollars,
Global urbanisation is one of the world challenges. comparable to 7.8% of the economic output of
The global MEGA cities need to expand or to Sao Paulo.
establish their infrastructure capacity. With the Besides the investment costs, the budget and
focus on the urgency, the investment in new specification should avail the life cycle and
projects should include considerations for future reduced maintenance costs, as well as the carbon
economic aspects to avoid financial disaster food print of the projects over the design life. To
during the design working life of the project. simplify the sustainability is the key to handling
the rapid urbanisation.
183
Also, long-life bridge bearings and expansion 2.2 Basic Requirements

joints can avoid or minimise traffic closings for
The following basic requirements as a basis of the
maintenance/replacement of the road or railroad
technical specifications have to be met for
during service. The total maintenance costs within
construction works as a whole and in their
the design life time of the structure equal about as
separate parts for an economically reasonable
much as the construction works. Compared to the
working life.
3% of the total procurement costs, it is attributed
to taking about 10% for expansion joints and 1. Mechanical resistance and stability
bearings. Therefore particular attention shall be 2. Safety in case of fire
paid on the different levels of performance and 3. Hygiene, health and the environment
threshold values which influence the assumed 4. Safety and accessibility in use
working life of these products. 5. Protection against noise
6. Energy economy and heat retention
Structural bearings and expansion joints for
7. Sustainable use of natural resources
bridges have to be designed in accordance with
European specifications based on the European For specific products only these core requirements
Construction Product Regulation (CPR) [1]. and essential characteristics are specified, which
General specifications of actions are given in the have to be declared by the manufacturer when
appropriate Eurocodes [2]. Thus a high level of placed on the market.
reliability of the construction products placed on
the market and transparency of the latter is given. 2.3 Levels or Classes of Performance
This paper gives an overview of the regulations If required levels or classes of performance in
and considerations and explains these with the
relation to the essential characteristics shall be
example of Ponte 25 de Abril in Lisbon.
defined in the technical specifications. Regulatory
needs of the member states shall be respected
2 Construction Product Regulation when determining threshold levels and classes.
2.1 General 2.4 CE marking

The European Construction Product Regulation A precondition for the CE marking is the issuance
replaced the former Construction Product of the declaration of performance. Due to the CE
Directive (CPD) [3] which has been established to marking the manufacturer indicates his
design construction works in accordance with responsibility for the conformity of the product
harmonised technical specifications to ensure the with this declaration.
safety of users, owners and the environment
during its entire life cycle. The appropriate 2.5 Sustainability
technical specifications shall be the basis of the
assessment of the performance of construction Construction products shall be sustainable. The
products. Prevailing different conditions are recyclability of construction works, their materials
considered through classes of performance and and parts after demolition, the durability of
threshold levels. construction works and the use of
environmentally compatible raw and secondary
The construction product placed on the market materials in construction works shall be taken into
shall be accompanied by a declaration of account.
performance based on a harmonised European
Standard (EN) or in the absence of it on a 3 Structural Bearings
European Technical Assessment (ETA) based on a
European Assessment Document (EAD). 3.1 General
The reliability of this declaration shall be Structural bearings are devices which transmit
supported by an appropriate factory production defined loads and allow defined movements
and third party control.
184
between two members of a structure. The 3.3 European Technical Assessments

transfer of the main loads using surface contact to
Some projects require a performance of the
the adjacent structural members is state of the
bearings not covered in EN1337. For such
art. In case of elastomeric bearings, displacements
innovative structural bearings, an ETA is required.
and rotations are facilitated using shear
An outstanding example of this approach is the
deformation of the elastomeric pad. All other
use of a special sliding material made of UHMWPE
modern bearings (e.g., pot or spherical bearings)
instead of PTFE also known under the trade name
consist of a tilting element that facilitates the
MSM®, Robo®Slide or SMF.
rotations of the superstructure and a sliding
element for the accommodation of displacements. Picture 1. Spherical Bearing with MSM®
The design of structural bearings consisting of
standardised materials like steel and innovative
plastic materials with various performance
characteristics which are not typical for the usually
rigid structures is supported by calculation and
testing in accordance with individual
specifications.
3.2 EN 1337
Table 1. EN 1337
For this purpose in 2006 the “single case”
Part Title
guideline CUAP 03.01/35 [4] for Spherical Bearings
1 General design rules with special sliding material has been issued in
accordance with the former CPD, and on this basis
2 Sliding Elements various European Technical Approvals have been
3 Elastomeric Bearings granted [5]. The main features of the new
development are:
4 Roller Bearings
- an extended working life
5 Pot Bearings - smaller reaction forces due to low friction
- a higher performance regarding sliding
6 Rocker Bearings speed, temperature range and load
7 Spherical and Cylindrical PTFE Bearings carrying capacity
8 Guided Bearings and Restrained Bearings 3.4 Sustainability of Structural Bearings

The design of structural bearings shall be in
9 Protection
accordance with EN 1990, which establishes
10 Inspection and Maintenance principles and requirements for the safety,
serviceability and durability of structures.
11 Transport, Storage and Installation
The design working life is the assumed period for
Table 1 displays the structure of EN 1337. The which a structure or part of it is to be used for its
product oriented standard reflects the state of the intended purpose with anticipated maintenance
art in Europe and it is mainly based on former but without major repair being necessary. For
European national specifications. structural bearings, indicative values are given in
Table 2 and may be employed for determining the
A first version of the single parts has been
lifetime-dependent performance (e.g., fatigue- or
introduced between the years 2000 and 2008.
wear-related calculations).
Currently the standard is under revision.
185
Table 2. Indicative design working life [6] prove the sufficient wear resistance and friction
behaviour.
Category Years Examples
4 Ponte 25 de Abril in Lisbon
Replaceable structural
2 10 - 25 parts, e.g., gantry girders, 4.1 General
bearings
Building structures and At the beginning of the millennium, the Ponte 25
4 50 other conventional de Abril in Lisbon (Tejo Bridge) was retrofitted to
structures establish a railway line inside of the steel deck.
Monumental building This example explains the importance of the
5 100 structures, bridges, other design working life classification of bridge
civil engineering structures bearings.
The assumed working life of structural bearings is The estimated displacement on the bearing was
given by e. g., the fatigue resistance of the 2km per year. As described in Table 3, PTFE
metallic parts the durability of the corrosion bearings can move 10km (see table 3), so that the
protection and the wear resistance of the maintenance budget needs to consider a bearing
moveable parts. Key differentiations are given in replacement every five years.
Table 3.
With above conditions, the design calculations
Table 3. Assumed Working Life figured out, that “normal” bearings would not
work with a sufficient lifetime.
Bearing Wear Working
Spec.
type resistance life To confirm, monitoring on the existing bearings
Resistance to was figured out.
repeated
Elastomeric 4.2 Measurements at the Roller Bearings
EN 1337-3 loading in > 10 years
Bearing
compression
The roller bearings were equipped with
2*106 cycles
displacement sensors (WS12-2000mm with
accumulated
slide path of Incremental Encoder, Resolution 0.05 mm / for
the internal verification WA300-300mm LVDT-Type analogous
Pot Bearing EN 1337-5 > 10 years 80mV/V) and an acceleration sensor (B12, 0-100
seal 500,
1000 and Hz, 0-200 m/s² Analogous, 80 mV/V).
2000 m
Picture 2. Roller bearing with sensors
accumulated
slide path in
PTFE
the sliding
Spherical EN 1337-7 > 10 years
surface plane
Bearing
10 km Acceleration
curved 2 km Displacement sensor sensor
accumulated
slide path in
MSM®
ETA the sliding
Spherical > 50 years
06/0131 surface
Bearing
plane 50 km
curved 10 km
Much smaller long term requirements are given

for PTFE in accordance with AASHTO [7]. Only a
long term deterioration test with a total
displacement of approx. 100 m is required to
186
4.3 Outcomes of the Measurement Figure 3. P7-East – Displacement

During a single train passing the bridge, the
maximum movement of d=37mm was measured 1Trains from South, one from North
v Train = 50 km/h, windy, lot of road
at P2-East. The accumulated displacement during traffic, trucks at 10:25pm
t = 140 s
the 140s duration was dt=162mm. 10min à 240 mm
Figure 1. P2-East – One train passing
1 Trains
To get sufficient information for the final bearing
v Train = 50 km/h
t = 140 s design, a graph with the monitored movement
2,33 min à 161,6 mm
velocity was necessary, figure 4. The peak of
displacement reached a value of 6,91mm/s, which
is 3.5 times above the max. 2mm/s considered by
the PTFE.
Recorded measurements at P1-East, during two
trains passing simultaneously, displayed a Figure 4. P7-East – Movement velocity
significant increase of the accumulated
displacement to 228mm during the same time
period. The increase is not based on the increased
maximum movement d, but on the number of
changes of the movement direction.
Figure 2. P1-East – Two trains passing
From the measurement, it was confirmed, that

2 Trains overlapped the estimated 2km is relatively matching with the
v Train = 50 km/h
t = 140 s
2,33min à 228 mm
expected.
4.4 Monitoring on the new MSM®

Spherical Bearings
To compare the effects of the railway input to the
The Tejo bridge was one of the first projects
road traffic and wind, figure 3 shows a measure of
where spherical bearings equipped with special
a longer period t=10min.
sliding material MSM® (UHMWPE) were installed.
The maximum displacement amplitude with road As described in table 3, the movement distance of
traffic and wind is only d=19mm, the sliding MSM® is minimum 50km, so that, compared with
velocity 0,18mm/s (over 420s). PTFE, a five times longer lifetime was expected. In
accordance with ETA-06/0131, MSM® can reach
During train traffic the velocity increases to
the 50km with sliding velocities up to 15mm/s.
1.15mm/s over 120s, the maximum displacement
With this performance, the expected lifetime
amplitude is d=38mm.
inside the Tejo bridge increased to 25 years, in
theory.
187
To confirm the theory, a monitoring system was 5 Road Bridge Expansion Joints
delivered together with the new bearings, which
were installed in autumn 2004. 5.1 General
In September 2011 the monitoring system Road bridge expansion joints are used to bridge
displaced an average movement up to app. the movable gap between structures. Safety
3.0km/year at the bearing on P5 and 7. The during long-term use of water tightness and noise
accumulated displacement increased nearly to behaviour are decisive design criteria. Thus
20km in 6.5 years. conventional systems like mat joints, sliding plates
Picture 3. New MSM® Spherical Bearing or finger joints have been replaced by watertight
modular joints where the movements are split
into equal single parts.
Picture 4. Modular Expansion Joint
According to the contract requirement, the MSM®

sheets should be replaced after three years in
service or the 50km sliding distance (whatever
occurs first). This work was executed in 2008. The
accumulated displacement range on the replaced
MSM® sheets was in a range of 12.5km.
It was found, that the material was not worn out
and could work for a much longer time. That is
why the next replacement work will be planned The actions to be applied for the design of road
according to the wear of the MSM® sheets. bridge expansion joints are based on EN 1991-2
The second set of MSM® discs installed in 2008 is and given in Annex G of the European Technical
still in service. They have carried about 30km Guideline ETAG 032 [10].
sliding distance, but have not reached half of their
lifetime. According to the latest inspection of the 5.2 ETAG 032
bearings, the wear is less than 50. The European Technical Approval Guideline ETAG
4.5 Conclusion 032 for road bridge expansion joints has been
drawn up based on the former CPD and
The Tejo bridge is an example of the importance introduced in May 2013. The guideline will be
to classify structures and of the smart selection of transformed in an appropriate European
the bearing system during investment to get a Assessment Document to be consistent with the
sustainable transportation system, which at the new CPR.
end reduce the carbon footprint of the structure.
The guideline is performance -oriented and
regulates the design of the most common
expansion joints existing on the European market.
Manufacturers have to apply for European
Technical Assessments based on this guideline.
188
5.3 European Technical Assessments of all leakages resulted from mechanical damage
in service and the other 50% from construction
The first and for the time being unique European
deficits in particular at the kerb units at the lowest
Technical Approval based on ETAG 032 has been
points, and at the butt joint connections on site.
issued for waved nosing expansion joints of type
Corrosion at the upper surface of the footway
MAURER XW1 [11].
area is mainly caused by clashes of cars to the
The following essential characteristics are stated kerb unit as well as by mechanically caused
in the ETA: damages of the edge beams when cutting the
joints at the concrete area. The latter is by far the
- Movement capacity 100 mm
most occurring cause for damage, and it could be
- Watertight
prevented by employing so called hybrid profiles
- Low noise emission
with a stainless steel head see picture 5.
- Assumed working life 50 years
The assumed working life in accordance with Picture 5. Hybrid Profiles for Modular Joints
ETAG 032 is generally based on traffic category 2
given in EN 1991-2. The assumed working life of
50 years is independent on the number of load
cycles after the constant amplitude fatigue limit
has been verified.
5.4 Sustainability of Expansion Joints

Road bridge expansion joints are wear parts with a
limited working life. An investigation into modular
Maurer expansion joints which was jointly carried
out with the Southern Bavarian Expressway
Administration [12] covered the results of all Expansion joints have procurement costs of
general inspections in the past 15 years. The around 10–15 €/m2 per surface area of the
result is illustrated in Figure 5, displaying the bridge, which take about 0,50–1,00 % of the costs
distribution of the nature of the shortcomings in of the structure. When they should have to be
relation to the numbers of expansion joints replaced in the course of a general rehabilitation
inspected. measure, it would cost three times as much, and
should comprehensive traffic management be
Figure 5. Distribution of shortcomings required including the establishment of site
70,0%
equipment;
60,0% Figure 6. Maintenance costs of single seal joints
fault of design
50,0% 18%
fault of execution low standard single seal joint
share on bridge construction costs
40,0% 16%
30,0% regular ÜBE1 single seal joint
14%
hybrid ÜBE1 single seal joint
20,0% 12%
10,0% 10%
0,0% 8%
6%
4%
2%
0%
0 20 40 60 80 100
duration of service [years]
More than 60% of the expansion joints under

investigation were not properly maintained. 50%
189
it could cost as much as five or six fold. Depending Deutsches Institut für Bautechnik. 19 June
on the joint design considerable differences in 2006.
maintenance costs arise, see Figure 6 [13]. [6] DIN EN 1990:2010. Basis of structural
design. Table 2.1.
6 Conclusions [7] AASHTO LRFD Bridge Construction
The “differential construction method” is defined Specification. 3rd Edition 2010. Chapter
as an optimum usage of materials and structural 18.1.5.2.7.
members in dependence on their respective [8] DIN EN 1991-1-5/NA:2010. Actions on
function. In combination with structural bearings structures – General actions – Thermal
and road bridge expansion joints of long service actions; German National Annex –
life, differential bridges are economical and Nationally determined parameters.
sustainable. Modern bridge bearings need almost [9] ETAG 032. Guideline for European Technical
no maintenance during the service life of a bridge. Approval of Expansion Joints for Road
Expansion joints can be designed in such a way Bridges. European Organisation for
that they need to be replaced only in the course of Technical Approvals. May 2013.
planned general maintenance procedures. [10] ETA-13/0232. European Technical Approval.
Procurement and maintenance costs for both Nosing expansion joint "MAURER XW1
products together can be reduced to 6% of the Expansion Joint". Deutsches Institut für
total costs of the bridge structure. For this, the Bautechnik. 28 Mai 2013.
slightly increased procurement costs for such long
life products can be easily justified. [11] Autobahndirektion Südbayern, Maurer
Söhne GmbH & Co. KG: Auswertung der
7 References Mängelanzeigen an Maurer-Dehnfugen im
Bereich der südbayerischen Autobahnen.
[1] Regulation (EU) No 305/2011 of the Unveröffentlichte Studie, 2009.
European Parliament and the Council. [12] Fischer, O. et al.: The Real Price. Holistic
Official Journal L 88/5 of the European Cost-Efficiency Considerations in Design and
Union. 4.4.2011. Construction of Infrastructure Projects; in:
[2] DIN EN 1993-2:2010. Design of steel IABSE-Conference, Venice, Italy, 2010.
structures / Steel bridges. Annexes A and B. [13] Dr.Braun, C., Benicke,O.: Joints and bearings
– European State of the Art of sustainable
[3] COUNCIL DIRECTIVE of 21 December 1988 solutions: IABSE-Conference, Geneva,
on the approximation of laws, regulations Swizerland 2015
and administrative provisions of the [14] ZTV-ING – Teil 8 – Abschnitt 1. Zusätzliche
Member States relating to construction Technische Vertragsbedingungen und
products (89/106/EEC). Richtlinien für Ingenieurbauten – Bauwerks-
[4] CUAP 03.01/35. Common Understanding of ausstattung – Fahrbahnübergänge aus Stahl
Assessment Procedure for European und aus Elastomer. 2012.
Technical Approval according to Article 9.2 [15] KdP – Doc. NT.OK337-0070063: Assembly
of the Construction Products Directive. Procedure fort the replacement of the MSM
Spherical bearing with special sliding disks on the new bearings. Version
material. Version February 2006. 08.05.2008.
[5] ETA-06/0131. European Technical Approval.

MAURER MSM® Spherical Bearing.
190
Performance of modular expansion joints under strong ground

motions
Pascal Savioz PhD, Moustafa Imam PhD
mageba Shanghai, P.R. China
Contact: psavioz@mageba.cn
Abstract
A state-of-the-art testing system was developed for studying the behaviour of modular expansion
joints under seismic conditions, with a full-scale 18-gap specimen subjected to large, rapid
movements in a series of seven individual tests. The first of these tests was based on the prominent
testing protocol of the California Department of Transportation (CALTRANS), and the remaining
tests were based on a series of six seismic event records from around the world. This paper describes
the developed testing system and presents results and findings – in particular, the conclusion that
the regular, sinusoidal movements of the established, internationally-used protocol applied were
observed to be considerably less demanding on an expansion joint than the erratic, non-sinusoidal
movements of actual earthquakes, prompting development of a more realistic testing protocol
based on earthquake-like movements.
Keywords: modular expansion joints; bridge elements; seismic response testing.
their responses can provide a relatively good

1 Introduction performance overview, they still do not capture
Expansion joints are a vital part of bridges of all effects of sudden accelerations, impacts and peaks
types and sizes. They are subjected to considerable associated with strong ground motions. These
demands that must be satisfied over a service life actions are potentially more critical to the
of many years. Modular expansion joints (MEJ) are structural system of the joint and its target lifetime.
mainly used where bridge deck movement The authors saw a need to formulate a testing
demands are anywhere from 100 mm to 2,000 mm campaign that would subject the MEJ to more
or more. The service requirements for MEJ are demanding and realistic seismic conditions.
widely regulated worldwide, such as [1] and [2].
Additionally, there are some movement capacity 2 Testing campaign
verifications required by the same standards. While
All tests were performed at Sismalab (Shanghai)
in many situations MEJ are expected to perform
materials research and testing centre, where a bi-
under seismic event conditions with no significant
directional testing arrangement was used to
damage occurring, the authors believe that the
simulate a selection of historical seismic events.
testing regulations for such conditions are not
Since the response nature of MEJ is displacement
sufficient. Apart from the CALTRANS seismic
dependent, the displacement histories of the
testing protocol for MEJ evaluation [3], which
selected events were fitted to the maximum
specifies a number of harmonic sinusoidal
movement capacities of the test specimen to
excitations in longitudinal and transverse
explore the response and durability of the
directions, there is limited technical data that
specimen when subjected to these conditions.
shows the effect of strong ground motions
Figure 1 shows a view of the testing facility.
associated with real seismic events on expansion
joints in general. While harmonic excitations and
191
Figure 1. View of SISMALAB (Shanghai) test facility
2.1 Test specimen

The test specimen was a typical MEJ manufactured
by mageba SA. The joint had 18 movement gaps,
and was 19’ (5.8 m) wide (length of each of the 17 Figure 4. Cross section through one control field,
centerbeams and 2 edge beams forming its showing the control springs that regulate
surface). It contained three control fields and four centerbeam movements in pairs
support bars, each 12’ 6” (3.8 m) long. This type of
joint was designed to accommodate movements of 2.2 Test setup
up to 4’ 10” (1,473 mm) in the longitudinal
direction, ± 1’ 9” (± 533 mm) in the transverse The dynamic expansion joint test system shown in
direction, ± 2” (± 50 mm) in the vertical direction, Figure 5 comprised of two identical and
and rotations about all three axes. orthogonally placed servo actuators on the
horizontal plane. With 3,500 litres per minute
Different views of the test specimen are shown in provided by the hydraulic power station, both
Figure 2 to Figure 4. servo actuators can achieve velocities of 1,350
mm/s under output loads up to 300 kN, with a
maximum stroke of ± 1,400 mm.
Figure 2. Test specimen
Figure 5. Test setup

The longitudinal actuator shown in Figure 6 was
connected to a moveable table, onto which the
movable side of the MEJ was fixed. The table itself
Figure 3. Cross section at a support bar, with
sat on linear bearings in the middle, and guided
centerbeams on top and sliding bearings between
sliding pads on both sides. The transversal actuator
shown in Figure 7 was connected to a carriage,
192
onto which the fixed side of the MEJ was linear bearing. Additional roller supports were
connected. added to prevent overturning of the carriage due
to the high longitudinal forces. All parts of the
testing frame were fixed to a strong floor to resist
loads and torsions during testing, as well as to
prevent any movements and rotations.
2.3 Ground motions

Initially, the sinusoidal inputs with the highest
demand in terms of speed and movement from the
CALTRANS seismic test protocol for expansion joint
evaluation were applied in the longitudinal and
transverse directions simultaneously (Table 1). This
was to provide a comparison – and internationally
the only available – benchmark for use in
Figure 6. Longitudinal servo actuator comparing with strong ground motions. Table 2
shows the list of excitations used [4]. It comprised
six time-history records, listed in order of
occurrence. These ground motions were chosen to
cover seismic events that occurred in different
continents and had different natures such as long
or short periods, sudden extreme fluctuating
displacements and secondary peaking after initial
strong fluctuations. Both horizontal components of
the chosen excitations were applied, with the
direction indicated in the name column of each
seismic event as “Long” for longitudinal or “Trans”
for transversal. Per the movement capacity of the
specimen, the longitudinal histories were set to a
maximum value of ±550 mm while the transverse
Figure 7. Transverse servo actuator was set to ±500 mm.
Scaling for the event Izmir 1978 resulted in
velocities of above 4 m/s which theoretically could
not be achieved by the developed test system. To
understand the ability of the system to apply this
input, the approach used was to apply the scaled
displacement time history with no further scaling
and observe what the system could achieve while
defining some boundary conditions such as setting
a maximum force and displacement limits so as not
to damage either the system or the specimen.
Finally, the displacements that could be achieved
were a maximum of ±133 mm and ±299 mm in the
longitudinal and transverse directions respectively.
Figure 8. Transverse carriage arrangement These maximum values were then set as the
maximum displacement peaks while rescaling this
The transverse carriage arrangement shown in
specific displacement time history record.
Figure 8 was supported by two linear bearings and
was additionally guided transversally by another
193
600
Table 1. CALTRANS seismic protocol input
Displacement [mm]
400
200
0
Disp. Velocity
Name Cycles -200
[mm] [mm/sec] -400
-600
CAL_Sin_Long ±1100* 1000 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
10 Time [Sec]
CAL_Sin_Trans ±500 919 600
Displacement [mm]
400
*Sinusoidal movement in longitudinal direction was applied starting 200
0
from the specimen being opened to 1110 mm from the 10 mm gap -200
(closed) condition -400
-600
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time [Sec]
Table 2. Input displacement history records
Figure 10. Imperial Valley 1940 – input
Dur. PGV
Name Mag
[sec] [m/sec] 600
Displacement [mm]
400
Imperial Valley 1940,
6.95 53.72 1.7 200
US – Long 0
-200
Imperial Valley 1940, -400
6.95 53.46 0.9 -600
US – Trans 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Time [Sec]
Izmir 1977, TR – Long 5.3 6.53 2.3 Displacement [mm]
600
Izmir 1977, TR – Trans 5.3 3.66 2.1 400

200
Tabas 1978, IR– Long 7.35 33 1.6 0
-200
Tabas 1978, IR– Trans 7.35 33 0.9 -400
-600
Irpinia 1980, IT – Long 6.9 34.28 2.1 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
Time [Sec]
Irpinia 1980, IT – Trans 6.9 34.28 1.5
Taiwan SMART 1986,
Figure 11. Izmir 1977 – input
7.3 55.03 1.7
TW - Long
Taiwan SMART 1986, 600
Displacement [mm]
7.3 55.03 1.8 400

TW - Trans 200
0
El Mayor-Cucapah -200
7.2 71 0.8 -400
2010, MX – Long -600
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
El Mayor-Cucapah Time [Sec]
7.2 71 1.1
2010, MX – Trans 600
Displacement [mm]
400
200
0
-200
-400
Figure 9 to Figure 15 show the scaled records for -600
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
each protocol/event, in both directions, where Time [Sec]
longitudinal is first and transversal is second. Figure 12. Tabas 1978 – input
600
Displacement [mm]
400
200
600 0
Displacement [mm]
400 -200
200 -400
0 -600
-200 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
-400 Time [Sec]
-600
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 600
Displacement [mm]
Time [Sec] 400

600 200
Displacement [mm]
400 0
200 -200
0 -400
-200 -600
-400 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
-600 Time [Sec]
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Time [Sec]
Figure 13. Irpinia 1980 – input
Figure 9. CALTRANS protocol sinusoidal – input
194
600
Displacement [mm]
400
200 100
0 50
Force [kN]
-200
0
-400
-600 -50
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 -100
Time [Sec]
-150
-600 -500 -400 -300 -200 -100 0 100 200 300 400 500
600 Displacement [mm]
Displacement [mm]
400
200 100
0 50
Force [kN]
-200
0
-400
-600 -50
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 -100
Time [Sec]
-150
-200 -100 0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Displacement [mm]
Figure 14. Taiwan SMART 1986 – input
Figure 17. Imperial Valley 1940 – output
600
Displacement [mm]
400
200 200
0
100
Force [kN]
-200
-400 0
-600
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 -100
Time [Sec]
-200
-100 -50 0 50 100 150
600 Displacement [mm]
Displacement [mm]
400
200 150
0 100
Force [kN]
-200 50
-400 0
-600 -50
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 -100
Time [Sec]
-150
-300 -200 -100 0 100 200 300 400
Displacement [mm]
Figure 15. El Mayor-Cucapah 2010 – input
Figure 18. Izmir 1977 – output
3 Test results 200
150
100
Force [kN]
3.1 Data acquisition 50

0
-50
Data acquisition sampling rate was set at 10,000 Hz -100
-150
to capture load peaks under high velocities. The -600 -400 -200 0
Displacement [mm]
200 400 600
force vs displacement responses of the test 150
specimen to all input excitations in both 100

Force [kN]
50
longitudinal (top graph) and transverse (bottom 0

-50
graph) directions respectively are shown in Figure -100
-150
16 to Figure 22. -600 -400 -200 0
Displacement [mm]
200 400 600
Figure 19. Tabas 1978 – output

100
200
50
Force [kN]
100
Force [kN]
0
-50 0
-100 -100
-150
-200
-600 -400 -200 0 200 400 600
-600 -400 -200 0 200 400 600
Displacement [mm]
Displacement [mm]
30
150
20
100
Force [kN]
10
Force [kN]
50
0
0
-10
-50
-20
-100
-30
-150
-600 -400 -200 0 200 400 600
-600 -400 -200 0 200 400 600
Displacement [mm]
Displacement [mm]
Figure 16. CALTRANS protocol – output Figure 20. Irpinia 1980 – output
195
3.2 Observations
150
100
Figure 25and Figure 26 show the test specimen in
Force [kN]
50
0
-50
maximum movement conditions.
-100
-150
-600 -400 -200 0 200 400 600
Displacement [mm]
150
100
Force [kN]
50
0
-50
-100
-150
-600 -500 -400 -300 -200 -100 0 100 200 300 400 500
Displacement [mm]
Figure 21. Taiwan SMART 1986 – output
150
Figure 25. -500 mm transversal (@ 10 mm/gap)
100
Force [kN]
50
0
-50
-100
-600 -400 -200 0 200 400 600
Displacement [mm]
100
50
Force [kN]
0
-50
-100
-150
-200
-600 -400 -200 0 200 400 600
Displacement [mm]
Figure 26. -500 mm transversal (@ +1110 mm

Figure 22. El Mayor-Cucapah 2010 – output
from 10 mm/gap)
By further study of the test results, it became clear
Figure 23 and Figure 24 show a summary of the
that the purely sinusoidal inputs of the CALTRANS
peak force outputs in both compression and
testing protocol resulted in an output force range
tension conditions for each of the simulated
in both longitudinal and transverse directions that
earthquakes.
is lower than that of simulated actual earthquake
inputs. Displacement time history inputs such as
Izmir 1977 and Irpinia 1980 resulted in a force
200 output almost double that of the Caltrans
150
100 sinusoidal input. By exploring the exact input
Force [kN]
50
0 ranges that resulted in peak forces, it was deduced
-50
-100
that random sudden motion reversals at high
-150 speeds were the direct cause of these force peaks.
-200
CALTRANS Imperial Valley Izmir 1977 Tabas 1978 Irpinia 1980 Taiwan SMART El Mayor- Such situations are not represented in sinusoidal
1940 1986 Cucapah 2010
harmonic input wave forms that are currently used
Figure 23. Max. and min. forces (longitudinal) to characterize the behavior of such expansion
200 joints under seismic conditions, as per the
150
100
CALTRANS seismic test protocol for expansion joint
evaluation.
Force [kN]
50
0
-50
-100
Generally, the hysteresis output from this type of
-150 MEJ is a result of friction between the support bars
-200
CALTRANS Imperial Valley Izmir 1977 Tabas 1978 Irpinia 1980 Taiwan SMART El Mayor- and the sliding bearings and springs, and of the
1940 1986 Cucapah 2010
deformation of the rubber control springs which
Figure 24. Max. and min. forces (transverse) control the gap opening distribution. While the
196
output forces from these springs are relatively

stable, as can be seen from the sinusoidal input
results, additional forces arise from strong impacts
of the centerbeams when displacement is applied
in the specimen closing direction, as well as from
resistance of the gap limitation belts (see Figure 30)
when displacement is in the specimen opening
direction. With sudden motion direction change,
these impacts become dominant in characterizing
the force output. Further, an effect from the
expansion joint’s inertia could be observed while
changing the motion direction.
After each test, the MEJ and all its components Figure 29. Control springs from moving side
(such as centerbeams, edge beams, support bars,
sliding bearings, sliding springs, control springs,
stirrups, distance plates and bolts), were visually
inspected in place. Some components were
disassembled after the full test protocol for more
detailed inspection. See Figure 27 to Figure 30.
Figure 30. Gap limitation belts

Furthermore, the overall stiffness and damping
output from the specimen could be characterized.
Considering the hysteretic output from the
CALTRANS harmonic excitations shown in Figures
16 and 17, which is a combination of the rubber
spring and friction behaviour, Table 3 shows the
average effective stiffness and energy dissipated
Figure 27. Sliding bearings and sliding springs,
per cycle (EDC) in both longitudinal and transverse
sliding shoes and steel stirrups at guided and
directions.
unguided joist beams
Table 3. Average stiffness and EDC results
Effective EDC
Input stiffness [kJ]
[kN/mm]
CAL_Sin_Long 0.16 120.6
CAL_Sin_Trans 0.04 10.2
4 Conclusions
From this extensive testing campaign, multiple
conclusions are derived that are of importance to
Figure 28. Sliding bearings & sliding springs at joist expansion joint characterization testing and for the
beam boxes (left: fixed side; right: moving side) structural elements connected to the joints.
197
International standards for expansion joints do not modelled as spring and damping link elements in
sufficiently address seismic testing. The only parallel, where the stiffness and damping
available guideline for seismic testing of expansion properties can be calculated based on theoretical
joints, by CALTRANS, is based on sinusoidal inputs, properties of the expansion joint’s components
which resulted in significantly lower peak force and verified by testing. Further research is required
outputs than several real earthquake simulations. to link the expansion joint’s configuration and the
An expansion joint may pass testing per the resulting hysteretic behaviour. Another approach
CALTRANS protocol, but may not perform very well may be to use an elastomeric isolator link element,
when subjected to an actual earthquake. It is however additional modelling trials are needed to
recommended to establish an extended test verify which approach gives the best results.
protocol for seismic testing of expansion joints,
Future research and testing on this topic would be
with erratic, non-sinusoidal movements. Such a
of interest to the bridge engineering community
test protocol should consider the expected
where different modular expansion joint types with
conditions of the region where the expansion joint
different operating principles could be tested and
will be installed. Performance of the expansion
compared. The comparison here would be to
joint under these conditions should be specified by
characterize how each of these expansion joints
the bridge engineer or owner, and demonstrated
behave under strong ground motions, and to
by the expansion joint supplier through prototype
define a proper type-specific model that could be
testing.
used during bridge structural analyses.
As for the MEJ itself, only very minor damage was
observed on a few secondary components for this 5 Acknowledgment
specific test specimen, demonstrating a very good
performance even at very high peak forces. All tests, data processing and reporting was
However, peak forces and sudden motion direction performed by SISMALAB (Shanghai) testing and
change may become an issue for the connecting materials research laboratory.
structural components in general, if the expansion All input ground motions were obtained from the
joint has a complex rigid mechanical gap control PEER ground motion database developed by the
system instead of an elastic spring-based gap University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA.
control system. This is due to the possibility of
sudden locking which would likely result in direct 6 References
damage to the expansion joint components.
[1] American Association of State Highway and
The observed hysteretic behaviour of the specimen Transportation Officials. AASHTO LRFD
showed that it could contribute to the overall Bridge Construction Specifications. 2017;
dynamic behaviour of a bridge, where it is a Washington, DC, USA.
combination of elastomeric and friction effects.
The contribution ratio of these two behaviours was [2] European Organisation for Technical
not studied, however it may be the subject of Approvals. ETAG N° 032 – guideline for
future research. It is also worth mentioning that by European Technical Approval of expansion
introducing rubber springs made from high joints for road bridges - Part 8: Modular
damping rubber compounds, such expansion joints Expansion Joints. 2013; Brussels, Belgium.
could add a significant amount of damping that can [3] CALTRANS (California Dept. of
be beneficial to the structure if it is properly Transportation). CALTRANS Seismic Design
modelled and accounted for. Criteria – Version 1.7. 2013; California, USA.
Regarding structural modelling, the energy [4] Pacific Earthquake Engineering Research
dissipation and stiffness from this type of Center (PEER) ground motion database;
expansion joint becomes rather significant when University of California, Berkeley, USA.
considering the large allowable movements. This is
a displacement dependent device that can be
198
Advanced bridge pot bearing technologies with a special focus on

railway applications
Pascal Savioz & Max Brüninghold
Mageba, Switzerland
Abstract
Requirements on Railway bridge bearings are challenging, as pre-mature failures all over the world
show. This paper discusses such challenges and presents several new technologies that increase the
life-time of the bearings and thus, minimize the life-cycle cost, and improve safety.
Keywords: bridge bearings, railway, advanced materials
1 Introduction discussed due to their increased importance during
decision-making for bearings.
Bridge bearings are considered as some of the most
critical components of bridges. Since first 2 High-performance pot bearing
introduction for railway bridges in the 19th
century, relatively simple steel bearings have been sealing chain
used for decades. A further generation of bearings Under vertical load from the superstructure, the
with inclusion of rubber and sliding elements was elastomeric pads in pot bearings, being confined by
introduced in the 1960ies by German engineer Fritz the internal walls of the pot, become semi-viscous
Leonhardt. However, ever-increasing demands in and would be extruded from the pot if not
bridge construction over the recent decades led prevented from doing so by an effective sealing
into requirements that went beyond the limits of system. Earlier generation pot bearings would use
the second-generation bearings. In particular stainless steel or brass ring seals. After several
railway applications have been in the forefront of years in service, it can be observed that such seal
new developments. From high-speed railway to types fail due to abrasion under excessive cyclic
light-weight railways such as MRT (Mass Rapid rotations. As a consequence, the rubber would
Transit), requirements on the bearings regarding extrude, and the bearing cannot fulfil their function
precision, movement and rotation capability, load of vertical load transfer and rotation.
transfer capability, durability and cost
effectiveness are constantly pushed. This makes A type of sealing that has shown particularly
Railways a showcase for new bearings abrasive resistant and durable even under very
technologies. Researchers and manufacturers have frequent rotation is the POM (Polyoxymethylene)
replied to this need with further development of sealing chain. This POM seal chain is vulcanized into
bearing technologies and standards. the rubber pad and adapts entirely to the steel pot
under vertical load. A new high-performance (HP)
This paper presents new pot bearing technologies, POM material was recently developed and tested
in particular in view or Railways applications. Such to accommodate a much higher vertical design load
new technologies include new generations of (fd=92 N/mm2 compared to fd=46.2 N/mm2 as per
rubber pad seals, improved sliding materials, EN1337-5; resulting in smaller and thus, more cost-
height-adjustment technology to compensate for effective bearings), as well as to work under a
settlements, uplift prevention capabilities, and bigger accumulated sliding part (3,200m compared
integrated structural health monitoring to ensure a to 2,000m as per EN1337-5; resulting in less
minimized life-cycle cost. Next to technical abrasion and thus, longer life-time).
considerations, economical aspects are also
199
3 High-grade sliding material whole procedure only takes a few minutes and can
be done under traffic, giving this technology a
Railway bridges, often steel truss bridges, have significant cost-advantage over traditional height-
often bigger and more frequent movements at the adjustment methods.
bearings compared to Road bridges. Next to
accommodating daily and seasonal temperature 5 Up-lift prevention
movements, Railway bridge bearings are subject to
micro-movements from vibration. This results in a A negative vertical load, or an up-lift force, may
high accumulated sliding path which can pass occur on bridges due to several reasons, such as
several kilometres per year. Traditionally, PTFE during construction phase, by the bridge geometry,
(Polytetrafluoroethylene) is used as the bearings’ unfavourable load combinations, traffic,
sliding material. However, PTFE shows significant earthquakes, accidents etc. Many up-lift forces
abrasion after several kilometres in use, which calls occur unfrequently, and up-lift can be prevented by
for frequent replacement or, if not done, failure of relatively simple measures. However, notably MRT
the bearings. bridges are often subject to frequent up-lift forces
due to curved geometries. In such case, the
A better alternative to PTFE is UHMWPE (Ultra-
bearings need to be specially designed to fully
high-molecular-weight polyethylene). Similar to
block any vertical upward movement, which means
the HP POM seal, UHMWPE is superior to PTFE for
that absolutely no gap is allowed at the up-lift
both, load bearing capacity (fd=128.6 N/mm2
claws. This, in turn, means that there needs to be a
compared to fd=64.3 N/mm2 for PTFE as per
sliding material between the up-lift claw and its
EN1337-5; resulting in smaller and thus, more cost-
counterpart, to still allow rotation and/or
effective bearings) and abrasion resistance
movement. Further, to guarantee no gap, the up-
(virtually no wear observed after 50km of
lift preventing part of the bearing needs to be pre-
accumulated sliding testing, compared to
stressed. Both, design and manufacturing of such
significant abrasion observed on PTFE after 10km
bearings need the expertise from an experienced
of accumulated sliding testing as per EN1337-2).
bearing supplier.
4 Height-adjustment technology 6 Making bearings “smart”

A phenomenon often observed on Railway bridges
Being structural components, failing bearings may
are ground settlements. While this is not very
put the safety of the bridge at risk. There may be
critical for Road bridges, the rail tracks on Railway
several reasons for failure, such as the challenges
bridges have only a very small tolerance for height
mentioned in the previous chapters. But also
difference, in particular for high-speed railways. If
unexpected or new load conditions may occur at
such difference falls beyond the tolerance, either
the bearings, which is in particular the case for old
the bearings or the rails need to be shimmed,
Railway bridges that were designed to a different
which is costly and causes traffic interruption.
standard than applies today. Thus, an under-
A better alternative is to use lift-control pot standing of actual load, movement and rotation
bearings. The pot bearings are prepared with condition at the bearing, as well as of the structural
injection tools at the bottom of the pot. When a health condition of the bearings are crucial.
height-adjustment is needed, a silicone material is
In order to improve safety, as well as to minimize
injected underneath the elastomeric rubber pad.
costly inspection and maintenance, it is beneficial
The HP POM sealing chain prevents the liquid
to equip the bearings with an automated
silicone material from extruding before it hardens
monitoring system. This turns a simple bearing into
after a few hours, to gain a similar material
a “smart bearing” that alerts the bridge operator to
behaviour as the elastomeric pas itself. The height
take action specifically when it is needed.
can be adjusted by from a few millimetres to
several centimetres. If needed (and planned for),
the height can be adjusted several times. The
200
Replacement of bridge expansion joints: challenges and solutions
Pascal Savioz
Mageba, Shanghai, China
Abstract
A bridge’s expansion joints will almost certainly have to be replaced several times during the course
of the bridge’s life, often causing great disruption to traffic and significant expense to the owner –
impacts which should, of course, be minimised. The choice of expansion joint selected to replace an
old joint strongly influences the expense and disruption caused by replacement works, not only for
the current replacement project but also for the next one in the future. Therefore, the way in which
joint replacement works are to be carried out, and in particular the type of joint to be used, warrants
careful consideration by the responsible engineers.
Keywords: expansion joint, replacement, life cycle cost
1 Introduction 2 Criteria to be considered when
Expansion joints have normally a shorter life-time replacing expansion joints
than the bridges themselves and thus, need to be
replaced once or several times during the bridge When the time comes to replace an expansion
structure’s life. Such replacement is costly, because joint, a solution is required which not only
expansion joints are located at the road surface minimises disruption to traffic and total effort and
and extend across the full width of the bridge. In expense, but also fulfils any other relevant
addition to direct replacement cost for materials objectives. For instance, it is generally desirable to
and work, there are other indirect cost incurred, minimise the amount of deck structure which must
mainly due to traffic and safety management, and be broken out, in order to avoid unnecessary
mostly inevitable traffic congestion. In order to weakening of an otherwise sound structure and to
reduce the total life-cycle cost, it is therefore minimise noise and dust pollution during the work
desirable to choose expansion joint solutions that (as well, of course, as contributing to reduced
are long lasting and allow quick replacement. At effort, expense and traffic disruption). Further,
the same time, when replacing expansion joints, it replacement methods shall allow for maximum
should always be considered to improve the safety during the works. And the opportunity
performance or functionality of the joint at the should always be taken to consider ways of
same time (for example by reducing noise improving the performance or functionality of the
emissions). joint – for instance, by reducing the noise caused
by traffic crossing the joint. Of course, the normal
This paper discusses several challenges of bridge functionalities of high-quality expansion joints,
expansion joints replacements, along with most such as the watertightness required to prevent
cost-effective solutions by today’s available deterioration of the bridge structure beneath,
technologies for small, medium as well as large must always by ensured.
movement joints. These solutions are illustrated
with small case studies.
201
3 Case 1 – small movement joint concrete break-out work. Further, sinus plates
mounted onto the joint reduce the noise emission
An old mat joint combined with an asphaltic plug by up to 80%.
joint on the Henry Hudson Parkway in Manhattan,
New York (USA) was damaged, and steel parts
protruding into the carriageway were a major
safety concern to the >120,000 vehicles passing
each day.
The owner has decided to replace this old joint with
a Polyurethane-based flexible plug joint. This
technology is more cold and hot temperature-
resistant, and thus, more durable than asphaltic
plug joints. Generally, it is maintenance-free. Figure 2. Noise-reducing and low-height anchored
Replacement was made lane-by-lane in two stages, expansion joint during installation (bottom) and
where each stage took to night-shifts to keep traffic old mat joint (top)
flowing during the day-time.
5 Case 3 – large movement joint

The swivel-type 11 cell modular expansion joints on
the Howrah side of the 2nd Hoogly Bridge, Kolkata
(India) had center beams bent and broken after
only 10 years in service. It became an emergency
for the bridge owner to replace the joint as early as
possible to avoid traffic accidents.
In order to keep traffic flow as little interrupted as
possible, the owner has decided for an expansion
Figure 1. Polyurethane-based flexible plug joint with a “quick-ex” replacement method. This
expansion joint installed in two stages (left side) quick-ex method only replaces most fatigue loaded
and old expansion joint to be replaced (right side) parts (center and support beams), while less
fatigue-prone parts in concrete are re-used (less
4 Case 2 – medium movement joint cost, no damage to bridge structure, less
disturbance of traffic, less noise emission). The
Mat joints needed to be replaced on the Bad joint’s substructure is replaced lane-by-lane,
Säckingen Rhine Bridge, which is an important whereas the center beams are put in place as one
commuting link between Germany and whole package over the full width of the carriage-
Switzerland. The damaged mat joints were leaking way.
water, which caused consequential damage
underneath the bridge. Replacement time needed
to be short with a minimum impact on commuting
traffic. Further, the replacement of the joint as well
as the new installed joints were requested to emit
as little noise as possible due to a close-by
residential area.
The chosen new joint was a noise-reducing
expansion joint that is anchored with a polymer
concrete at the asphalt layer height only. Thus, only
removal of the asphaltic layer was needed, which
saved time (thus cost) and did not need noisy Figure 3. Quick-ex replacement method for a
modular expansion joint
202
Construction of 90m multi-span viaducts with span by span

construction method – a new possibility in bridge engineering
Pedro Pacheco*, Hugo Coelho*, Pedro Borges*, Diogo Carvalho*
* BERD, PORTUGAL
** BERD and FEUP (Faculty of Engineering of Porto University), PORTUGAL
Contact: pedro.pacheco@berd.eu
Abstract
This paper describes the background of the long-term R&D project which brought out the first
application of a Large Movable Scaffolding System (LMSS) for the construction of a multi-span
viaduct with successive spans ranging up to 90m long in Ankara region, Turkey. This is the first LMSS
for multi-spans above 78 m spans ever applied worldwide. After mentioning the historical
background and precedent state of art, this paper presents the main identified technical challenges
and how they were overcome. The first application is briefly described, allowing defining its impact
on present state of art. Finally, conclusions are drawn where it is verified that there are now more
possibilities to erect multi-span viaducts, including with span-by-span in situ construction, which
represent very significant reduction on materials consumption when compared with other
construction methods.
Keywords: Bridge Engineering; Constructive Methods; In situ Construction; Organic Prestressing;
Nevertheless, sometimes the “best decision” may

1 Introduction just not be available due to technologic limits, as
It is known that each construction method has its per the “current” state of art. In this paper, after a
own merits and, most probably, each method has short presentation of the state of art on
a preferred field of application. Surely the “best” prestressed concrete deck construction methods
decision should be taken in a case-by-case basis. and its opportunities, a long-term R&D project to
The adoption of a construction method is part of a develop new technology in one of these
“triangular decision” of conceptual design, which construction methods - in situ span by span - is
always comprises Structural System (& Cross presented. Following the description of the
Section) – Material – Constructive Method. During involved technological challenges, the impact on
the selection of Constructive Method, several well- the “updated” state of art is summarized.
known factors and conditions are to be considered
in each case. Among these factors, there are four 2 State of Art
that have a systematic importance for the adoption
In late XX century and still in the beginning of XXI
of any solution: Technical Validation, Cost, Time
century, for the span-range 60 to 80 m, there were
and Durability. Additionally, one can consider a
4 main prestressed concrete deck construction
fifth remaining issue which always has a major
methods which were available in the global bridge
influence in any decision process: the know-how
construction state of art for multi-span decks [1],
and the experience of the constructor.
[2], [3], [4].
203
As per Figures 1 to 4, the most common very recently still 30 to 70 m. In the seventies, there
prestressed concrete methods for this span range was a unique experience with multi-spans of 78 m
were (1) in situ cantilever method; (2) precast and 2 single isolated spans of 106 m: the
cantilever method; (3) in situ, span by span and (4) construction of Ahrtal viaduct – see Figure 3 [2].
precast integer (full span) segments. Eventually, a The weight of the movable scaffolding system was
fifth method could be added: – incremental near from 2200 ton [3]. Ahrtal viaduct was until
launching – but, indeed, for the mentioned span very recently the longest span (78 m) known so far
range, it was and it still is not a common adopted in multi-span construction. Within multi-span
method. definition, a single isolated span is not considered,
as the technical needs and the technical approach
is different for isolated spans (including, of course,
safety specifications).
By the end of the XX century/ beginning of the XXI
century the state of art, in terms of methods-
versus-span ranges could be in simplified in terms
Figure 1. Vila Flor Viaduct – In Situ Cantilever represented as per the adapted table in figure 5 [4].
Construction The qualitative advantages of each one of the 4
mentioned methods may be reasonably considered
as per Table 1. In fact, analysing Table 1 it is
possible to conclude that, with exception of the
items “Technical Validation” and the “Common
Span Limit”, the “Method PC Cast in Situ, Span by
Span (MSS)”, should be a relevant possible Solution
for multi-span decks erection. But to achieve that,
there was a Problem to be solved.
After the experience in Ahrtal Viaduct it is not
known, worldwide, any other application for multi-
spans above 72 m. Meaning that the Ahrtal
Figure 2. Rio-Niteroi Bridge- Cantilever Precast
experience with 78 m multi-spans was an isolated
segmental construction [4]
case (with impact on the State of Art presented in
Figure 5.). Most probably that is related with the
cost evaluation of this solution: indeed, according
to published data and considering the bridge
design and the equipment depreciation, the cost of
mentioned solution was relatively high when
Figure 3. Ahrtal Viaduct– In Situ Span-by Span compared with other mentioned methods [2].
Construction [5]
The main problem to be solved was then to develop
a feasible solution to enable the span by span in
situ construction, for multi-span viaducts, above
the previous limit of 78 m without conditioning the
bridge design due to the weight of the MSS and
with adequate performance in terms of Service
requirements and safety needs. The opportunity to
solve this problem was already identified in 2007
Figure 4. Vasco da Gama Bridge -Precast Integer after the application with success of the organic
Segment Construction [4] prestressing technology to movable scaffolding
In what relates to cast in situ span by span systems [6]. To achieve that, some technical
construction, the most common span range was
204
Challenges had to be overcome as suggested in

previous publication [7].
<--- wide range of freq. multi-span viaducts --->
<--more common multi-span viaducts--> SPANS (m)
METHOD / TYPE OF BRIDGE < 30 30-40 40-50 50-60 60-70 70-80 80-100 100-120 120-150 150-300 300-500 500-900 900-1100 > 1100
Prestressed Concrete (PC) - Ground Scaffolding
PC Precast Beams
PC Span by Span Precast Segments
PC Incremental launching
PC Precast full segments (box girders)
PC Cast in Situ, Span by Span (MSS)
Continuous Composite/Steel Girders/Trusses-diverse meth.
PC Cantilever Method - Precast segments (Launching Gantry)
PC Cantilever Method - Precast segments - lifting
PC Cantilever Method (cast in situ)
Concrete Arch Bridges
Composite Arch Bridges
Steel Free Cantiliver
Steel Arch Bridges
Cable stayed bridges
Suspended bridges
Very Common solution

Medium/ Low frequency solution
Rare Solution
Figure 5- Span ranges for the most common Constructive Methods/ Bridge Types in the beginning of the XXI
century – adapted from [4]
Table 1. Qualitative evaluation of Deck Construction Methods [4]
Common Technical
Constructive Method Span Validation Cost Time Durability
Limits ( > 70 m)
Prestressed Concrete (PC) - Ground Scaffolding 40-50 m B-C C C A
PC Precast Beams 40-50 m C A A A-B
PC Span by Span Precast Segments 50 m C* A-B A A-B
PC Incremental launching 70 m C* A-B A-B A
PC Precast full segments (box girders) 70 m C* A-B A A
PC Cast in Situ, Span by Span (MSS) 70 m C* A A-B A
Continuous Composite or Steel Girders / Trusses (diverse methods) >100 A B-C A-B A-B-C
PC Cantilever Method - Precast segments (Launching Gantry) >100 A B-C B A-B
PC Cantilever Method - Precast segments – lifting >100 A B-C B-C A-B
PC Cantilever Method – In situ >100 A B-C C A
Legend: A-Good; B–acceptable; C–critical; *-with identified potential progress
205
As mentioned before, OPS is nothing more than an

3 Main Technical Challenges of LMSS active control prestressing system aiming to reduce
A few years ago, before the last stage of the Large deformations and/or stresses due to live loading
Movable Scaffolding Systems (LMSS) R&D project, [10]. It is a simple and feasible technology,
there were 3 main identified reasons why (LMSS), reflecting a simple concept.
i.e., movable scaffolding systems for the range 70m To understand how it works, nothing better than
to 100m, (with the exception previously mentioned referring to the control algorithm. During the
[3]) were not used [7]: concrete pouring operation, the OPS loading mode
• Excessive Deflections is “on”. Every time that a predefined value of mid-
span deflection is measured and reached, the
• Excessive Weight of Equipment controller gives an order to the hydraulic jack (in
• Doubts on the Wind Stability of large spans MSS the organic anchorage) to increase the prestressing
level, thus reducing/compensating such mid-span
Other possible reasons could be identified, as
deflection. Such functioning can be better
productivity and construction time, logistics,
understood in Figure 6, where the mid-span
concrete pouring control (due to duration and
deflection of LMSS is controlled with OPS
volume of pouring operations), or off-shore
technology [7], [10].
restrictions, but surely reasonable solutions to
overcome then could be developed, if the former In Figure 6 it can be observed both the mid-span
were previously solved. deflection (left vertical axis) and the OPS hydraulic
jack stroke (right vertical axis) during
Thus, overcoming the mentioned 3 challenges
approximately the last 4 hours of a concrete
would be synonym of solving the identified
pouring operation for a 70m span bridge (Rio
Problem to be Solved.
Cabriel, Spain). The maximum mid-span deflection
(neglecting vibrations) is about 25 mm. As the span
3.1 Excessive deflections in former MSS of the bridge is 70 m, that give us an approximate
technology for 70 to 100 m span mid span deflection of L/3000 [7]. The control
The deflection of an MSS is one of its main algorithm is quite simple [6].
operational characteristics. Recently, the larger (mm) (mm)
span MSS (60 to 70m span) were characterized by
mid-span deflections (during concrete pouring
operation), which were near the limits of
commonly acceptable operational values (L/400).
And it was known that for larger spans, such limit
would be overcome. Indeed, the common values of
mid-span deflections (D) during concrete pouring
operation, for most common MSS were within the
range L/400 < D < L/600. For the span range 70m <
L < 100m, that would represent absolute values Figure 6. Record of Mid-Span Deflection during a
within the interval 110 mm < D < 250 mm [8), [9]. concrete pouring operation in a LMSS
According to previous studies, for LMSS, good strengthened with OPS technology [7]
results would be achieved if the mid-span In the particular case of underslung MSS
deflection limit were bellow L/1000 [7]. strengthened with OPS technology, as described in
Thus, to reasonably increase the MSS span range, previous publications [11], that value may be
new technologies were to be developed and, in reduced to L/10.000 or even less.
that concern, Organic Prestressing System (OPS) is In all MSS and LMSS applications with OPS
to play a relevant role. technology, maximum mid-span deflections
observed are always about L/ 2000 and in some
206
cases, much less. Meaning that the technological OPS is applied, a very important compensation of
need of mid span deflections bellow L/1000 is flexural moments is achieved
clearly overcome.
Several studies published before [6], [7], [10] allow
This OPS technology´s characteristic, if not the concluding that for conventional MSS span ranges
most, is certainly amongst the most important OPS (until 70 m span) that weight reduction may be
features and contributions. Indeed, it enables to above 30%. And that relative difference increases
significantly increase the LMSS spans, within with the span length. For large spans (70m to
adequate limits of deflection. 100m) that comparison is not possible as
conventional MSS for multi-spans larger than 78 m
3.2 Excessive Weight of former MSS are not known by the authors.
technology for 70 to 100 m span MSS weigth (ton)
Related with the previous issue, the weight of a 2500
former MSS technology unit, may be strongly 2000

conditioned by its deformation limit requirements. Conventional MSS Weight
Meaning, that with conventional technology, to 1500
reduce deformations, severe levels of MSS weight 1000

could be necessary, as verified in the Ahrtal LMSS (with OPS)
MSS Neutral Weight

experience. 500
The weight of an MSS may have impact on the deck 0

40 50 60 70 80 90 100
(m)
110
design and also on the piers design. Additionally, it
is known that the design of the deck may Figure 7. MSS Weight (with and without OPS)/ Span
significantly depend on the constructive joint relation – versus – MSS Neutral Weigh (adapted from
location (eventually between at L/4 or L/5 from the [4])
pier). Associated with this issue it is also relevant Let us consider previous Figure 7 and let us
the location of MSS back support (typically on the consider a simplified projection of OPS-LMSS
deck cantilever). weights. Again, it is to be clear that this exercise is
Let us refer Figure 7, where the records of the simplified and no exact values are to be
weight of 23 different conventional MSS are established, but also again it allows to bring clear
indicated and where a linear approximation of MSS general important conclusions.
conventional weight is drawn. Very simplified Analyzing Figure 7, it is possible to observe that the
previous studies, which equalize the deck flexural point of interception between the “MSS Neutral
moment over the “last” pier with deck, for the weight” and the “LMSS weight (with OPS)” lines is
maximum constructive loading scenario and for clearly above the former 65 m and approximately
bridge service loading (the same pier with the near from 105 m.
complete deck), allow to obtain grossly
approximate values of what would be It should be understood, that even, for example,
approximately a neutral weight for the deck design for 100 m spans, the cast in situ span-by-span
adapted from (Pacheco et al. 2011). Figure 7 construction is to be still a competitive solution, if
includes a simplified indicative linear projection of the MSS is not conditioning to the deck design.
“MSS neutral Weight”. What results from presented curves is that the
constructive method was conditioning for the deck
A similar exercise as in the previous point may be design for former MSS technology.
done to understand the reduction of equipment
weight that OPS technology enables. Presently there is an application of a LMSS with OPS
for 90 m span (presented later). This equipment
Of course, the static effect of organic prestressing traveling mass weight is about 1250 ton, which
is nothing different from the static effect of reasonably accomplishes predicted “LMSS (with
conventional prestressing. Meaning that, when OPS)” line.
207
This technological former restriction on MSS This was verified in an experience in a viaduct
weights is also overcome. construction in Spain in 2010 [14].
This issue is another fundamental point that
3.3 Former Doubts on Stability LMSS with needed further research in order to validate LMSS
Wind effect technology.
The study of wind action and wind effects in MSS To overcome any doubts on wind effect
involves some particularities where importance assessment on LMSS, additional research is being
increases in the particular case of LMSS. developed following previous preliminary studies
In both cases, for MSS and LMSS, wind effects are on critical issues related to wind action on LMSS. It
substantially different in launching operation is also important to understand that the wind
stages and in equipment stationary stages. This effects on LMSS - either the static, and/or dynamic
results from: (1) the duration of the ones - are to be evaluated in a probabilistic basis,
stages/operations and adequate return period; (2) as the wind forces and their effects on the LMSS
common predicted limitations in the MSS structure cannot be formulated on definite
Operational Manuals and (3) due to changing in mathematical functions of time. [12].
support conditions, changing in span distribution, At present, a robust methodology to overcome this
changing in mass values and in mass distribution issue comprises a set of 6 measures, which are to
and, finally, (4) the evolution on MSS location over be implemented together;
the structure, during the equipment launching
stage [12]. - Previous studies on local (near the site) wind
actions are to be obligatory;
The wind actions on this type of equipment are not - The wind velocities are to be carefully
included in known wind action codes, then it is chosen by the LMSS designer in order to
necessary to create specific rules and criteria for obtain sufficiently small probabilities of
this type of structure, with, as explained before, occurrence, ensuring a safe operation of the
very particular characteristics. Nevertheless, in the LMSS and without causing excessive
operational restrictions;
particular case of MSS, there is specific and useful
- During the Conceptual design of LMSS,
bibliography (almost with normative significance) measures are to be taken in order to ensure
that treats this disparity between situations, using adequate natural frequencies, in particular
different wind velocities for each situation [13]. in maximum cantilever configuration during
LMSS launching operation;
But, previous studies [7] show that natural
- To develop the Operational Manual by
frequencies of MSS during launching stage, as Versions, upgraded in first launching
expectable, decrease as the span increases. operations: with incremental operational
Although such operation is to be conditioned by wind velocities limits;
actual wind speed measured during the operation, - Continuous monitoring of wind action is to
if natural frequencies are too low, there is not an be always applied (already common);
adequate domain of involved phenomena. This fact - In first types of each LMSS, monitoring of
induces doubts on the applicability of previous structural response are to be implemented.
knowledge to the study of stability of LMSS with Present strategy is already being implemented in a
wind effect. 90m span LMSS. This strategy is a robust solution
Indeed, if in LMSS natural frequencies are below to overcome the previous technological/ scientific
the former typical values of natural frequencies for and normative need for assessment on wind
MSS [7], as dynamic phenomena may occur, effects on LMSS.
additional research is to be developed for LMSS.
208
Figure 8. MSS for spans up to 45 m (Zilina, Czeck Czech Rep.)
Figure 9. MSS for spans up to 70 m (Nitra, Slovakia)
Figure 10. First Large Movable Scaffolding System (LMSS) for 90 m multi-span (Turkey, Kayas-Yerkoy -High
Speed Railway Line)
209
Large Bridges, CRC Press – Taylor & Francis

4 Conclusions Group; 2015,103-124.
Most probably, OPS technology is still in its very [5] Beton und StahlBetonBau, 4, 1978, (in
early days, but so far and surely, the OPS German).
technology has already brought new limits to the in
situ, span-by-span construction method. In [6] Pacheco, P., Guerra, A., Borges, P., Coelho,
particular, it is now possible to increase in situ H., “A scaffolding system strengthened with
span-by-span methods span range up to 100 m organic prestressing – the first of a new
span. The first application for 90 m span is already generation of structures”, Structural
ongoing (under construction). Several other Engineering International, Vol. 17, Number
projects (still in design stage) are already being 4, November 2007, pp. 314-321(8), 2007.
developed worldwide within the new span range [7] Pacheco, P., Guerra, A., Borges, P., Coelho,
limits given by the OPS impact. H., Technical Challenges of Large Movable
In Figures 8, 9 and 10, three MSS are presented in Scaffolding Systems, Structural Engineering
an increasing span scale. In Figure 10, a LMSS for 90 International, Vol. 4, 2011, pp. 450-455.
m multi-span is presented, the largest multi-span [8] Afonso, B., Mobile Equipment for Bridge
LMSS applied so far worldwide. Construction, MSc Thesis, IST, Lisbon, 2007,
Certainly, there are now less restrictions for (in Portuguese).
decisions makers, and most probably, in several [9] Vasques de Carvalho, D., “Study of the
cases, this span range increase will contribute for Presstressing application Stage in Decks
the adoption of more rational and competitive Constructed in Situ Span by Span: the
solutions in several cases, when such method is the deflections effect”, MSc Thesis, FEUP, 2008,
most adequate. (in Portuguese).
In the end, mainly, this represents another degree [10] Pacheco, P.; Adao da Fonseca, A. Organic
of freedom for bridge designers, for constructors Prestressing, Journal of Structural
and for project owners. Now it is possible to adopt Engineering, ASCE, 2002, pp.400-405.
PC Cast in Situ, Span by Span (MSS) in multi-span
viaducts for the span range 80-100 m. [11] Pacheco, P., Coelho, H., Resende, A., 2014,
Achieving high productivity in bridge
The authors are deeply studying this first 90m LMSS construction – the organic prestressing
application that should be object of a case-study impact, in 9th International Conference on
publication in the near future. SMSB, Calgary, Alberta, Canada, July 2014
[12] Resende, A., Coelho, H., Pacheco, P.,
5 References Preliminary Assessment of Wind Actions in
[1] Mathivat, J., The cantilever construction of large span MSS, Multi-Span Large Bridges,
prestressed concrete bridges, 1st Spanish CRC Press – Taylor & Francis Group;
edition, EDT, S. A., Barcelona, 1980. 2015,103-124.
[2] Matt, Peter, Status of Segmental Bridge [13] SEOPAN – Comisión Tecnológica. 2007.
Construction in Europe, PCI Journal, May- Manual de diseño y uso de cimbras
June 1983, 105- 125. autolanzables. Confederacion, Nacional de la
Construccion (CNC).
[3] Majewsky, L., Das Vorschubgerust fur die
Ahrtalbrucke, Der Bauinginieur, Springer [14] Valter, Company Vásquez, J., Domínguez
Verlag, 1976, 25-28 (in German). Santana, B., Viaducto Río Cabriel - Análisis
Dinámico Pilas, Report, Number
[4] Pacheco, P., Multi Span Large Decks – the
074.08.P23/IN-005.2, PAVASAL, Valencia,
organic prestressing impact, in Multi-Span
February 2009.
210
HYDRID LAUNCHING GANTRY FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF SPAN-BY-

SPAN PRECAST SEGMENTAL BRIDGE
Ir. Ooi Shu Tat
HCR Bridge Machinery (M) Sdn. Bhd.
Contact: st.ooi@hcrailway.com
Abstract
Unlike balance cantilever construction of precast segmental bridge, span-by-span construction
method requires temporary shoring to support the segments before they are fully post-tensioned
to a self-sustained structure. In most cases launching gantries are being used for the purpose.
Launching gantries are custom made equipment fabricated according to the design requirements to
overcome various site restrictions. They are made to contractor’s preferences and other special
specification pertinent to the specific site requirements within the budgeted cost. It can be an
overhead type or an under-slung type with respective advantages and dis-advantages. In Package-
A of Kelana-Jaya Line Extension project for Light Rail Transit System (LRT) in Kuala Lumpur, a set of
requirements was set by the bridge designer. With these limitations, both the conventional over-
head and under-slung types were not feasible to be used. A new Hybrid Launching Gantry was
therefore developed to handle the precast concrete segments for the elevated bridge structure of
the project. Five hybrid launching gantries were successfully used to install span-by span bridges for
this Package-A. These new launching gantries were supported on the brackets, secured directly to
the sides of piers. Instead of having the main truss under the precast segments as in the under-slung
launching gantry case, the main truss was designed to stay above the precast segments to gain the
advantages of an over-head launching gantry system. This innovative design has several distinctive
advantages over other conventional type of launching gantries. This paper presents the design and
development processes to meet the project requirements, complete with descriptions of technical
detail of this unique equipment. The challenges of fabrication and installation are also highlighted.
Keywords: Segmental bridge construction, Launching Gantry, Launching, Span-by-span,
Figure 0: Hybrid Launching Gantry used in LRT Kelana-Jaya Line Extension Project Package-A
211
1 Introduction 2 Launching Gantry Systems

Span-by-span method with launching gantries was
The Light Rail Transit System (LRT) in Kuala Lumpur,
adopted to install the precast concrete segmental
consisted of two main lines - the Kelana Jaya Line
bridge. The major consideration affecting the
and Ampang Line has been in commission since
launcher design was the restriction on the
1998. Package-A of Extension work to the Kelana-
construction loads. Those loads were not allowed
Jaya Line had started in late February 2012 and was
to be deviated from the centre of the pier.
completed in 2015. This Package-A has a total
Overhead launching gantry method which
elevated track length of 17 km that links Kelana-
requiring offset supports during launching stages
Jaya to Putra Height over densely populated
was ruled out.
commercial and residential areas with 13 stations.
(Figure 1).
2.1 Original Specification
The elevated concrete structures were constructed
Under-slung launching gantry system was
of precast segmental box girders of typical span of
successfully used in the construction of the existing
36m, supported on in-situ concrete piers below
Kelana Jaya Line and Putra LRT (Figure 2). This
25m in height. The full span bridge girder measures
method was therefore used as the reference for
36m x 7m x 2.0m and weighs 420 metric tons,
the design of the new LRT Kelana-Jaya Line
assembled from 13 pieces of precast segments.
Extension Package A and B. The under-slung
Each precast segment measures 3m x 7.7m x 2.0m
launching gantry has a support system that
weighs 40 metric tons. The main alignment was
positioned concentrically on top of the pier. With
made predominantly straight, but curve and
this arrangement the construction loads from the
transition stretches were unavoidable in any such
launching gantries will always be channelled to the
track structure.
centre of the pier.
For crossing over the existing highway longer span
were required. At this location Balance Cantilever
Bridge were used as the solution. There were 9
Balance Cantilever Bridge in this Package-A with
the minimum span length 65m and maximum span
length up to 100m.
Figure 2: Under-slung launching gantry used during the

construction of Putra-LRT
2.2 Over-Head vs Under-Slung Launching

Gantry
Under-slung launching gantry system essentially
comprises of a pair of main girders supported on
Figure 1: Package A of Kelana-Jaya LRT Extension brackets attached to concrete pier (Figure 3). This
system has several distinctive fundamental
differences compared to over-head launching
212
gantry system. The main difference is that the i. There were several locations that the
former has brackets that clamped on pier or bridge girders crossing existing flyovers.
shoring supported directly from the pile cap as the Precast segments were to be delivered
main support system; whereas the latter has from the rear side over the top of the
support system above the pier and on the completed bridge; under-slung launching
completed bridge deck. gantry system will have difficulty to
perform rear delivery of the segments
With supporting brackets positioned symmetrically
ii. There were 29 types of piers, the
to sides of the pier as the main support the under-
dimension variations have hindered the
slung launching gantry always channel their
under-slung solution due to the limited
construction loads directly to the centre of the pier.
flexibility of the system. It would not be
economical to fabricate a flexible
mechanism to accommodate all variations
iii. Under-slung launching gantry is not
suitable for installing bridge segment with
small curvature. However there were
solution for the Under-Slung Launching
Gantry to handle small curvature bridges.
This solution required the Main Truss to
have an articulated design. The articulated
Main Truss will be able to avoid the bridges
that it already installed and to prevent
Figure 3: Components of under-slung launching gantry
crushing with the pier in the self-advancing
system supported on brackets
process. But this articulated system creates
The over-head launching gantry system on the limitation to the launching and the hoisting
other hand has different support arrangements. system. The mention limitation was
The front supports sit eccentrically on top of the affecting the overall speed and safety of
pier and the rear supports sit on top of the the Launching Gantry operation
completed bridge deck, with some offset distances iv. There were incidence during the
from the centre of the pier supporting the bridge construction of Putra-LRT 14 years ago
segments (Figure 4). Thus this over-head launching using under-slung system caused by the
gantry system does not fulfil the requirements of loosening of friction between the overhead
the design specification. cranes and its runway. The contractor want
to have a safer method that does not
repeating the same problems
3 The New Hybrid Launching Gantry

System
Having acknowledged the technical problems and
Figure 4: Over-Head Launching Gantry with Front limitations of both gantry systems, the challenge
Support sitting eccentrically on top of the Pier and Rear was to design a new support system using over-
Support sit eccentrically on the completed Bridge head launching gantry which can fulfil the
requirements of the bridge designer; to have all
construction loads supported at the centre of the
In the evaluation process over the two systems, pier.
several construction issues were brought up and
addressed by the main contractor. Over-head
launching gantry system was favoured with the
following considerations:
213
3.1 Support System 3.2 The Bracket Clamping System

The use of steel brackets secured on the pier to There are 3 commonly used methods to secure the
support the launching gantries has been supporting brackets:
successfully applied in many projects and
i. provide shoring directly from the pile cap
established as the practical mean for the purpose.
ii. hang from the top of the pier head
This support system will facilitate all construction
iii. support on sides of pier
loads to be channelled to the centre of the pier in
the longitudinal alignment. The use of brackets is Supporting the bracket with shoring all the way
unavoidable in this case. from the pile cap provided the best solution
technically (Figure 6). The main benefit was derived
The pair of brackets were secured at the level lower
from the fact that no changes to the original design
than the bridge soffit like in most cases. Since the
detail of the pier were required. However shoring
main truss must stay above the bridge deck level
was not a preferred method here due to cost
for operating the over-head Launching Gantries, a
consideration. This method was not economical
portal frame supported on the brackets was
considering the average pier height around 20m
conceptualised to fulfil the functional
with maximum height reaching 25m. The processes
requirements. Vertical struts were extended from
involved in installing and dismantling operations
the supporting brackets to support a transverse
were both laborious and time consuming.
beam forming a portal frame. The precast
segmental box girders were launched within the
portal frame (Figure 5).
Figure 6: A project in Guang Zhou, China, using shoring

support from the pile cap
The second option to hang from the pier head was

Figure 5: View showing the general layout of the not suitable either due to space constraints. The
brackets, vertical legs, transverse beam forming a portal narrow space in between the plinths on the single-
that contains the bridge girder track line has limited areas to work on this system.
The shallow headroom between the bottom soffit
The portal frame appeared elaborate, but
of the bridge to the top of the pier has hindered
essentially consisted of few detachable parts
installing and dismantling operations.
forming the efficient detachable support system
that could be clamped onto the sides of piers. This Apparently, the third option of clamping to the
design is workable without compromising the sides of the pier was the most suitable method to
safety and efficiency of the launching processes. be adopted here. The next move was to design a
suitable way to sustain the loads from the brackets
vertically onto the pier. There were 2 ways that the
brackets can stay on the pier (Figure 7) with
clamping method by providing:
214
i. a block-out on both sides of the pier i. The shear-plate had to be precisely

ii. a shear-key structure on both sides of the fabricated to tight tolerances. A total of 5
pier launching gantries and 18 pairs of brackets
were planned for the launching job. Thus
36 units of shear-plates were needed to
ensure smooth operations. These brackets
had to be interchangeable as per
construction plan
ii. The supporting face on both sides of the
pier must be cast with the same shear-key
details as the shear-plate. Since all the
brackets were designed to be
interchangeable, all shear-keys casted on
the sides of the pier must be identical
Figure 7: Left: block-out in the pier (a HSR project in The design team was confident that the first
Fujian China), Right: shear-key
requirement could be fulfilled if all shear-plates
were machined under strict geometrical control
(Figure 8). For the concrete shear-key on sides of
The block-out system was rejected by the bridge
pier, the steel formers (Figure 9) were also
designer due to the congested detailing in most of
machined to the required details and incorporated
the slim-sized piers. This system was not a suitable
to the pier formwork. There were total 28 sets of
solution for this project due to the slenderness of
shear-key formers fabricated and incorporated to
the pier. Preliminary assessment showed that the
the pier formwork
block-out size required an opening of 450mm x
500mm. This block-out size will occupy
approximately one quarter of the vertical space
and affecting the placing of reinforcing bars. This
method created an issue both in design and
construction.
The only option left available was to adopt the
same method in the previous Putra LRT line where
the brackets were secured on the sides of the pier
by using cast-in metal shear-plates. During the
construction of the Putra LRT line, the shear-plate
was designed for one-time usage to ensure perfect
match at the contact surface between the concrete
shear-key and the metal shear-plate. Figure 8: A shear-plate mounted on brackets
In the new LRT Kelana-Jaya Line Extension Project
Package-A there were 382 numbers of piers in
total. With each shear plate weighing
approximately 500 kg, there would be some 380
metric tons of steel required if the same method
was adopted. There would be a huge cost impact
to the construction. A more feasible solution was
to design a reusable shear plate.
There were two main criteria to be fulfilled to make
reusable shear-plate:
Figure 9: Left: Shear-plate to be fixed in the pier
formwork. Right: Concrete shear-key
215
3.3 Mock-up and Testing of Support miss-alignments. The test results were positive
System without visible damages to the shear-keys.
Before the brackets were delivered to the site, a
full-scale load test with full size mock-up pier was
carried out at the factory that produced the
Launching Gantries. The load test was to validate
all theoretical assumptions and to make sure that
the on-site behaviours were consistent with the
computation within reasonable factor of safety.
The mock-up was to experience the procedure of
mould fixing and concreting process to ensure the
concrete shear-key achieving a reasonable
finishing (Figure 10).
In the mock-up test, the steel shear-plate matched
perfectly onto the precast concrete shear-key
surface using the fabricated shear-key former. This
test was important to examine if there were any
unforeseen matters to be addressed.
Figure 11: Full-scale load test and mock up
3.4 Support Leg System

The portal frames above the brackets were
designed to support the wagons and main trusses.
The vertical legs, supported on the brackets
mounted on sides of pier, supporting the various
structural components of the portal system must
fulfil below requirements
i. they must have the adjustable height
mechanism to accommodate different
slope
ii. they must have the ability to handle in-
filled span
iii. They must be able to accommodate
Figure 10: A close-up view on the mock-up fabricated in various structural components during
the factory launching, i.e portal pier, T-pier and double
inverted L-pier etc.
One specimen was tested to assess the actual The adjustable height was achieved by designing a
interaction behaviour of the shear-key and shear- telescopic structure at the supporting legs for
plate. Construction loads were simulated by using extension or retraction movements (Figure 12).
4 units of 120 metric ton hydraulic cylinder (Figure The adjustments up to some 3.20m, where
11). The unit was loaded to the specified service required were automated with hydraulic cylinders
loads and unloaded in accordance to the design and the same system was able to handle the in-fill
sequence. Upon unloading, the tested components span.
were closely examined for any deformations or
216
bracket, shear-plate and shear-key system. There

were only 2 out of 382 of the piers reported with
minor spalling of concrete shear-keys due to poor
finishing. The damage condition was not very
critical and the safety factor of 4 set for the shear-
key was not compromised. Same shear-plate and
shear-key system were confidently adopted for
Package-B with substantial cost savings.
The hybrid launching gantry system was designed
specially for this project due to the peculiar site and
design requirements. The system nevertheless has
Figure 12: Support leg were being installed on the its merits and demerits depending on the context
Brackets. of usage.
4.1 Advantages
The hydraulic cylinders and supporting brackets
This hybrid system does not require any temporary
were designed to handle some 420 metric tons of
shoring for the first span and any curve span of
concrete girders, in additional to the self-weight of
small radius. Substantial cost savings can be
various components and construction loads. On
achieved in material investment and installation of
each span 2 pairs of brackets with a total 8 numbers
falsework if other system were used.
of 100 metric tons capacity hydraulic cylinders
were being used to lower the in-fill span bridge. It does not required shoring for all types of
These hydraulic cylinders were capable of handling different supports. It has the ability to lower down
a total capacity of 800 metric tons. This design was in-fill span without incurring any additional cost.
adequate to lower down the in-fill span to its final The launching sequence is also totally independent
position after post-tensioning, on the smallest of prior span installation. In other word, the system
curve with 120m radius and 36m span length does not necessarily need to work in consecutive
(Figure 13). sequences for span-by-span installation. This
function increases its flexibility in contingency
planning.
Figure 13: An in-fill span is being lifted to higher level to

facilitate post-tensioning operation
4 Discussions on Hybrid Launching

Gantry System Figure 14: Segment Installation on T-Pier
The launching of elevated bridge for Package-A of

Kelana Jaya Line LRT Extension Project was
completed without any major issue on the support
217
Figure 15: Different combination of brackets and

automated support legs adapted to different piers
4.2 Disadvantages
Nonetheless, the system has its drawbacks
especially in the execution stages. It required
additional labour and mobile cranes for the
relocation and installation of the steel brackets,
support legs and transverse beams. It is certainly a
tedious effort compared to conventional over-
head launching gantry system. The stringent
control over the accuracy of shear-key casting is
also crucial in ensuring smooth fixings without
compromising on safety factor. The method
statements must be clearly laid out and strictly
adhered to so that everything goes on as planned.
5 Conclusions
Continuous improvements with inventive steps are
of vital importance towards engineering
advancements in overcoming new challenges of
elevated bridge launching design. In this context,
the new hybrid launching gantry system with
innovative features has been successfully tested
for the construction and completion of this Kelana-
Jaya Extension Line. It has overcome the various
site constraints and design limitations due to the
peculiarity of this project. Ultimately, a cost
effective solution has been proven viable and will
poise to become the predominant bridge launching
system in the future.
218
Challenges in Design & Construction of Elevated Grade Separators

with Wide Deck & Single Central Pier, in urban areas.
Alok Bhowmick*& Sanjay Jain**
(*) MD, (**) CEO, B&S Engineering Consultants Pvt. Ltd., Noida (U.P), India
Contact:bsec.ab@gmail.com
Abstract
India’s transport sector is large and diverse; it caters to the needs of 1.25 billion people. Roads are
the dominant mode of transportation in India today. They carry almost 90 percent of the country’s
passenger traffic and 65 percent of its freight. Cognizant of the need to create an adequate road
network to cater to the increased traffic and movement of goods, Government of India has
recently allotted Rs 640 billion (US$ 9.55 billion) to National Highway Authority of India (NHAI) for
roads and highways and Rs 270 billion (US$ 4.03 billion) for rural roads under PMGSY scheme (as
on 20th April 2017). One of the impediment in the fast progress of road infrastructure is acquisition
of land & related regulatory hurdles. Completion of as many as 112 projects of NHAI is delayed on
account of such factors. There is a restriction of the available width and to spread the road
horizontally. Therefore, present trend in urban areas is to go for elevated grade separators,
wherein both surface level as well as elevated road can be fully utilised for traffic movement. By
avoiding costly land acquisition, it results in reduction in cost of the project and certainly segregate
local and fast moving traffic, thereby further increasing speed of movement. Design and
Construction of such elevated corridors however poses many challenges to structural engineers.
Restricted work space during construction adds to the challenge and brings out many innovative
solutions to the problems. This paper discusses case studies of number of such projects for which
the authors are presently associated in design and construction planning. These projects are in
various stages of construction.
Keywords: Segmental Bridges, Pre-tensioned girders, post tensioning, Precast Pier Cap
1. Introduction new and innovative models for transport planning

and development, use of new tools &
India’s population has been mounting at an technologies, need for long elevated transport
unprecedented rate. As per recent United Nation corridors with two tier of traffic movement.
(UN) report, India’s population is going to cross Construction of long elevated transport corridors
China’s in and around 2030. Apart from increase in urban areas of-course has its own challenges
in population, there is a rapid shift of the and constraints. There has been a marked shift in
population from rural to urban areas. At present the planning of these structures in the recent
32% of the population lives in urban area, which is times. Past practice of constructing elevated
going to cross 40% by 2050. India is going to add flyovers used to be with the concept of covering
another 300 million in urban population by 2050. the space underside of the flyover for landscaping
or for shops. Therefore, the superstructure used
With such rapid urbanization, there is a growing to be supported on twin/multiple piers, covering
demand for more urban space and finding out the major part of at grade space underneath. The
219
surface level road was kept outside the flyover to Kharar of NH-21 and NH-95 (Km 10+185). The
width. Present trend is to provide only a single project has 3.2 Km of Elevated corridor in addition
median pier to cover the 4/6 lane wide deck, so to 3 Vehicular Underpasses (VUP), 1 Flyover, road
that both surface level space underneath elevated improvement and widening for the balance
corridor as well as at the elevated level space can portion. Larsen & Toubro Limited (L&T) was
be fully utilised for the traffic movement. Also, entrusted with the execution (Contract Value:
precasting and segmental technology is promoted Indian Rupees (Rs.) 3685 million (1 US$ = 67 Rs.),
now-a-days for fast track solutions. Fig.1 shows Date of Award: 26.10.15; Project duration: 30
the ‘Past’ and the ‘Present’ practice. The new months).
trend has many advantages, some of which are as
follows:
a. Construction friendly solution with minimum 2.1 Structural Scheme for the elevated
on-site and maximum off-site activities. corridor of the project:
b. Improved quality of works due to better
quality control in controlled environment The proposed six lane elevated corridor of overall
c. Safer construction practice with minimum width 25.6m [2x0.5m(Crash Barrier)+
disturbance to traffic during construction. 2x12m(C’way)+0.6m(Median)] passes through
d. Minimum interference with the existing busy areas on both sides of the road. Since, there
underground utilities were no service roads and alternate diversion
e. Improved aesthetics road was not permitted, the wide deck
construction needed to be taken up with traffic
This paper discusses case studies of 3 such recent plying below. The structural scheme had to be
projects for which the authors are associated in evolved considering the traffic congestion at the
conceptualisation, optimisation, detailed design as project site. The scheme envisages maximum off-
well as construction planning. These projects are site activities, precasting with light precast
presently in various stages of construction. elements, for ease of handling, erection and
construction. Precast segmental construction was
ruled out since transportation of wide & heavy
2. Case Study-1 : Chandigarh-Kharar segments was not possible on the project road.
Highway Project (EPC Mode) After working out preliminary option studies with
various possible structural options, the most
The project comprises 6laning of existing road optimal solution that emerged is described below:
starting from Sector 39 at Chandigarh (Km 0+000)
220
a. Span Arrangement: Modules of continuous capacity considered is 500 Tonnes for pile
integral span units, 3x 25m each, totaling a length varying from 36m to 40m below pile
length of 75m between expansion joints. No cap bottom. The safe load capacity has been
bearings are provided in the bridge deck. Two confirmed by conducting initial pile load tests
independent piers are provide at expansion as well as routine load tests on working piles.
joint locations (one for each module).
2.2 Construction Aspects:
b. Superstructure: 8 nos. of precast pre-
tensioned girders @ 3.56m c/c covering the Project involves construction of 1056 nos. of
overall width of 25.6m of deck has been precast girders, 8400 numbers of precast RCC
provided, with partly precast and partly cast deck planks and 272 numbers of precast pier cap
in-situ Reinforced Concrete (RCC) deck slab elements. A dedicated pre-casting yard was set
(no staging/shuttering required). Girders are upat Camp-1 near Kurali which is 8 Km distance
made integral with the pier cap. Depth of pre- from project end CH. 10+185. There are three pre-
tensioned girders are kept as 1.55m. The casting yard i.e. for Pier Cap, Girder and Deck
deck slab of 225mm thick is provided in two Plank separately at Camp-1 with the following
parts. The precast deck panel of 110mm facilities:
thickness is placed first between the girders,
which also acts as shuttering for the 115mm - Girder Pre-casting:
thick in-situ concrete on top.  Yard size- 350x25 m
 Weight of a girder – 32 Tonnes
c. Substructure: RCC rectangular pier of 3.5m  3 Nos. pre-tensioning beds
width have been provided for all piers. The  4 Nos. girders casting at a time in one bed
25.6m long PSC pier cap of inverted T-shape with time cycle of 7 days
is provided in 3 parts. The outer parts of the  Monthly rate of production -48 girders
cap (9.6m long) are made precast and are  Stacking capacity - 240 nos with two tier
erected& supported on temporary steel cribs stacking concept
resting on ground. Traffic is allowed to ply  Gantry : 40TONNES @ 2nos for girder
under this precast part of pier cap. The casting ,stacking and loading
central part of pier cap over pier is cast-in-
situ. Once the in-situ portion gains strength, - Per Cap Pre-casting:
the pier cap is prestressed transversely and
 Yard size- 200m x25 m
cribs released.
 Weight of a precast unit – 76 Tonnes
 14 Nos. beds for casting of “L” &inverted
d. Foundation: The foundation sub-strata
“T” Type pier cap
observed along the corridor generally
 Monthly rate of production - 24 nos
comprise of alternate layers of sandy silt /
clayey silt and fine sand / silty fine sand. The  Stacking capacity - 106 nos
thickness of the sand layer varies across the  Gantry : 75 TONNES @ 2nos
stretch. Liquefaction potential assessment
study of the area was made considering the - Deck Plank Pre-casting:
fact that the project is in high seismic zone  Yard size- 200x25m
(Seismic Zone IV). Study reveals that  Monthly rate of production - 350nos
liquefaction is not likely to occur at the  Stacking capacity - 1000 nos
project site. Bored cast-in-situ piles of  Gantry : 30 TONNES @ 1no
diameter 1.0m, have been used for
supporting the stilted portion of flyover. Total - Transportation and erection of pier cap &
of 5 numbers and 6 numbers of piles have Girders:
been provided under each expansion joint  Girders are being transported by 24m long
pier and intermediate pier respectively. Pile hydraulic trailer from yard to site (2 Nos.).
221
 Pier caps being transported by low bed 3. Case Study-2: Delhi-Meerut E’way
trailer from yard to site
(P-III) : Dasna-Hapur section in the
 Erection of pier caps and girder is being
done with single crane of 400 TONNES state of Uttar Pradesh
capacity using strong back due to space
constraint during night shift after diverting This project is a part of Delhi–Meerut Expressway,
traffic India's widest under construction 96 km
 Maximum output so far - 02 nos. pier cap long expressway connecting Delhi with Meerut via
per day and 04 nos. girders per day. Dasna, Ghaziabad(Project cost : ₹78
billion (US$1.2 billion)). The present stretch of NH-
Fig. 02 to 04 shows the typical details of various 24 up to Delhi-UP border will be widened to 14
components of the elevated structure. Photo 01 lanes from the present eight lanes. Also, the road
shows some of the photographs of the project between UP Gate and Dasna will be 14-laned. The
under construction. next phase of the expressway will be built on a
new alignment from Dasna to Meerut - a six-lane
P P P P
25.0m
CL EXP. JOINT
25.0m
CL PIER
25.0m
CL PIER
25.0m
CL EXP. JOINT
25.0m
stretch joining Meerut bypass.
FRL.
1 CAST-IN-SITU DECK SLAB 2
GIRDER
RECTANGULAR PIER
PIER CAP
GROUND LVL
CAST-IN-SITU STITCH
PORTION
Captioned project is Package-3 of Delhi-Meerut
1000Ø PILE
Expressway, from Dasna to Hapur, 22.27 KM long,
LONGITUDINAL ELEVATION 6 lane National Highway had been awarded to
IN SITU SLAB PIER CL
CL EXP. JOINT
900 900
CL PIER
WEARING COAT
CL PIER IN SITU SLAB M/S APCO - CHETAK (Apco Infratech is based in
PRECAST RCC. SLAB PRECAST RCC. SLAB
PRETENSIONED PRETENSIONED
GIRDER
U.P and Chetak Enterprises in Rajasthan) at a cost
GIRDER
of ₹10.6 billion (Date of Award : 04.03.16; Target
1550
CAST-IN-SITU CAST-IN-SITU STICH

STICH PORTION
PORTION
TEMP. BRG. TEMP. BEARING
Date of Completion : 17.06.19). It comprises 6
500
PSC PIER CAP PSC PIER CAP

RCC PIER RCC PIER
laning of existing road, 4.68 Km of Elevated grade
DETAIL -1 DETAIL -2
(EXP. JOINT PIER) (INTERMEDIATE PIER) FIG-02 separator at Pilkhuwa town, 9 Minor Bridges, 1
CL PIER/MEDIAN
Major Bridge, 10 VUPs, 1 Pedestrian Underpasses
500 12000
25600
600 12000 500 (PUP), 1 Flyover and 3 FOBs. The proposed six
IN SITU SLAB
2.5%
WEARING COAT
PRECAST RCC. SLAB 2.5% lane elevated corridor of overall width 24.65m
PRETENSIONED
[2x0.5m(Crash Barrier)+2 x 11.5m(C’way) +
1550
3557 GIRDER
PSC PIER CAP
11050 3500
25600
11050 0.65m(Median)] passes through busy areas on
both sides of the road, for which the access could
(MIN)
5500
DRAIN CUM DRAIN CUM

5500
MEDIAN not be blocked. Road situation is similar to the
PILE CAP
one described in Case-Study-1 for Chandigarh-
1000Ø PILE
Kharar project.
TYPICAL CROSS SECTION
FIG-03 3.1 Structural Scheme for the elevated
corridor of the project:
CL PIER/MEDIAN/SYMMETRY
PRESTRESSING
IN-SITU SLAB CAST-IN-SITU PORTION CABLE
The structural scheme evolved considers

2300
S1 S2 S1
9600
PRECAST SEGMENT
6600
PIER
9600
PRECAST SEGMENT
maximum off-site activities. Transportation of
TYPICAL CROSS SECTION wide segments was not possible in the project
1200
road. So the efforts were channelized for making
the standard system as far as possible, so that
mass production is achieved. After working out
preliminary option studies with various possible
structural options, the most optimal solution that
emerged is described below:
END VIEW SECTION AT MID
FIG-04
222
a. Span Arrangement: Modules of continuous is post tensioned transversely and cribs

integral span units, 3 x 30m each, totaling a released.
length of 90m between expansion joints.
Intermediate piers are monolithic with the d. Foundation: Bored cast-in-situ piles of
deck and the deck is made to rest on free diameter 1.0m, have been used for
bearings only at the expansion joint piers. supporting the stilted portion of flyover. Total
of 6 numbers and 8 numbers of piles have
b. Superstructure: 7 nos. of precast pre- been provided under each expansion joint
tensioned girders @ 3.6m c/c covering the pier and intermediate pier, respectively. Pile
overall width of 24.65m of deck has been capacity considered is 400 tonnes having pile
provided, with 230mm thick cast in-situ RCC length varying from 23m to 29m below pile
deck slab. The diaphragm is supported on cap bottom. The safe load capacity has been
bearings near expansion joints. The girders confirmed by conducting initial pile load tests
are made integral with the pier cap at as well as routine load tests on working piles.
intermediate pier locations. The depth of pre-
tensioned girders are kept as 1.9m. Sacrificial 3.2 Construction Aspects:
profiled steel sheet is placed first between
the girders, which acts as shuttering for the Project involves construction of 1106 nos. of
in-situ concrete on top. precast girders and 310 numbers of precast pier
cap elements. A dedicated precasting yard was set
c. Substructure: RCC single rectangular pier of up in the middle of the project length for casting
6.0m width have been provided for all piers. of girders. Pier Caps are planned to be precast on-
The 22.8m long PSC pier cap of inverted T- site, in between the erected piers. The casting
shape is provided in 3 parts. The outer parts yard has the following facilities:
of the pier cap (7.6m long) are made partially
precast and are erected first supported on - Girder Pre-casting:
cribs from ground. Traffic is allowed to ply  Yard size- 12,000 sq.m
under this precast part of pier cap. The  Weight of a girder – 50 Tonnes
central part of pier cap over pier and balance  12 Nos. pre-tensioning beds
part of the outer flanks is cast-in-situ. Once  3 Nos. girders casting at a time in one bed
the in-situ portion gains strength, the pier cap with time cycle of 8 days
223
 Monthly rate of production -108 girders IN-SITU SLAB

CAST-IN-SITU PORTION CL PIER/MEDIAN
 Stacking capacity of girder -220 Nos.
PRESTRESSING CABLE
 Gantry used at Yard : 50 TONNES Capacity & 850
30 m Span PRECAST PORTION

8400 6000
PIER
8400
- Pier Cap Pre-casting: TYPICAL CROSS SECTION
 Weight of a precast unit – 45 TONNES

 Bed for casting of precast pier cap - 25 Nos.
 Monthly rate of production -25 Nos.
3170
 Stacking capacity - As required
 Gantry Capacity : 50 TONNES, 15m height&
30m Span END VIEW SECTION AT MID
FIG-07
- Transportation and erection of pier cap &

Girders:
 Girders are being transported by 7nos. of 4. Case Study-3:6 Laning of Handia –
hydraulic trailer from yard to site. Varanasi Section of NH-2 in U.P.
 Erection of pier caps and girder is being [Hybrid Annuity Mode]
done with the help of Gantry.
 Maximum output so far 01 nos. pier cap The project in Eastern part of UP between
and 04 nos. girders per day. Allahabad and Varanasi comprises of 72.398 Km
long corridor, which is partly elevated and partly
Fig. 05 to 07 shows the typical details of various widened at surface level. The total elevated
components of the elevated structure. Photo 02 portion of the corridor is of cumulative length 9.06
shows some of the photographs of the project Km, which is spread over five independent
under construction. viaducts. The overall width of the superstructure
P P P P is 23.55 m, [2x0.45m(Crash Barrier) +
C EXP. JOINT CL PIER CL PIER EXP. JOINT CL
30.0m L 30.0m 30.0m 30.0m 30.0m
1 IN-SITU DECK SLAB FRL.
2 PRETENSIONED GIRDER 2x11m(C’way) + 0.65m(Median)]. The
PIER CAP CAST-IN-SITU STITCH
PORTION
CAST-IN-SITU
construction period of the part of this elevated
RECTANGULAR GROUND LVL DIAPHRAGM
PIER
PILE CAP
highway is set as 30 months. After working out
1000Ø PILE
LONGITUDINAL ELEVATION
preliminary option studies with various possible
CL PIER
TEMP. BRG. CL
CL BRG.
850 850
CL BRG.
CL TEMP. BRG. CL PIER IN-SITU SLAB structural options, the most optimal solution that
CAST-IN-SITU
DIAPHRAGM CAST-IN-SITU
emerged is described below:
STITCH PORTION
PRETENSIONED
CAST-IN-SITU
GIRDER
PORTION
CAST-IN-SITU
PORTION
TEMP. BEARING
REMOVABLE
a. Span Arrangement: The elevated corridor in
PSC PIER CAP
PACKING
PSC PIER CAP this project has series of simply supported
RCC PIER RCC PIER
DETAIL -1 DETAIL -2
40m spans, of constant widths, changing
(EXP. JOINT PIER) (INTERMEDIATE PIER) FIG-05 geometry in the forms of straights and mild
curves, and differential levels. In order to
CL MEDIAN
500 11500
24650
650 11500
CAST-IN-SITU DECK SLAB
500 ensure proper drainage, a gentle longitudinal
WEARING COAT
slope of 0.3% is also provided. In order to
CAST IN SITU PRETENSIONED
DIAPHRAGM
PSC PIER CAP
reduce the number of expansion joints and to
PRECAST PORTION
CL GIRDER
8400 6000
CAST-IN-SITU PORTION
8400
have a better driving comfort, deck continuity
(MIN)
5500
DRAIN/
FOOTPATH SERVICE ROAD
RCC PIER
SERVICE ROAD
DRAIN/
FOOTPATH
has been provided for six spans, and
7000
expansion joints are proposed at every
PILE CAP
1000Ø PILE seventh pier @ 240m c/c.
CL GIRDER (TYP)
CAST-IN-SITU STITCH CL SYMMETRY PEDESTAL+BEARING
3600 JACK (TYP)
PORTION(TYP.) (TYP) 2300 3100
CL TEMP. BRG.
C BRG.
850 L
b. Superstructure: Precast segmental double
3000
CL PIER/PIER CAP 900 850

CL TEMP. BRG.
850
CL BRG. cell box girder with transverse ribs is
CAST-IN-SITU PORTION 2900 6350
CL BRG. CL BRG.
FIG-06
proposed for the superstructure. The cross
224
section of the deck has three separate units LG. After lifting of one complete span, all the
consisting of 8.5m wide central spine and two segments will be dry matched and checked for the
equal wings of about 7.5m each. The ribs are geometric accuracy. Then, the segments will be
at a spacing of 2.8 m, which was found to be separated and epoxy glue will be applied on the
ideal both from casting and design point of face. Temporary prestress will be applied next in
view. The ribs were stitched to the central between each segment by means of HT bars. After
spine by transverse stressing. While match all the segments are glued, then permanent
cast technique was adopted for spine prestress will be applied and span is released from
segments, in-situ stitch was adopted for LG to rest on bearings. LG is marched forward to
connection between adjacent wings and the next span. Later, the wings will be erected by
between the wing and spine. Uni-directional cantilever frames supported on spine. There are
camber of 2.5% is provided in the deck for longitudinal stitch between adjoining wings and
the purpose of drainage. transverse stitch between wing and spine. After
these stitches are done, cross prestressing will be
c. Substructure & Foundation: The system of carried out. Other finishing works will be taken up
substructure consists of a pair of spherical subsequently.
bearings for each superstructure, supported
on a pier cap, flared from a single pier of size Precast yard set up is located near 2nd& 3rd
3m x 2m at base. Foundation system is a viaducts with following facilities:
group of 1.2m dia bored cast in-situ piles,
length depending on the type of subsoil at - Segment(Spine) Pre-casting:
each location.  Yard size- 350m X 130 m
 Total nos. of Spine segments - 3380 Nos.
4.1 Construction Aspects:  Pre-casting beds – 9 Nos.
 Daily segment casting rate – 6 Nos.
Erection of deck is proposed to be done by using  Monthly Rate of production – 180 nos.
over-head launching girder, marching from one  Stacking capacity of segments –800 nos.
end to the other end of viaduct. The maximum  Gantry used at Yard: 4 Nos. of 125 TONNES
weight of each spine segment is 71 TONNES. Each and 2 nos. of 25 TONNES
segment will be transported to the site on low - Segment(Wing) Pre-casting:
bedded trailer trucks, lifted and held in position by  Yard size- 150 m x120 m
225
 Total nos. of wing segments - 6760 Nos. can be dealt with by innovative designs,
 Number of pre-casting beds – 36 Nos. strengthened by modern construction
 Daily wing casting rate – 12 Nos. techniques. Structures can be made aesthetic
 Monthly rate of production– 360 Nos. and cost-effective.
 Stacking capacity of wings -1600 Nos.
 Gantry used at Yard : 25 TONNES EOT or b. It is expected that various innovative
Hydra techniques adopted in these projects may
form the basis for construction of numerous
Fig. 08 to 09 shows the typical details of various flyovers /Bridge across India in the coming
components of the elevated structure. Photo 03 years.
shows some of the photographs of the project
under construction. c. A combined team effort and close
coordination among Owner, Authority’s
<< ALLAHBAD VARANASI >>
P
CL EXP. JOINT
P
CL PIER (TYP)
P P P P P
CL EXP. JOINT
Engineer, Design Consultant and Contractor
40.0m
1
40.0m 40.0m
2
40.0m 40.0m 40.0m 40.0m 40.0m
at every step (i.e. conception, design and
FR FR FX FR FR FR FR
implementation) was a main contributing
LONGITUDINAL ELEVATION factor for this success story.
CL EXP. JOINT CL PIER
CL BRG. CL BRG. CL BRG. CL BRG.
950 950 950 950
Acknowledgements
2750
2750
3500 3500 The authors express their sincere thanks to the

RCC PIER efforts and cooperation of all officers and
DETAIL -1
(EXP. JOINT PIER)
DETAIL -2
(INTERMEDIATE PIER) FIG-08
organizations involved in these projects without
whose support, successful implementation of this
C PIER/MEDIAN
23550 L
450 11000 650 11000 450 scheme could not have been possible. Some of
7105 8440 7105
TRANSVERSE
PRESTRESSING 2.5% 2.5%
TO BE FILLED WITH
CONCRETE
these organisations are:
PRECAST WING
6250
PRECAST SPINE BEAM 1. National Highway Authority of India
BRG.CL
8000 2. Larsen & Tubro Limited : Construction and
5500 (MIN.)
3000
RCC PIER Transportation Infrastructure
FOOTPATH/ FOOTPATH/
DRAIN 10000 4000 10000 DRAIN
3. M/s MSV International Inc. in association
2.5% 2.5%
PILE CAP
with MSPARK Futuristics & Associates (A.E.
for Chandigarh-Kharar Project)
1200 Ø PILES
4. Chetak Enterprises Limited
FIG-09
5. Lea Associates South Asia Pvt Ltd. (I.E. for D-
M E’way (P-III) Project)
Conclusions 6. G R Infra projects Ltd.
7. Theme Engineering Services Pvt. Ltd. (I.E. for
a. The successful completion of such challenging Handia-Varanasi Project)
projects has revealed that the fast tracking of
projects coupled with difficult site condition
226
Efficient and Economical Structural System in the form of Inverted-T Pier

Crosshead and Deck Slab Continuity for Beam and Slab Bridges As
Adopted in DUKE 2 Project in Malaysia
Anbarasan, G.Irusan
MMSB Consult Sdn Bhd, Malaysia
Contact : anbarasan.irusan@mmsbconsult.com.my
Abstract
An elevated urban highway with beam and slab type bridges can be designed economically and
efficiently by using inverted-T shaped pier crossheads and providing deck slab continuity over the
pier crossheads. An Inverted-T pier crosshead which has its crosshead stem lies in between the
superstructure beams can be used effectively to reduce the structural depth of superstructure and
pier crosshead. This added with column height equivalent to the required minimum headroom
clearance from the ground is what make the full height of the bridge. Thus, this type of crosshead
can be used to lower down an elevated highway profile. While, simply supported beam and slab
type superstructure with deck slab continuity can effectively share the longitudinal forces among
the piers in a bridge module. This will lead to economical substructure and foundation design. These
2 aspects were considered in the design of DUKE 2 Highway in Malaysia.
Keywords: Inverted-T crosshead; crosshead ledge; minimum headroom clearance; link slab; deck
slab continuity; elastomeric bearing; continuous longitudinal model; longitudinal force distribution
1 Introduction
DUKE 2 highway is an urban highway located in The DUKE 2 Consortium was looking for an
Kuala Lumpur, the Capital City of Malaysia. The efficient and economical structural design with
DUKE 2 highway comprises 2 links namely Tun reduction in length for the elevated portion of the
Razak Link (TRL) and Sri Damansara Link (SDL). highway, optimum bridge spans, optimum bridge
MMSB Consult was appointed as design height and optimum sections for pier, pilecaps and
consultant for Tun Razak Link and design of this piles. We achieved the objectives by using
stretch was completed by the end of year 2014. Inverted-T pier crossheads and beam and slab
The construction for this highway started in superstructure with deck slab continuity.
December 2014 and it was officially opened to
traffic in September 2017.
227
2 Adoption of Inverted-T Crossheads The Inverted-T crosshead section is aesthetically

very nice due to its shallow depth of crosshead
The length of elevated portion of a highway is corbel or ledge. The relatively deeper crosshead
dependent on headroom clearance and structural stem of 2.25m high lies in between the beams
depth of superstructure and pier crosshead. The from adjacent spans and invisible from outside,
higher the finished road level of a bridge the refer to figure 2. This gives an impression that the
longer it takes for the highway to touch the entire bridge is supported by a thin pier crosshead.
ground. The required minimum headroom
clearance in Malaysia is 5.4m and this cannot be
compromised. A suitable selection of crosshead
shape and depth can reduce the overall structural
depth due to beam, slab and pier crosshead. In
DUKE 2 project, the required crosshead ledge
depth below the bearing is just 750mm, the
highway profile was lowered after giving due
allowance for 5.4m headroom clearance +750mm
for crosshead depth + beam depth, as can be seen
from figure 1. This had shortened the length of the
bridge and reduced the cost of the bridge.
Figure 2. Longitudinal View of Inverted-T Pier

Crosshead
For cantilever crossheads, the ledge extending

from crosshead stem lies in the compression zone.
The larger width of crosshead ledge, 3.5m in this
case gives higher compressive force from the
compression zone. The neutral axis for this section
lies lower in the compression zone and gives
higher lever arm from tension reinforcement. This
has resulted in higher moment capacity for the
section with lesser reinforcement. Say if a
rectangular crosshead was used instead of
Figure 1 . Transverse View of Inverted-T Pier
inverted-T section, we would have required 3m
Crosshead
deep crosshead section with same reinforcement
to achieve a similar moment capacity and this also
228
would have raised the finished road level of the that module resisted almost the same amount of
bridge. profile. force and this resulted in the optimisation of pile,
pilecap and column sizes and reduction in pile
Besides that, the adoption of inverted T crosshead
numbers in a pilegroup.
also enabled the superstructure span length to be
increased by at least 1.7m due to the presence of The continuous superstructure modules with deck
crosshead stem in between the beams from the slab continuity and elastomeric bearings without
adjacent spans. The beams were supported by nominated fixed pier enabled the externally
bearings located on the crosshead ledge and link applied longitudinal forces such as braking, wind
slab was used to span over the crosshead stem and seismic and internal strain induced forces such
width. This had resulted in adoption of the as creep, shrinkage and temperature to be shared
maximum span length of 40m between pier among the piers in that module. All the piers in
gridlines for bridges with T beams when the actual that module resisted almost the same amount of
T beam length was just 38.3m and maximum span force and this resulted in the optimisation of pile,
length of 32m for bridges with U beams when the pilecap and column sizes and reduction in pile
actual U beam length was just 30.3m. numbers in a pilegroup.
This would have been different if a conventional

method with fixed and free conditions at every
3 Continuous Superstructure Modules with pier or at every alternative pier was adopted. In
Link Slab Without Fixed Piers the conventional method, every fixed pier will
have to resist all the longitudinal forces applied to
Majority of DUKE 2-TRL structures were designed
that module and this will lead to more
with beam and slab type superstructures with
reinforcement requirement in the pile and
either Post- tensioned T beams or Pre-tensioned U
columns. At some cases additional piles also may
beams. The superstructure modules were made
be required. For an example in conventional fixed
continuous with link slabs above the intermediate
pier arrangement at every alternate pier, almost
piers with presence of movement joints after
the full braking load of 750kN due to HA loading as
every 4 or 5 spans, refer to figure 3 and 4.
per BD37/01 will be distributed to the fixed pier
The beams were designed as simply supported and the design requirement for this pier will be
between the bearings while the link slab above the higher.
intermediate piers was designed as continuous
The adoption of continuous superstructure
slab tied monolithically at the ends of the beams
module with link slab also has resulted in lesser
from adjacent spans.
movement joints in this highway. This in turn has
The continuous superstructure modules with deck resulted in increased riding comfort and lesser
slab continuity and elastomeric bearings without expenditure for movement joint maintenance at
nominated fixed pier enabled the externally later stage.
applied longitudinal forces such as braking, wind
and seismic and internal strain induced forces such
as creep, shrinkage and temperature to be shared
among the piers in that module. All the piers in
229
Figure 3 : Longitudinally Continuous Superstructure Modules
Figure 4 : Typical Cross Sectional View of Link Slab above Inverted-T Crosshead
230
4 Conclusion
A suitable selection of pier crosshead shape,

the inverted-T shape in this case without
much effort can result in great savings in
highway construction. Besides that, adoption
of longitudinal continuous modules in the
form of deck slab continuity over the pier
crossheads for beam and slab type bridges can
result in efficient sharing of longitudinal forces
which lead to economical substructure and
foundation design.
5 Acknowledgements
My sincere acknowledgements go to
Malaysian Highway Authority (MHA),
Konsortium Lebuhraya Utara - Timur (KL) Sdn
Bhd (KESTURI) and MMSB Consult Sdn Bhd for
allowing me to present this paper.
6 References
[1] Suspension Reinforcement Design

Procedures. Appendix D of Australian
Standard AS 5100 Part 5
[2] Halving Joint. Clause 7.2.4.2 of BS 5400

Part 4
231
Helping Gasiza have a bridge for generations to come

Sean Dean
BuroHappold Engineering, London, UK
Contact: Sean.Dean@BuroHappold.com
Abstract
Gasiza Bridge provides safe access for approximately 6,000 people who live in communities adjacent
to the new footbridge, over the River Cyacika in the north of Rwanda. Previously, the nearest safe
crossing was 3.5km away. The new footbridge is owned by the local government and will be
maintained by the local community.
As with all development work, the long term success of the bridge is dependent on local community
taking ownership of it. Through various methods, the UK Team of Bridges equipped the local
community with the necessary knowledge and skills.
The team conveyed safety, quality and maintenance best practices from the UK experience to the
local community with the intention that the community will take ownership of the bridge, thus
ensuring that this safe access will be maintained for many years to come.
Keywords: Bridges; sustainable development; maintenance; international development; Rwanda;
Bridges To Prosperity; community engagement.
A new bridge means children have better access to

1 Introduction education, people don’t miss the opportunity to
buy and sell goods at markets and the ailing can
1.1 Bridges To Prosperity more easily access healthcare.
Bridges To Prosperity (B2P) is a charity founded in
USA in 2001 and has built over 200 footbridges in 1.2 Gasiza Bridge
rural areas of developing countries around the Gasiza Bridge is a 58m long suspended footbridge
world, as part of their drive to innovate, educate that spans over the River Cyacika in the north of
and inspire. Rwanda and was completed in November 2016.
Building these bridges in parts of the world, such as The bridge deck is 1.0m wide and the primary
rural Rwanda, has a transformational effect on structural elements are a bundle of 4 x 32mm
those that can use the bridges for safe access. diameter steel cables. The deck is made up of steel
Rivers swell during wet seasons and render rivers and timber cross beams, which are connected to
impassable or potentially deadly to cross. the steel cables by steel hangers, and has masonry
abutments that form the ramps. The cables are
anchored into the masonry abutments.
232
Figure 2. Installing deck with community workers.

The most enjoyable tasks were those carried out by
everyone in a collaborative manner, such as filling
and concreting the ramps.
Figure 1. The completed Gasiza Bridge.
3 Maintenance
1.3 UK Team
The local communities would be responsible for
BuroHappold Engineering and Price & Myers both the bridge and formed a bridge committee. The UK
agreed to provide the £20,000 each for the capital team produced a maintenance strategy document.
costs for the bridge construction. Each company This was handed over to the bridge committee and
provided five employees to form the team that provides a guide on what potential hazards and
planned the trip and the construction of the bridge defects to look out for.
and built it with B2P and the local communities.
2 Bridge construction
The UK team spent two weeks helping to construct
the bridge. They worked closely with the local
community workers who were integral to the
completion of the project and also some of the Figure 3. Maintenance strategy meeting.
people who were to benefit from the construction
of the bridge. They were also going to be the The UK team talked through the maintenance
people who will maintain the bridge. strategy document with those on the committee.
This document was an important part of the
The UK team knew that the more construction strategy to transfer knowledge and skills to the
tasks the community workers were involved in, the committee and local communities.
better equipped they would be to maintain the
bridge. For the community workers to gain new This provided an opportunity to discuss the points
skills and experience, it was also important to that the team had raised and ask questions. The
expose them to construction tasks that there team and B2P were able to answer these questions
would have limited opportunity to carry out and keep the lines of communication open
otherwise. between the bridge committee and B2P.
Furthermore the UK team worked hard to educate
the local workers about health and safety. There
4 Conclusions
were times when power tools were being used or Ultimately, Gasiza Bridge will be judged a success if
work was being carried out at height and it was it remains a well-used and maintained bridge that
important that this was being carried out as safely serves the local community for many years. The
as possible and the local workers were equipped to efforts made by B2P and the UK team to achieve
carry out similar tasks safety in the future. engagement from the local community and the
local government will go a long way to achieve this
objective.
233
Appropriate approaches to Health, Safety and Welfare during

footbridge construction in developing countries
Johannes Whittam, Matthias Ludin
COWI UK, London, UK
Contact: johanneswhittam@gmail.com, matthias.ludin@gmail.com
Abstract
This paper has been written to provide guidance and emphasise the importance of appropriate approaches
to Health, Safety and Welfare during construction of footbridge projects in developing countries. Health,
Safety and Welfare must always be at the top of the agenda in all design and construction projects. It is
important that decisions, approaches and methods are sensitive and relevant to the workforce's skillset,
cultural attitudes and available equipment.
Developed countries typically have better health and safety standards than developing countries, this paper
examines, with case studies, appropriate approaches to be applied in developing countries. The paper
discusses these approaches with respect to legislation, the design and construction phases of a project.
Keywords: Footbridge; Health, Safety and Welfare; Developing Countries; Legislation; Design; Construction
There are several Non-Governmental

1 Introduction Organisations (NGOs) building footbridges in
Construction sites have the potential to be developing countries where communities are
dangerous working environments. Health, safety regularly cut off from important facilities such as
and welfare (H,S&W) needs to be managed education, healthcare and markets due to seasonal
carefully in order to improve the physical and riverbeds. These NGOs typically intervene where
psychological wellbeing of workers and others there is a lack of technical knowledge or economic
affected by a construction site. capability to construct these bridges. They are in a
powerful position to help to educate and inform
While legislation has been enacted in most parts of the local community and workers in appropriate
the world, in recent decades more developed H,S&W approaches. This is in addition to the same
countries have typically been more successful in responsibilities expected on a project in a
improving the H,S&W of construction sites. developed country.
The poor safety performance on construction sites The management of H,S&W must be considered as
in developing countries affects not only the a continuous process with re-assessment and
workers, but also has adverse effects on the verification of assumptions throughout. The
industry and society. Responsibility for improving designer must seize responsibility for H,S&W from
this performance lies at every level of each the outset. The construction phase must be
stakeholder in a project. Governments and health carefully planned and implemented with
executives must rigorously enforce regulations; consideration given to communication and
designers must consider appropriate technologies; education of the workforce as well as their existing
and contractors must prioritise H,S&W higher than skills, knowledge and technologies.
financial and time pressures.
234
2 Legislation Most developing countries have a labour act, but

there are often no or not appropriate further
2.1 General remark regulations and guidance for H,S&W at working
places or in particular on construction sites.
In recent decades developed countries have made Amongst others, one barrier for providing
major efforts to improve the legislation, guidance appropriate guidance is the lack of reliable incident
and the enforcement of regulations relating to statistics.
H,S&W in the construction sector. The Health and
Safety Executive (HSE) in the UK reports a steady 2.3 Enforcement of Legislation in
reduction of the fatal injury rate on construction Developing Countries
sites in Great Britain. While approximately 2.1 fatal
injuries per 100,000 workers occurred in 1981, the In addition to the lack of further regulations and
rate was reduced to 0.4 fatal injuries per 100,000 guidance, the legislation is often poorly enforced in
workers in 20161. Very often similar reports and developing countries. Missing enforcement
statistics are not existent in developing countries. mechanisms and insufficient resources lead to a
For example, in Kenya the Directorate of situation where contractors are not controlled and
Occupational Safety and Health Services (DOSHS) audited in order to make sure that they comply
reports 40 fatal accidents for 100,000 workers in with the law.
their Annual Report in 20112. However, this Typically a contractor's H,S&W performance or
number needs to be considered as a lower bound compliance with regulations does not feature in
since most Kenyan contractors do not report all the procurement process in developing countries.
accidents. It can be generally assumed that the Without influencing a contractors potential to win
accident rate is significantly higher in developing more work there is less incentive for investment in
countries compared to industry leading countries. improving H,S&W.
2.2 Typical Legislation in Developing However, a poor enforcement doesn't reduce the
Countries obligations of the parties involved. Especially NGOs
which design and construct footbridges should not
In 1950 the International Labour Organization (ILO) ignore such regulations. In fact, the design and
and the World Health Organization (WHO) defined construction teams can have a positive influence by
occupational health. It revised the definition at its setting a good example. If the legislation is
12th session in 1995 to read as follows3: permanently ignored then the situation will never
" Occupational health should aim at: the promotion improve. NGOs should strive to demonstrate best
and maintenance of the highest degree of physical, practice within their working environment.
mental and social well-being of workers in all
occupations; the prevention amongst workers of 3 Design
departures from health caused by their working
conditions; the protection of workers in their 3.1 Responsibility
employment from risks resulting from factors In the UK The Construction (Design and
adverse to health; the placing and maintenance of Management) Regulations 2015 (CDM 2015)5
the worker in an occupational environment places increased responsibility on the designer for
adapted to his physiological and psychological the H,S&W of construction (as well as operation
capabilities; and, to summarize: the adaptation of and maintenance phases) of a project. This has
work to man and of each man to his job." been seen to work well when the designer has a
Different nations have their own labour act (e.g. good practical working knowledge of the
Health and Safety at Work act 1974 (HSWA)4 in UK). environment in which their design is to be
These often give the ability to introduce further constructed. Whilst CDM 2015 is not applicable to
regulations, approved codes of practices, guidance construction projects in developing countries the
and legislations. placement of increased responsibility on the
designer is a useful mechanism and can be
235
particularly relevant in projects where the designer

has a greater understanding of H,S&W best Case Study 1
practices than the construction team.
Locally Available Materials: Bridges
The principles of prevention6 are a useful tool for a
designer to employ and are valid in any to Prosperity (B2P) Cable Saddles
environment. The hazards identified and the
methods of solving them will be different in
developing countries to those in developed
countries, but the overall approach is still valid. A
full explanation of the principles of prevention are
beyond the scope of this paper, but the key points
are to avoid risks by: eliminating the
problem/hazard all together; evaluating risks;
combating the risks at the source; adapting the
work to the individual; adapting to technical
progress; replacing the dangerous with the non-
dangerous or less dangerous; developing a
coherent prevention policy; prioritising collective
Image: B2P Suspended Bridge Cables7
protective measures over individual measures; and
giving appropriate instructions to employees.
For the handrail cables on B2P's suspended
Pre-construction information (as required by CDM bridges the saddles are constructed out of locally
2015) is information provided by the designer to available car wheels set into concrete. This design
the construction team and is only information that detail evolved from a bespoke curved plate that
is relevant, and not information a competent was complex and costly to produce. The use of car
contractor would be expected to know. wheels was suggested by B2P's local staff and
Consideration should be given as to what makes use of local materials and construction
information would be relevant for a contractor in a techniques, resulting in an appropriate design
developing country compared to in a developed that is easier and safer for the workforce to
country. Differences in cultural attitudes and construct.
competencies may impact what information is
relevant and important. 3.2 Adaptability of Design
For a designer to be able to successfully fulfil their When designing a footbridge for construction in a
responsibilities it is essential that they are as well developing country it is prudent for the designer to
informed as possible about the environment in ensure it works with several construction
which their design will be constructed. Information sequences or techniques to enable it to be
on the site, local culture, skillset and tools of the constructed in the safest possible way. This is
workforce are all essential. This information would particularly important if there is limited knowledge
be best obtained by the designer visiting the site, about the construction environment and the
examining other construction projects in the area construction team's capabilities. The designer
and discussing existing technologies and should give those building the project a suitably
capabilities with the local workforce. However, this comprehensive toolkit to be able to build the
is often infeasible or impractical. In these instances bridge safely in more than one way. This is
the designer should strive to obtain as much important because regularly when the construction
information as possible, photographs and videos team arrive onsite it will become apparent that not
can be particularly helpful to the designer when all of the designer's assumptions were valid.
complimenting technical information about the Adaptability of the design enables the construction
site (eg topography, soil type, etc). team to proceed with alternative options safely.
236
The designer should consider that there may be no

mechanism or feasible option for the construction Case Study 2
team to ask questions to the designer and
therefore should provide a suitable level of Planning: Olare Orok Bridge, Kenya8
information when this is the case. However, it may
also be the designer who is onsite building the
bridge. This can influence the extent of the prior
investigation into different construction methods
and the adaptability of design and appropriate
decisions should be made accordingly.
When specifying materials in a design a designer
should consider what materials, and of what
quality, are readily locally available. The
implications of low quality versions of intended
materials should be considered and decisions made
about increased redundancy or material factors as
appropriate.
Locally available tools should be considered when Image: Olare Orok Bridge Temporary Works9
the construction sequence is determined during
the design. The designer should scrutinize the
On Econosphere Projects Olare Orok Bridge build,
implications on safety and quality if the design
a risk assessment of the water levels in the river
were to be constructed with no power tools, or
was required and crucial. There was no reliable
without specialist access solutions or equipment.
weather data and hence the elder community
Consideration should be given to the impact of
leaders had to be contacted in order to assess the
logistics and the ability to access either side of the
situation and clarify questions (e.g. How likely is
bridge site. If there are any aspects of the design
there to be unseasonal weather?; How far in
that are critical, require specialist equipment, skills
advance can a seasonal flood be predicted?;
or materials these must be clearly communicated
What are the consequences of a seasonal flood?;
on design drawings and the construction team
etc. ). With their responses appropriate measures
informed at the earliest opportunity.
were then planned and implemented. The
During the design phase of the project the designer construction sequence was optimized in order to
must consider the H,S&W implications of the minimize the duration of any temporary
maintenance phase of the project. The designer structures in the river (e.g. prefabrication and
must consider how likely the bridge is to be preassembly of segments, complicated
maintained, how it will be maintained and what connection details were done in workshop and
impact this may have on the design. not over river, etc).
In developed countries the contractor is usually
responsible for the design of temporary works. As 4 Construction
a designer of footbridge projects in developing
country it is advisable to clarify and define the 4.1 Planning
interface of temporary works with the contractor
in an early stage. In case the contractor is not 4.1.1 Risk assessment and Method Statement
capable of doing sufficient design work, the Risk assessment and method statements are
designer might be appointed to propose safe essential steps in improving the H,S&W in
temporary structures such as provisional crossings construction projects in all environments. The
over the river, working platforms, etc. approach of forward planning can be particularly
challenging in some cultures. In many developing
237
countries it has been found that typically The construction sites of footbridge projects in
construction works are not as carefully planned developing countries are often very remote and
and thought through as in developed countries. the nearest suppliers or shops may be a few hours'
This can lead to insufficient resources, increased drive away. Therefore, not only the construction
time pressures and other potentially unsafe works itself, but also the welfare facilities need to
practices. Risk assessments for developing be considered in the planning phase. Shelters,
countries will typically identify different hazards to cooking equipment, provision of drinking water,
those in developed countries, but the approach of sanitation etc. are essential to workers' health.
identifying, eliminating and reducing risks is still
very much valid. 4.2 Implementation
4.1.2 Site layout and welfare 4.2.1 Verify assumptions

A well-organised and tidy site needs careful When the construction team arrive onsite one of
planning but can significantly contribute to the first activities should be to verify the
increasing the H,S&W performance of a project. assumptions made during the design process and
Especially in areas where heavy machines are not construction planning phase. If any assumptions
available, the number of lifts should be reduced to are found to be invalid then the impact of this must
a minimum. Trip and slip hazards can be minimized be considered and adjustments to the design or
if the site layout is thoroughly thought through. construction plan made as appropriate. Unless
expressly authorised, changes to the design should
Case Study 3 – Dynamic Risk not be made without the designer's consent.
Assessments: Olkuroto's Bridge, 4.2.2 Dynamic Risk Assessments
Kenya There will be situations that arise that are not what
was planned for, the way that these are dealt with
in relation to H,S&W are key to the success of a
project. It's important that the solutions are
appropriate to the tools and skills available, this
may mean changing a plan or method statement.
The team must be adaptable, and take into account
the skills and knowledge of the locals (these skills
and knowledge may be much greater than the skills
of the team from developed countries). For this to
be a success strong leadership and communication
are essential. It is important that methods and
Image: Olkuroto's Bridge Under Construction10 approaches employed in developed countries are
not applied to developing countries without
consideration of their appropriateness. What may
For the construction of Olkuroto's Bridge in 2013,
be considered essential in a developed country
a 18m wooden truss footbridge built by
may not be appropriate when taken out of its usual
Econosphere Projects in Kenya, a tree had to be
context.
cut and removed. The construction team brought
wood saws and instructed local Maasai
community members to cut it. It turned out that
they were very experienced in the use of
machetes in order to cut trees. In a developed
country a machete would probably not be the
preferred tool for this kind of work. However, the
construction team assessed the situation to be
safer if the locals use their preferred tools.
238
4.2.3 Construction Methods should be examined and where they can safely be
used they should be. Local techniques have the
Typical construction methods vary greatly between
advantage that the local workforce are familiar
developed and developing countries. Primarily
with them, they are tried and tested in the
labour is cheaper in developing countries and as a
environment and the tools are readily available.
result typically construction methods require
greater numbers of people and less machinery to
4.2.4 Environment
complete similar tasks. This has impacts on the
H,S&W of the workforce and must be considered. It is worth noting that local workers are likely to be
Locally employed techniques and methodologies used to working in the environment in ways that
workers from elsewhere may not be. Frequently
Case Study 4 – Communication and workers from developed countries working in
developing countries will find themselves less
Education: Gaseke's Bridge to
prepared for the conditions found onsite such as
Prosperity (B2P), Rwanda altitude, extreme weather, and dangerous animals.
This must be considered throughout the
construction process.
4.3 Communication, Education and

Cultural Attitudes
4.3.1 Communication and Education

Communication and education are the real key to
success on H,S&W on footbridge projects in
developing countries. It is important that any
essential H,S&W related parts of the design are
suitably communicated. In some instances the
workforce may not understand technical drawings
Image: Exclusion zone on Gaseke's B2P11
or the written language of the designer. It's
important that appropriate steps are taken to
During the construction of Gaseke's Bridge to
provide the required communication and
Prosperity in 2015, a 51m suspension footbridge,
education. It should be noted that communication
it was noted that the local Rwandan farmers
includes signs, hand as well as acoustic signals. The
persistently ignored the exclusion zone which had
efficacy of communication is crucial and therefore
been established underneath the area where
the quality of information and the method of
work at height was being conducted. Once the
delivery will determine the level of performance by
reason for the zone and its importance (to
the receiver.
prevent the risk of anyone being struck by
something falling from height) was Ideally it is not only a one-way communication to
communicated to the local children via a make locals aware of risks and requirements. Local
translator they ensured that the farmers were workers should be encouraged to assess situations
properly educated and no longer entered the by themselves and report concerns or suggestions
exclusion zone. The original problem with for improvements.
ignoring the exclusion zone wasn't through lack
of care, but was through lack of knowledge as to 4.3.2 Cultural Attitudes
what it was – they had not encountered one What is deemed an acceptable risk is different in
before. Empowering the local children with this different cultures and this must be considered
knowledge and the duty to help improve the throughout a project, particularly when working
health and safety around the construction site with local workers in identifying and eliminating
helped to encourage a culture of learning and hazards. Many developed countries have adopted
improvement around the site.
239
a 'zero accident' vision, different organisations could have done the day's tasks more safely. The
brand this differently but it is essentially the same ideas and approaches may not have been obvious
concept, that all accidents are preventable. This before for various reasons, but could help to
has helped to improve H,S&W and reduce improve future activities on the project or the same
accidents as each incident or event that was nearly activity on future projects. The workforce may have
an incident is considered a learning opportunity ideas of how to incorporate local techniques or
and steps are taken to prevent it re-occurring. technologies that may not have previously been
considered (as in case studies 1 and 3). Discussing
Workers having the power and ability to point out
this on a daily basis will also help to encourage the
and prevent unsafe practices without fearing about
workforce to be constantly looking for ways to
repercussions (both social and professional) is
improve the H,S&W of activities onsite.
essential. In reality this is important to stress, but a
single footbridge project is never going to shift
4.4.1 Reporting
cultural attitudes. If cultural attitudes have the
potential to decrease the safety of the worksite In developed countries there is typically
then it should be considered how to mitigate this. mechanisms and legislation surrounding the
reporting of accidents on site, for example the
4.4 Feedback and Reporting Reporting of Injuries, Diseases and Dangerous
Occurrences Regulations 2013 (RIDDOR)14 in the
Often footbridge projects in developing countries
UK. In developing countries these mechanisms and
are not isolated single projects. It's essential that
legislation are often in place but not regularly
the lessons learnt are shared and the designs and
implemented or enforced. However, to aid in the
processes can be improved upon for the next
improvement of this situation NGOs can help to
project. It's very important to involve the
workforce in this as much as possible. At the end of
each day the workforce can be asked how they Case Study 6 – Feedback: B2P
Industry Partner Programme
Case Study 5 – Communication and
Education: Rugusa's Bridge to
Prosperity (B2P), Rwanda
Image: Feedback on a Bridge to Prosperity 13
Image: Rugusa's B2P12 The NGO Bridges to Prosperity (B2P) have an

industry partner programme where some of their
For the construction of Rugusa's Bridge to bridges are built with the assistance of volunteers
Prosperity in 2017, a 60m suspended footbridge, from engineering design and construction firms in
the stressing sequence of the main cables was developed countries. One of the major benefits to
identified as one of the tasks with the highest risk. the organisation is the feedback these
An exclusion zone beneath the cables was set up experienced volunteers can provide. Through this
and different acoustic signals (horn) informed all feedback the organisation's standardised bridge
workers before and after a cable was stressed. designs and construction methods are
incrementally improved and made safer.
240
encourage the reporting of incidents, rather than References

ignore the legislation and contribute to the
problem. [1] Health & Safety Executive. Fatal injuries
arising from accidents at work in Great Britain:
5 Conclusion Headline results 2016/17 [homepage on the
Internet]. c2017 [cited 2017 Nov 15]. Available
Health, safety and welfare (H,S&W) should always from: Health and Safety Executive
be a top priority on all construction sites in any [2] Directorate of Occupational Safety and Health
environment. Typically standards of H,S&W on Services. Kenya Annual Report 2011. Kenya:
construction sites in developing countries are DOSHS; 2011.
worse than in developed countries. When dealing [3] WHO/ILO definition of occupational health
with the H,S&W of those involved in footbridge (adopted 1950, revised 1995)
construction projects in developing countries there [4] The Health and Safety at Work etc Act 1974
are several approaches which can be employed at [cited 2017 Nov 28]. Available from: Health
various stages of the project to improve the and Safety Executive
conditions for all involved. [5] The Construction (Design and Management)
Legislation varies between countries and typically Regulations 2015 [cited 2017 Nov 28].
developed countries have more rigorously Available from: http://www.legislation.gov.uk
enforced legislation, however this should not be [6] Management of H&S at Work Regulations
seen as an excuse for poor H,S&W performance. 1999. [cited 2017 Nov 28]. Available from:
When operating in developing countries NGOs Health and Safety Executive
should seize the opportunity to improve the [7&13] Collin Hughes, Bridges to Prosperity
compliance with relevant local legislation and [8] Sonnbichler D., Ludin M., Kreis B. Footbridges
demonstrate best practice. for Kenya. Paper presented at: IABSE
Symposium Madrid 2014. Engineering for
Designers should take responsibility for the H,S&W progress, nature and people; 2014 Sep 3-5;
of those working on the construction of footbridges Madrid, Spain. Zurich: IABSE Reports; 2014. p.
in developing countries. For designers to be able to 916-923
effectively do this they must have the best possible [9&10] Benjamin Kreis, Econosphere Projects
knowledge of the environment their design will [11] Johannes Whittam, COWI
constructed in and the tools, materials and skills [12] Matthias Ludin, COWI
available. Designers should employ the principles [14] Reporting of Injuries, Diseases and Dangerous
of prevention to improve the conditions of those Occurrences Regulations 2013 Available from:
working onsite and ensure that their design is as Health and Safety Executive
adaptable as possible to enable it to be constructed
safely.
At the start of the construction phase of the project
the construction team must carefully plan the
works, undertake risk assessments and method
statements, and plan the site layout and welfare
facilities required. During the implementation
stage of the construction the team must verify
previous assumptions and undertake dynamic risk
assessments. Communication and education are
essential to the success of H,S&W during the
construction of a footbridge in a developing
country. Cultural attitudes must be sensitively
considered throughout the project and feedback
mechanisms should be in place to facilitate the
improvement of future projects.
241
B2P Rutaka Footbridge – Improving Safety using Innovative Deck Pull

Method
Ian Towler, Brandon Mills
Mott MacDonald, Manchester and Southampton, UK
Matt Lofts, William Benson

Balfour Beatty, London, UK
Ben Mills
Jacobs, London, UK (formerly Balfour Beatty, UK)
Contact: ian.towler@mottmac.com
Abstract
In developing nations, rural communities often lack year-round safe access to local markets, farms,
schools, health clinics and other critical services. Bridges to Prosperity has developed standard
footbridge designs and construction methodologies to successfully construct over 200 footbridges.
This paper presents a case study of the 40m long suspended footbridge constructed in the
community of Rutaka in Rwanda in 2017. The normal deck construction method required the
operatives to spend a significant amount of time working at height. The industry team set
themselves a challenge to reduce this.
The team successfully developed and trialled a methodology for launching the deck from a
platform on the river bank, improving safety and quality control. It is a significant step forward in
the development of safety and construction methods for Bridges to Prosperity.
Keywords: Bridges to Prosperity; Rwanda; footbridge; suspended span construction; deck launch;
innovation; safe system of work; safe access
construct over 200 footbridges in developing

1 Introduction countries since 2001. The construction
In developing nations, rural communities often methodologies used have seen incremental
lack year-round safe access to local markets, improvements following lessons learned from
farms, schools, health clinics and other critical projects, which has led to construction, safety and
services. Bridges to Prosperity (B2P) is a non-profit programme enhancements.
organisation which is solving this issue by building This paper presents a case study of the B2P
footbridges in partnership with local communities, Rutaka Footbridge build in Rwanda in June 2017. A
sponsor companies and professionals. B2P has team of ten volunteers from industry partners
developed standard footbridge designs and Balfour Beatty and Mott MacDonald (BBMM)
construction methodologies to successfully pioneered an innovative deck launch
242
methodology, believed to be the first time the walkway cable and handrail cable at either end of
method had been attempted on a B2P footbridge. the cross beam. The suspenders are bent using a
steel tube and considerable physical effort has to
The footbridge crosses the Nyagako River and
be applied while working at height.
serves the communities of Nyamirama and
Kanyinya, with a combined population of 10,000,
in Muhanga District 70km west of the capital
Kigali. During the rainy season, which lasts for 8
weeks a year, the river swells to and over the river
banks. In the three years prior to construction,
four people had died attempting to cross.
Figure 2. Conventional method for installation of

swing assemblies [1]
Once installed the swing assemblies are launched
like a swing along the walkway cable and slid into
position using either ropes or by an operative
balancing on the structural cables. To prevent the
Figure 1. Rutaka river valley first swing moving it is fixed at the main tower and
clamped into place; however, further suspended
2 Conventional construction crossbeams are not fixed and can swing or slide.
Movement is only reduced once a decking plank is
methodology
laid and screwed down.
B2P has two standard footbridge designs, a
Once the swing assemblies are in place timber
suspension span footbridge and a suspended span
deck planks, which can each weigh up to 20kg, are
footbridge, selected for specific sites depending
fixed to them in sequence, working from one
on site characteristics. The Rutaka Footbridge is a
abutment to the other. The deck comprises five
suspended span footbridge. Handrail and footway
planks in width which are staggered along the
cables are slung across the span and anchored
span of the structure. The planks are laid out by
into a reinforced concrete anchor beam buried
the bridge team and drilled and fixed into place
beneath each approach ramp. The anchor beams
(Figure 3).
are fixed in place by the ramp and abutment walls
and the weight of the stone backfill, grout infill
and concrete ramps. Before backfilling and
constructing the bridge deck the sag of the cables
is set to design levels by tensioning with a winch.
The conventional deck construction methodology
involves working at height using harnesses fitted
with a fall arrest system. Swing assemblies are
fashioned at height while standing on the front
tiers of the abutment (Figure 2). Swing assemblies
consist of cross beams (steel RHS with timber
nailers attached) bearing on the walkway cables
and fixed in place by suspenders (10mm steel Figure 3. Conventional method for installation of
reinforcement bars) bent around both the deck planks [1]
243
As the team lay the deck, they each wear a An area of level ground was identified in front of
harness clipped onto the handrail cable, and they the east abutment where a temporary works
balance on the 200mm wide planks or on the platform with edge protection could be built. If a
footway cables. It is not until the deck is complete suitable method to launch the deck could be
and the mesh fencing between deck and handrail devised, it would be possible to install the swing
is in place that the harnesses are no longer assemblies and connect the deck planks from
required. within the temporary platform. This would
provide a safer working environment and allow
3 Development of the “launch” greater quality control during installation.
methodology The tools and equipment available to the team
were limited to that available on site, provided by
3.1 The proposal B2P, and that which the BBMM team could bring
with them on commercial flights from the UK to
The BBMM team was motivated to identify an
Rwanda. It was proposed that the winch required
opportunity where their knowledge, experience,
to set the sag of the cables could also be utilised
and ingenuity could deliver additional value. The
team reviewed the conventional construction to pull the deck across the span. The Sketchup
methodology and felt that it could be improved. model was updated and used to visualise this
process and to aid understanding and stimulate
Working at height was identified as the major discussion within the team (Figure 5).
safety risk during the construction of the deck.
The work undertaken at height is also labour
intensive, involving a large amount of manual
handing of materials along the span of the bridge
and physical exertion to bend the suspenders to
fix the swings to the cables. The BBMM team set
themselves the challenge to significantly reduce
the amount of working at height during this phase
of construction.
Influenced by long span bridge construction,
where bridge launching is a common construction Figure 5. Proposed temporary platform with deck
method, the team explored whether a suitable installation in progress
launching method could be developed to suit the
B2P suspended footbridge construction. 3.2 Construction planning
The BBMM team prepared a Sketchup model of Planning for successful delivery always takes time,
the 40m span Rutaka footbridge and site to help debate, and many “eyes on” to get to the best
visualise the construction process and understand solution, fully worked out and error free.
the site constraints (Figure 4). However, in most cases – as happened in this
instance – time is rarely a luxury.
The BBMM team was selected and the volunteers
first met in April 2017. This meant there was a
little over three months to plan for the project;
including logistics, resourcing and developing a
safe methodology in a foreign country, utilising a
new system of work for the deck construction.
A Product Breakdown Structure (PBS) was
produced which captured what had to be
constructed by the BBMM and B2P in-country
Figure 4. Sketchup model of the Rutaka footbridge
244
team. This, along with outline sequence sketches

was shared with the B2P team to clarify the
elements that the BBMM team would construct
(Figures 6).
Figure 7. Visual briefing sheet

Breaking the work into packages ensured that
activities and hazards were identified in sufficient
Figure 6. Rutaka Product Breakdown Structure granularity to reduce risks to as low as reasonably
practicable. The process also identified additional
This PBS was used to split the BBMM team into permanent works design to reduce risk, such as
sub-groups. The teams were broadly organised via adding handrails on the approach ramps. It
physical site activities: ensured a good base of knowledge for the entire
· Tensioning the cables. team, and made sure the tight preparation
· Preparing the deck components. timescales were achieved. Use of models,
· Pulling the deck across. diagrams and regular contact fortified
· Backfilling / grouting approach ramps. understanding and deliverables and safeguarded
· Decking / general finishing works. success.
· Edge protection to the ramp.
3.3 Developing the detail
Breaking the work activities and the team down
into manageable sections provided focus on each The launching method required a temporary
activity and helped develop individuals’ planning platform constructed of timber, sourced locally for
and knowledge of the construction methodology. a small cost, with full edge protection. The
It enabled the senior team members to take an platform allowed decking to be installed in 2m
overview and to appraise the methodology. The sections and pulled (“launched”) over the span
detailed methodology was prepared by the sub- using a series of ropes connected to a winch
teams, and risk assessments and site briefing secured to the anchor beam at the far abutment
documentation prepared. This was used on site to (Figure 8).
communicate the activities to the site team, most
of whom would not speak English (Figure 7).
A detailed construction programme was produced
using as-built data from previous B2P teams. This
highlighted that construction activities would
need to be staggered to complete the
construction in time for the inauguration and
individual section leads would be required to drive
the work forwards.
Figure 8. Anchoring of winch to anchor beam
245
High strength yachting rope (braid polyester) was

selected as the pull rope based on its high tensile
strength, low elasticity, and weather resistance.
The rope was purchased in the UK and
transported to Rwanda by the BBMM team as part
of their check-in luggage.
It was determined that the anchor beam should
be backfilled (to mitigate movement) and the
winch secured to it via a spare cable and D-
shackle. On the other end of the winch, the
winching cable was connected to the high
strength rope using a figure-of-8 knot, which in
turn was tied to the winching cable at the top of
the abutment. Once the winching cable hook Figure 10. Pulling system connected to swing
reached the winch and could not be pulled any assemblies
further, the tension from the winch was released The lower rope connecting the swing assemblies
and the cable was pulled through and connected together was tied tightly and under tension. The
to the high strength rope at the top of the team determined that it was vital that the load
abutment using a new figure-of-8 knot. A spare transfer between cross beams was via the rope
length of ducting was used to reduce friction of rather than deck, to avoid the risk of deck screws
the rope on the top of the abutment and to avoid shearing. The high-level rope connecting the
damage to the rope due to the rough concrete suspenders ensured that the suspenders did not
surface (Figure 9). trail behind the cross-beams.
The sag of the suspension cables is not a circular
curve; therefore, the deck panels undergo a
change of curvature as they move across the
cables. To allow as much movement as possible it
was proposed that the central lag screws were not
engaged into the nailer until after the deck was
pulled into place (Figure 11).
Figure 9. Deck winching set up

The high strength ropes were connected to the
swing assemblies (Figure 10). The line of action of Figure 11. Untightened central lag screws
the pull is parallel to the walkway cables as the
load in the structure is mostly supported by the The Sketchup model was also used to
walkway cables under permanent load conditions. demonstrate staging, clash detection and
A sling was used to connect to the first swing provided measurement details for the design of
assembly and a shackle used to connect this sling the temporary platform and edge protection.
to the high strength rope.
246
3.4 Technical assurance (v) The total pulling force, Ft, was checked against
the pulling capacity of the winch.
The key to the methodology was the analysis of
the forces needed to be overcome by pulling the This calculation for the required pulling force, Ft, is
bridge deck over the steel cables. The temporary conservative in that it assumes that the entirety of
works was designed by a team member and the deck is pulled up the angle of incline. Clearly,
checked and signed off by a specialist temporary this is not the case as the cables are in sag and the
works designer in Balfour Beatty. The calculations angle of incline changes over the length of the
undertaken to determine the suitability of the cable.
deck pulling method are simplistic and were The factors of safety are built into the equipment.
determined from first principles. The outline steps For example, the winch that was used had a 3 ton
are as follows: lifting capacity and a 5 ton pulling capacity. Slings,
(i) The permanent load per metre length (minus shackles, and ropes were rated for 4 tons.
the cable load) was calculated.
(ii) The dead load sag and maximum angle of the
4 In Rutaka
cable were calculated at the abutment tower of
the side from which the winching was to be 4.1 Construction
undertaken. Example calculations were The deck launch from a temporary platform was a
referenced from the B2P Builder Manual [1]. resounding success and significantly reduced the
(iii) The angle found in (ii) was used to calculate amount of working at height using harnesses. The
the pulling force required using the following use of high strength rope, shackles and lifting sling
equation: allowed for a flexible installation because the
elements were simple to put together using
cos sin (1) conventional rope knots. The construction of the
Where: temporary platform was simply and successfully
installed by the in-country team, with only minor
F Required force to pull the deck; alterations from the original plan required once
μs Static coefficient of friction, assumed to the BBMM team arrived on site.
be 0.8 for dry steel on steel; The temporary platform allowed the team to
m Mass; complete the assembly of the bridge deck in a safe
and controlled environment (Figure 12), removing
g Acceleration due to gravity; the requirement for working at height from this
θ Angle of incline; stage of the process.
The static friction coefficient assumed was
considered to be conservative.
(iv) There will be some friction as the pulling rope
passes over the saddle to the location of the
winch and this was accounted for in the total
pulling force required of the winch. By treating the
pulling rope and saddle as a friction pulley, the
resultant normal force on the saddle was
calculated. By multiplying this by an appropriate
friction coefficient the force to overcome the
friction over the saddle was found. This
highlighted the importance of providing a low
friction surface for the rope to slide over to reduce
friction and wear. The forces found in (iii) and (iv) Figure 12. Deck construction within temporary
were added to provide the total force Ft. platform
247
A specific briefing on the use of the temporary community members would gather and listen to
platform was established. The platform was these discussions and provide feedback based on
limited to a maximum of six people at one time. stories illustrated through the photos (Figure 13).
Signage was used to clearly convey this safety This allowed the team to gain a level of
protocol. This approach reinforced safety engagement and mutual learning that otherwise
behaviours that the team emphasised on site. would not have been possible. It also clearly gave
joy and enjoyment to the community.
In addition to introducing innovations to the
construction methodology, the team focused on The bridge build also generated local publicity,
creating and cultivating a safety culture on site. with politicians attending site to observe the
This approach provided additional benefits with construction. The temporary platform allowed
site behaviours and training which were adopted them to review the launch and the build up close
by the BBMM and in-country team members. but from a safe position. They even had the
opportunity to help fix a deck plank in position.
4.2 Community engagement
The inclusion of community members in the
bridge build was central to the success of the
project. All community members of the
construction team were integrated into the
BBMM and B2P team. The team took care to
involve local workers in each element of
construction to provide the greatest level of skills
transfer. The temporary platform allowed the
workers to be rotated easily, as opposed to using
harnesses and working at height which requires
additional equipment and training.
Individuals from the community were selected to Figure 13. Participatory photography meeting
form the bridge maintenance committee. Most
had been involved in the construction, although 5 Discussion
some had not. The platform allowed them to be
trained in a safe environment. Formal training was The process highlighted differences in working
completed on bridge maintenance, including the practices between commercial Western
provision of manuals and equipment. construction teams and charities operating in
Engagement was led by the B2P in-country site developing countries. In developed countries
engineer who translated maintenance instructions hazards such as working at height are eliminated
communicated by the BBMM team. The in- from the process wherever possible. For charities
country engineer had a leading role in the project, operating in the developing world, the cost and
providing invaluable advice about standard availability of extra materials and risk prevention
construction methods. can be prohibitive. Construction methodologies
must be sustainable, affordable, and replicable at
Off-site, building on initiatives developed during other bridge sites and in other countries.
previous Balfour Beatty B2P builds, the team’s
communication coordinator ran a participatory The successful completion of the bridge deck pull
photography project with 10 community opens the opportunity for the methodology to be
members. Community members were provided applied on a future B2P suspended footbridge
disposable cameras and given the opportunity to builds.
take photos of their daily journeys. Gatherings The equipment and materials used for the Rutaka
were held where participants were given copies of build can be reused for bridge builds of a similar
all their developed photos and invited to discuss span in Rwanda, if they are carefully looked after
their photos and share their experiences. Other and stored appropriately. The deck launch rate
248
could be increased by constructing a larger construction efficiency, safety, and quality. The
temporary platform to allow longer deck sections team were commended by B2P for the success of
to be installed for each incremental pull. this method and their community engagement.
As the length of span increases, the force required The team focused on people, particularly the local
to be pulled by the winch and high strength rope workers and community, recognising that the
also increases. The limiting span is likely to be ultimate client was the local community that the
determined by the capacity of the winch available footbridge would serve. By focusing on
on-site or the availability of rope with sufficient community, the team enabled the locals to deliver
tensile strength to provide an acceptable factor of their own footbridge.
safety. For substantially longer span lengths the
B2P has communicated that they are interested in
deck could be pulled in multiple sections which
utilising the deck launch technique in future
are then connected above the river.
builds. To assist future builds the BBMM team has
The use of high-strength yachting rope at Rutaka produced a technical note detailing the deck
does not maximise the use of local materials, and launch methodology.
consideration is necessary in future to the
sustainability aspect of this choice. Alternative 7 Acknowledgements
options, or a methodology to reduce the length of
rope required, could be considered. The authors would like to acknowledge Bridges to
Prosperity for the outstanding work that they
The parapet mesh cannot be installed until the undertake and the way that they approach their
suspender pig tails have been bent (clamping the bridge builds, Balfour Beatty and Mott MacDonald
suspenders to the handrail cable). The result of for their contributions to the project, and the B2P
this is that there is still an element of working at in-country team, including Claude Munyaneza, for
height to complete these elements. An alternative their support and guidance.
fencing detail could be derived to eliminate this
hazard. This could be in the form of smaller low- 8 References
level cables, to create a restraint system to allow
the mesh to be installed without harnesses. [1] Volume 2 of the Bridges to Prosperity
Bridge Builder Manual, 5th Edition; 2016.
6 Conclusions
One of the key successes for this project was the
innovative use of temporary works to improve
249
Integrated Engagement for Considered Infrastructure: Harmonising

New with Old
Molly Stroyman
COWI UK Ltd., London UK
Contact: molly.stroyman@gmail.com
Abstract
Rural isolation limits communication, resulting in already vulnerable communities being less
informed and underrepresented regarding infrastructure changes which directly affect them.
Amplifying this gap are the project teams who don't know how to engage them.
Illustrated through the Tubungo build and the Local Perspectives photovoice project, the need to
integrate engagement into engineering to deliver better infrastructure to those who need it most
is discussed.
Keywords: rural isolation; integrated engineering; community engagement; participatory
consultation; toolkit; standards; ethics; infrastructure; access.
project which ran alongside it. It illustrates the

1 Introduction need for isolated communities to have direct
In 2016, a 10 person team from Flint & Neill and representation through appropriate
Balfour Beatty partnered with Bridges to communication tools; for an integrated
Prosperity (B2P) and the community of Tubungo, engagement in engineering standard for
and together we built a 48m suspension developing countries; and a consultation &
footbridge over the Mukungwa River, enabling engagement best practice guideline for those who
safe access for the community of 10,000. work with them.
In preparing for the journey, the London team
heard compelling stories from previous builds, but
2 Tubungo
all accounts were through the polished lens of a
2.1 The build
western camera. The need for a safe crossing was
evident, but if communities were consulted, why In Tubungo, it was clear that information about
couldn't we hear them? the build had not been shared widely enough.
Most residents were not aware of what we were
Rural isolation limits communication, resulting in
building, what would happen to their existing
communities like Tubungo, where word of mouth
crossings, or what work opportunities were
is the primary method of communication, being
associated with the build.
less informed and underrepresented in
conversations which they have a direct interest in. Information and opportunity was limited to those
Amplifying this gap was the project team who who already had access to it, or to those who had
didn't know how to engage them. direct contact with others in the know. That
limited access, like any access restriction, has the
This paper discusses the lessons learned through
potential to create or widen inequality.
the build and the Local Perspectives photovoice
250
In the UK, communities are protected and their views directly about the project. For their
supported by standards and regulations during international audience, it was the first time most
infrastructure changes. In developing countries had heard Rwandan perspectives, unfiltered.
where no such standards exist, responsibility lies
With the right tools and expertise, community
with project teams and industry to determine
views can be shared with and accounted for by
level of duty and care.
project teams; enabling more community-specific
B2P chooses to work to an exceptionally high considerations to be made, fostering greater
social commitment, working with communities adoption of the project and stronger relationships
through local Bridge Committees to inform and locally and with the team.
deliver their projects. However, there is no
Similarly, if engagement is not built into the
standard for engagement nor guidelines to follow
programme and budgeted for, we risk
and, in Tubungo, it was clear that there was a
undermining our most vulnerable communities.
communication gap between the Committee and
the community they represented.
3 Conclusions
During a follow up visit in 2017, when residents
were asked what would improve that link, they What the Tubungo build and the Local
said that an engineer-supported community Perspectives projects demonstrated is that the
meeting in advance would have helped. Their communication gap can be closed, but an
main concern was being part of the conversation. integrated engagement in engineering standards
for developing countries – is needed. And, in the
absence of a standard, a best practice for project
2.2 Local Perspectives teams to refer to.
Engineers receive no formal training on Just as important as technical specifications and
engagement. No guidance nor precedent had management, community engagement must also
been set, nor time built into the programme to form part of the scope of works because in
allow it. Community feedback was not included as developing countries where the safety net of
part of the scope of work, hence it was viewed as standards falls away, ethical decision making rests
a nice additional, but not a requirement. with individuals and industry, putting already
Until it is a project requirement however, there is vulnerable communities at risk.
nothing to ensure that happens. On the Tubungo If we do not ask local residents what they think,
build, our team had excellent technical and we are repeating patterns of colonialism, where
project management expertise but, while the at-risk communities are subject to someone else's
team wanted to pose the question, 'What does projection of what serves them best, or in less
the community think?' they were unprepared for philanthropic cases, what serves the developer
how to ask. best.
In an effort to answer that question, I organised It can feel counter-intuitive to stop and talk when
and ran a photovoice project, 'Local Perspectives', the need for infrastructure is urgent, but through
alongside the build. Disposable cameras were integrated engagement in engineering, we can
provided, residents trained in how to use them, harmonise new skills and technology within
given an open brief and, with the help of a existing complex communities to deliver better,
translator, their views were captured. more considered infrastructure to those who need
As Tubungo's stories were shared, their opinions it most.
gained recognition and value and, with increased
support, it was possible to make their records into 4 References
a book, Tubungo Bridge 2016: Local Perspectives. [1] Stroyman, M. Tubungo Bridge 2016: Local
For residents, the 'Local Perspectives' project was Perspectives. London: Molly Stroyman & Flint &
the first time they were able to record and share Neill Ltd. 2016
251
Bridges to Prosperity Llapallapani Suspension Pedestrian Bridge,

Llapallapani, Bolivia
Pushing the B2P Suspension Bridge Limits
Thomas Cooper, Juan Diego Montenegro
WSP, Denver, CO, USA
Kirsten Tilleman,
WSP, Portland, OR, USA
Contact: Thomas.Cooper@wsp.com
Abstract
This paper discusses the conceptualization, design and locally-appropriate construction, and development of
the Llapallapani Pedestrian Bridge. At 128-meters, the suspension footbridge is located in the Andes
Mountains, in the central Bolivian municipality of Llapallapani. The bridge was completed in 2015 and
provides safe access for children up and down the valley to go to school without having to wade through the
Anquioma River, which flows very high during the snow melt runoff season. It also provides safe, year-round
access for residents to transport produce and other goods across the river, to and from markets in nearby
communities.
Keywords: Bridges to Prosperity; Bolivia; footbridge; resources; suspension bridge; safe access
two in Haiti. The Llapallapani bridge served as a

1 Introduction prototype for the Haitian bridges, the lessons
All Bridges to Prosperity (B2P), a non-profit learned from Llapallapani contributed to a more
organization based in Denver, Colorado, prefers to efficient construction of the two bridges in Haiti.
furnish human and material resources for its While this long-span structure used sustainable
projects, and to inspire robust local organizations methods, the volume of work and scope of
by providing training and mentoring. Constructing materials was a strain for this rural, developing
the Llapallapani bridge with local labor and community. Due to the bridge’s long span and
materials, and with help from B2P staff and limited accessibility, innovative construction
volunteers, proved very effective. This model, with methods (along with significant local labor) were
due consideration of the community’s capabilities, needed to complete the project with minimal use
is being replicated in other global locations with of heavy machinery.
similar conditions throughout B2P’s worldwide
footbridge program. 2 Conditions Upon Arrival
At the time of its completion, the Llapallapani
At Llapallapani, the original river crossing method
bridge claimed the longest span completed by
consisted of fording the minor channels and using
Bridges to Prosperity. The scope of the project,
a bridge constructed of three logs resting on two
from its relatively remote location to the long span
river stone made tiers to cross the main channel.
length and enormous amount of local labor
The mountainous terrain results in high storm
needed, tested the B2P model for bridge
water runoff catchment and causes a rainfall event
construction. During the 2015/2016 construction
to rapidly rise the river level, increasing the safety
seasons, B2P had three long suspension bridges to
risk to people making the crossing. During the rainy
construct; the Llapallapani bridge in Bolivia and
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season, the river level is approximately 1.2m deep The soil conditions for the project site are
with extremely fast velocity prohibiting the people categorized as “Silty Sand, fine to medium grain
from crossing. A pedestrian bridge over the with 20-30mm rounded stones and cobbles.” Due
Anquioma River safely connects the communities
to the vicinity of the river, fully saturated soils were
of Llapallapani and Taucaraci (another nearby
community served by the bridge) to local, regional, assumed. The soil is considered “Poorly Graded”
and capital resources. In total, the bridge will serve and classified as “Soil Class C.”
approximately 600 people with an estimated daily
traffic level of 150 people.
Figure 3 - Access road to project site (48 switch back

turns)
Figure 1 - Flood control wall built by community
2.2 Construction Resources
Construction resources were arguably the most
challenging obstacles in the Llapallapani bridge
project. The community members were very
inspiring and helpful, not only they had to fulfil
their daily jobs, but also volunteer in the
construction of the bridge. Understandably, this
made them sporadically and inconsistently
available. Nonetheless, they were present during
most challenging and labor intensive operations.
Equipment was scarce and unreliable. For example,
during the planning phase of the project, B2P was
assured that welding machines and welders were
Figure 2 - River crossing upon arrival
available for the project. However, upon arrival,
2.1 Site Access and Soil Conditions the welder had to be rented and transported from
a nearby town at B2P’s expense. Similarly, the
The Llapallapani bridge is in the scenic Andes
bigger equipment (e.g., backhoe loader) and
mountains approximately 200 km (4 hrs.)
operator had to be reimbursed and furnished with
southeast of La Paz, the capital of Bolivia, and
Diesel, a highly valuable resource due to its
closest major city with construction resources. The
availability and regulated disposition by the
last 50 km (1.5) hours are narrow, winding, and
government. Chain hoists were the main lifting
gravel roads.
mechanism proving to be tremendously labor
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intensive and slow. Nonetheless, chain hoists In undertaking this massive effort, the
allowed for precise adjustments on cables and Llapallapani community began bridge site
towers. preparations in November 2014, starting with
constructing the pedestals and ramps.
Community members also dedicated significant
resources to feed and house the B2P and
corporate teams throughout the nearly year-
long construction period.
4 Design and Construction

The design was driven by practicality and
constructability given that the labor force
(community members) would be inconsistent,
resources very limited, and equipment very
scarce. While motivated to have the new
Figure 4 - Community of Llapallapani and vicinity crossing, volunteers coming from the community
still had to maintain their farms and businesses,
which over time proved to be a strain on the
3 Conceptualization labor available.
The bridge is aligned and arranged to span across 4.1 Pedestals and Anchors
the Anquioma River when it carries snowpack The tie-down for the main cables consisted of a
run-off coming down of the Andes Mountains. pedestal and anchors secured by a concrete
The span required for this crossing is 128m long block 3m below grade at both ends of the bridge.
The 3m-deep excavations were dug by a comb-
Figure 5 – 32m -128m- 26m span arrangement.
Figure 6 - Bridge Plan View across Anquioma river

Figure 7 - Anchor detail at each end of structure
considering the riverbed width due to snowpack
run-off. Towers placed on elevated areas outside
river limits
and has towers placed on elevated areas outside
the river limits. In addition, the local municipality
was required to build several hundred meters of
flood-control gabion walls to help control the
riverbed in a flood event. The wall construction
also provided training in civil works prior to the
bridge construction. Back spans had to be
arranged to avoid local roads and private land
belonging to a small local farm owner. Figure 4 - Pedestal construction
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ination of backhoe and manual labor, and had to component was the Saddle Assembly. This
wrestle with a high-water table that regularly component required fillet welds to be secured on
flooded the anchorage pits. top of the tower and prevent moisture from
4.2 Towers entering the tower. The saddle takes mostly
compression loads, which are resisted by the steel-
As with the pedestals and anchors, design of the
on-steel bearing between the saddle plates and
towers focused on what could be transported and
tower legs.
constructed in the local environment. To span the
wide flood plain, 9.5-meter prefabricated steel
towers were required; however, lifting such tall
and heavy assembled elements into place, largely
by hand, proved to be quite a challenge.
Prefabrication: The tower design is relatively
simple, but fabrication and welding had to follow
AISC standards. Given that the team could not find
certified fabricators and welders with such
certifications in Bolivia, the towers and
components had to be pre-fabricated in the US and
transported to Bolivia.
Figure 10 - Tower handling by local volunteers
4.5 Erection
Erection engineering was a major focus of
preconstruction activity between Kiewit and WSP.
Because of the bridge span length and therefore
the height of the towers, two levels of temporary
stays for the were required, resulting in in
additional temporary anchors being constructed.
Erection of the towers was very demanding
because it was mostly hand-labor. The construction
Figures 9 - Tower saddle components sequence required erection of 12-m tall scaffold
4.3 Transport towers followed by temporary supports where the
The logistics for the tower and components towers sat while bracing was installed. Erection of
transportation was a challenge because the tower the towers used a pulley system at the top of the
components had to fit within a container for the scaffolding from which cables passed through –
US-Bolivia segment, fit in a small truck to be one per tower leg – to be winched into place using
transported in narrow winding roads in Bolivia (see a chain-hoist. This was a long and arduous process
Figure 3), and light enough for unloading and as the chain-hoist was intended for lifting
handling without power equipment at the project components in a purely vertical direction. The
site. chain-hoist had to be tied-off and reconnected
many times to get the tower into its final position.
4.4 Assembly
4.6 Maintenance
Components needed to be assembled on-site with
limited welding and the only on-site welded While B2P has an inspection program and pays
255
special attention to bridges that are outside of the together, the 210 m cables were extended across
normal design parameters (span length in this the river bed, the ends lifted to the scaffolding
case), the design was developed assuming limited towers, fed through the tower saddles, and
inspection opportunities. To address this lowered to the pedestals for tie-down through a
expectation and still provide for a reasonable steel plate and chokes.
service life, the towers are sealed from moisture
4.7.2 Tensioning & Adjustments
except for a drainage hole at the bottom and are
painted to resist corrosion. Upon securing one end of the cables at the
pedestal level, the other end was tensioned using a
vehicle with a hitch to the approximate sag
elevation. Chain-hoists were used to fine tune the
sag elevation of all cables.
Figure 11 - Tower Erected and Secured Figure 52 - Cable straightening, measuring, cutting
and cleaning
4.7 Suspension System
B2P relies on donated material for bridge cable. In
this case, there had been a substantial donation of
coated pre-stressing strand. Based on the span
length and limited cable-sag requirement to
maintain minimum freeboard on heights, the
bridge suspension system required nine (9) ½-inch
pre-stressing strands per suspension cable.
Because the donated cable was epoxy coated,
greased, and PVC coated pre-stressing cable, it
needed to be cleaned to a pure steel configuration
for chocking and bonding purposes. Also, because Figure 18 - Cable Installation and Tens
Figure 13 - Cable installation
it was delivered in large reels, it needed to be
uncoiled, straightened, and cut in 210 m long 4.8 Hanger and Decking System
segments.
From the two main suspension cables the hangers
4.7.1 Installation dropped and connected to the C-channels
The installation was very labor intensive requiring supporting the wooden deck. Because the bridge
most of the community to be present. Working landings were at different elevations, all hangers
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were different in length and required precise

assembly. The system consisted of No.3
reinforcement bars bent (looped) at a specific
length if splicing was required. The connection to
the main cables consisted of a loop around the
main cable and secured via mechanical
attachments (Crosby clips). At the deck level, the
hanger connected to a C-channel steel member
using the similar methodology as in the main cable
connection. The C-channel steel member was
bolted to the wooden deck slats.
Figure 15 - Hangers pulling and spacing
Figure 14 - Deck and Hanger assembly

4.8.1 Assembly
The assembly required much organization and
physical effort. All hangers were different in length Figure 16 - Deck installation
and needed field bending. The wooden deck 4.9 Wind Guy & Safety Fence
required drilling and bolting to the C-Channels. Based on the span length and narrow deck width,
4.8.2 Installation the bridge required one 1-inch pre-stressing cable
Once the towers were erected and main tables on each side to control lateral deflection and swing
installed, the hangers were lifted to the top of the due to wind and debris impact in a flooding event.
scaffolding towers using cable pullers. The hangers The last item installed on the bridge was safety
were installed from both ends, starting from the fencing to prevent users and cattle from falling off
middle span hangers and working outwards the bridge. Fencing consisted of chain-link fence
towards both ends of the bridge. The hangers had secured to the hangers and deck.
a spacing cable to dictate the appropriate spacing
between them and avoid slippage from the main 5 Conclusion
cable. The Llapallapani bridge project was very
challenging due to its isolated location and
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resource availability. However, the willingness and  Incorrect material delivery (incorrect cable
collaboration of the community along with B2P, size for temporary scaffolding towers)
WSP, and Kiewit prevailed. affecting the construction sequence.
 Supply delays and uncertainty in delivery
Using minimal mechanical equipment, the local dates from the nearest city being 4 hours
community worked alongside a corporate team of away and trucks into Llapallapani being
Kiewit and WSP volunteers. The team faced infrequent.
notable challenges during both design and  Local political conversations (e.g., who gets
construction, many of which stem from the unique the leftover materials: cement bags,
hurdles faced when engineering for development. reinforcement, and steel cable) that served
Some examples include: as a distraction from the task at hand.
 Locating the bridge for minimum span  Construction of foundations at a site with
while meeting river hydraulic high water table and limited dewatering
requirements and missing existing farms equipment.
and property.
 Providing a safe working environment Through innovative construction methods and
while working with common local teamwork, the Llapallapani bridge’s challenges
construction practices.
transformed into lessons B2P applied to build
 Designing towers that could be delivered
and erected despite difficult access and similar and even longer bridges following
minimal power equipment. Llapallapani’s bridge model.
 Lack of access to typical construction
equipment such as cordless power tools
(drills, saws, etc.), concrete trucks or
mixing drums.
Figure 17 - Completed Llapallapani Bridge Project
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Planning, Design and Construction of Elevated Guideway of Kelana

Jaya (KLJ LRT) Extension Project and Challenges & Lessons Learnt
Dato’ Ir. Dr. Dennis Ganendra, Ir. Ab Azmar Embi, Pradip Kumar Biswas
Minconsult Sdn Bhd
Contact:biswas@minconsult.com
Abstract
Building a transportation infrastructure for fast growing city like Petaling Jaya (considered twin city
with Kuala Lumpur), Malaysia is always challenging and difficult works. One of the major
infrastructure projects, the 17 km long elevated guideway which form the extension of Kelana Jaya
Light Rail Transit (KLJ LRT) i.e Putra line is opened for service since 30th June 2016. The elevated
viaduct was designed to build extensively using precast technique. The time efficient proven
technique of span by span precast segmental construction along with some crossings with precast
balanced cantilever construction was implemented for the project. Cast-in-situ box girder and
precast U-beams with in-situ deck were also used for bifurcation and pocket track areas. Majority
of the stations (9 out of 12) for KLJ LRT Extension are island platform stations and this has major
impacts on interface in constructions, time and cost. The requirement of island platform station was
one of the main criteria for the operator i.e RapidKL which is part of Prasarana.
Curved and skewed alignment over major 6 lanes highways and commuter lines necessitates a span
as large as 100 m with 3 span balanced cantilever structure. Prestressed pier column were
introduced due to space constraint. Precast split segments were also introduced to overcome
difficulties in handling and delivery of deeper segments.
This paper describes the design scheme and contractual set up of guideway structures and presents
an overview of construction and also related issues, incidents etc.
Keywords: Precast, span-by-span, balanced cantilever, post-tensioned, prestressed pier column,
split segments, island and side platform, launching gantry
Bhd as Detailed Design Consultant (DDC).

1 Introduction Production and delivery of segments (SBG) were
In year 2010, Syarikat Prasarana Negara Berhad awarded to Nominated Sub- contractors (NSC)
(SPNB) awarded the facilities contracts to two main under two main facilities contractors. Utilities
contractors viz Trans Resources Corporation relocation and other associated works were
Berhad and Sunway Construction Sdn Bhd based on awarded under separate contract as Advance
conforming design carried out by Minconsult Sdn Works. The actual facilities works at ground started
at early 2011.
This KLJ LRT Extension line starts from present Putra Depot at Lembah Subang then pass through
Putra Depot at Lembah Subang then pass through Kelana Business Centre through Subang, USJ, Alam
This KLJ LRT Extension line starts from present Megah and ends at the Hub in Putra Heights. The
259
proposed line consists of 12 stations and meets the the depot to meet station 2 with much shorter
Ampang Line Extension at Station 13 at Putra distance. New depot access tracks (as seen in figure
Heights. All stations are fully equipped with 1) were introduced from other side of depot to
meet station 2. At station 4 area, feasibility
facilities such as lifts, escalators, public telephones,
alignment was also tweaked to bring on other side
shops, TVMs, suraus , toilets etc. The stations are of federal highway to integrate with existing
also disabled friendly with ramps, lifts, tactile, low commuter station of KTMB.
ticket counters and toilets.
Guideway mostly precast elevated also traverses

over existing Putra LRT depot and live depot tracks
and other tracks. Construction faced huge
challenges at this area due to non- closure of depot
activities or very short working window.
Figure 2. Train configuration
2 General Information Guideway was built to cater for 2 to 4 cars train as
The Kelana Jaya LRT extension line which is a shown in train configuration (figure 2). Two types
conventional design and tender project of stations namely Island Platform and Side
commenced in early 2010. The original alignment Platform are used in the project. The elevated
approved during feasibility stage was modified to structures were designed as per British Standards
take into account the new populated area and and Codes of Practices.
planned transport hub around Putra Height. Some
modifications were made at places e.g take-off 2.1 Standard Sub-structures
area, near KTMB station beside Federal Highway The viaduct sub-structures generally comprise of
(see Figure 1 below). Single Square or rectangular reinforced concrete
piers, with a pier head to house bearings to support
the super-structures. Portal piers were also used
for specific locations where single piers right below
guideway were not possible to put. Large
rectangular leaf piers with wide cross head were
also used for bifurcation areas with non-standard
deck width.
The appearances of the standard piers were kept
Figure 1. Revised alignment from feasibility similar to existing Putra line piers to maintain same
aesthetic. Piers were generally founded on bored
Provision of extension from the take-off area, at piles with diameter varies from 800 mm to 1500
Taman Emas was only kept on one side with a wide mm. Micro piles and hand dug caisson pile were
cast-in –situ box. On the other side i.e Sg. Kayu Ara also introduced in some areas where bored piles
side no provision was kept. It was not possible to were difficult due to space constraint.
construct as per feasibility alignment which needed
to demolish existing structure thus halting depot 2.2 Guideway Super-structures
operation. Therefore, two new structures were
built over NKVE expressway, one for main revenue The super-structure form is mainly similar to that
line and the other for North depot access. The of existing Putra line with box-girder. However,
existing line is maintained as other depot access sharp edges and corners were curved to soften the
(see Figure 1). appearance and give some aesthetic impact.
The feasibility alignment which was proposed The viaduct superstructures are typically formed
around the depot has been modified to pass over with single cell double track or single track box
girder. The post tensioned precast segmental deck
260
segments were cast using short line moulds at alignments were skewed and also with tight
precast factory (see Figure 3). curvature (radius 122 m to 130 m) in plan.
Figure 3. Match cast at yard Figure 4. Type 2: Over Federal Highway
Superstructure forms that are used comprises of The intermediate piers for these special crossings
simply supported single span box girder, 3 span were provided with integral pier. Type 1 special
balanced cantilever for long spans, one or two crossings were provided with haunched profile
spans reinforced concrete multi-cellular deck and with maximum super structure depth of 3.8 m at
precast U-beam and in-situ slab. integral piers and standard depth of 2.2 m at mid
span and ends. Type 2 special crossing (see Figure
The maximum span length for standard span-by- 4) used a smooth curved profile with a maximum
span construction with double track was limited to depth of 6m at integral pier and this reduced to
36 m. This span was used as much as possible for 3.0m at mid span. End span depth reduced to 2.2m
the majority of the length. But other double track to match with standard superstructure depth.
spans with 30 m and 27 m were also used in some
areas. Maximum span length for single track was
limited to 27 m but other spans such as 24, 21 and
18 m were also used for areas with some
constraints and restrictions.
2.3 Special Long Spans

Special long spans were used with three spans
continuous structure constructed using balance
cantilever erection technique with precast
segments. Two types of span arrangements viz 42-
65-42 (Type 1) and 65-100-65 (Type 2) were used.
Figure 5. Cantilever construction
There were total 14 (fourteen) such crossings for
the projects with 4 (four) crossings with 100 m and The special crossings made design assumptions
the rest were with 65 m central span. that all the segments except pier head shall be
Type 1, special crossing had been provided to cross precast with match cast technique and shall be
major highways. Alignment with very tight erected using joints between segments. The pier
curvature in plan (less than 130 m radius) was head segments shall be cast-in-place. Segmental
provided with type 1 special crossing as simple 36m balanced cantilever construction were assumed to
span was not feasible for high uplift forces. Type 2 be done using lifting frame/ segment erector (as
crossings were provided over major highways such seen in Figure 5) attached to the superstructure
as Federal Highway (Figure 4), KESAS Highway at and accordingly extra load of 700kN was
Jalan Jengka and Summit interchange where considered for construction stage. Cast-in-place
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balanced cantilever method was not chosen due to finalized after these additional investigation and
fast track nature of project and large number of sensitivity analysis for special crossings.
special crossings that need to be constructed.
2.4 Deck Super elevation
Combination of internal and external tendons were
used for these special crossing. Solid rectangular No super elevation was provided on the deck i.e
pier with cast-in-situ pier segment were used in precast segments to avoid any slow down on
type 1 and all external continuity tendons were production of match cast segments and eventual
anchored in pier head segments (Figure 6). impact on rate of guideway installation. It was
recommended that track will be installed on
separate plinth that are cast based on the final
track elevation required by the System’s
contractor.
Thus the super elevation /cant for the track was
considered using final concrete track bed or second
pour concrete which is an acceptable track support
for direct fixation track.
3 Prescasting of Segments
Figure 6. Integral Pier-tendon anchors
The precast segments were cast by two different
Hollow integral prestressed pier column (as shown contractors in two different casting yard viz Batu
in Figure 7) were introduced for type 2 crossing. Gajah , Perak and Olak Lempit , Kuala Selangor.
Prestressed pier was introduced in order to Total 6594 segments were cast for the entire
preserve aesthetic view of guideway which is only project in these two yards. Segment casting started
3.3 m in transverse direction at bottom. on early 2012 and finished on early 2015 with
casting of 100 m special crossing segment. Total 18
moulds viz 12 nos for Double Track (DT) and 6 nos
for Single Track (ST) were used for standard spans
whereas 1 to 3 numbers moulds were used for
special crossing with long span.
Segment casting rate were different for different
yard. For package A (Batugajah) peak rate was
around 150 segments per month where as for
other yard that was around 9 segments per day.
Normal casting rate varied between 120 segments
per month to 6 segments per day.
Figure 7. Prestressed Integral Pier
4 Analysis and Design of Viaduct
Although the tender design was based on bore
holes close to piers locations, however considering Global analysis of different superstructures were
the importance of the structures additional bore carried out using TDV-RM2006 software. Complete
holes were carried out at the actual pier locations analysis using stage by stage and final analysis was
for all the special crossings. Foundation design was carried out.
262
Figure 8. Fibre Stresses for Longspan: 100m BC
TDV output shows typical stress conditions for type that of UIC 60 rail, the values for UIC 60 rail were
2 structures are shown in Figure 8. The ULS utilised for this TSI study.
moment capacity had been derived in accordance
The viaducts comprise a combination of simply
with BS 5400 as modified by BD 58/94. ULS shear
supported spans (maximum 36 m for DT viaduct)
capacity was assessed in accordance with BS EN
and three spans special long spans with fixed, free
1992-2 which caters for decks with external
and guided sliding Pot-PTFE bearings.
tendons.
The study investigated TSI for the following:
The length of the external tendons between fixed
points or deviators is up to approximately 24m.  Multiple simply supported 36 m spans
However, first natural frequency of the tendons are  42-65-42 continuous structures together
kept within the limits of BD 58/94. The frequency with 36 m simple span
of the cable is order of 10 Hz which is far away from  65-100-65 continuous structure together
the range of 0.8 to 1.2 times that of bridge. with 36 m simple spans
The design of viaduct structure was based on BS Based on study, for the 36 m simply supported
5400 Part 4 and associated British Standards. Other spans, the stresses and displacements are within
International Standard was also used to permissible values.
supplement the scope such as shear check with dry
However, for balanced cantilever structures, there
joints, rail structure interaction etc. Load
were slight exceedances of stresses beyond the
combination 1 to 5 of BS 5400 was generally
permissible values without a rail expansion joint.
assessed to determine critical load effects.
Therefore, it was recommended that rail expansion
joint be placed at joint between the balanced
4.1 Track Structure Interaction cantilever structure and simply supported spans.
The designs has considered the effect of Track However, final track work design and TSI were
Structure Interaction (TSI) due to continuously carried out by ‘Design and Build’ system contractor
welded rail (CWR) across all decks and deck joints and system contractor did not find any
and are connected to deck by regular track fastener requirement of rail expansion joint.
which are placed on track bed. International Union
of Railways Technical Standard UIC -774 3R 5 Contract Packaging
recommendations are used to check the rail
stresses due to this TSI behaviour for UIC 60 –CWR Keeping the volume of works in view, the total
length of guide way structures were divided in to
The Client has not stipulated additional permissible two main packages viz Package A and Package B.
stresses for the project. However, as the section Then each package was sub-divided into two
properties for 115RE rail are not too dissimilar to packages viz A1 & A2 and B1 &B2.
263
The total length of guide way is more than 17 km.

In the event, if the whole works would have been
given to one contractor and contractor faced any
resource problem, then the progress of works
would have been hampered or delayed. Therefore,
to minimize the risk, guide way construction were
awarded to two main contractors, their works were
always compared.
This comparison always helped in enhancing the
quality and speed of works. The stations were
awarded to Nominated Sub-contractor under
Package A & Package B main contractors. Figure 10. Erection on trestles
In package B, contractor tried to use overhead LG

6 Construction and Modification (as seen in Figure 11) but was later on rejected as
during Construction this was not in line with design and also led to some
The simply supported span were erected using spalling of pier head concrete.
span-by-span method with the help of underslung
Launching Gantry (LG). The continuous span were
erected by balanced cantilever method with
segment erector as explained in earlier section.For
span-by-span construction, LG was used as per
design ie LG was supported by piers with saw tooth
bracket left in piers (Figure 9).
Figure 11. Overhead LG not as per design
During initial planning and tendering stage, local

specialist contractor advised that segments up to 4
m depth can be transported via major roads and
highways form distant casting yard. At the same
time, based on locations of 100 m long span, it was
decided that segments deeper than 4 m can be cast
at respective crossing sites and thus balanced
cantilever structures with fully precast segments
Figure 9. LG support on saw-tooth were proposed for all special crossing including 100
m span.
Thus LG loads were directly transferred to pier
However, precaster finally decided to cast all
column without any eccentricity. In some areas
segments at casting yard for better facilities and
where the height was low, contractor used control and as such cantilever wing of segments
temporary trestles to support segments of simply were chopped and match cast separately.
supported spans before stressing, LG was not used Segments were brought in three pieces at
(Figure 10). respective sites. Wings were later joined by
transverse prestressing and full segments were
erected in place. As the segments were up to 6 m
deep, it was not possible to be transported up-
stand, thus these segments were rotated and
264
brought lying flat. A rotator set-up (see Figure 12) contractor opted for balanced cantilevering with
was used to ease this process. temporary tower and segments were erected by
crane from ground (as seen in Figure 14).
6.1 Incidents and issues during

Construction
Generally segment launching with LG was carried
out safely except one incident when a segment was
dropped while launching (see Figure 15). Later on
more stringent procedure was followed and all
standard spans were erected without any incident.
Figure 12. Segment rotation for delivery
For bifurcation areas, with hammerhead pier,

single track segments were erected and stressed
off the bearing (See Figure 13). Later the whole
span was shifted sidewise to put on actual bearing
by very slow side shifting process.
Figure 15. Segment drop during launching
Figure 13. ST Launching and side shifting
Figure 16. Erected ST span nearly toppled
In one of the incidents, one erected single track

span was nearly toppled (see Figure 16) when the
span was supported on temporary shim plates
instead of permanent bearings. However, incident
was taken very seriously and subsequently rest of
single track spans were erected without any major
incident.
There were also incidents, where deviator block
experienced cracking and spalling of concrete after
Figure 14. Cantilever: without erector stressing standard single track spans (see figure 17
below). This was apparently due to non-conformity
As explained earlier, balanced cantilever structures in meeting the radius and bell mouth for the
were designed to be erected with segment erector deviation saddle for external tendons.
attached to structure. However, for Package B,
265
a) Splitting of segments into three pieces with

vertical cut at the cantilever portion helped to
maintain precast segmental construction and
delivery to site even with 6 m deep segment for
100 m central span.
b) Advance relocation of utilities , helped the
main facilities contractor’s work easy and free
from much issues and dealings with utility
providers
c) Prestressing of integral columns helped to
retain smaller column size to blend with
Figure 17. Segment erector toppled over deck
superstructure.
As mentioned, contractor wanted to use LG which d) Underslung launching gantry supported by saw
was different from LG specified by designer. This tooth bracket on pier eliminated large moment
resulted cracks in some of the pier cross head during construction and also reduced pier head
which was not wide enough to support the dimension which is required for overhead
overhead LG leg. As such, this overhead gantry was In spite of the technical issues, this project has wide
rejected from using for this project. range of impact on the community along the
corridor. This has connected KLJ LRT Extension to
Ampang line at Putra height integrated station.
8 Acknowledgements
This paper is prepared with the permission of
Prasarana Malaysia Berhad. The authors would
like to acknowledge Ybhg. Dato’ Sri Azmi Abdul
Aziz, President and Group Chief Executive
Officer, Prasarana and his management team for
their support and excellent coordination of
numerous parties e.g design consultants, project
Figure 18. Segment erector toppled over deck management consultants, facilities and system
contractors etc. The authors would also like to
The 100 m crossing over federal highway also acknowledge Mott MacDonald, UK for their
nearly missed a major accident when lifting gantry involvement in the design works.
for segment erector toppled and somehow rested
on already erected deck (see Figure 18). The part of
the lifting gantry is seen precariously dangling from
9 References
the deck in the photo. [1] British Standards and codes of practice
[2] UIC Codes
7 Conclusion
[3] In-house design calculations of viaducts
Many measures were taken to speed up
construction process, avoid contractual issues
between precast segment suppliers and main
contractor responsible for erection, utility
relocation process, launching of segments etc.
Some of these are mentioned below:
266
Design of Segmental Precast Portal Frame for Red Line Mass Transit
System in Bangkok
Puvanai Wirojjanapirom, Sopon Ritdamrongkul, Sittisak Imsombat and Knut H. Nielsen
NorCiv Engineering Co., Ltd., Bangkok, Thailand
Contact: puvanai@norconsult.co.th, w.puvanai@gmail.com
Abstract
This paper presents innovative design and development of massive precast segmental concrete
portal frame system applied for Red Line Mass Transit project in Bangkok, Thailand. The Portals
were originally designed as cast-in-place concrete for supporting typical 30 m span elevated
viaduct. Several types of portal frame with single and continuous beams, single columns and T-
head columns are considered. In order to cover all the structural members, cross beams with
typical 3x3 m segmental box section, piers and pier heads are elaborately designed. Stressing and
lifting procedures were analyzed to simplify the erection process. A U-tendon system was adopted
to connect the precast pier segments to the pile caps. In addition, structural safety of segmental
cross beams was verified by full-scale loading test.
Keywords: Mass Transit, Red Line, Portal Frame, Precast Concrete, Segmental, Post-tensioning
cast-in-place would make construction nearly

1 Introduction impossible to complete on time. Consequently,
Over the last decade, Thailand's infrastructure the original structures were redesigned and
investment has drastically increased especially for segmental precast concrete implemented.
a rapidly upgraded railway network. Ongoing Red By taking benefits of the segmental precast portal
Line Mass Transit System project, a commuter rail frame system, including acceleration of
project to serve the greater Bangkok Metropolitan construction, quality control, durability and
area, is one of the key developments. The route economy, sustainable structures can be achieved.
runs from Bang Sue Grand Station, which will be
the new railway hub of Thailand and Southeast
Asia's largest train station [1], to Rangsit terminal
station. Total length is 26.3 km as the project
Pathumthani
Contact 2
alignment shown in Figure 1. 19.2 km is elevated,

running on viaduct box girder. A length of 7.1 km,
Nonthaburi
from Don Muang station to Rangsit station is on
at-grade railroads.
Contact 1
For construction Contract 1, Bang Sue to Wat

Samian Nari, The viaducts are supported by a
system of more than 400 portal frames. Figure 2
shows the outline of original portal frames, which
were designed as cast-in-place concrete. On-site
operations are time-consuming and thus using Figure 1. Red Line Mass Transit alignment
267
Cross beam
Pier
Pile cap
Bored piles
a) Single span type b) Single span with 2 stories type c) Cross section of the cross beam
Figure 2. Original designed cast-in-place portal frames
Upper
Cross beam 3000 mm
Viaduct
box girder
3000 mm
Precast
Lower
Crossbeam Shear keys
Cross beam
Precast Pier
Pile cap
a) Single span type b) Single span with 2 stories type c) Cross section of the cross beam
Figure 3. Alternative designed segmental precast portal frames
1 2 3 4 5 6
City train 1 1 1 1 1 1
High Speed Train Level
T-Head
LD train
Pier Head
Continuous
Figure 4. Single column type Figure 5. Two stories complex type with continuous span and T-head
The objective of this paper is to present design frames are divided into segments with maximum
and development of the precast segmental portal length of 3000 mm. Hence, simplicity of structural
frame system applied in this project, which is the form and constructability and can be achieved.
most comprehensive use of precast segments in
Thailand to date. 2.1 Segmental Precast Portal Frame System
A schematic outline of various types of supporting
2 Concept and Design Methodology structures used in this project are shown in Fig. 3,
The concept of segmental precast concrete is 4 and 5 of which single and continuous portal
utilized. All structural members of the portal frames constitute a major part.
268
Table 1. Comparison of main members

Original Design Alternative Design
R
Member Area Prestressing Area Prestressing
Type Type [%]
[m2] system [m2] system
Internal Precast hollow External
Crossbeam Cast-in-place 6.00 3.18 47.0
Post-tension section Post-Tension
Precast hollow External
Pier Cast-in-place 8.83 - 5.05 42.8
section Post-Tension
Post tension
Corbel Cast-in-place NC* - Precast NC* -
bar
* : Not calculated
A typical portal frame system is comprised of Figure 3 shows example of simple spans with one
precast segmental cross beams and piers, and two stories, respectively. Up to three
supported by cast-in-place pile caps and bored numbers of viaduct boxes are located in one span
piles. External dimensions of the cross beam are with two tracks per viaduct.
kept as original but hollow box section with 350
mm web thickness is introduced. 2.2.2 Single and T-head columns
Figure 2 c) and 3 c) show outline of original cast in- Single columns usually carry only one viaduct box
place cross beam and precast segmental cross girder with maximum three tracks. Figure 4 shows
beam, respectively. The weight per meter (kg/m) example of single column type. The precast pier
of the cross beam is reduced by more than 40% head sits on the top of the precast segmental pier.
compared with the original. Table 1 shows a The pier head is widened to match bottom width
comparison between original and alternative of the box girder.
designed members. The rate of reduction (R) is In case of T-head columns, the pier head
calculated from Eq. (1). corresponds to pier head in typical portal frames,
(𝑊𝑂 −𝑊𝐴)
and the cross beam is cantilevered to each side as
𝑅= 𝑊𝑂
× 100 (1) shown far left in Fig. 5. The number of viaduct
boxes on T-head are usually two.
where, wO is weight of original member and wA is
weight of alternative design member. 2.2.3 Complex type
A set of straight and draped external prestressing Complex type portal frame is a combination of
tendons are designed to connect the beam more than two types of portal frames. Bang Sue
segments. Moreover, segmental box piers are Grand Station is designed for totally 24 tracks, 12
connected with the pile caps by using U-shaped in each of two platform levels. Hence, complex
tendons. Both pier and cross beam tendons are type portal frame is needed in the areas next to
anchored in precast pier segments. the Grand Station.
Figure 5 shows example of a complex type portal
2.2 Types of Portal Frames frame. The two stories portal frame supports 5
The more than 400 portal frames may be tracks on upper level and 9 tracks on lower level.
categorized into three types as follow. The trains that appear merging on the right side
indicate track turnouts at these locations. On the
2.2.1 Simple and continuous cross beams second level, a T-head is located on left pier.
Portal frames with simple and continuous beams
are applied for more than 70% of the project.
269
2.3 Design and Construction Stage Analysis construction stages and stressing sequence. The
structural system is built up by adding cross
The design methodology for structural members
beams stage by stage. Thereby, loads due to self-
supporting the trains complies with Employer's
weight and prestressing are accumulated stage by
requirements. According to the project design
stage as indicated in Fig. 6. Both tendon geometry
criteria, three different train live load cases have
and layout are modeled and time-dependent
been considered in the design process; Long
behavior is evaluated, including creep, shrinkage
distance train (LD), City train (CT) , and high speed
and secondary moments (parasite moments) due
train (HST) following EN1991-2 specification [2].
to prestressing force. Figure 7 a) and b) show
Figure 6 shows the analytical model for the portal secondary moments due to prestressing forces for
frame shown in Fig. 5. Because the portal frame 2nd stage and total after completion of
has straight members throughout its length, a 2- construction.
dimensional model was considered sufficient. It
also allowed to quickly check various construction 3 Substructure and U-tendon System
sequences and present to the Client several
options. The model includes beam elements for Figure 8 shows outline of typical pier with U-
cross beams, pier and bored piles. Soil spring tendons. A 3x3 m box section is generally used.
elements based on data from boring logs are also After considering load resistance and tendon size,
included. The calculation complies with the thickness of the walls were chosen 500 mm.
6
* Tendons are shown for 1st and 2nd stage only 6 5 1
5 1 3
4 1
3
4 1 2 16th 1 5th stage Cross beam
2 1 1 1 1 7th stage stage
1 1 1 th
1 8 stage
Tendons
Tendons* 4th stage
Piers 3rd stage
2nd stage
1st stage
Bored piles with soil spring elements
a) 2nd stage b) Final stage
Figure 6. Analytical model for complex type
a) Secondary moment due to prestressing for 2nd stage b) Secondary moment due to prestressing for final stage
Figure 7. Secondary moment from prestressing force
270
PT bars cross beam with

3000 mm 3000 mm
corbel
Pier
3000 mm
3000 mm
U-tendon Pile cap
PT bars
U-tendons
a) Original Pier Section b) Precast Segmental Pier Section c) Precast Pier Segment d) U-tendon layout
Figure 8. Pier details
Figure 8 a) and b) show cross section of original PT bars, are determined to avoid tensile stresses
and precast segmental piers, respectively. Vertical in the section at service limit state (SLS) as
prestressing consists of strands and post-tension required for epoxy joints. Figure 11 shows detail
(PT) bars located as shown in Fig. 8 c). The strands of all anchorages in the pier head segment, with
run continuously in U-shaped ducts through the vertical tendons for the pier and longitudinal
pile caps as shown in Fig. 8 d). tendons of the cross beam.
After completing bored piles, the pile cap is then
cast with embedded semicircular ducts for U- 4 Superstructure
tendons (see Fig. 14 a)). The pier segments are Figure 12 shows a typical 2-span continuous cross
installed with wet joint against the pile cap and beam, including tendon layout. The segments are
epoxy joints between segments. PT bars are used produced by match-cast method with shear key
to secure the segments and compress the joints interface as shown in Fig. 3 c) and installed with
prior to install the permanent strand tendons. dry joints. Draped tendons are used for span
Figure 9 show details of U-tendons in pile cap. The longer than 16 m as shown on right span in Fig.
tendons are continuous and extend from top of 12, while straight tendons only are used for
the pier segment, down through the pier loop in shorter spans as shown on left span. Strands are
the pile cap and up to opposite side of pier 15.24 mm diameter low relaxation 7-wire strand,
segment. Figure 10 shows a cross section of the grade 270 in accordance with ASTM A416, located
pier with location of tendons and PT bars. The in high-density polyethylene (HDPE) ducts. The
total prestressing force, including U-tendons and number of strands per tendon varies up to
PT bars U-tendons
Figure 9. Details of U-tendon in Figure 10. Pier section with Figure 11. Anchorage at pier head
pile cap tendon details segment
271
Deviator segment
Pier head Pier head ead Pier head
a) Side view
Wet joint eadFig.2
Wet joint .
Original
ead
designe
ead
d cast
in-
b) Plan view placed
portal
Figure 12. Example of tendon layout for continuous span frames
maximum 31, with total characteristic force 8081 side of the pier are used to align the segment
kN per tendon. Tendons are lapped at pier head correctly as shown in Fig. 14 b). The other pier
segment in case of continuous span as shown in segments are then placed by mobile crane with
Fig. 12. lifting frame. Figure 14 c) shows erection of the
pier head segment. Several workers stand on the
5 Construction Method lifting frame to adjust the segment correctly.
Finally, the U-tendons are stressed and grouted.
The long line manufacturing system is used for
cross beams and pier segments production in this Cross beam segments are lifted up onto the
project. Maximum segment weight is 40 tons, to erection truss as shown in Fig. 14 d) and e),
comply with required lifting capacity and arranged and tightened by temporary PT bars.
transportation. The casting yard is located in Hydraulic jacks are placed in the wet joints and
Saraburi province, about 100 km from the some permanent tendons are partly stressed
construction site. Precast segments are before casting wet joints. Location of concrete wet
transported to site by train and low-bed truck. joints are shown in Fig. 12. After the wet joints
reach the required strength, the external tendons
5.1 Site Erection are fully stressed in accordance with the specified
stressing sequence. Figure 14 f) shows
Some pictures from construction are shown in Fig. prestressing tendon inside of crossbeam.
13. After completing pile caps, the first pier
segment is erected. Two hydraulic jacks on each
a) Bang Sue Grand Station b) Main line portal frame c) Single column
Figure 13. Construction site situation
272
Pier
Lifting frame
Hydraulic
jacks
Pier Head
Segment
Pile cap
a) U-tendon position in pile cap b) Adjustment at base pier segment c) Erection of pier head segment
Erection truss
d) Placing of crossbeam segment e) Erection of cross beam f) Inside of crossbeam
Figure 14. Construction process
increased to 750 kN, ending up with totally 1050

6 Full-Scale Test kN (130% of design ultimate load).
In order to confirm the structural safety, a full-
scale loading test of a typical precast cross beam 6.2 Testing results
deviator segment was conducted. Test procedure Figure 18 shows a situation from the testing,
and result are described in the following. which was performed at the storage yard beside
the Bang Sue Grand Station site. Two built steel
6.1 Full-scale test of precast cross beam boxes and four loading cells were applied, and
Figure 15 shows an outline of the test specimen. A cracking occurrence was observed during and
typical deviator segment with two rows of after testing.
diabolos was prepared for the test. Segment
dimension is 3x3 m hollow square shape with 2.95
m length. The bottom row contains straight
tendons only and no vertical force is transferred
from tendons, while the 4 diabolos in the upper
row all cover draped tendons. In order to simulate
the lift up forces from the tendons in these 4
diabolos, transfer beams supported on loading
cells were placed on both sides of the deviator,
with steel pins penetrating through each diabolo
as shown in Fig. 16 a) and b). Loading point details
are shown in Fig. 17.
The force was applied in steps. Starting with 300
kN (37.5% of design ultimate load) on each side of
the pin was applied. then, on the front side is Figure 15. Crossbeam segment specimen
273
3000 mm 2950 mm 970 mm

330 mm
BUILT UP
BEAM
STEEL
3000 mm
BEAM
Load Load
Upper Deviator PINS
(L=870mm)
Lower Deviator HYDRAULIC JACKS
SHIM PLATE
a) Cross section details b) Longitudinal details
Figure 16. Cross beam test setup Figure 17. Loading point details
Top surface of deviator
Tendon direction
Pin
Figure 18. Testing situation Figure 19. Crack pattern after loading test
From the first load (300 kN) and up to 100% of for segmental precast piers, is successfully
design ultimate load (800 kN), no visible cracks implemented for the entire project, which is
were observed. After that, the loading was still considered to be one major initiated project in
increased. At 130% of design ultimate load (1050 Thailand.
kN), a major diagonal crack propagated from the
2) A Full-scale test of a cross beam deviator
diabolo toward top surface of the deviator and
segment was performed and the results verified
some longitudinal cracks were observed on top
the ultimate load capacity to be well on the safe
surface of the deviator. Figure 19 shows the crack
side.
pattern. The specimen did not fail and no
crushing or spalling of concrete were observed.
The results indicate high structural safety of the
8 References
deviator segment, verified with the design [1] Construction Supervision of Mass Transit
ultimate load. System Project in Bangkok. The Commuter
Train System (Red Line) Project - Bang Sue-
7 Conclusions Rangsit Section: PR Document I. State
Railway of Thailand; 2013.
Based on the experience with design, construction
and test results of precast segmental concrete [2] European Committee for Standardization.
portal frames for Red Line Mass Transit System Eurocode 1: Action on structures - Part 2:
project, Bang Sue to Wat Samian Nari section, the Traffic loads on bridges (EN1991-2:2003).
following conclusions may be drawn; 2003.
1) The applied precast segmental concrete portal
frame system, with adaption of U-tendon system
274
THE KENYAN DREAM : DEVELOPING CONCEPT OF NAIROBI MRTS
B C ROY: Dr. Roy, FNAE, former vice president of IABSE, Zurich, has vast
experience encompassing concept to Implementation of urban infrastructure.
He was involved in design and construction of first metro of India. He was visiting
professor of IIT Mumbai and Jadavpur University, Kolkata
GEORGE P. G. WANJAU: Mr. Wanjau, Deputy Chief Economist in Ministry of

Transport, has over 28 years in the Public Service with considerable experience
in regional, sectoral and national planning, including policy formulation for the
transport sector and urban transport planning .
S BHATTACHARYYA: Working in SYSTRA MVA Consulting (India) Private Limited

in Track and Alignment Wing having over 13 years’ experience in construction of
Railway Sector. He was involved in DMRC for different sections for more than
eight years and was part of CES Special Structure team for about three years
Abstract:
Nairobi, famous for Nairobi National Park, the world's only game reserve found within a major
city, started developing as a rail depot on the Uganda Railway and in 1963, Nairobi became the
capital of the Republic of Kenya. The city of Nairobi had a population of mere 11,500 in the year
of 1906, and it grew to 3,138,369 by Year 2009, at growth rate of 4.1% a year.
At this rate, the difficulties commuting to the central business area is getting more and more
complicated, though plans are being implemented in the need to decongest the city's traffic and
the completion of Thika Road has given the city a much-needed face-lift attributed to road's
enhancement of global standards. The need of the hour is developing a world class MRTS system,
combination of Road and Rail Based MRTS technology. A comprehensive study was carried out in
this direction to find out the feasibility of such MRTS and the various options worked out to find
suitable solution, shall be discussed in the paper.
1.0 Historical Background: sq.km. As compared to this, the population density

in the Town Councils like Kikuyu, Karuri, Thika and
Nairobi Metropolitan Region (NMR) extends from
Kangundo is around 1000- 1500 persons per
the eastern edge of the Rift Valley, 2,300m above
sq.km. Population density in the Municipal Council
sea level and slopes down towards the east and
of Limuru, Kiambu, Ruiru and Machakos is in the
the south to an altitude of 1,400m. The western
range of 400-600 persons where County Councils
and northern part of NMR has hilly terrain, while
range as low as 18 persons per sq.km in Kajiado to
the eastern part of NMR consists of gentle slopes
437 persons per sq.km in Kiambu.
The social-cultural areas of these districts are
diverse where the urbanised areas have multi- Total population of the NMR is estimated to
ethnic groupings and rural has homogeneous have increased from 4.85 million in 1999 to 6.7
ethnic groups including Kamba on the eastern million in 2009 at an average annual growth
province, Kikuyu in central province, Maasai in the rate of 3.3%. Population share of the NMR to
Rift Valley. the total population in Kenya is increased from
16.9% in 1999 to 23% in 2010.
Nairobi city spread over 696 sq. km occupies about
2% of NMR area accommodating 3.13 million The city of Nairobi has experienced rapid urban
(2009) people. This is nearly 47% of the NMR sprawl. In 1970, average commuter distance was
population. Nairobi City is estimated to have an
average population density of 4509 persons per
275
Figure 1 : Population of Nairobi between 1906 and 2009
Transport Mode Walking Cycling Private Matatu/ Bus Train Institution others
Car Mini-bus bus
Modal Split (%) 47 1.2 15.3 29 3.7 0.4 3.2 0.2
Table 1:Transport All Purpose Modal Split in Nairobi
0.8km and increased to 25 km in 1998. Present

commuter distance is over 30-40 km. The long
commuter distances and heavy traffic congestion
on the road has led to long travel time. It takes
about 2 hours to cover 30 – 40 km while in 5 – 10
km central area, travel time is about 1- 2 hours.
Rate of increase of motor cars in Kenya is about
7.0% per annum and is significantly higher than
the rate of growth of population. While, public
transport vehicles such as buses and mini buses
have registered a growth of about 5% per annum. Figure 2: Congestion in Central Business Area
2.0 Transportation in Nairobi: Present The city is also accessible by train from Mombasa,
Scenario with three times a week arrivals and departures at
the Nairobi Railway station. The trains only go east
A look at the transport modal split shows that to Mombasa. Kenya Railway presently provides
majority of the trips in the city are on foot – this is skeletal inter-city services from Nairobi Railway
because public transport service is expensive and Station to (i) Embakasi (12.6 km), (ii) Kikuyu (31
inadequate to meet the demand. The main public km), (iii) Kahawa (24 km), and (iv) Ruiru (32km),
transport service in Nairobi is by mini-bus (matatu) with only one trip each way per day.
and other private bus. The capacity of commuter
train service is low and limited to only a few areas. There are number of bus companies that have
The public transport system is totally inadequate routes going to and from the country’s different
to meet rising demand. cities, including Nairobi, the center of the bus
network. Buses operate on about 67 routes and
Among the intermediate public transport (IPT) are estimated to carry about 0.35 to 0.40 million
services, Taxis are a popular mode both for passengers per day which is about 4% of all
tourists and locals. TukTuks are 3-wheeler motor passenger trips in NMR. Most bus companies
vehicles which operate as an IPT. There are about operate on same routes as the Matatus and
200 tuktuks operating on similar routes to taxis compete for same traffic.
but catering for shorter trips. 2-wheeler motor
The cost of transport in the city is very high
cycles are operated as IPT service under the name
compared to the average per capita income. In the
boda bodas. Their operational area is primarily
0 – 10 km, 10 – 20 km central area, the average
from and to the municipal towns. Similarly, Cycle
bus fare is Ksh 50 and Ksh 100 respectively, at peak
taxis also operate as IPT in rural areas.
hour. This cost of public transport is indeed very
high considering that the minimum employee
wage is Ksh. 7, 334 (GOK, 2011) per month – about
Ksh. 200 – 300 per day.
276
All this culminates into requirement to develop at a high level of service. Passenger movement,
new and capable system for mass transit system, in particular by public transport would be
which will be in reliable, dedicated and cost predominant along the radials.
effective. A detail study has been done on the
same by Consulting Engineering Services (India) To assess, travel demand within NMR, study area
Pvt. Ltd. to develop a solution for the ambitious was delineated into 74 traffic analysis zones (TAZ).
Nirobi Mass Rapid Transit System During 2009- A four-stage urban transport planning model was
2013. Further global consultancy tender was used to simulate travel demand pattern between
called for doing harmonization study on various TAZs in NMR. Future travel demand forecasts for
options available and derive a most suitable 2030 on the selected MRTS corridors for low
solution for the traffic situation. Detailed project growth scenarios are as follows:
report for the same was submitted and action to
start construction for the MRTS is still awaited.
Paper focuses on the various options worked out
during the study, aiming to achieve:
· Development of coherent public transport
policy framework for NMR;
· Carry out pre-investment study of various
options of mass transit systems (e.g. Heavy Rail
Figure 3: Travel Demand in the City of Nairobi
Transit, Light Rail Transit Bus Rapid Transit,
etc.) for Nairobi Metropolitan Region. The transport demand forecast suggests that the
high capacity Metro rail might be required on
3.0 Idealizing Solution
some corridors in NMR. Medium capacity modes
Four major types of movements take place within
such as Bus Rapid Transit System (BRTS), Light Rail
the NMR namely International/ National, Intra-
Regional, Intra-city/town and Intra-CBD. Presently Transit System (LRT) and Monorail will be
all these movements share the same transport adequate on others. The choice between these
links, get mixed together, conflict with each other systems depends mainly on demand level
creating a whole range of problems especially represented by the Peak Hour Peak Direction
congestion and safety. Traffic (PHPDT).
Conceptual Regional Transport System in NMR Corridors having a PHPDT of less than 5000
addressing the stated objectives is as shown in the
passengers have not been considered for a new
figure below and includes:
MRTS technology and existing bus service can feed
· A Regional Grid at outer edge of the region, the same. BRTS has been considered where the
forming part of national road and rail system PHPDT is in excess of 5000 passengers. Between
and Trans-African transport corridors. Regional these two, the BRTS has been considered as the
Grid would be a multi-modal corridor. Goods more appropriate for Nairobi as it would allow up
movement will be predominant along this grid. gradation into a higher capacity system without
· A Regional Orbital directly inter-connecting much inconvenience. LRT has been considered
regional urban centres and promoting direct where the PHPDT is in excess of 12,000 passengers
accessibility and flow amongst them without and the Metro Rail in corridors where the PHPDT
necessity to pass through Nairobi city. Both is in excess of 30,000 (not envisaged in Scenario at
passenger and goods movement, equal in present).
proportion, would take place along regional
The basic concept for successful MRTS is to build a
orbital.
proper multimodal integration between various
· A number of radial corridors, of road and rail,
systems available. Multimodal Integration would
between Nairobi and each of the regional
include physical, operational (including
towns. These multi-modal corridors will enable
technology), monetary (including fare policy),
flows between Nairobi and the regional town
277
fiscal, legal and institutional aspects at various development around rail stations, road terminals
levels to deal with: and along the corridors/lines up to one km on
either side will help. It has to be prepared for the
· Land use and transport system of the region
construction stage of MRTS and later for the
and the city/town
operation stage on continuous basis in critical
· National and regional transport systems
areas like CBD, proposed District Centers, Nodal
· Regional and city/town transport systems
Terminals, MRTS/BRTS proposed stations/stops
· Different transport modes of city system
and corridors.
4.0 Technology Envisaged
4.1 BRTS (BUS RAPID TRANSIT SYSTEM)
BRTS in closed system with trunk and feeder
service pattern has been proposed along three
corridors as shown in figure above. Salient
features of BRTS are as follows;
Figure 4: Concept of Transport Hub

· Initially, 12-meter-long standard bus size may
be proposed to meet the average peak hour
Since most of the travel in Nairobi is made towards
demand. As demand increases, single
NRS, it makes more sense creating a transport hub
articulated buses of 18-meter length could be
at NRS (Nairobi Railway Station), and connect the
introduced. Deluxe services would cater to the
entire city to this, with adequate transit
requirement of commuters with higher paying
interchanges so that any commuter can bypass the
capacity.
Transit hub at NRS in case would fulfil the
· Bus operations are characterized by frequent
movement demand for most commuters in the
stops and starts with a dwell time of 30-45
city.
seconds at stations and the operational
headways of 15-120 seconds—proposed
headway being 30 - 60 seconds. A high horse
power engine meeting Euro –IV norms may be
proposed.
· Diesel & ULSD are the selected fuels. CNG
fueled/Other environment friendly system
buses may be considered for future.
· Buses with floor height of 400 mm for up to
Figure 5: Nairobi MRTS Corridors
nearly sixty percent of bus floor length are
The present Nairobi Railway Station area, recommended with two doors of 1200mm
including yards, may be developed as the Central width each.
Hub Terminal of Nairobi Mass Rapid Transit · At-grade stops located near intersections
System (MRTS) with modern architecture to where pedestrians have the benefit of utilizing
merge with the surrounding. All lines would the pedestrian crossing normally provided at
originate/terminate at this terminal or traverse those intersections.
through this terminal. This would enable easy · BRTS may be proposed to be mostly at-grade
transfer amongst the lines facilitating the long except within the CBD where it would be
trips from one point of the region/city to the elevated. It would generally be placed at the
other. It is idealized that the public transport road median. Opposing bus stops would be
system supply is accompanied by effective staggered and a passing lane would be
demand management measures. Transit oriented
278
provided at such places to facilitate overtaking.

Bus stops would be located on the kerb side.
· Bus stops are proposed to be positioned at an
average distance of about 750 meters.
· Rigid pavement (concrete) may be proposed
for at-grade and elevated busways.
· BRTS fleet requirements are estimated to be
378, 461 and 630 buses in the years 2015, 2020
and 2030 respectively.
· The annual operating cost at breakeven point
Figure 6: Typical Elevated LRT
of all the BRTS corridors is estimated to be KSH
1.9 /km.
· Fare level needs to be between 2 and 2.5 KSH
per passenger kilometer to ensure full recovery
of Operations and Maintenance costs.
4.2 Rail Based Solution (LRTS)
LRT train consisting of two modules of 43m with a
capacity of 850 passengers operating at headway
of up to 2 minutes, the system capacity will be
25,500 phpdt may be opted here.
Figure 7: Section of Typical Elevated LRT
· LRT shall operate with electric traction that will
· LRT at grade is not recommended on account
keep pollution level low. From operational and
of non-availability of road space in CBD area,
aesthetics point of view it is recommended to
the limitation of headways less than 5 minutes
adopt 750 V DC traction through 3rd rail.
limiting the capacity to 12000 phpdt, lower
· The power requirement of the Metro/ LRT
average speeds due to signalized (even priority
system works out to 2 MVA per km
signaling) at road crossings and need for
· The entire scheme of power supply, traction
fencing throughout the corridor amongst
and auxiliary supply shall be monitored and
several other factors.
controlled from a centralized Operations
· The corridors generally follow the central verge
Control Centre (OCC) being provided at
of the roads. The overall length of the largely
Maintenance Depot.
elevated LRT corridors is 90 km. Underground
· A signalling and control system will be provided
construction is limited to 3 km. It has 76
on all running tracks of the LRT network
stations and 5 maintenance and stabling
including car shed to ensure safety.
depots.
· A computer based automatic fare collection
Infrastructure comprising of stations, viaducts,
(AFC) system is proposed. AFC system proves
tunnels, central hub, depot for stabling of rolling
to be cheaper than manual system in long run
stock, maintenance facilities, OCC, SCADA,
due to reduced manpower cost for ticketing
administrative building, space for systems, traffic
staff.
integration measures, EMP and R&R works etc is
· Entire LRT network is proposed to be on
included.
elevated viaducts except maintenance yards,
depots and end sections which will be at-grade. Elevated stations with side platforms are to be
designed for train length of three modules each of
43m length to cater for future traffic. Station
design will keep in view the provisions of NFPA and
279
adequate provisions will be made for The Financial Internal Rate of Return (FIRR) is
lifts/escalators/ staircases. Off road stations will estimated using discounted cash flow analysis.
be located where land is available. The access to Capital and operating cost are as mentioned
the station is through the unpaid concourse, earlier. Revenue is estimated based on the
placed at the ground level, where Ticket Counters average daily ridership on each route. This analysis
will be provided. Underground Stations will have a assumes a fare of KSH 2.5 for BRTS and KSH 4 per
central platform. passenger-kilometer of travel on LRTS.
Additional land is mainly required for LRT The commercial viability of the Phase 1 MRTS
structures, station building, platforms, entry/exit sections was estimated, both in terms of Project
structures, roadside traffic integration facilities, FIRR and Equity FIRR. The Project FIRRs, or the
traction sub-stations/ auxiliary sub station, returns on the total investment, were found to be
generator room, pump house, temporary lower than the EIRRs, as is commonly the case with
construction depots and work sites. Land for such projects. With project financing, through
maintenance depot and additional stabling area debt and equity, and with infusion of Viability Gap
are designed to cater to parking of rolling stock Funding (VGF) the projects could be made viable,
during non-revenue and off-peak hours, with Equity FIRRs of 18%.
scheduled inspections, periodic overhaul, OCC, 5.3 Project Capital Cost
training facilities, daily cleaning and periodic
Implementation of entire 170 kms of proposed
washing of coaches etc.
MRTS within Nairobi would require about 15 years
5.0 Viability in of the Project time period. The capital cost estimate of all the
5.1 Economic Viability corridors at 2010-11 prices is summarized below:
Economic viability study was done in all corridors, Corridor Financial Cost Economic Cost
and the project was found to be economically (mill Kshs) (mill Kshs)
viable. Economic benefits are calculated as the MRTS 1 : 54,864 45,770
difference in ‘without’ and ‘with’ project cases. Waiyaki Way
The ‘without project’ situation is defined as ‘base’ MRTS 2 : Thika 108,115 89,361
case or ‘do-nothing’ case, where projected Road
development scenario is imposed on existing
MRTS 3 : Juja 63,207 52,414
transport network. The ‘with project’ case Road
represents future development scenario on
MRTS 4 : Jogoo 43,183 35,938
integrated multi-modal transport network after
Road
implementation of MRTS project.
MRTS 5 : Outer 42,021 34,953
The benefits of the MRTS project would be in Ring Road
terms of savings in travel time cost and vehicle
MRTS 6 : 44,411 37,364
operating cost, and reduction in carbon emissions.
Ngong Road
Estimation of the value of time (VOT) for
passengers was based on the wage rate approach. MRTS 7 : 17,357 15,100
Monthly income of passengers was determined Limuru Road
from the Stated Preference Survey carried out by MRTS 8 : 9,120 7,934
for PT users. Reduction in carbon emissions was Langata Road
estimated with the help of a software model for MRTS 9 : 27,075 23,555
analysing carbon footprints. Mombasa Road
/Athi River
5.2 Financial Viability and Viability Gap Funding
Table 2: Project Capital Cost
280
The infrastructure cost estimate is based on cost reduce the rate of increase of oil and grease in the
of similar works in the ongoing Thika Road rivers due to a reduction in the number of public
Improvement Project. Cost of BRT/LRT transport vehicles operating on the major
systems/Rolling stock is based on experience in corridors.
similar projects carried out in India. Cost of Govt. There is low level of major emissions, namely
land is assumed to be nil. Social Impact and R&R is Sulphur Oxides, Nitrogen Oxides, and carbon
taken as 1% of civil cost. monoxide in ambient air of Nairobi. Carbon
5.4 Social and Environmental Viability dioxide and particulate matter (most common
All the MRTS corridors are planned on roads parameters) are also relatively low particularly
having right of way more than 30 meter, generally outside the city limits. All these makes the project
adequate for providing the elevated LRT viable in Social and Environmental perspective.
structures at the center of the road. However, 6.0 Implementation of the MRTS
additional land would be required during
Based on the findings of the study, further study
construction phase and at stations, depots and
was conducted for developing the basis for a
yards. The target is to keep the project affected
technical and financial harmonisation of
people to the minimum.
measures. In view of improvement of the traffic
An intensive water quality monitoring on situation and increase in the efficiency of the
parameters associated with transportation different transport networks in the Kenyan capital,
activities would be necessary. Oil and grease in detailed traffic analysis and modelling was done
rivers water is notable with as high as 0.235mg/l in for development of a strategy to implement
some streams as opposed to the required integrated transport solution.
guideline of nil under the Water Quality
Figure 8: The Nairobi MRTS Updated Scheme
Regulation. The high capacity MRTS is expected to

281
During this, a few corridors identified was merged along Ngong Road, Juja Road and Komarock
together and mode converted to BRTS instead of Road, will have major stops at Dandora,
providing a combination of BRT & LRT as proposed Kariabangi and near Gikomba market. Phase II
earlier, for the first phase. In later stage, some of of the MRTS will see the line extended to Ruai
the corridors are proposed for conversion to LRT. and Kawangware.
The selection of BRT for the Phase one is justified · The highly populated Eastlands zone of Nairobi
by the following considerations: will be served by Kifaru Line, which will run
from Mama Lucy Hospital to T-Mall via the
· Procurement (construction and purchase of CBD. The line mainly runs along Jogoo Road,
vehicles) costs of a BRT system is cheaper than with major stops at Donholm, City Stadium,
an LRT system Bee Centre and Nairobi Hospital and Moi
· The planning and construction time of a BRT Avenue.
system is shorter than that of an LRT system · Nyati, the shortest of the five lines, will link
· In case of further growing demand, additional Balozi Estate near GSU headquarters to Imara
capacity can be provided at short notice Daima via Outering Road. Phase II of the
· Network can easily be adjusted to demand project will see the line extended to Jomo
· Availability of high local content and know- Kenyatta International Airport (JKIA).
how:
As part of Phase I, which is set to be rolled out
· Availability of local bus drivers between 2018 and 2030, commuter rail services
· Diesel as energy source; well available in will also be introduced linking Embakasi to Ruiru
Nairobi. town as well as Jamhuri Showground. It will use
· Local experience in servicing and repairing the existing rail network, with a scheduled
diesel busses extension to JKIA in Phase II.
In the proposed scheme as visible in figure 8, Bus
7.0 References
Rapid Transit (BRT) system will dominate the first
phase of the project to ferry commuters to all key 1. Report on Feasibility Study & Technical
city suburbs, will have five interconnected lines Assistance for Mass Rapid Transit System
named after Kenya’s Big Five animals; Ndovu for the Nairobi Metropolitan Region
(elephant), Simba (lion), Chui (leopard), Kifaru carried out by CES and APEC
(rhino) and Nyati (buffalo). 2. Report on MRTS Nairobi – Harmonization
of Public Transport done by Group of H.P.
· Using Ndovu line, a commuter will travel from
Gauff Ingenieure GmbH & Co KG -JBG- ETC
Kangemi to Imara Daima area using one ticket.
Transport Consultants GmbH - PB-Consult
The line, to be built along Waiyaki Way and
Planungs- und Betriebsberatungs-GmbH
Mombasa Road, will have other drop off and
3. 2009 Kenya Population and Housing
pick-up stations at ABC Place, Westlands,
Census : “Counting Our People for
University Way, Kenyatta Avenue, Haile
Implementation of Vision 2030” Volume
Selassie Avenue, Makaburini, Nyayo Stadium
XIV Population Projections
and near General Motors. It connects with
4. Study on Master Plan for Urban Transport
other lines at some of the stations.
in the Nairobi Metropolitan Area, 2006
· Simba Line will serve commuters from the
5. King’ori Zacharia (2007) Nairobi Urban
Bomas Interchange near the Bomas of Kenya to
Transportation Challenges – Learning
Ruiru town via the city. It will run along Langata
from Japan.
Road and Thika superhighway.
· On Chui Line, commuters will have the luxury
of riding one bus from Njiru area in Embakasi
to Jamhuri Showground. The line, running
282
Precast Segmental Aerial Guideway for Honolulu Rail Transit Corridor

Project
Hohsing Lee, PE, SE
AECOM, Sacramento, CA, USA
Contact: hohsing.lee@aecom.com
Abstract
The Honolulu Rail Transit Project (HRTP) includes the design, construction and operation of a 20-
mile grade-separated fixed guideway transit system in Honolulu, Hawaii. The alignment of the
project will travel through densely developed areas, over Interstate highways, streams, or existing
streets. The majority of the guideway will be elevated to avoid any conflicts with the existing
facilities and utilities. Honolulu Authority Regional Transit (HART) retained AECOM to perform the
design of the 5.2-mile Airport Segment and 3.9-mile the City Center Segment of HRTP. Precast
concrete segmental box girders erected using span-by-span with an overhead launching gantry
were proposed to accommodate a 30.6-ft-wide dual track. The paper describes the background
and status of the project and provides an insight of key design considerations and approaches,
cost-effective structural arrangement for the precast concrete segmental elevated guideway.
Keywords: Precast concrete segmental box; span-by-span; post-tensioning; aerial guideways.
Honolulu Authority Regional Transit (HART) to

1 Introduction perform final design for both of these guideway
The Honolulu Rail Transit Project (HRTP) includes sections. The guideway alignment of the project
the design, construction and operation of an traverses densely developed urban areas, over
approximately 20-mile grade-separated fixed Interstate highways, streams, or existing streets,
guideway transit system in Honolulu, Hawaii. etc. The majority of the guideway is elevated to
Figure 1 displays the guideway alignment of the avoid any potential conflicts with the existing
entire HRTP project. The project consists of four facilities and utilities.
major sections: West Oahu/Farrington Highway, The Airport Section consists of approximately 5-
Kamehameha, Airport, and City Center Sections. 1/2 miles of aerial guideway between the vicinities
The West Oahu/ Farrington and Kamehameha of Aloha Stadium and the Middle Street Transit
Sections have already been awarded as design- Center. The Airport Section follows Kamehameha
build contracts and are currently under Highway, H-1 Freeway, Aolele Street through
construction. Under contract to the City and Honolulu International Airport, Ualena Street, and
County of Honolulu, AECOM is providing design crosses Ke’ehi Lagoon Drive and terminates at the
review on behalf of the Hawaii Department of Middle Street Transit Center. The guideway is
Transportation (HDOT) for these two design-build generally situated within existing public roadways
sections that utilize mainly precast concrete and public properties to minimize impacts to
segmental guideways. The article will focus on the private properties.
aerial guideway structures for the Airport and City
Center Sections. AECOM was retained by
283
The City Center Section is comprised of

approximately 4.2 miles of aerial guideway transit
structure through the urban core of Honolulu. The
City Center Section begins just past the Middle
Street Transit Center follows Dillingham Boulevard
in the vicinity of Ka’aahi Street and then turns east
to connect to Nimitz Highway near Iwilei Road.
The alignment follows Nimitz Highway to the
Central Business District where it turns down
Halekauwila Street passes the Federal Building,
the redevelopment of Kakaàko and splits into two
single track segmental boxes at its terminus at Ala
Moana Mall.
Figure 2. Example of Span-by-Span Construction
for Precast Segmental Guideway
One of the advantages is that the precast

segments can be cast at the same time that the
substructure elements are being built. This has a
great impact on shortening the construction
schedule. Another advantage is that the segments
for the superstructure guideway are
manufactured in the factory-like setting of a
precast yard where high degrees of quality control
Figure 1. Key Plan of HRTP Project (from HART) are possible resulting in a finished product of
highest quality. Much of the economy of the
2 Precast Segmental Span-by-span precast segmental bridge construction results
from the standardization and industrialization of
Solution the segment manufacturing process. Precast
segments made individually in casting cells can
readily be cast curved and adjusted to change the
Given the large size of the project and the desire
cant of the track if necessary. The repetitive
to minimize impacts on surrounding urban areas,
nature of the casting operations allows for the
match cast, precast concrete span-by-span
maximum labor efficiency and the minimum of
segmental box girders are proposed for the
errors. Figure 3 shows a number of precast box
Airport and the City Center Sections. Precast
segments in storage at the casting yard. When
segmental span-by-span construction has
design details permit repetition of daily activities,
successfully been used for large light rail transit
one segment per day can be achieved from each
projects in urban congested environment, such as
casting cell with a relatively small production
a 24.3 km of elevated light-rail viaduct in
crew.
downtown Bangkok for Bangkok Mass Transit
System, and a 16.5 km elevated guideway for Precast segmental construction using a short-line
Vancouver Skytrain Millennium Line. Figure 2 match casting method also offers very accurate
shows an example of a typical precast concrete geometry control. Tolerances are in the order of
segmental elevated guideway erected by the fractions of an inch and any deviation in excess of
span-by-span method with an overhead gantry. this will result in misalignment of the bridge that
becomes more critical when there are horizontal
and vertical curves in the guideway alignment.
284
developed to provide an optimum section for a

typical 140-foot span. To provide sufficient space
for maintenance and inspection of the box girders,
the minimum interior clear height is typically set
at 6’-0”. The box depth was established
considering both the minimum first-mode natural
frequency criteria (not less than 2.5 Hz) and the
AASHTO LRFD SERVICE limit state longitudinal
stresses (no tension stresses allowed after all
losses). The top slab of the cross-section was
developed to accommodate the safety of walkway
and facilitate drainage between the tracks.
Figure 3. Precast Concrete Segments in Storage
Area (from HART)
3 Aerial Superstructure Guideway

Overview
Simply supported precast concrete segmental
spans are used for the vast majority of tangent
and curved guideway superstructure. Span lengths
vary from 55 feet to 150 feet with a typical span of
140 feet. The precast superstructure guideways Figure 4. Typical Dual Track Cross-sections
are to be constructed span-by-span with an
overhead gantry. Approximately 195 simply-
supported spans at the Airport Section and 180 The double-track box girder is designed to handle
simply-supported spans at the City Center Section widths varying from a typical 30.5’ to 34’ at the
would be erected in this method. At three track crossover sections. The structure was
locations, for a longer span exceeding 150-foot designed to handle a very tight horizontal curve of
span, two-span continuous precast segmental 400 feet for shorter spans. The top slab is
spans are proposed, with lengths up to 165’-3”. transversely post-tensioned. The track is
Also, there is one location with a tightly curved supported on longitudinal plinths cast on top of
alignment that required three-span continuous each box girder. Spans consist of individual typical
precast segmental spans to handle the uplift segments varying in length from 6’-7” to 10’-3”.
arising from the alignment curvature. The precast Located at either end of the span is 6’-7” long
segmental span-by-span erection method is also diaphragm segment for simply supported spans.
used to construct these continuous spans with The segment length was developed to account for
additional temporary supports being used at the the maximum weight allowed for the lifting
intermediate piers. segment and the casting module. Segments will be
match-cast to include variations in plan and
4 Guideway Cross-Sections elevation of alignment. The superelevation will be
addressed through the cant of up 6” that can be
Two types of precast concrete segmental box
introduced in cast-in-place plinths on top of box
segments are designed, a double track box girder
for each track after the completed spans.
and a single track box girder segment. The double
track box girder accounts for the vast majority of The single track box girder is used at the Ala
the project and it is designed to handle two tracks. Moana terminus of City Center Section. There are
The box girder is a single cell trapezoidal box 11 spans, comprising 1,127 feet: the cross-section
girder with a depth of 8’-6” at centerline of the splits into two 17’-9” wide single-cell trapezoidal
box. Figure 4 shows a typical section for a double- box girders each supporting a single track (see
track guideway. The 8’-6” segment depth was Figure 5). The single track box cross-section was
285
dimensioned similarly to the dual track section to torsion, reactions for bearings and diaphragms,
allow the dual track casting formwork to be and camber growth and live load displacement.
modified for casting the smaller segments. Various loads were considered in the model, such
as self-weight (DC), superimposed dead load
(DW), longitudinal post-tensioning; live load-light
metro vehicle (LMV), rail-structure interaction
force (TTR & TLR), creep & shrinkage, thermal
effects, centrifugal force, derailment loads (DR),
longitudinal forces (LF) due to accelerating and
decelerating trains, and restraint of continuous
welded rail (CWR), rail facture (RF), wind loads,
and seismic loads.
The superstructure was subdivided into elements
in the model in accordance with the segment
Figure 5. Typical Single Track Cross-Section layout for the spans. Span curvature was explicitly
The constant depth and web inclination also allow modeled to determine torsional effects. Staged
for a seemingly seamless visual transition at the construction sequences as per the contract
merge areas within the alignment. The single track drawings were incorporated in the model. Post-
box girder has a constant depth of 8’-6” at center tensioning tendons were explicitly modeled in
line of girder as well. External post-tensioning is three-dimensions to properly include all relevant
located within the box girder. The post-tensioning prestress losses.
is anchored at each of the two diaphragm
segments and is typical deviated within the box
girder at ¼ points.
5 ANALYSIS OF PRECAST GUIDEWAY

SUPERSTRUCTURE
Figure 6. CSI – Computer Analysis 3D Model
The design of the aerial guideway is in accordance

with HART’s Compendium of Design Criteria,
AASHTO LRFD 5th Edition, and Design Criteria for 6 Guideway Vibration
Bridges and Structures (HDOT). The precast It is essential to limit potential dynamic
concrete segmental guideway is designed for interaction between aerial guideway and light rail
Serviceability limit states (1) full prestressing with transit vehicles; therefore, the superstructure was
minimum compressive stress (2) shear transfer in designed so that the natural frequency of the first
the joints (3) no uplift at bearings, Strength limit mode of vibration of the precast guideway is not
states- opening of the joints and load transfer in less than 2.5 Hz. In addition to estimate the first
the joints, and Extreme limit states- derailment natural frequency using a simply supported beam
and seismic events. A three-dimensional frame formula, the full three-dimensional the
model shown on Figure 6 was developed for the superstructure guideway for a typical span was
spans using the program CSI Bridge to determine created in ANSYS Workbench by generating the
the longitudinal bending moment, shear & various parts of the geometry.
286
7 Simply-Supported Box Girder They are draped and deviated at each deviator
segment. For external tendons, steel pipe ducts
Design with a minimum of 9 feet tendon radius are used
A typical span, shown in Figure 7, has a length of for the curved portions of tendon profile in the
140 ft that is divided into 15 concrete segments deviator segment. Additional closed stirrups are
varying length from 6’-7” at diaphragm segments provided around each individual steel tendon
to 9’-10” at typical segments. A nominal gap of 1” ducts to resist tendon deviations forces at each
is provided between the centerline of each pier to deviator ribs.
each end of the span, allowing for full movement
The jointing face of the segments has a number of
due to thermal effects at the expansion joints.
shear keys that are designed to transmit the shear
Diaphragm segments shown in Figure 8 are used
force. Shear keys in each web of the segments
at each end of the span in order to receive and
extend for as much as of the web depth and shear
anchor longitudinal post-tensioning tendons and
keys are placed in the top and bottom slab for the
distribute bearing reactions. The external post
horizontal alignment to prevent the shifting of the
tensioning tendons- 4x19 tendons per web are
slabs between segments.
placed longitudinally inside the trapezoidal box
girder, but external to the concrete cross-section.
Figure 7. Typical 140-ft Simple Span Layout
287
Figure 8. Diaphragm & Deviator Segments for a Typical Simple Span
Diaphragm segments are used at each end of the

8 Two-Span Continuous Box Girder span to receive and anchor longitudinal post-
Design tensioning tendons and distribute bearing
reactions. Pier segment is used at the middle pier
The two-span continuous span, shown in Figure 9,
to allow longitudinal post-tensioning tendons to
has a length of 165’-3” + 165’-3”, that is divided
be overlapped and anchored at each face of the
into 17 concrete segments plus ½ pier segment
pier segments. See Figure 10 for the associated
per span varying length from 6’-7” at end
details.
diaphragm segment to 9’-10” at typical segments.
Figure 9. Two-Span Continuous Segment Layouts
288
Figure 10. End Diaphragm, Anchor Blocks, & Pier Segments for a Two-Span Continuous
9 Special Trackwork Guideway 10 PROPSED SPAN-BY-SPAN

Design ERECTION METHOD
The crossover spans are in the tangent portions of All of precast segmental spans, including simply-
the guideway in order for crossover tracks to supported spans and continuous spans, are
utilize standard turnout geometry. Switch designed to be erected using span-by-span
machines use rods below the tracks to move the method with overhead gantry. For simply
rails at the point of switch in the frogs. To supported spans, erection of precast segments is
accommodate the stitch and special trackwork, limited to a maximum of span length of 150 feet.
the tracks are supported on a 6” thick overlay For a longer span exceeding 150-foot span, a
instead of directly on the deck. Longitudinal temporary falsework would also be needed to
analysis of the spans has increased forces from support pier segment and the first pair of
rail/structure interaction, as well as additional segments near the middle pier. Additional PT bars
dead load. The special trackwork has fixed and cantilever tendons are provided to resist a
fasteners as well as different spacing of the typical much large bending member due to the continuity
rail fasteners. The transverse PT and of the spans.
reinforcement is designed for the extra weight of
Suggested Construction Sequence Schematic for
overlay and for wheel loads that can be in the
Typical Simply Span Unit (see Figure 11)
middle of deck.
Stage 1- Gantry Advancement:
Track crossovers require a length longer than a
simple span. To keep the special trackwork Previous span complete, advance overhead
aligned, a link slab, is used to prevent longitudinal forward to the position shown
displacement between the spans. The link slab Stage 2- Segment Placement:
must resist the longitudinal force generated by
rail/structure interaction. Shear friction -Deliver segment underneath the span to
reinforcement is provided between the girder and overhead gantry.
link slab. Bending of the link slabs occurs from -After all segments are hung from overhead
wheel loads and deflections of the adjacent spans. gantry; adjust grade & alignment of each segment.
A portion of the link slab is designed to flex Leave a gap between segments for application of
independently from the spans to reduce the epoxy
induced bending from rotations and vertical
deflections of the adjacent spans. The cracked Stage 3- Epoxy and Stress Tendons:
section stiffness of the link slab shall be used to -Apply epoxy in joints between segments and
determine bending from adjacent span rotations stress together with temporary PT bars.
and deflections.
289
Install and stress permanent longitudinal post- 11 Conclusions

tensioning tendons
The precast concrete span-by-span segmental box
- Remove temporary PT bars. Release segments girders have proven to be very successful for large
from gantry on to bearings light rail transit projects in urban congested
Stage 4- Gantry Advancement: environment. It offers many benefits resulting
from the use of the precast concrete segmental
-Advance overhead gantry forward to next span guideway, which include the following:
Stage 5- Segment Placement:
-Repeat Stages 3 and 4. • Speed of bridge construction arising from
the efficient and fast erection of the precast
concrete span-by-span segmental guideway
• Avoidance of potential conflicts in urban
environment from the construction equipment of
overhead gantry by erecting superstructure
segments from above existing roadways or
streets.
• Assurance of concrete product quality due
to factory conditions for concreting in the
precasting yard.
• Inherent long-term durability of precast
concrete segmental construction.
• Cost-effective solution through the
acceleration of erection.
12 Credits
Owner:
Honolulu Authority Regional Transit
Precast Concrete Bridge Design Engineer:
AECOM, Honolulu, Hawaii
Figure 11. Suggested Construction Sequence

Schematic for a Typical Simply Span
290
Design of the viaducts for the Line 3 of the Riyadh Metro LRT in Saudi
Arabia
Paul-Emile Durand, Emmanuel Joy, Alain Rossetto, Lucas Wise
International Bridge Technologies, Dubai, UAE
Contact: Paul-Emile Durand, pedurand@ibtengineers.com

Emmanuel Joy, ejoy@ibtengineers.com
Alain Rossetto, arossetto@ibtengineers.com
Lucas Wise, lwise@ibtengineers.com
Topics: Large Scale Infrastructure Projects and/or

Engineering Innovations for Rapid Urbanisation and/or
The Future of Aesthetic Design
Abstract
In June 2013, three consortia were awarded the three construction packages that constitute the
whole Riyadh Metro Project in Saudi Arabia for a total of 6 lines and 180 kilometres.
International Bridge Technologies was in charge, as a subconsultant of Idom, of the complete
structural scope of services for the 25.6 km of elevated viaduct that Riyadh Metro Package 2
comprises (Line 3, around 41.6 km, out of which 25.6 km are elevated). This scope consisted of the
full range of services from conceptual tender design to final detailed design, including shop drawings
production, construction engineering and construction site support.
The Line 3 elevated viaduct consists of a three-cells precast segmental box-girder with typical
simply-supported spans of 37 m and special continuous spans of 50 m. Six long span structures with
spans varying from 60 m to 95 m were required for the special crossings over existing interchanges.
Typical and continuous spans are erected span-by-span with an overhead truss while long spans are
erected in balanced cantilever with cranes on the ground or lifting frames on the deck.
The present paper is centred on the design of the elevated viaduct and presents the different
structures with key features and how they were constructed to permit large scale standardisation
and speed of construction. Some key design aspects are developed, in particular the design
approach for the 3-cells box-girder as the most effective solution to satisfy the imposed aesthetic
criteria. This paper also exposes the design approach adopted to produce a “design-for-demand” by
relying as much as practically possible on a realistic modelling of the alignment and by limiting
parametric design. This allowed for an optimisation of material quantities.
Keywords:
Segmental, Precast Concrete, Viaduct, Transit, Metro, LRT, Riyadh Metro, Saudi Arabia
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1 Introduction 2 Project Overview

The city of Riyadh is the capital and most populated
city of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Its population
reaches a total of about 6.5 million individuals,
making it the most populated city of the Gulf
countries and the 3rd most populated amongst all
the cities of the Arab world. Demographic
projections anticipate that by 2025/2030, Riyadh
should be a city counting around 8.5 million capita.
Arriyadh Development Authority (ADA), in charge
of the strategic urban planning for the city, made it
a priority to modernise the public transportation
within the city. As part of an exceptional
metropolitan development program, a call for
international tenders was made in 2012 for the
construction of a large-scale light train
transportation system for the city.
An unprecedented masterplan of 175 km and 95
stations was envisaged to be built through a single
program called “Riyadh Metro”.
In June 2013, the project was awarded to three
consortia in charge of delivering the civil works,
systems and rolling stock of the project, through a Figure 1: Riyadh Metro
design & build delivery scheme. The consortium in Line 3 comprises 2 elevated viaduct sections of
charge of delivering Package 2 (Line 3) is Arriyadh respectively 20.4 and 5.2 kilometres in an urban
New Mobility (ANM) and comprises the following environment through the city and separated by an
entities: underground section. The road arrangement of the
- Civil Works: Salini-Impregilo (Italy), Larsen sectors where Line 3 is located has the 2
& Toubro (India) & Nesma (Saudi Arabia); carriageways separated by a central median. The
- Systems / Rolling Stock: Ansaldo (Italy) & concept design has positioned the elevated viaduct
Bombardier (Canada); over this central median.
- Lead Consultant: Idom (Spain); The first elevated section starts in the suburb of
Line 3 comprises a total 41.6 km, with 22 stations. Tuwaiq and goes over the Jeddah Road Expressway
(or Makkah Al Mukarramah Road) to run along
International Bridge Technologies (IBT) were
Khadijah Bint Khuwailid Road for around 4.5
subcontracted at tender stage and throughout the
kilometres until it reaches Al Shabiah Mall at the
Project from preliminary and detailed design
corner between Khadijah Bint Khuwailid Road and
development through to the Construction Stage.
Asmaa Bint Abi Bakker Street. At this corner, a 90°
The design strategy implemented consisted of turn is required with a balanced cantilever bridge
developing a “Design-for-Demand” approach type 1 (44m – 60m – 44m). At this point a tight
where the general sectional design rules combined radius of 122 m in plan, in conjunction with 9 portal
with an alignment-specific analysis enabled the frame structures permit the alignment to deviate
definition of the minimum required amount of from the central median to follow the sharp turn.
reinforcement. The viaduct then follows a long straight stretch
(around 15 kilometres) through Asmaa Bint Abi
Bakker Street and Al Madinah Al Munawwarah
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Road to enter the tunnel after a complex junction Overall, out of the total project, simply supported
between Al Madinah Al Munawwarah Road and isostatic spans accounts for 600 spans (20,579 m –
King Fahad Road where a balanced cantilever 80% of the total alignment).
bridge type 2 (59m – 95m – 59m) is required. This
first section includes: 3 Key Structures
- Simply supported isostatic spans for the Given the size of the project, rationalisation and
most part, usually 37 m long; standardisation of the viaduct elements were key
- 19 no. portal frames, either in reinforced in permitting a fast, reliable and economic
concrete or prestressed concrete; construction. Therefore, a guideway solution in
- 5 no. three-spans continuous bridges (37m precast segmental post-tensioned concrete was
– 50m – 37m); selected.
- 2 no. three-spans balanced cantilever
bridges type 1 (44m – 60m – 44m), one of The following 3 types of precast segmental decks
which is in straight alignment and the other were developed:
with a 122 m radius in plan; - Simply supported isostatic spans with span
- 1 no. three-spans balanced cantilever range of 24m, 25m, 28m, 29m, 33m, 36m
bridge type 2 (59m – 95m – 59m); and 37m;
- 1 no. three-spans balanced cantilever - Continuous bridges of constant depth with
bridge type 3 (44m – 73m – 44m); span distribution 37m, 50m and 37m;
- 500 m of complex interface with a road - Balanced cantilever bridges of variable
bridge running parallel to the metro depth (3 types similar in design approach
alignment, over the Wadi Hanifah River; and construction but differing by their span
- 8 no. elevated stations; distribution).
- 1 no. complex triple tracks pocket track
Each of these three structure types is further
area with a wide deck cast in place.
described hereunder.
The second elevated section starts just before the
corner between Salah Ad Din Al Ayyubi Road and 3.1 Simply-Supported Isostatic Spans
Ali Ibn Abi Talib Road, and after an underground
The majority of the alignment consists of simply-
stretch of about 6.2 kilometres. The complexity of
supported precast segmental spans, erected using
the crossing in skew at Ali Ibn Abi Talib Road
a self-launching erection gantry.
requires a special balanced cantilever bridge type 2
(59m – 95m – 59m). The viaduct then follows Salah Given the aesthetics requirements of the Project
Ad Din Al Ayyubi Road for another 4.8 km where it and the round soffit of the superstructure, a three-
connects to the at-grade section. Key structures cell box-girder appeared to be the most efficient
present on this alignment stretch comprise: solution. Figure 2 below shows the typical cross
section.
- Simply supported isostatic spans for the
most part, usually 37 m long;
- 4 no. three-spans continuous bridges (37m
– 50m – 37m);
- 2 no. three-spans balanced cantilever
bridge type 2 (59m – 95m – 59m);
- 2 no. elevated stations;
- 1 no. complex triple tracks stabling area
with a wide deck cast in place, and
supported on post-tensioned portal
frames.
Figure 2: Typical Cross Section
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The typical span length was 37 m, while other spans An hybrid erection method was developed so the
were used to fit the alignment and pier position launching gantry design would not be governed by
depending on specific requirements (ground these special spans. It combines both the balanced
utilities, stations, special crossings, etc.). cantilever and the span-by-span method of
erection so the central segments of any of the three
The prestressing arrangement consisted of multi-
spans, while being suspended to the gantry, would
strand post-tensioning tendons running in the
not govern the launching gantry design.
bottom flange and the webs. For bulkhead and
casting cell standardisation, the tendon positions 200 mm long unreinforced cast in place joints were
were kept identical between span length types. All used to establish continuity.
cables were internal and bonded as per the Civil
The post-tensioning arrangement comprised two
Works Contractor’s preference. The segments
families of tendons: the cantilever tendons lodged
were match-cast.
in the top flange of the section and anchored in the
The piers and pierheads were cast in place section haunches and the draped tendons passing
reinforced concrete. For most of the alignment, the through the webs and the bottom flanges (in a
rock level was close to the ground level and spread similar manner as the simply supported spans).
footings were utilised as the typical foundation
Similar to the simply supported spans, the tendon
type.
positions were rationalised to allow for bulkhead
In specific areas, special pile foundations had to be and casting standardisation. All cables were
used as specifically required. internal and bonded as preferred by the Civil Works
Contractor.
The typical construction method was span by span.
Substructures were similar in shape and method of
The installation of the permanent bearings and all
construction as for the simply supported spans
other equipment (track works, system works,
with the reinforcement and quantities adjusted to
walkway, tendon grouting, etc.) could take place
accommodate the larger demand of the
off the critical path of the superstructure erection.
Continuous Bridges.
On the Riyadh Metro Line 3 viaduct, seven
launching gantries were used and the average 3.3 Balanced Cantilever Bridges
speed of erection was two days to erect a span with
In cases where at grade constraints such as large
a record hit at six spans erected in a week. The
interchanges and intersections were present, six
erection started in July 2015 and was completed in
special long span crossings were required. These
November 2017. In total 850 days were necessary
had spans ranging from 60m to 95m and were built
to erect an approximate number of 650 spans with
using the balanced cantilever method.
seven launching gantries.
The three-cell arrangement of the typical spans is
3.2 Continuous Bridges adopted with variations to accommodate the
variable depth, as shown in Figure 3.
In specific areas where the span length exceeded
37 m in length, special constant depth three spans
continuous units were designed.
The Continuous Bridges cross section was kept as a
three-cell box-girder similar to the simply
supported spans, except that wherever top
tendons were required, local thickening of the top
flange and haunches were needed to lodge the top
fibre tendons required above the pier.
The span distribution of these continuous units was
37 m, 50 m and 37 m.
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Figure 4: Top / Bottom Slab Shear Flow Demand

The web reinforcement demand to resist both
shear and torsion was calculated from a single cell
Figure 3 - Balanced Cantilever Segment shear flow principle, where shear and torsion are
resisted by the central cell, as shown in Figure 5.
Segments are erected in balanced pairs about the
centreline of the pier, and held permanently into
place with post-tensioning tendons in the top slab.
Once opposing cantilevers meet at mid-span, they
are joined by a small closure pour, and secured
with continuity post-tensioning.
After the completion of each cantilever, effects of Figure 5: Web Shear Flow Demand
differential self-weight, wind, and reactions of the The shell demand was defined as the envelop of
erection equipment were considered. Top and two different shear flow approaches: one
bottom fibre stresses were checked at the precast consisting of considering a rigorous 3-cells shear
joints at every stage in the detailed construction flow approach where torsion and shear are
model. distributed elastically throughout the section
A camber was required and calculated at each members, another consisting of considering a
segment joint as the opposite of the deflection single cell shear flow principle, where the torsion is
value at day 10,000 from the construction model, resisted only by the outer perimeter of the section.
and incorporated in the precasting.
4 3-Cells Simply Supported Box-

girder Section - Transverse Design
Given the complexity of the cross section due to
the architectural requirements and the 3 cells,
different elastic linear shear flow analysis were
studied.
The top and bottom slab reinforcement demand to Figure 6: Shell Shear Flow Demand
resist torsion was calculated from a single cell shear
flow principle where all the torsion is resisted in the Notation T refers to the total torsion for the
central cell, as shown in Figure 4. complete section. T1 and T2 refer to the torsional
contribution of the outer cells and inner cell
respectively. V refers to the total shear for the
complete section. V1 and V2 refer to the shear
contribution of the shell and the webs respectively.
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This approach, was adopted because under models were used to generate the bending self-
ultimate conditions, it could not be assumed that weight demand along with creep and shrinkage
the shear flow is distributed elastically throughout and were used to design the spans for longitudinal
the section and considering a plastic redistribution bending.
systematically would not have been practical.
5 Design for Demand Approach

The largest part of the alignment consisted of
simply-supported isostatic spans in the range of the
80% of the total alignment, and the efforts in
developing an economic and efficient design had to
be primarily focused on this structure type.
The alignment was discretized in stretches
corresponding to the launching fronts and
following the initial construction schedule. A
Figure 8: Parametric Line Beam Model (Straight)
sample of about 6.5 km, showing 6 stretches can be
seen in Figure 7Figure 7 below. The second type consisted of finite plate element
models also with constant parameters (fixed
length, fixed radius of curvature). These models
were used to generate the transverse bending
demand. The notional reinforcement demand was
generated to be later combined with the notional
reinforcement demand (expressed in mm2/m) from
the alignment-specific models.
Figure 7: Alignment Sample

The design strategy implemented was to minimize
parametric modelling and maximize the use of
mathematical models representing in true scale
the actual alignment.
The use of the software Larsa 4D was of great Figure 9: Parametric Plate Element Model (1
benefit due to its flexibility and interface segment shown)
compatibility with Excel.
Essentially five families of models were developed: 5.2 Alignment-Specific Modelling
- Parametric line beam models; In this case, the viaduct was modelled in true scale,
- Parametric plate finite elements models; and with real coordinates.
- Alignment-specific models excluding rail; The primary purpose of these models was to
- Alignment-specific models including rails. generate and extract the resultant forces and
moments in each beam member for load case (axial
5.1 Parametric Modelling forces, shear forces in both directions, bending
Two types of parametric models were used. The moments about both tangent axes and torsion) to
first type consisted of line beam models using a then combine them as per a load combination
series of typical spans with constant parameters matrix complying with the Project Specification
(fixed length, fixed radius of curvature etc.). These
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with loads obtained from the parametric models from the alignment-specific beam models. The
described above. demand was defined for each segment, and for
each cross-section member (designated as per
Two types of Alignment-Specific models were
Figure 11 below).
generated. One type excluded the rails and was
used for linear analysis, while the other type
included the rails and was used for non-linear
analysis accounting for non-linear properties of the
rail fasteners.
Figure 11: Cross Section Members Definition

A large number of segment reinforcement types
was defined to maximize the number of
permutations of rebar diameters within the
transverse reinforcement slices. This allowed for an
optimized reinforcement arrangement meeting
closely the demand.
5.3.2 Setting-out drawings

Figure 10: Sample Stretch Model Screenshot The reinforcement types obtained were combined
into table drawings which were labelled “Setting-
5.3 Definition of the Reinforcement for the Out Drawings”, organised by stretches in which all
Superstructure the information related to each span was collated:
- Alignment data such pier coordinates &
5.3.1 Combination of parametric demand and
chainages;
alignment-specific demand
- Top of rail and finished ground level;
The notional reinforcement demand due to - Span data: exact length, PT type, casting
transverse bending obtained from the finite plate method;
element models was then combined, with the - Span reinforcement type resulting from
notional reinforcement demand (expressed in the “Design for Demand” approach defined
mm2/m as well) due to shear and torsion obtained above.
297
Figure 12: Workflow Recap (Superstructure)
[2] ACI 343.1R-12. Analysis and Design of

5.4 Substructure Reinforcement Definition
Reinforced and Prestressed Concrete
A similar approach was adopted for the Guideway Structures.
reinforcement demand at pier and foundation level
[3] AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications,
with the difference that only alignment-specific
2012.
models were used. And therefore, the “just-
needed” reinforcement at each pier was specified [4] CEB-FIP Model Code 1990, Comite Euro-
on the drawings. International du Beton.
[5] AASHTO Guide Specifications for Design and
6 Conclusion Construction of Segmental Concrete Bridges,
Considering the large scale of the project and the 1999.
length of the Riyadh Metro Line 3 Viaduct, it was [6] Riyadh Metro Project Employer’s
necessary to adopt a design strategy which would Requirements, Volume 2.3, WPS 2, Civil Works
comply with the Project Requirements, while and Infrastructures.
achieving economy and satisfying the complex
architectural expectations of Arriyadh [7] Highway Design Manual Volume 3, Structural
Development Authority (ADA). Design Specifications, Ministry of
Communications, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia,
May 1992.
7 References
[1] ACI 358.1R-92. Analysis and Design of
Reinforced and Prestressed Concrete
Guideway Structures.
298
Mumbai Metro Line 2A – Challenges in Design and Execution

Nirav Mody, Mangesh Sawant, Mohammed Adil Shaikh, Ajay Tank
Spectrum Techno Consultants Pvt Ltd, Navi Mumbai, India
Amit Pandey
JKumar Infraprojects Ltd., Mumbai, India
Contact: adil.shaikh@spectrumworld.net
Abstract
Mumbai Metro line 2A is part of the major Infrastructure overhaul being carried out in Mumbai under
Mumbai Metropolitan Region Development Authority (MMRDA). This line is planned from Dahisar in the
northern boundary of the suburban city to Andheri in the heart of the suburbs. The overall length of the
elevated corridor is about 20,6km with 17 stations, each of 185m length. The proposed metro line shall
provide interconnectivity among the existing Western Express Highway, Western Railway, other existing and
proposed metro lines. It is expected to reduce the traffic on highly congested suburban road network as well
as the Western Express Highway. It is also expected to reduce the passenger load on the western line of the
suburban railway network. This paper presents the various aspects of planning, design and construction
considered for this project keeping in view its complexity with respect to location, space and time constraints.
Keywords: Bridges, Metro, Precast, Station building, Launching.
quantum of work, it was clear from the very

1 Introduction beginning that the deadline cannot be achieved by
Mumbai metro line 2A was planned and traditional construction methods and there was a
conceptualised by Delhi Metro Rail Corporation need to innovate in design as well as in
(DMRC) for MMRDA and the tender was awarded construction methodology. Further, considering
to M/s. J Kumar – CRTG JV in May 2016. M/s. the space and traffic constraints, it was decided to
Spectrum Techno Consultants Pvt Ltd, were have maximum precast elements in the project. In
appointed as the design consultants and M/s. the viaduct portion, precast U-girder
AECOM were appointed as general consultants for superstructure rests on precast piercap. In
the project. The works started on ground in August stretches where U-girder type superstructure is not
2016 on the total length of 20,6km including 17 feasible, precast I-girder superstructure with cast-
stations. The deadline for completion of project is in-situ slab has been provided. In the stations,
January 2019. entire concourse and platform floor including cross
arms, Longitudinal girders and slab have been
Execution of a project of such magnitude in a city made precast. The launching activity of precast
like Mumbai presents many challenges in design elements, governed by space constraints and
and execution due to space constraints, existing heavy weight of precast components is an
utilities, huge traffic etc. Moreover, the geological additional challenge for execution.
conditions of Mumbai pose an additional challenge
due to large variations in rock strata even in small
stretches. The foundations have been designed
2 Alignment
accommodating the utilities to save time required The alignment of Mumbai metro line 2A passes
to shift utilities. Considering the tight schedule and through new link road between Andheri and
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Dahisar which is one of the densest corridors in 3 Structural features

Mumbai. There are total of 17 stations proposed on
this line namely Dahisar east, Anand Nagar, Rushi 3.1 Viaduct
Sankul, IC Colony, Eksar Nagar, Don Bosco,
Shimpoli, Mahavir Nagar, Kamraj Nagar, Charkop, 3.1.1 Superstructure
Malad Metro, Kasturi Park, Bangur Nagar,
Goregaon Metro, Adarsha Nagar, Shastri nagar and U-girder was adopted for superstructure since
DN Nagar. The alignment of Mumbai metro line 2A majority of the route has mild radius of curvature
is shown in figure 1. Merto line 2A merges with in horizontal alignment. U-girder is pretensioned
proposed line 7 at Dahisar and with the proposed and easy to cast in casting yard. For optimised
line 2B at DN Nagar. It also connects with the section and handling criteria, maximum span of
existing line 1 at DN Nagar. Metro car depot has 28m was adopted for U-girder. U-girder being cast
been proposed at Charkop between Kamraj Nagar as straight element with rotated bulkheads for
and Charkop Stations. horizontal curvature, there is a limitation
horizontal radius. For sharp radius below 300m and
at the location of scissors and crossovers, precast I-
girders with cast-in-situ deck slab has been
adopted for superstructure. The typical cross
section of two track viaduct is shown in figure 2 &
3. Overall width of the superstructure is 10,55m at
two track locations. The width of superstructure
has been increased at locations where there are 3
& 4 tracks as required.
Figure 2 – Typical cross section of viaduct with U-

girder superstructure
Figure 1 – Alignment of proposed Mumbai Metro

Line 2A, Line 7 & existing line 1.
The overall width of the road along the alignment
varies between 23 to 30m. The viaduct is aligned
along the central median. To ensure that there is
minimum infringement in the road width available
for motorists the transverse dimension of the piers
was restricted as per tender requirement. For
Figure 3 – Typical cross section of viaduct with I-
viaduct, circular pier of 1,8m diameter has been
girder superstructure
adopted as the standard size of pier. For stations,
rectangular pier of size 2m x 2,4m has been Other constraints with U-girder are transportation
adopted where the transverse dimension is 2m. In and launching. Due to congested space in a city like
case of eccentric cantilever piers, the transverse Mumbai, it is very important to carefully study the
width of 2,2m has been allowed as a special case. route along which the U-girder is to be transported
from the casting yard to site. Launching the girder
300
at site is another important aspect since it needs

two heavy cranes to be stationed parallel to the
two piers. The decision regarding possibility of
launching the U-girder at a pier location is decided
after carefully studying the space requirement of
cranes, strata below position of outriggers and
presence of drains /culverts at the location. The
span arrangement and/or superstructure type had
to be changes based on the feasibility of launching.
Figure 6 – Fixing of steel collar before launching of
precast piercap
Figure 4 – Stacking of U-girders in casting yard
Figure 7 – Precast piercap of U-girder viaduct

during launching
Eccentric piers or portals have been proposed at
locations where concentric piers could not be
provided due to constraints like road width. Portals
are also proposed at locations where there are
Figure 5 – Launching of U-girder more than two tracks between Kamraj Nagar &
Charkop station where third and fourth tracks
3.1.2 Substructure facilitate the train movement to and from the
depot.
The substructure of viaduct comprises of circular
RCC pier of 1.8m dia and prestressed precast Eccentric piers pose a different challenge with
piercap to support the superstructure. The precast respect to design. The challenge was further
piercap has a flanged section in the cantilever arms enhanced by the requirement of having the
with a hollow cone at the centre to facilitate the in- eccentric piercap in precast. Moreover, the
situ stitch with pier. Once the pier is cast and eccentricities of the pier vary between 0,5 to 2,0m.
concrete achieves strength, a steel collar with The success of precasting lies in repeating the same
hydraulic jacks is fixed to the pier as shown in figure moulds multiple number of times by keeping the
6. The launched precast piercap is placed on the number of moulds as minimum as possible. With so
hydraulic jacks & the in-situ concrete is poured. many variations in the eccentricities of pier, having
Once stitch concrete achieves strength, steel collar different moild for each eccentricity was not
is released and piercap is now monolithic with pier. feasible. To solve this issue, the shape of the
Before launching of superstructure, two cables are piercap was adopted in such a way that all the
stressed in the piercap. The remaining three cables piercaps with varying eccentricities are cast in a
are stressed after the launching of superstructure. single mould. This was achieved by changing the
For piercap with U-girder, the width of piercap is location of end shutters as per eccentricity
10,56m and for piercap with I-girder, the width is requirement keeping the length of piercap
7,7m. Elevation of piercap for U-girder and I-Girder constant i.e. 10,56m. The shape of cantilever
is shown in figures 2 & 3 respectively. piercap is shown in figure 8 & 9. The detailing of the
stitch portion of the cantilever piercap with RCC
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pier had to be designed carefully to make sure that station is 185m. The overall width of station is
proper force transfer is ensured. 20,5m.
Figure 8 – Typical elevation of Precast Cantilever

Piercap
Figure 10 – Typical section of Cantilever station
Figure 9 – Three-dimensional view of Precast

Cantilever Piercap
In figure 8 & 9, the blue coloured portion having
length of 1,5 m on either side indicates the variable
portion where the end shutters will be shifted
based on eccentricity of pier. With this
arrangement, the piercaps with eccentricities from
0,5m to 2,0m could be casted easily in the same Figure 11 – Typical section of Cantilever station
precast mould. showing structural framing
3.2 Station Buildings All the stations have two tracks except for Kamraj
Nagar station which has three tracks to facilitate
All station buildings for metro line 2A have been the easy train movement to & from metro car
conceptualised as cantilever structure. The tracks, depot at Charkop. At DN Nagar, the metro line 2A
platform and concourse are supported on a single crosses the existing metro line 1. Due to this the rail
pier on median. The entry exit structures have been level at this location is at approximately 21m above
proposed on off road location on the footpath. A ground level. Therefore, an additional floor has
simply supported steel span connects the station been introduced in the station which will act as a
building with the entry exit structure. In general, project development floor to be used for retail
the rail level has been kept at 13m above ground purposes later.
level. The difference between platform and
concourse level for all stations in 6,45m. A typical 3.2.1 Concourse level
architectural section of the station building is
shown in figure 10 & structural framing section is The concourse level of the station comprises of
shown in figure 11. The grid spacing of stations is transverse cross arm and longitudinal girders. One
15m + 17m x 9 + 15m = 183m. Total length of of the most time-consuming activity in station
construction is the casting of slab which required
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preparation of staging for shutter, tying of

reinforcement and casting in-situ concrete. To
minimise this activity, we have provided precast T-
girders in longitudinal direction which are
pretensioned. The length of girders varies between
13,1m to 15,3m. RCC L-girders have been provided
as edge beams. Figure 12 shows the cross section
of L-girder and T-girder. At the edge of flange
300mm wide in-situ stich has been provided for
transverse continuity of slab.
Figure 15– Lifting of edge L-girder.
Figure 12 – Cross section of T-girder and Edge L-

girder at concourse level.
Figure 16 – Cross section of Concourse cross arm
Figure 13 – Casting of T-girder.
Figure 14 – Stacking of T-girders in casting yard

The cross section of transverse cross arm is shown
in figure 16. Inverted T-section has been provided
for cross arm. Articulated supports of T-girders rest
on the flange of cross arm. This helps in reducing
the overall depth of the station. Figure 17 – Station piers casted upto bottom of
platform cross arm & ready for launching of
concourse cross arms
The cross arms are precast and cast in two pieces
each of length 9,1m. The pier is cast upto bottom
of platform cross arm as shown in figure 17. Shear
keys are provided on the transverse face of pier at
303
concourse level. Two pieces of precast cross arms integration with the RCC pier. The elevation and
are launched and rested on steel trestles at 150mm plan of the precast piercap is shown in figure 22.
from face of pier as shown in figure 18. The 150mm
gap between the pier and cross arm is stitched with
non-shrink concrete and the first stage transverse
prestressing of the cross arm is applied. The
detailed construction/launching sequence of the
station building is discussed in chapter 3.2.3.
Figure 20 – Cross section of platform PI-Girder
Figure 18 – Launching of concourse cross arms Figure 21 – Platform PI-Girder in casting mould.
Figure 22 – Elevation and plan of platform cross

arm
Figure 19 – Completed concourse cross arm ready

for launching of platform cross arm
3.2.2 Platform & Track level

For supporting the tracks, pretensioned U-girder is
proposed with a similar section to viaduct but with
a modified flange. The flange of U-girder partially
acts a part of the platform for the station. The rest
of the platform is made up of Precast RCC PI-Girder.
The section of the PI-girder and modified flange of
U-girder is shown in figure 20. Figure 23 – Stacking of platform cross arms in
casting yard
The platform PI-girder and U-girders are rested on
the precast prestressed platform cross arm. The 3.2.3 Launching sequence of Station building
length of the precast cross arm is 20,5m in
The construction & launching sequence of the
transverse direction and the depth is 1,7m. At
station can be summarised in the following points.
present this is the longest precast piercap being
launched in India. The piercap has a central 1. Casting of foundation and pier upto
prismatic hollow section for in-situ stitch and bottom of platform beam (Figure 24).
304
2. Launching of concourse cross arm in 2

pieces on staging erected from ground.
Casting in-situ stitch and stressing of first
stage transverse cables (Figure24).
Figure 24 – Casting of pier and launching of Figure 25 – Launching and stressing of Platform
concourse cross arms cross arm
3. Launching of platform cross arm and

resting it on the staging erected over
concourse cross arm. Casting in-situ stitch
and stressing of second stage transverse
cables (Figure25).
4. The longitudinal components viz., T-
girders, L-girders, PI Girders and U-Girders
are launched in a specific sequence as
shown in figure 26. The sequence has been
decided based on crane positioning and
boom movement.
5. The same sequence is repeated for all the
grids.
6. After launching of the above elements, the
Figure 26 – Launching stages of T-girder, L-girder,
in-situ stitches for connecting the various
PI Girder and U-Girder
elements is done. The second stage
stressing of concourse cross arm and third
3.3 Foundation
stage stressing of platform cross arm is
carried out. The geological profile of Mumbai varies even
7. The works on internal walls, floor screed within a range of 1 km. Generally, hard rock is
and internal staircases is carried out after encountered at a depth of 8 to 10m. However, in
which the third stage prestressing of some locations, weathered rock and/or volcanic
concourse cross arm is done. breccia was encountered even upto depth of 25m.
8. The works on roof and external staircases Based on the strata, end bearing type pile
completes the construction of the station foundation with 1m dia pile was adopted for the
building. project. The pile capacity worked out was 460 ton
Launching of station elements as well as viaduct for 1m dia of pile. The length of pile varied from 6m
elements is a challenge due to space and time to 25m from cut-off level.
constraints. Launching activity and transportation For standard spans in viaduct, foundation with 4
of precast elements is allowed only during the night pile arrangement was adopted. The general size of
hours between 22:00 hrs. and 6:00 hrs. The entire the pilecap is 4,0m x 4,0m x1,5m. Whereas for
transportation and launching activity must be foundation of station building, 8 pile arrangement
carried out within this timeframe.
305
has been adopted with pilecap dimension 6,5m x

6,5m x 1,65m.
Open foundations with SBC of 100 ton/sqm has
been adopted for viaduct as well as stations at
locations where hard rock was encountered at a
shallow depth (i.e. within 4m below ground level).
However, the number of open foundation is only
about 5% of the total foundations.
The major challenge in executing the foundations
of the project was the presence of underground
utilities along the alignment. The main sewer line
of the area runs parallel to the median for about
70% of the length of alignment at a depth of about
5 to 8m. This is generally avoided by increasing the
size of pilecap and placing the piles away from the
sewer line. In most of the cases the foundations
were made eccentric due to utilities & in some
cases the pier location had to be shifted due to Figure 28 – Foundations where water lines upto
infringement with manholes of the sewer line. 1200mm dia have been encased pilecap.
Apart from the sewer line, the other utilities like
Wherever encasement was not possible, the
water line, gas line, electric cables, telephone
pilecap has been lowered as shown in figure 29.
cables, cable ducts etc. are also encountered.
About 75% of the total foundations are utility
affected. Due to delay in shifting of utilities,
maximum utilities at shallow depth had to be
encased in the pilecap. A typical detail of viaduct
foundation designed incorporating utility details is
shown in figure 27.
Figure 29 – Foundations where pilecaps have been
lowered to avoid water lines.
4 Conclusions
Excellent quality and speed of construction was
achieved by use of precast construction
technology. The components of station were
conceptualised and designed after considering
requirements and constraints of erection and
launching of station elements. Existing utilities
posed a great challenge for design and execution.
Figure 27 – A typical utility affected viaduct pilecap.
In some cases, water lines upto 1200mm dia have
been encased in the pilecap. Figure 28 shows two
such pilecaps where the pipeline has been encased.
306
Digitally enabling design for manufacture, assembly and maintenance

of bridges
Neil Farmer
Tony Gee and Partners, Esher, UK
Scott McGovern
Laing O’Rourke, Dartford, UK
Ioannis Brilakis
University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
Contact: neil.farmer@tonygee.com
Abstract
Laing O’Rourke, Tony Gee and Cambridge University have undertaken a unique joint research
project entitled “Digitally enabling the design for manufacture, assembly and maintenance of
bridges.” Ultimately the project is trailblazing innovative technology that will change the way in
which bridges are designed and constructed. The 27 month long project, co-funded by Innovate
UK, the UK’s innovation agency, aimed to speed up bridge design and delivery, improving
efficiency and reliability whilst reducing overall costs by rationalising design and automating
routine processes through digital engineering. This will allow the most common bridge types and
bridge parts to be standardised for off-site manufacture and designed parametrically to allow
them to be easily configured to each particular design.
Keywords: Bridges, digital, design configuration, parametric modelling, offsite manufacture,
concrete, BIM.
1 Background to the project sponsored by Innovate UK, the UK’s innovation

agency. The partners were:
The UK bridge market is estimated to be worth
around £1billion by 2018. A consortium of Lead Partner: Laing O’Rourke
designer, contractor and academic partner had a Design Partner: Tony Gee and Partners
vision to design bridges parametrically in hours
rather than weeks/months from a set of pre- University Partner: University of Cambridge
engineered components that can be The research project funding ended on 1 Nov 2017
manufactured in factory conditions off-site and and has produced an integrated digital delivery
assembled safely on site, saving time and cost and process for bridges comprising:
with improved quality. The consortium embarked
1) Product led approach to design with re-
on a 27 month long project that has been
usable digital assets
307
2) Automation of routine processes – superfast Due to the numerous parts of the design and
generation of design outputs delivery processes and the large number of design
possibilities and decisions to be made, it currently
3) Design informed by cost, rather than just
takes considerable time to design and construct a
costing design
bridge. Even excluding the periods required to
4) Modular approach to toolkit development gain approvals at various stages in the process, a
32 week period for design and a 66 week period
2 The current design, construction for construction are typical (see Figure 1).
and maintenance process
3 The market for off-site
The process is largely the same each time a bridge
is designed, but there are always differences from manufacture in the UK
one site to the next that make re-using previous Having considered the overall UK bridges market,
designs difficult or even impossible. Having past and future, and taking into account case
established constraints and requirements, studies in road and rail bridge construction, an
designers then need to follow a series of steps estimate of the anticipated expenditure in bridge
that define the bridge envelope, establish the construction in the UK is in the region of £700m to
bridge concept and produce detailed production £1bn per year [1]. Based on the current market
information suitable to allow the bridge to be share of precast concrete components in bridge
manufactured and constructed on site. There are construction, Figure 2 shows an estimate of the
inevitably iterations between these steps to precast concrete bridge component market in the
optimise the final product. Datasets for UK, resulting in a market value in the region of
maintenance are usually massive and frequently £100m to £170m per year from the
difficult to attribute to particular elements in a commencement of the HS2 construction period.
structure. Retrieval can be challenging if just
contained in computer data files not embedded in
a 3D model as metadata. This frequently results in
inefficient and possibly incorrect maintenance
interventions over the lifetime of a bridge.
Current Bridge Design Process wks 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32
Options reports & cost estimates 5
Preliminary AIP design 5 Figure 2. Estimate of UK capital expenditure on

Detailed design and costing 20 precast concrete bridge components
Checking design 10
Figure 3 shows the overall make-up of the existing
highway bridge stock. The classification was
Current Bridge wks 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68
conducted using data of 5065 bridges provided
Construction Process
from Highways England (HE) [2]. Precast concrete
Procurement 6
(pre-tensioned) is the main (51%) material for
Clearance & Earthworks 8
beam and slab bridges, followed by steel and in-
Substructure 36
situ reinforced concrete. From investigations, it
Superstructure 14 can be inferred that, for existing UK highway
Finishes 6 bridges, precast pre-stressed beams are primary
O&M Manuals 4 elements supporting bridge decks and therefore
are key pre-engineered components in the toolset
Figure 1. Typical design and construction developed in the project.
timescales for 30m span bridge
308
engineering decisions and analysis, costing,

programming and quality assurance data that are
all driven by a DriveWorks configurator with links
to product catalogues. A Graphical User Interface
(GUI) enables the designer to select structural
forms and input constraints such as geometrical
clearances, ground conditions, loading types and
suchlike. The modules and how they interact with
one another are shown in Figure 4.
5 The components in the toolkit

One of the key features of the digital bridges
toolset is that it pulls from a library of re-usable,
pre-engineered, parametric components. This
required design and creation of a suite of
standardised modular bridge components using
SolidWorks modelling software.
The families of components required for the
toolset were well established from past and
Figure 3. Classification of existing UK highway present bridge construction forms. However,
bridges within each component family, the intention was
to create optimised and scalable elements to
4 What the digital tool comprises meet various bridge general arrangements. This
The digital tool comprises various elements that included satisfying a defined range of span length,
are all linked together to create a fully functioning number of spans, skew angle, cross-fall and super-
toolset. These comprise various modules for elevation, amongst several other key criteria.
Figure 4. Modules in the digital toolset
309
Whilst developing the various component designs, define the component assembly. Element sizes are
the following common review criteria were used: governed by design rules according to these
tolerance build-up scenarios.
 Purpose – clearly defined application, design
criteria and standards. Whilst innovation was a key driver of this
 Constraints – incl. design, manufacturing, research, it was important to consider that the
assembly, transport and maintenance restriction on feasible solutions was not
restrictions. necessarily limited by the design or manufacturing
 Variability – both geometric and material constraints. Acceptance of the component library
specification (i.e. concrete grade, etc.). would be subject to Technical Approval Authority
review. As a result, a workshop was held with
Geometric sizing of components was the first
Highways England and Network Rail to gauge their
consideration. Geometric sizing due to required
opinions, as well as receiving architectural input
structure capacity was considered together with
from Knight Architects.
the need for repetitive manufacture, transport
and assembly in a range of site environments. As By creating parametric components, DriveWorks
an example; although creating larger sized software within the toolset is used to “push and
elements would serve to reduce the number of pull” the dimensions of the standard elements to
overall elements for assembly on site, this may be suit the specific bridge configuration. Collectively
offset by disadvantages caused in the logistics these form the overall assembly modelled within
encountered from manufacture to site SolidWorks. The configuration of the family of
construction. This holistic review approach was components is set by the rule-based calculations
key to the successful development of the family of as described in Section 6.
components.
The principle of using “universal casting moulds”
6 The development of the decision
was discussed with specialist manufacturers to making process part of the tool
achieve the desired variability of element cross- The key to enabling the user to drive the tool and
section in manufacture. This allows flexibility to the tool to make choices is held in the decision
modify mould sizes of standard components to making module. A linear, logical, structured bridge
meet structural requirements, whilst creating design process that defines data as either
minimal manufacturing adjustments. For example, tabulated fixed data, tabulated variable data,
cill unit plinth heights are bespoke to each project, driving data, an input or an output is required to
but with universal moulds these could be adopted fully understand the interdependencies of the
more readily. design process such that it can be translated into
The overall assembly was considered once the tool within the user interface.
components were sized. This meant reviewing the The challenge of structuring all data associated
jointing, mating and structural interaction with the concept/preliminary design and detailing
between the various modular elements. First and of bridges was initially approached by capturing
foremost, the variety of structural connection was the processes in the form of flow charts to
defined, i.e. integral or simply supported, etc. understand the order in which decisions are made
Serviceability aspects, such as joint sealing and currently, and how this process could be made
bedding, as well as surface preparations were more efficient through the use of the tool [3].
considered as all have an effect on the overall
structural function, as well as an associated cost Once the basic process was understood, including
to be captured by the tool. design codes and governing body requirements
(Highways England and Network Rail) necessary to
The issue of manufacturing and construction design an element, the process and data required
tolerance is fundamentally linked with modular to drive and inform the process was structured in
construction methods. As part of the study, worst spreadsheets, as this provided the simplest
case tolerance build-up was simulated to better
310
platform in which to arrange data that suits toolset but will be infinitely reused and easily
DriveWorks. managed.
Quite early in this process it became apparent that The developed spreadsheets form the structure of
in order for the tool to provide more accurate the rules behind the user interface in the tool.
volume quantification and costing than is usually They define the inputs, the order of these inputs,
available at concept/preliminary design, it needed the outputs and the feedback e.g. pass/fail and %
to create designs based on more than the current utilisation.
practice of use of ‘rules of thumb’ and ‘rough’
The user interface guides the user through the
calculations for concept/preliminary design.
decision making process, starting with entering
This led the team to digitise large portions of the the project information, continuing to define the
design codes and governing body requirements function of the bridge and the obstacle that it is
into tables and matrices in order to more crossing and aids the user to configure a valid
accurately design elements earlier in the design bridge solution that is sized based on engineering
process. All data is presented initially as ‘flat data’ logic and aligned with relevant codes and
i.e. data that is directly from an external source standards.
that has not been manipulated or calculated, with
Integration of the engineering rules and
its source clearly referenced for checking purposes
calculations into the tool’s user interface is
and future maintenance. It is then either
ongoing, but when complete will allow the user
manipulated to provide options or used in
experience to be interactive with reactive
calculations to enable structural design of
automatic model generation that represents the
components. By digitising this information, the
user’s inputs and decisions. Figure 5 shows the
team has created a valuable digital asset that can
type of road obstacle model that is generated
not only be used stand-alone from the integrated
early in the process, a similar capability to define a
rail obstacle also exists.
Figure 5. Envelope of obstacle to be crossed
311
The tool also has the capability to upload other structured traceable quality assurance data that is
base information e.g. geology information or site easily searched for and retrieved from within the
investigations to enable the user to inform the SolidWorks Product Data Management (PDM)
project in general. All components are sized and suite.
detailed considering manufacturing capabilities
As an addition to this, a Failure Mode Effect and
and constraints and the available component list is
Analysis (FMEA) suite was developed to feed this
limited by engineering calculations to restrict the
data into. This enables the analysis of component
user to only those that are valid. The component
performance through the lifetime of the bridge
selected is further informed by crane and
allowing bridge owners to analyse the cause of
transport constraints allowing the user to assess
defects and respond accordingly. Work to link the
their choice and enabling a fully integrated
module with the rest of the integrated toolset is
delivery approach with better control of the
part of the development works that are on-going.
processes.
8 How the tool is to be used – GUI,
7 Capturing quality assurance and
role of the designer, manufacturer
maintenance data
and contractor in the process
There are a huge number of documents, codes
and approvals required through the design and The project team have the following vision for the
construction process. By structuring the data use of the tool. The bridge designer manages the
behind these elements, the digital tool process through a web-based Graphical User
dramatically improves the efficiency of current Interface (GUI), entering information about the
processes to store and retrieve this data for future bridge, its function and obstacles crossed to
operations and maintenance needs. During the reflect the particular site conditions (Figure 6).
initial development of the Quality Management The software automatically generates a model
System module it was necessary to understand that represents the obstacle, such as a road based
and capture the various stages of approval related upon rules and dimensions in the UK’s Design
to design, manufacturing, installation and Manual for Roads and Bridges. Other base
operation. This results in the identification of the information such as information on geology and
key stages that provide a framework for well- site investigations can also be uploaded.
Figure 6. Graphical user interface allows input from dropdown menus
312
Through a series of drop down menus the The contractor utilises the PDM server to manage
designer selects requirements for containment and collate all data through the project, and the
and selects valid parapets from digitized construction team advise on construction
information made available from the supply chain. methodologies as well as work package structure,
The interface allows the designer to select a type construction programme and naming for the
of beam from the component library and then project.
review the cranes with capacity to lift that beam
at a defined radius. An important feature of the 9 What the project achieved –
tool is that it allows the designer to inform design benefits in time, cost, safety,
based on construction and assembly constraints at
a very early stage. Having defined the deck, repository for as-built information
abutment and pier options are considered and There are significant savings that can be realised
these are informed and constrained by previous through the use of offsite manufacturing
decisions including ground conditions, length, techniques. A common target suggests that if 70%
skew of bridge and associated articulation. For of bridge components could be manufactured
example, the designer may select a piled bank offsite, then a 60% saving on site labour hours and
seat from a portfolio of structural forms (see 30% reduction in programme time could be
Figure 7). When the decision making process has expected. One of the challenges that we have with
been completed, the specification is saved and the use of off-site manufacturing is with the ability
automated generation of component parts and to influence projects at an early enough stage in
assemblies takes place. design to allow the contractor to adopt this
Data that populates the tool is managed by a methodology of delivery. This project has
software administration team. They interface with produced an integrated digital delivery process for
the supply chain to develop and maintain the bridges utilising pre-approved product/assembly
component models. They structure data around catalogues allowing Design for Manufacture and
costs and component selection and maintain Assembly (DfMA) principles to be inherently
updates to codes and constraints in the database. embodied within the toolset and to be considered
early in the design stage of the bridge.
Figure 7. Abutments and other elements are selected from a range of options
313
Figure 8. The model facilitates automatic generation of production information
The developed system does not make decisions risk and uncertainty that is inherent at the early
automatically; rather it guides the engineer conceptual design stages of a project and allows
through a decision making process against the design to be produced in days rather than weeks.
codified requirements and loading conditions, to
ensure that all decisions enable the creation of a 10 Acknowledgements
valid bridge option. All time invested in producing
drawings, models, documents, pricing and The authors wish to thank Jaime MacCombe, Jon
programming for components is created with Read and MinKoo Kim for their help in preparing
reusable digital assets, so we only invest this time this paper, and Innovate UK for part-funding of
once. By automating the routine processes more the project.
time is available for these engineers to focus on
providing better and more innovative design 11 References
solutions. [1] HM Treasury, HM Treasury Public
The digital tool is able to configure components Expenditure Statistical (Transport
and drive them parametrically based on expenditure TSGB1303); 2016 Available from
engineering logic to design a full bridge design https://www.gov.uk/government/statistical-
solution and automate the generation of data-sets/transport-expenditure-tsgb13
production information. A 3D model is produced [2] Highways England; 2017.
from which all General Arrangement and detailed https://www.gov.uk/government/organisatio
drawings are created (see Figure 8). The tool ns/highways-england.
enables effective lifecycle quality management
improving the way we capture, store and access [3] Smale K. Bridge brilliance – Integrated
valuable quality assurance data, right the way program. New Civil Engineer; 2016. Available
through to operation and maintenance phases. from:
https://www.newcivilengineer.com/future-
The automation of these routine processes, which tech/bridge-brilliance-integrated-
are often where human errors emanate, enhances program/10009488.article
confidence in both price and programme reducing
314
A Rational Approach to Life Cycle Design for Infrastructure

Developments in Malaysia
Ir. Dr. Kribanandan Gurusamy Naidu

JTK Consult Sdn Bhd, Kuala Lumpur, Federal Territory, Malaysia
Contact: drkribangn@jtkconsult.com.my
Abstract
Infrastructure projects are increasingly becoming more sophisticated and ambitious and Malaysia has
its fair share of these including such iconic projects such as the Smart Tunnel, The Penang Second
Bridge, The light Rail Transit Project and the Mass Transit Development currently ongoing. Increasingly
these projects are bound by sophisticated project specifications which provide a basis to achieve
significant design life well in access of 100 years.
The key elements for the life cycle provisions include appropriate design (e.g. concrete quality, cover,
detailing etc) and the basic materials and concrete mix designs to withstand the external exposure
conditions to achieve the minimum design life provisions. Besides the prescriptive requirement for
minimum grade of concrete, maximum w/c ratio and the use of a triple blend concrete, there are also
often provisions for performance targets associated with the Rapid Chloride Permeability Test (RCPT)
and Initial Surface Absorption Test (ISAT).
This paper explores what is appropriate in achieving design life provisions and why there is an urgent
need to reconsider project specifications in the Malaysian context so that design provisions are fit for
purpose.
Keywords: Design Life, Performance Specifications, Durability, RCPT, Viaduct Construction
1 Introduction
2 Review of Concrete
1.1 Background
Specifications
An assessment of the concrete requirements for
2.1 Overview
the construction of the Ampang Line LRT
Concrete Viaduct is considered. In particular the
The concrete specification for the Ampang Line
performance objectives in the specification are
extension project was provided as part of the
reviewed with a view to optimizing the concrete
construction brief to the contractors. The key
mix to meet design life requirements as an
provisions related to Durability in the
alternative to the prescribed mix.
specification relevant to this study were
considered in detail and discussed below.
315
2.2 Design Life and Performance which aims to simulate the actual marine
Requirements exposure environment and rapid tests such as
the ASTM C1202-97 “Electrical indication of
2.2.1 Overview concrete’s ability to resist chloride ion
penetration”, generally known as the rapid
There is a requirement for 120 year life for the chloride permeability test (RCPT). As the name
viaduct Structure in keeping with the importance clearly suggests the RCPT is really a measure of
of this facility for public usage and the fact that durability for either a marine environment or
this is a key infrastructure provision. one in which de-icing salts are used, and it is
surprising that this requirement is in a
The key element of the life cycle provision is to specification for a project in Kuala Lumpur
provide both an appropriate design (e.g. where exposure to a salt laden environment is
concrete quality, cover, detailing etc) and the not even remotely possible.
basic materials and concrete mix design to
withstand the external exposure conditions. The voltage driven diffusion methods were
There is an onus on the owners to undertake developed because of the sometimes impractical
regular maintenance of the facility to achieve test duration (i.e. months to years) of the
the design objectives. The latter requires careful concentration driven methods. The conventional
consideration but is beyond the scope of this long-term soaking tests take a long time,
paper. resulting in the increasing usage of the RCPT as a
rapid means of assessing concrete permeability.
As this is an Urban environment which is over 50 However neither a Cl diffusion or penetration
km from the sea the exposure conditions can be coefficient is obtainable from the ASTM C 1202-
classified as moderate to mild and the primary 97/AASHTO T 277-831 rapid permeability test.
mechanism of deterioration of the concrete The total charge passed in 6 hours, in coulombs,
structures will be related to carbonation. determined from this test is related to chloride
ion penetration resistance. A Table of Charge
There are some prescriptive requirements in the Passed versus Chloride Ion Penetrability is
specification to achieve the design life and these provided in the standards where Cl penetrability
include the need for a Grade 55 concrete with is stated qualitatively as either “negligible”,
w/c ratio of 0.35 for the Pre-stressed precast “very low”, “low”, “moderate” or “high” (Table
concrete, a prescribed triple blend concrete mix 1).
and a cover provision of 30 mm. The relevance
of these provisions are discussed below.
2.2.3 Specification Requirements
2.2.2 Rapid Chloride Permeability Test
The specification compliance limit for the ASTM
C 1202-97/AASHTO T 277-831, the Rapid
The specification provides for performance
Chloride Permeability Test (RCPT) for this
targets associated with the Rapid Chloride
contract is 1000 coulombs at 28 days. The need
Permeability Test (RCPT) and Initial Surface
to achieve this in a non-chloride environment is
Absorption Test (ISAT). Various durability tests
have been developed for the evaluation of the surprising and expecting to achieve the RCPT
resistance of concrete to chloride ion results at 28 days is an onerous requirement
which is not justified for the exposure conditions
penetration. The tests can be broadly grouped
expected. This is particularly so as blended
into ponding/immersion/salt spray tests,
cement concrete exhibits increases in durability
concentration driven diffusion tests and voltage
performance well beyond 28 days.
driven accelerated diffusion/permeability tests.
These tests include long-term soaking tests such
Furthermore, concrete which exhibits improved
as the AASHTO T259 “90-day salt-ponding test”
chloride resistance does not necessarily give
316
better carbonation resistance. This is because will to reduce the chemical buffering capacity
the processes are limited to a large extent by and increase the rate of carbonation [2]. Using
chemical rather than physical effects. For an inappropriate test for the exposure
example, it is recognized that increasing the conditions may therefore have the opposite
proportion of fly ash or ggbs will increase the effect to that required, leading to an unsafe
resistance to chloride ingress, partly due to design.
enhanced chloride binding. However, it is well
documented that an increase in fly ash or ggbs
Table 1: Chloride ion penetrability based on charge passed
Charge Passed Chloride Ion Type of Concrete

(Coulombs) Penetrability
> 4,000 High High W/C
2,000 to 4,000 Moderate 0.4-0.5 W/C
1,000 to 2,000 Low W/C < 0.4
100 to 1,000 Very Low Latex modified
Concrete
< 100 Negligible Polymer concrete
Note: W/C = water-cement ratio
It should be noted that the RCPT test requirement is 2.3 Concrete Mix Design
not specified in the standard Public Works
Department (JKR) concrete specification but is The concrete mix design options are given in
included under additional clauses for bridges in sea Table 2 below.
and coastal areas which is where the 1000 coulombs
at 28 days compliance comes from. In the case of Mix 1 is based on the specification
the Penang Second Bridge project (P2B project) over requirements. However, based purely on
the Penang Straits in an aggressive Marine durability performance objectives, several other
Environment, the client Jabatan Kedua Sdn Bhd mix options (Mix 2 to 4) can be considered as
(JKSB) relaxed this requirement from 28 days to 56 indicated in Table 2.
days. In the case of the Singapore North East Line
MRT contract which was under construction in 2002 If the RCPT compliance can be relaxed to 56/90
the criteria for pre-cast tunnel linings was set at days mixes 5 and 6 can also be considered to
1000 Coulombs as the characteristic value. Based on meet the performance target. A selection of
a 30% expected variability of RCPT test result an these mixes were subject to a trial mix process
extreme value of 1300 was accepted as the to select the most appropriate concrete mix for
uppermost limit with not more that 5% above 1000. this purpose.
If this test is to be used as part of a quality

control regime in this non-chloride environment it
will be more appropriate to use the ‘Low Criteria’
established by ASTM C1202 (1997) for concrete
with w/c < 0.4 (See Table 1) between 1000 and 2000
coulombs as the compliance ie 1000 coulombs at 56
days as a characteristic value with an allowance that
5% of the results may be above this limit.
317
Table 2 Proposed Design Mix for Precast Segmental Box Girders; LRT Extention Project - Ampang Line
Cement Type
Mix ref. Mascrete Silica
Mix Type
OPC LH PFA GGBS Fume
kg/m3 kg/m3 kg/m3 kg/m3 kg/m3
PROPOSAL 1 1
OPC/PFA
(As per
(25%) /SF (5%)
specification) 322 115 23
PROPOSAL 2 2 OPC/PFA35/SF 299 161
(Alternative 3 OPC/PFA20 368 92
design Masscrete
proposal) 4 LH/SF 437 23
5 Masscrete LH 460
6 Masscrete Pro 460
7 OPC 460
Note: 1) Plasticiser or/and Superplasticiser was dosed to achieve specified slump and slump retention.
2) Masscrete LH and Pro are Inter-ground OPC/PFA at a 25% and 15% replacement respectively,
produced by Lafarge.
3) Proprietary PFA cements are available from YTL and CIMA and these were also considered for
the trials.
4) S/A ratio was adjusted depending on workability requirements
5) Assumed SG: Slagcem 2.99 Mascrete LH 2.90 PFA 2.20 Combined Aggregate 2.64 OPC 3.15 Silica
Fume 2.20
6) The total cementitious content, w/c ratio. S/A ratio for all mixes was maintained as per the
original compliant mix as per the specification requirement.
3 OVERVIEW OF CONCRETE DURABILITY broken down is associated with the process of

carbonation. In this case the carbon dioxide in
3.1 Overview the atmosphere reacts with calcium hydroxide
forming calcium carbonate and water. This leads
Embedded Steel is passivated as a result of the to a reduction in alkalinity to about pH 9. The
alkaline conditions within the concrete. The passivation of steel is lost below about pH 10
electrolyte held in the porous structure of hence if the carbonated zone reaches the depth
Portland cement concrete (the pore solution) is of reinforcement, corrosion may be initiated.
highly alkaline (pH > 13) due to dissolution of
small amounts of alkaline metal (sodium and 3.2 Factors Affecting Durability
potassium) hydroxides, buffered by large
quantities of calcium hydroxides both solid and in 3.2.1 Macro and Micro Climate
solution. Under these conditions the
reinforcement remains uncorroded even in the The viaduct elements are fully exposed to the
presence of moisture. This protection can be lost atmosphere during service. The macro-
in structures in saline environments when environment can be considered a normal outdoor
chlorides within the pore water exceed a critical exposure condition with specific micro-
threshold level. As the LRT Ampang Extension environments as shown schematically in Figure 1.
project is not within a marine zone and will not The principal effect of temperature on
be subject to de-icing salts, the primary deterioration is that it accelerates the chemical
mechanism by which concrete stability can be and physical processes involved.
318
Rainwater ingress through Wet-dry conditions, ponding

unprotected concrete EXTERIOR Exposed depending on drainage
INTERIOR Sheltered
EXTERIOR  65-75% RH at least 7-8 hours
Exposed a day
 80-95% RH rest of the
day
 Temperature 25-33°C
Figure 1. Cross Section of Viaduct
The daily temperature in Malaysia is typically 100C carbonation reduces; the optimum value is in
on average hotter than that of the UK for example the 50-70% range.
and consequently the risk and rate of iii. It relates to dew point and moisture
deterioration is at least twice as great if all else is precipitation on concrete surfaces; for
equal. example even under dry conditions high
humidity’s provide constant sources of
Climate records show that the humidity in moisture for corrosion.
Malaysia remains almost constant throughout the iv. It influences the efficiency of curing (with
year with an annual mean of 82.5%. This annual temperature and wind speed).
mean Figure is some 6% greater than those
encountered in UK and Hong Kong. Carbonation occurs more slowly under humid
conditions, the moisture slowing the rate of CO2
However, the mean Figures hide the fact that the penetration into the surface. At very low
humidity is in the range 65-75% at between 7-8 humidity’s carbonation is also slow, there being
hours daily which is the optimum range of values insufficient water for the reaction to occur.
for carbonation. It also does not account for the
fact that the RH during the early mornings can be The atmospheric CO2 concentration is usually of
constantly at 95% which impedes carbonation. the order of 0.03% and considered representative
The diurnal variations are quite consistent of the Klang Valley.
throughout the year. There is also a significant
amount of driving rain which will render the 3.2.2 Design Life Prediction
concrete wet for prolonged periods as concrete
dries out very slowly. The relationship governing the progress of
carbonation can be approximately described as
Humidity has several effects on the deterioration the depth of penetration being proportional to
process: the square root of time. The proportionality for
i. It affects the rate of corrosion (optimum any given concrete can be defined as a constant
typically at 90-95%) “k” referred to as the carbonation coefficient.
ii. It controls the rate of carbonation. At very Expressed in symbols the relationship is thus:-
high or at low humidity the rate of
319
Dc = k(t) ½(Equ. 3.3)
If Dc is the depth of cover, the time for initiation of corrosion t may be estimated using the
Expression:
t = (Dc/k) 2 the carbonation front in mm where Dc = depth of penetration
k = the carbonation coefficient for the particular concrete (mm²/year).
t = the time interval for which Dc is being considered in years.
The values for K can be derived from the data given in Figure 2 1.
Figure 2: ‘k’ v concrete strength – For European and Malaysian conditions.
While there is considerable scatter of the results, A carbonation model developed as part of a UK
it can be seen that an estimate of k can be concrete society study (2) based on a
derived from the strength alone. Based on the comprehensive and rigorous analysis of
data presented in Figure 2 the k factors for a published data, has been used to assess
grade 55 concrete can be computed. The concrete durability. The model is based on the
exposed viaduct elements, where carbonation is assumption that the principal material
likely, can be divided into several distinct zones parameters affecting the carbonation rate is the
(see Figure 2). chemical buffering capacity of the cementitious
a) The concrete horizontal deck is likely to be material.
directly exposed to the environment and closer
to an unsheltered condition. The corrosion rate is predicted using values
b) The soffit of the viaduct elements in question suggested by Andrade et al (3) and is related to
is likely to be closer to a sheltered condition. RH as shown in Table 3.
c) The sides of the viaduct are likely to be in
between a sheltered and unsheltered condition.
Table 3. Assumed Corrosion Rates in relation to the average RH in the exposure environment
RH Rate of corrosion (µm per year)
<50% 0.1
>50% <60% 0.2
>60% <70% 0.3
>70% <80% 0.5
>80% <90% 1.0
>90% <98% 5.0
>98% 0.1
The outputs of the predicted model are given in Table 4.
320
Taking this into consideration a k factor of 2.3 to the unavailability of moisture.

mm (year) ½ for a Grade 55 concrete (see Figure
2) the original time for carbonation initiation It should also be noted that the prescribed
(T1) for a concrete cover of 30 mm is ~ 170 concrete which meets the performance as
years. It should be noted that the design life set out in the specification is a Grade 55
based on a time to cracking (T3), which is an OPC/PFA/SF mix with 25% PFA replacement
accepted performance criteria, is likely to be and 5% SF subject to 7 day cure. Based on
considerably longer. For an OPC concrete the the carbonation model this triple blend
time to corrosion (T1) is achieved if an average concrete would achieve a time to activation
humidity of 85 % and normal curing (1 day cure) (T1) of ~ 106 years and time to cracking (T3)
is assumed. Using this model as a base, the time of 123 years based on a 7 day cure. An
to corrosion can be predicted assuming a 3 day equivalent concrete mix which will achieve a
cure and a 7 day cure as shown in Table 4. slightly better performance is a 20%
OPC/PFA concrete with no silica fume
At the concrete deck surface which is a subject to an equivalent of 3 days curing (see
completely unsheltered condition the time to Table 4). The modeling confirms that it is
initiation is likely to be longer, as for at least 3 possible to achieve the design life objectives
to 4 months of the year, concrete will be of 120 years for the OPC-PFA concrete,
wet/dry and this will impede carbonation. At based on a performance target of time to
the internal part of the concrete viaduct where cracking, much more easily than the
the concrete is totally sheltered from rain the specified triple blend concrete due to the
Penetration of the carbonation will be expected exposure conditions, with the
somewhat greater but once activated the associated cost savings.
corrosion rate will be at a reduced rate due
Table 4. Time to Corrosion and Cracking due to Carbonation, PFA Mixes

Time to Corrosion Time to Cracking Remarks
Cement Type Typical Design Typical Design
D1 OPC/PFA(25%)/SF 106 77 123 95 3 day cure

D2 OPC/PFA(25%)/SF 145 106 162 123 7 day cure
D4 OPC/PFA (25%) 143 102 160 119 3 day cure
OPC/PFA (25%) 196 139 213 157 7 day cure
D3 OPC /PFA (20%) 171 120 189 138 3 day cure
Note: SF addition assumed to be 5% for all triple blend mixes, total concrete G55,
cementitious 460 kg/m3, w/c ratio 0.35 and C3A content 8%.
4 Conclusions and Recommendations slightly better performance with only a 3 day

cure.
[1] The G55 concrete for this project was
specified as a OPC/PFA/Silica Fume (5%) with [2] The concrete is required to meet stringent
a binder content of ~460 kg/m3, a 25% PFA durability requirements (RCPT < 1000
replacement and w/c ratio of 0.35. Based on coulombs, ISAT < 0.1 ml/m/m2), The RCPT
durability modeling for carbonation test requirement is strictly for Marine
penetration the OPC/PFA/SF mix will achieve environment but the ISAT can be used as a
a 120 year life taking time to corrosion (T3) general measure of surface durability.
as the performance criteria if 7 day cure is
applied. An OPC/PFA mix with 20% PFA and
with no silica fume added will provide a
321
5 References
[3] Taking into consideration the buffering
capacity of blended cements the equivalent
[1] Kribanandan GURUSAMY
time to activation (T1) and time to corrosion Impact on Design Life of Buildings in a Hot Wet
(T3) for the specified concrete mix (i.e) OPC- Environment, 10th DBMC International
PFA(25%)-SF(5%) is 106 years and 123 years
Conference on Durability of Building materials
respectively assuming a 7 day cure (see
and Components, Lyon France, April 2005.
Table 4). Using an OPC/PFA mix at 25%
replacement without silica fume provides
[2] P.B. BAMFORTH.
for concrete of increased durability,
reducing to 102 years and 119 years Enhancing Reinforced Concrete Durability:
respectively with 3 days curing (see Table Guidance on Selecting Measures for Minimizing
4). As the rate of corrosion after activation the Risk of Corrosion of Reinforcement in
is likely to be very low, achieving the design Concrete. Concrete Society The concrete Society,
live objective of 120 years is not expected (Camberley, UK 2004)
to be a problem for the OPC-PFA (25%)
concrete without silica fume. Reducing the [3] ANDRADE, C. et al
PFA amount to 20% provides for a better Manual for the preliminary and detailed design
margin against carbonation damage. assessment of reinforced concrete structures;
Part 4 Structures affected by rebar corrosion,
[4] The findings from concrete investigations Internal Report of BRITE-EURAM Project BE-4062
confirm that a stringent RCPT requirement DGXII, August 1995.
used for Marine concrete compliance does
not necessarily provide a concrete with [4] BS EN1992 – 1 – 1 : 2004 Eurocode 2
good carbonation resistance as the process Design of concrete structures, General Rules
is limited to a large extent by chemical and Rules for Buildings
rather than physical effects. It was
therefore suggested that the RCPT [5] ASTM C1202 (1997).
requirements are discontinued or are “Standard Test Method for Electrical Indication
relaxed to a 1000 coulombs at 56/90 days of Concrete’s Ability to Resist Chloride Ion
allowing for 5% defectives, only to be used Penetration”, Annual Book of ASTM Standards,
as a quality control measure for a concrete Vol. 04.02, American Society for Testing and
in an urban chloride free environment. Materials, West Conshohocken, 6 pp.
[5] As Carbonation is directly related to strength [6] JTK Report 1201/02 /7026
(See Figure 2) the quality control Review of Rapid Chloride Permeability Testing
requirements for 28 Day strength should be for Durability Compliance, Butterworth Bridge,
the basis for monitoring compliance as per Prai, Pioneer Concrete Sdn Bhd, December 2002.
the normal practice in a ready mix plant.
[7] Whiting D (1981).
[6] The conclusions herein are only valid for the Rapid Measurement of the Chloride Permeability
production and manufacture of SBGs. Other of Concrete,” Report No. FHWA/RD-81/119
considerations may take precedence for the
normal civil engineering works envisaged [8] Kribanandan GURUSAMY NAIDU
for this project where mass concrete Life Cycle Provisions for Infrastructure
elements are to be constructed. Development in the Klang Valley
What is Appropriate? NACE East Asia Pacific Area
Conference, Aug 2016, Kuala Lumpur Malaysia
322
Human Errors and Corresponding Risks in Reinforced Concrete Bridges

Neryvaldo Galvão, José Matos, Daniel Oliveira and João Fernandes
University of Minho, Portugal
Contact: neryvaldo.galvao17@live.com
jmatos@civil.uminho.pt
danvco@civil.uminho.pt
joaofernandes2080@gmail.com
Abstract
Concerning the bridges failures that have been arising over the years, experts have pointed out as
the principal cause of failure the human errors that usually take place in the design, construction
and operation stages. The main goal of this paper is the identification of the design and construction
errors that represent a higher risk for reinforced concrete bridges. Therefore, a human error survey
was developed together with design and construction experts on this subject, to collect and
assess these errors by using risk-based indicators (probability of occurrence and consequences). The
corresponding survey results, given by design and construction experts, are analysed by using a
decision-making tool, named Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP), which will allow the identification of
the errors with higher consequences and a higher probability of occurrence. Based on this survey, a
qualitative risk-based evaluation of the errors is also performed.
Keywords: Human error, Reinforced Concrete Bridges, Risk Analysis, Analytic Hierarchy Process
(AHP), Bridge Failure
errors can represent different risks when

1 Introduction compared with each other, thus it is important to
To increase the reliability of our bridges it is first identify those that represents a higher risk.
required, the identification of the main source of
the issues that is leading to their failure. Relying on
a bridge failure database developed by [1] which
contain several worldwide bridge failure cases with
their main causes of failure, since 1966 to 2017, we
can state that design and construction error has a
key role to play in this matter, representing 31% of
the failures. Although, the operation errors are
responsible for most of the failures, with a
percentage of 51% (Figure 1.1).
The design and construction errors is a wide subject
Figure 1.1 Principal causes of failure for reinforced
and when it comes to being defined specifically we
concrete bridges (Syrkov. A, 2017)
can find ourselves very confused about its
boundaries and how can we identify them in the
complex conception process of a bridge. These
323
2 Human Error Risk-Based Analysis 2.1 Survey structure

Risk-based analysis is defined as the systematic use To perform a qualitative, frequency, consequence
of available information to identify hazards and to and risk analysis all the errors identified were
estimate the risk to individuals, property, and the grouped according to Figure 2.1. The qualitative
environment [2]. It is a field of risk management analysis comprises five levels, and it is supported by
and it is established in three steps: (i) the hazard the errors listed in Table 2.1. Considering these
identification; (ii) the frequency analysis; and (iii) issues, a survey with 20 design errors and 29
the consequence analysis. construction errors was put together, allowing the
assessment of each error according to its frequency
The identification of the hazards, in this case, is the and consequence by experts in bridge design and
identification of possible design and construction construction. The survey is also prepared to put
errors that may affect a reinforced concrete bridge. together errors that experts may think that are
To identify these errors a brainstorm meeting with important to consider.
some experts in the subjects was carried out. The
frequency analysis and the consequence analysis
can be performed by using a qualitative analysis of
the errors, or a quantitative analysis, depending on
the main goal of the risk analysis.
The risk analysis is usually followed by a risk
evaluation, where the risk of a hazard is compared
with the acceptance standards, which sometimes
are hard to define and can vary for different
industries. These acceptance standards direct also
the suitable action for a certain hazard, to get a risk
as low as reasonably practicable (ALARP). The
ALARP concept is directly related to the established
acceptance standards, and it groups the hazards
into three categories, the critical region, the ALARP
region and the acceptable region. The critical
region is known for including hazards with a
tremendous risk that should not ever be accepted, Figure 2.1 – Survey Structure
so it must be reduced at all cost. The ALARP region
The used qualitative risk matrix (Table 2.3 and
is defined as the region where the hazards must be
Table 2.4) was provided by a Portuguese
studied, to find out if the cost of its reduction is
construction company that has been working with
economically justifiable or unjustifiable until a
risk management for some time. From the
certain point, when compared to the obtained risk
bibliography review, it was found different risk
reduction. The acceptable region, covers the
matrix, but this one was selected because of its
hazards that represent a low consequence and
direct relation to civil engineering risk
frequency, so its reduction is not a priority, even
management.
though, it must not be neglected because the sum
of many of these hazards can lead to catastrophic
2.2 Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP)
accidents. In this work, the critical, ALARP and
acceptable region, is defined respectively by the To rank the results from the survey, a decision-
“red colour”,” Yellow, orange and dark green making tool, based on linear algebra was used. The
colour” and “light green colour” (Table 2.3 and AHP is based on numerous pair-wise comparison
Table 2.4). between different objects, which is represented by
a comparison matrix. From the comparison matrix,
a ranking vector can be determined through the
matrix eigenvector allowing us to point out the
324
objects or the errors with higher or lower collected from the survey and to manage all the
frequency or consequence. To implement the AHP, necessary matrix operation required by the AHP,
a MATLAB algorithm was developed according to which can be very exhaustive.
[3], to overcome the high volume of information
Table 2.1 – Design Errors - identification and ranking

Errors ID List of Errors Frequency Consequence
Cluster Ranking Ranking
1 Error due to non-conservative arrangement between 16 17
design and load regulations from different countries,
leading to a less reliable structure
2 Errors in regulations interpretation 9 20
3 Error in live loads quantification due to lack of data (wind, 13 14
snow, seismic)
4 Error in dead load quantification 20 1
5 Error in the definition of the most significant load 11 7
combinations
6 Error defining the gravity centre for highly compressed 18 11
elements, as arches, or defining load eccentricity in these
Structural Analysis and Design
elements
7 Error defining a cross section shear centre (torsion effects) 7 18
8 Error quantifying the deck displacement effects due to 1 16

creep, shrinkage and temperature variation in columns,
associated with 2nd order effects
9 Error defining the buckling length of an element 12 10
Design Errors
10 Error defining/describing the location of pre-stressing 15 8

tendons
11 Error in the decompression limit state calculation 14 19
12 Error defining the pre-stressing hiperstatic effects 3 15
13 Error defining the soil-structure interaction (support 2 12
conditions and differential settlements)
14 Error due to lack of consideration of different structural 5 2
systems that a bridge or an element will be subjected,
through the construction process
15 Error modelling the connections between structural 8 5
elements as the deck, beam and column
16 Error due to lack of consistency in the design assumptions 4 9
and the detailing rules
17 Error in reinforcement cross-section area 17 3
Detailing
18 Error in reinforcement spacing (shear, transverse and 10 4

longitudinal reinforcement)
19 Error in concrete and reinforcement classes indication 19 6
20 Error defining the quota of implantation 6 13
325
Table 2.2 – Construction errors - -identification and ranking

Errors Cluster ID List of Errors Frequency. Consequence
Ranking Ranking
1 Errors leading to alkali–aggregate reaction 19 15
Material Quality Control Errors
2 Error in the quantification of cement hydration heat 18 22

Concrete
3 Error in the evaluation of aggregates humidity 13 28

4 Error due to poor concrete workmanship leading to a 22 13
concrete with characteristics and properties different
from the requested
Reinforcement
5 Errors leading to reinforcement corrosion 10 25

6 Error using a wrong reinforcement class especially 29 23
when different reinforcement classes are also used in
construction
7 Error related with reinforcement cross-section area 26 14
8 Error due to wrong positioning of supports 15 12
9 Error due to expansion joints deficiency and wrong 3 19
positioning
10 Error due to wrong interpretation of the design 21 8
project
11 Error in topographic implantation 14 16
12 Error due to wrong concrete vibration 20 27
13 Error in the reinforcement cover 2 18
Generic Errors
14 Error in the longitudinal shape due to shrinkage and 9 26

creep effects that were not correctly computed in the
Construction Errors
design project
15 Error due to consideration of support conditions 23 24
different from those defined in the design project
16 Error due to the establishment of wrong final support 25 20

conditions
17 Error due to wrong evaluation of the foundation soil 5 4
Execution Errors
properties
18 Error due to geometric imperfections (inclination and 11 29
cross section imperfection)
19 Error due to poor evaluation of the foundation soil 1 3
properties of the scaffolds, and variation of these
properties before different rainfall conditions
20 Error due to poor preparation of the scaffold 8 10
foundation using gravel material and/or poor
Scaffolding Execution Errors
positioning of the timber elements that support the

scaffold
21 Error due to deficiency in the continuous scaffold 4 1
bracing, leading to global instability
22 Error due to a deficient maintenance plan leading to 12 7
poor scaffold material quality
23 Error in the scaffold clamping elements (connectors 6 6
and couplers)
24 Error in movable scaffolds due to non-controlled 16 2
hyperstaticity reduction to perform his movement
25 Error in the assessment of the formwork and scaffold 7 17
deformability properties
26 Error due to wrong positioning of formwork ties 17 21
326
27 Error due to insufficient prestressing tension 28 5
Prestressing
28 Error due to over loss of prestressing tension 24 11
Errors
29 Error due to insufficient concrete curing, necessary, 27 9
to bond the concrete with the prestressed steel by
static friction (pre-tensioned concrete)
In cases such as surveys, where several participants

2.3 Risk Analysis
can be involved, from the AHP it is possible to
compute a consensus index that ranges from 0%, After ranking the errors, it is important to
when there is no consensus between the different determine those that represent a better
decision makers, to 100%, when there is a full relationship between the frequency and
consensus between the decision makers. This consequence, leading to the errors with higher or
indicator is very important since it can support the lower, risk. The AHP can be very tricky because
claim of a convergence in the identification of the during the process it is possible to lose some
errors with a higher or a lower consequence, or information about the error magnitude, since after
frequency. the ranking it is not known which the qualitative
level of the errors are. On the other hand, a
qualitative risk-based analysis that relies on a
In Table 2.1 and Table 2.2, it can be found all the weighted geometric mean evaluation of the survey
errors collected to create the survey and its to determine the risk of an error can be inefficient
respectively ranking position for frequency and since most of the errors will fall into the same
consequence, obtained from the AHP. Another qualitative level, as it is possible to see in the tables
advantage of the AHP is the fact that it can be 2.3 and 2.4. Combining the AHP results and the
established different weights to the input of qualitative risk analysis based on a weighted
different decision makers. For instance, the input geometric mean evaluation, we shall have a better
of a civil engineer with more professional view of the errors risk and its magnitude. With the
experience should have more influence on the qualitative risk matrix, it can be observed if an error
outcome, than the contribution of a civil engineer has a very high or a very low risk and for the errors
with less experience. Therefore, four weight with the same qualitative risk, relying on the AHP
factors were used, 1.0 (1-10 years), 1.5(10-20 ranking, it can be identified which one of them
years), 1.75 (20-30 years) and 2.0 (30-40 years). represents a higher risk. For example, let’s take the
design error 7 and 8 in Table 2.3. Both represent a
high risk but checking the AHP ranking it can be can
observed that the error 8 has a better rank position
for frequency (1 vs 8) and consequence (16 vs 18),
therefore a higher risk.
Table 2.3 - Design errors risk
Consequence
DESIGN RISK Very Low Low Average High Very High
R=PXI 1 2 3 4 5
Very High 5 - - - - -
High 4 - - - - -
ID = 7, 8, 12, 13,
Average 3 - - - ID = 14
15, 16, 20
Frequency ID = 1, 2, 3, 5, 6,
Low 2 - - ID = 11 ID = 17
9, 10, 18, 19
Very Low 1 - - - - ID = 4
327
Table 2.4 - Construction errors risk

Consequence
CONSTRUCTION ERRORS Very Low Low Average High Very High
RISK 1 2 3 4 5
Very High 5 - - - - -
High 4 - - - - -
Average 3 - - ID = 9 ID = 13 ID = 19, 21
Frequency ID = 2, 3, 5, 12, ID = 1, 4, 7, 8, 10, 11, ID = 17, 23,
Low 2 - -
14, 15, 16, 18, 26 20, 22, 25, 27, 28, 29 24
Very Low 1 - - ID = 6 - -
From the qualitative analysis, for the very low-risk

3 Discussion and Conclusions category, no error was identified. It is believed that
The result of the AHP and the qualitative risk-based this is because of the pre-requisite used in the
analysis, lead us to conclude that in construction, identification of the errors. The errors list used in
some of the errors with higher risk are directly the survey already stand for those that may have a
related to scaffolding and geotechnical issues, as it higher risk.
is possible to see in Table 3.1.
The ranking of the errors will allow a better-quality

An interesting fact is that during all meetings, these control plan to increase the safety of roadway
were the ones that usually first came out as the bridges. At this point, is important to say that this
errors with higher risk. Every risk analysis is reliant work was developed with the main goal to identify
on a context, so it is important to know that the possible damages (errors) that may affect the
error list created was towards to a girder bridge reliability of structures. A hierarchy of the
with 3 spans of 18, 27.8 and 18 meters with a identified errors gives also a clue of where should
column height of 13 meters. It is important to note be put the effort to increase the safety of the
that this typology reflects one of the most used structures, effectively.
typologies in road bridges in Portugal. The same
approach on a suspended, arc or cable-stayed
bridges, or even in girder bridges of other
proportions, might lead to changes in the ranked
errors, once the consequence and frequency
magnitude can increase or decrease for different
circumstances. The survey dissemination was
performed through the COST Action TU1406
networking and the Portuguese engineers with a
ranged professional experience from 5 to 40 years
old.
The consensus index obtained from the AHP is

about 87.16% for the design error and 73.40% for
construction errors, which means that among the
engineers the common awareness about design
errors risks is higher than the construction errors
risk, although the difference is not as significant.
328
Table 3.1 – Top five design and construction errors with higher risk
Design Errors Construction Errors
Error due to lack of consideration of different Error due to poor evaluation of the foundation soil
structural systems that a bridge or an element will be properties of the scaffolds, and variation of these
subjected, through the construction process (ID = 14) properties before different rainfall conditions
(ID= 19)
Error modelling the connections between structural Error due to deficiency in the continuous scaffold's
elements like deck, beam and column; (ID = 15) bracing leading to global instability (ID = 21)
Error due to lack of consistency in the design Error due to wrong evaluation of the foundation soil
assumptions and the detailing rules (ID = 16) properties (ID = 17)
Error defining the soil-structure interaction (support Error in the scaffold clamping elements (connectors
conditions and differential settlements) (ID = 13) and couplers) (ID = 23)
Error in reinforcement spacing (shear, transverse and Error in movable scaffolds due to non-controlled
longitudinal reinforcement) (ID = 18) hyperstaticity reduction needed to perform his
movement (ID = 24)
4 References
[1]. Syrkov A. Review of bridge collapses
worldwide 1966 - 2017. In: IABSE Workshop
Ignorance, uncertainty and human errors in
structural engineering. 2017.
[2]. Rausand M. [Risk assessment]. [Internet].
Vol. 68, Der Chirurg; Zeitschrift fur alle
Gebiete der operativen Medizen. 1997.
654-661 p. Available from: NS -
[3]. Goepel KD. Implementing the Analytic
Hierarchy Process as a Standard Method for
Multi-Criteria Decision Making In Corporate
Enterprises – A New AHP Excel Template
with Multiple Inputs. Proc Int Symp Anal
Hierarchy Process [Internet]. 2013;1–10.
Available from: http://bpmsg.com/wp-
content/uploads/2013/06/ISAHP_2013-
13.03.13.Goepel.pdf
329
Towards nonlinear reliability assessment of concrete transport

structures
Radomír Pukl
Červenka Consulting s.r.o., Prague, Czech Republic
David Lehký
Brno University of Technology, Brno, Czech Republic
Drahomír Novák
Brno University of Technology, Brno, Czech Republic
Contact: radomir.pukl@cervenka.cz
Abstract
Novel technique combining non-linear finite element analysis of the structural model with
advanced stochastic simulation methods for realistic computer simulation and reliability
assessment of civil engineering structures is presented. Elite non-linear material models are used
for modelling of the structural materials within an advanced finite element computer simulation.
Material properties and corresponding model parameters including their randomness and
uncertainties are represented as random variables or random fields in the stochastic simulation
using stratified Latin Hypercube Sampling and Simulated Annealing methods. Probabilistic
evaluation of the numerical results enables to assess stochastic parameters of the model
response, structural resistance, failure probability, safety index and structural reliability.
Keywords: concrete; material models; reliability; computational methods; engineering structures.
general and rational basis of safety evaluation. In

1 Introduction addition to the partial factor safety concept
The non-linear finite element analysis is nowadays (which remains as the main safety format for most
used by engineers for design of new and practical cases) a global resistance format is
assessment of existing engineering structures. This recommended for nonlinear analysis. This concept
development is recently well supported by the can be applied in design and assessment of
new fib Model Code 2010 [1], where a rational engineering structures and can offer advanced
safety assessment approach is presented. It and rational solutions to modern structural
reflects the recent developments in safety formats technologies [2].
based on probabilistic methods. In the Chapter 4 The fully probabilistic approach represents the
on "Principles of structural design" the most accurate method for the safety assessment
probabilistic safety format is introduced as a
330
of civil engineering structures. The accuracy of this The ATENA software [3] was developed for
approach is much higher if the non-linear realistic simulation of reinforced concrete
structural analysis is used as a limit state function. structures. It is based on the finite element
The numerical simulation resembles a real testing method with elite non-linear material models, and
of structures by considering a representative is utilized for analysis of beams and girders, plates
group of samples, which can be statistically and shells, composite structures, strengthenings,
analyzed for the safety and reliability assessment. structural details, fastenings, fibre reinforced
concrete structures, timber, stonebrick and
In the methodology proposed by authors the
masonry structures, e.g. [4], [5], [6]. Considerable
probabilistic analysis is performed with software
part of the analyzed civil engineering
package SARA, which integrates program tools
constructions belong to the structures of
ATENA and FReET. The variability of basic
transport infrastructure, such as bridges, tunnels,
properties is described by distribution functions
railway sleepers or load-carrying rail plates etc.
and its parameters such as mean, standard
deviation, etc. Probabilistic analysis of the The ATENA software consists of calculating core
resistance is performed by stratified numerical ensuring the non-linear numerical analysis and a
method such as Latin hypercube sampling user-friendly graphical interface for an efficient
method. Resulting array of resistance values is communication between end-user and program
approximated by distribution function of global core. The numerical core covers the finite element
resistance, and describes the random properties technology, the non-linear material models and
of the structural resistance. Finally, for a required the non-linear solution. Since concrete is a
reliability index β or probability of failure Pf a complex material with strongly nonlinear
value of the design resistance Rd can be response, special constitutive models for the finite
calculated. element analysis of structures made of concrete
and similar materials are employed. The non-
The fully probabilistic analysis is the ultimate tool
linear material models are based on the
for the reliability assessment of civil engineering
orthotropic damage theory and special concrete-
(reinforced concrete, transport) structures. It is
related theory of plasticity.
superior to simplified methods because it provides
information on the variability of resistance. As one of the main features the non-linear
However, it is computationally demanding and fracture mechanics is employed for concrete
requires good information about random cracking in tension. Based on the fracture energy
properties of input variables. Therefore, it should approach the tensile cracks are modelled as
be applied in special cases, where the smeared material damage which enables
consequences of failure substantiate the utilization of the continuum mechanics even for
increased effort. the damaged material. For the shape of stress-
crack opening curve an exponential law derived by
2 Nonlinear computer simulation of Hordijk [7] is used in case of normal concrete.
reinforced concrete structures Objectivity of the solution (independency on the
finite element mesh) is ensured using crack band
The nonlinear finite element simulation is recently method [8]. The material law for concrete exhibits
a well-established approach for analysis of softening after reaching the tensile strength.
reinforced concrete engineering structures.
Behaviour of the concrete in compression is
Behaviour of the structure under service as well as
covered by special theory of plasticity (three-
ultimate conditions can be virtually simulated
parameter model [9], [10]) with non-associated
using computer methods quite realistically. The
plastic flow rule and softening. This material
nonlinear fracture mechanical analysis accounting
model for concrete can successfully reproduce
tensile capacity of material enables to exploit
also other important effect such as volume change
reserves, which are usually neglected or
under plastic compression or compressive
diminished in codes or in linear analysis.
confinement. The graphical user-interface in
331
ATENA supports all the specifics of reinforced 3 Inverse analysis for identification
concrete, e.g. input of discrete reinforcing bars, or
evaluation of crack patterns in the damaged
of material parameters
structural model. The key parameters for the nonlinear fracture
mechanics modelling are fracture energy, tensile
ATENA software is perfectly suitable for static
and compressive strength, and modulus of
analysis of concrete structures, obtaining their
elasticity of the structural material, which are
load-displacement response and resistance, crack
generally not well known, but crucial for a
pattern including crack widths and identification
successful computer simulation of the structural
of the failure mode. It can be used for structure
response. For identification of fracture mechanical
optimization, assessment of retrofitting or
parameters of concrete from experimental results
reinforcement detailing.
of three-point bending tests on notched-beam
In order to extend ATENA potential and features, specimens an inverse method based on artificial
the recent development combines the calculating neural networks has been introduced by Lehký
core with an advanced runtime and post- et al. [11].
processing environment and a powerful third-
Determination of parameters values is performed
party program GiD for the model preparation (pre-
by inverse analysis using artificial neural network
processing). The resulting product ATENA Science
based method. The background of the inverse
covers broad range of structural and material
analysis is finite element method model which is
behaviour in time. It enables to model
used for numerical simulation of three-point
geometrically complicated shapes and it is suitable
bending fracture test; the model was created in
for analysis of complex structural problems, such
ATENA software. Subject of identification are the
as dynamic implicit analysis, dynamic eigenvalue
basic three fracture mechanical parameters of the
analysis, static stress analysis, creep analysis,
concrete model: modulus of elasticity, tensile
transport of heat and fluids or fire analysis. The
strength, fracture energy. These material model
coupling of the above effects can be often
parameters are considered as random variables
achieved through simultaneous solution of various
described by probability distribution. The
constitutive models. Thus, dynamic analysis can
rectangular distribution was chosen as the lower
capture non-linear material response due to
and upper limits represent the bounded range of
cracking, etc. In the eigenvalue analysis vibration
physical existence. The variables are then
frequencies reflect the stiffness changes due to
simulated randomly based on the small-sample
material damage. In creep analysis the cracking of
simulation Latin Hypercube Sampling. Multiple
concrete and redistribution of stress due to plastic
calculation of deterministic computational model
deformations is reflected. In fire analysis material
using random realizations of material model
response is strongly dependent on changing
parameters is performed, and statistical set of the
temperature fields.
virtual structural response is obtained. Random
However, the advanced non-linear analysis is realizations and the corresponding responses
performed in the ATENA software using purely from the computational model serve as the basis
deterministic way, i.e. it is assumed, that all the for the training of the neural network. After the
input parameters (material properties, geometry training the neural network is ready to solve the
of the structure, etc.) are fixed, well known values. main task: To provide the material parameters for
This is in contradiction to reality, where these which the numerical simulation will result in the
values are usually uncertain or random, evtl. best agreement with the provided experimental
variable in space and time. Therefore, stochastic data. This task is performed by means of the
analysis would be much more suitable for simulation of the neural network using measured
obtaining really realistic results. response as an input. It results in a set of
identified optimal material input parameters. The
last step of the procedure is results verification –
calculation of computational model using
332
identified parameters and comparison with the response) are saved. At the end of the whole
measured data. To obtain statistical characteristics simulation process the resulting set of structural
of material parameters inverse analysis is responses is statistically evaluated. The results
performed for each specimen (L–D diagram) are: estimates of the mean value, variance,
individually. The set of identified values is coefficient of skewness and kurtosis, and the
obtained as the result of individual identification empirical cumulative probability density function
and can be assessed statistically as it is usually estimated by an empirical histogram of structural
done for experiments. response.
This basic statistical assessment is visualized
4 Probabilistic assessment of through the “Histograms” window. It is followed
structural reliability by reliability analysis based on several
approximation techniques:
The probabilistic statistical, sensitivity and
reliability analysis of engineering problems is  the basic estimate of reliability by the Cornell
based on the efficient reliability techniques with safety index
emphasize on small sample simulation techniques,  the curve fitting approach applied to the
in order to be suitable for time demanding computed empirical histogram of response
nonlinear finite element modelling. The main variables
purpose of this kind of analysis is to account for  the simple estimate of probability of failure
randomness and epistemic uncertainties of based on the ratio of failed trials to the total
material input parameters and other structural number of simulations
properties in the nonlinear structural analysis.
State-of-the-art probabilistic algorithms are
The probabilistic software FReET [12] allows implemented to compute the probabilistic
simulations of uncertainties of the analyzed response and reliability. The main features of the
problem basically at random variables level FReET software are:
(typically in civil engineering – material properties,
in stochastic modelling (inputs):
loading, geometrical imperfections). The attention
is given to those techniques that are developed  Direct connectivity to the nonlinear analysis
for analyses of computationally intensive input data
problems; nonlinear FEM analysis is a typical  Friendly Graphical User Environment (GUE)
example. Stratified simulation technique Latin  30 probability distribution functions (PDF),
hypercube sampling (LHS) is used in order to keep mostly 2-parametric, some 3-parametric, two
the number of required simulations at an 4-parametric (Beta PDF and normal PDF with
acceptable level. This technique can be used for Weibullian left tail)
both random variables and random fields levels.  Unified description of random variables
Statistical correlation is imposed by the stochastic optionally by statistical moments or
optimization technique called simulated parameters or a combination of moments and
annealing. Sensitivity analysis of the input parameters
parameters to resulting values is based on  PDF calculator
nonparametric rank-order correlation coefficients.  Statistical correlation (also weighting option)
 Categories and comparative values for PDFs
The procedure can be briefly outlined: Random
 Basic random variables visualization, including
input parameters are generated according to their
statistical correlation in both Cartesian and
PDF using LHS sampling. Samples are reordered by
parallel coordinates
the Simulated Annealing approach in order to
match the required correlation matrix as closely as
in probabilistic techniques (solution):
possible. Generated realizations of random
 Crude Monte Carlo simulation
parameters are used as inputs for the analyzed
 Latin Hypercube Sampling (3 alternatives)
function (computational model). The solution is
performed many times and the results (structural  First Order Reliability Method (FORM)
333
 Curve fitting etc.). They describe the uncertainties due to

 Simulated Annealing statistical variation of resistance properties.
 Bayesian updating 3) Probabilistic analysis of resistance and action.
This can be performed by stratified method of
in response/limit state function (evaluation): Monte Carlo-type of sampling, such as LHS
 Numerical form directly connected to the sampling method. Results of this analysis provide
results of nonlinear FE analysis random parameters of resistance and actions,
 Multiple response functions are assessed in such as mean, standard deviation, etc. and the
same simulation run type of distribution function for resistance.
4) Evaluation of safety using reliability index β or
5 Nonlinear reliability assessment of
probability of failure.
transport structures
Probabilistic analysis can be also used for
Probabilistic analysis is a general tool for safety determination of design value of resistance
assessment of civil engineering structures, in function r(r) expressed as Rd. Such analysis
particular of concrete structures. In the fully involves the steps 1) to 3) above and Rd is
probabilistic non-linear approach the structural determined for required reliability β or failure
resistance Rd is calculated by means of the probability Pf.
probabilistic non-linear analysis. The classical
statistical and reliability approach is to model In order to make the application of the
material parameters as random variables with probabilistic non-linear analysis user-friendly,
prescribed distribution function. The stochastic special software tool has been developed by the
response requires repeated analyses of the authors and their co-workers The resulting
structure with these random input parameters, software SARA (Structural Analysis and Reliability
which reflects randomness and uncertainties in Assessment) integrates the above mentioned
the input values [13]. software tools ATENA and FReET. It is equipped
with a user friendly shell SARA Studio, which leads
In this approach the resistance function r(r) is the user interactively through the modelling and
represented by nonlinear structural analysis and randomization process of the solved problem as
loading function s(s) is represented by action described above. All the above mentioned
model. Safety can be evaluated by the reliability features (or selected) of the involved programs
index β, or alternatively by failure probability Pf including deterioration/degradation phenomena
taking into account all uncertainties due to are utilized in the reliability analysis and
random variation of material properties, sustainability and performance-based assessment
dimensions, loading, and other. of concrete structures [14], [15], [16].
Probabilistic analysis based on the non-linear
numerical simulation includes following steps: 6 Application example: Analysis of a
1) Numerical model based on non-linear finite reinforced concrete bridge
element analysis. This model describes the
resistance function r(r) and can perform 6.1 Bridge Nr. 2-2043-15, E4 Kristienberg,
deterministic analysis of resistance for a given set Stockholm
of input variables. The intersection called Trafikplats Kristineberg,
2) Randomization of input variables (material located at highway No. E4, exit 161 in Sweden is
properties, dimensions, boundary conditions, the main traffic node for Kungsholmen island in
etc.). This can also include some effects of actions, Stockholm. The newly constructed intersection is
which are not in the action function s(s) (for designed at three levels. The bridge analyzed here
example pre-stressing, dead load etc.). Random is a part of this new infrastructure development.
properties are defined by random distribution The reinforced concrete bridge has a two-span
type and its parameters (mean standard deviation, frame structure. Total bridge length is 26 m;
334
bridge deck has a width of 7 m. The bridge deck

has inclination 2.5% in both longitudinal and
transverse directions. There are two lateral
abutments and one intermediate support. The
abutments have a significant inclination with
respect to road axis and they have a different
shape and size. To get an idea about the bridge
see Figures 1 and 2.
Figure 2. Scheme of the loading test (top) and

layout of monitoring points (bottom)
6.2 Deterministic finite element model

The computation model [17] has been created
Figure 1. Bridge Kristienberg – construction (top) using software ATENA 3D [3] based on 37
and final state (bottom) macroelements (Figure 3). For concrete has been
used the constitutive model CC3DNonLin
This bridge has been subjected to loading tests. It Cementitious [10]. Values of the material model
has been tested under following loading parameters were based on laboratory
conditions: experiments of concrete cubic strength in
 Unloaded bridge – zero measurement; individual parts of the bridge taken during casting.
 Loading case 1 – two heavy trucks (1_1 and Quite heavy steel reinforcement was modelled
1_2 – see Figure 2 top) in a row; according to the project documentation, shear
 Loading case 2 – four heavy trucks (1_1, reinforcement was modelled as smeared
1_2, 2_1 and 2_2 – see Figure 2 top); reinforcement. Together 1635 reinforcement bars
of diameters 16-32 mm are used in the
The weight of the loading trucks was between 24 computational model. The class B500B of
and 29 tons. Perpendicular displacements have reinforcement steel was used. Values of
been measured at several monitoring points, see parameters for material model CCReinforcement
layout shown in Figure 2 bottom. (bilinear stress-strain diagram with real yield
strength, ultimate strength and strain at yield
strength) were extracted from quality certificate
of steel producer. Finite element mesh is obvious
335
from Figure 3; the computational model of the experimental values within the dominant range of
bridge consists of 11351 finite elements. PDF, selected examples are depicted in Figure 4.
Maximal crack width [mm]

0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
1.E+00
1.E-01
Probability [-]
1.E-02
1.E-03
1.E-04
Figure 3. Geometry of the FEM model (top) and 1.E-05

simulated displacement and cracks - 2. load case
(bottom); the displacement are 150x enlarged 1.E-06
6.3 Stochastic model Figure 4. Experiment (empty green symbol),

deterministic simulation (full red symbol) and PDF
The basic variables material parameters of of perpendicular displacement for selected
concrete and reinforcement were randomized in monitoring point – Nr. 88, loading case 2 (top)
accordance with the Probabilistic model code by and probability of exceedance of crack width - full
Joint Committee on Structural Safety [18] and blue/broken red line – loading case 1/2 (bottom)
were partially updated based on results of
experimental verification. The random variables The obtained variability for maximum crack width
for concrete and steel reinforcement were is large for both load cases, 40 % app. Based on
described by their mean value, coefficient of the design limit according to used codes the
variation (COV) and type of the probability probability exceedance of this limit can be
distribution function (PDF). Statistical correlation checked in Figure 4, where calculated probabilities
among some variables have been considered and for different crack width limits are depicted.
imposed in Monte Carlo type simulation by
simulated annealing approach. Total number of 20 7 Conclusions
simulations of stratified Latin hypercube Sampling
was performed for the FEM calculation of bridge The paper shows methodology and application of
response. advanced approaches for nonlinear and
probabilistic reliability assessment of concrete
6.4 Selected results transport structures. It demonstrates that such
techniques can be applied for a complex structure.
The values of perpendicular displacements Very good agreement of simulation with
obtained from experiments for two load cases experimental results has been obtained. Among
were compared with both deterministic and others the probabilistic analysis can successfully
stochastic simulation results. Deterministic predict crack patterns and asses crack width in
simulation results were in quite good agreement critical parts of reinforced concrete bridges.
with experiments in most cases. Probabilistic
results based on the material uncertainties cover
336
Acknowledgement [10] Červenka J. and Papanikolaou V. K. Three

Dimensional Combined Fracture-Plastic
The research presented in this paper was partially Material Model for Concrete. Int. Journal of
supported by the Czech Science Foundation Plasticity. 2008; 24(12): 2192-2220.
(GACR) project 16-04132S "Epistemic uncertainty [11] Lehký D., Keršner Z. and Novák D FraMePID-
of crack models in reinforced concrete structures", 3PB software for material parameter
Eurostars project E!10925: "BIM based Cyber- identification using fracture tests and
physical System for Bridge Assessment", project inverse analysis. Advances in Engineering
No. LO1408 "AdMaS UP - Advanced Materials, Software. 2014; 72: 147–154.
Structures and Technologies", supported by [12] Novák D., Vořechovský M., Rusina R. Small-
Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports under the sample probabilistic assessment – software
„National Sustainability Programme I" and MPO FREET. Proc 9th Int. Conf. on Applications of
TRIO3 project FV30244 "IdeMaS". Statistics and Probability in Civil Engineering
– ICASP 9. Rotterdam: Millpress; 2003: 91-
8 References 96.
[1] fib Model Code for Concrete Structures [13] Bergmeister K., Novák D., Pukl R. and
2010. Berlin: Wilhelm Ernst & Sohn; 2013. Červenka V. Structural assessment and
[2] Červenka V. Reliability-based non-linear reliability analysis for existing engineering
analysis according to fib Model Code 2010. structures, theoretical background.
Structural Concrete. 2013; 14: 19-28. Structure and Infrastructure Engineering.
[3] Červenka V., Červenka J. and Pukl R. ATENA 2009; 5(4): 267-275.
– A tool for engineering analysis of fracture [14] Strauss A., Bergmeister K., Hoffmann S.,
in concrete. Sadhana. 2002; 27(4): 485-492. Pukl R. and Novák D. Advanced life-cycle
[4] Tej P., Vacek V., Kolísko J. and Čech J. analysis of existing concrete bridges. Journal
Computer Nonlinear Analysis of the of Materials in Civil Engineering ASCE. 2008;
Formation and Development of Cracks in a 20: 9-19.
Reinforced Concrete Slab Loaded by a [15] Strauss A., Hoffmann S., Wendner R. and
Planar Uniform Load. Key Engineering Bergmeister K. Structural assessment and
Materials. 2014; 606: 229-232. reliability analysis of existing engineering
[5] Pukl R., Červenka V., Červenka J. and Novák structures, applications on real structures.
D. Computer Simulation of Concrete Structure and Infrastructure Engineering.
Bridges. Proc. IABMAS 2012 (Stresa, Italy). 2009; 5(4).
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684. Reliability assessment of concrete bridges.
[6] Červenka V., Doležel J. and Novák D. Shear Proc. Bridge Maintenance, Safety,
Failure of Large Lightly Reinforced Concrete Management, Resiliance and Sustainability
Beams: PART II – Assessment of Global IABMAS 2012 (Stresa, Italy). London: CRC
Safety of Resistance. Proc. 3rd fib Press Taylor & Francis; 2012: 160.
International Congress. Washington DC; [17] Pukl R., Sajdlová T., Řoutil L., Novák D. and
2010. Šeda P. Case study - Nonlinear reliability
[7] Hordijk D. A. Local Approach to Fatigue of analysis of a concrete bridge. Proc.
Concrete. Delft University of Technology; Maintenance, Monitoring, Safety, Risk and
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Structures. 1983; 16: 155-177. [18] Joint Committee on Structural Safety
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ACI Structural Journal. 1995; 92(3): 311-318. http://www.jcss.byg.dtu.dk
337
Viaduct in the Highway Siervo de la Nación

Carlos Santos, José Matos
University of Minho, Guimarães, Portugal
José Luís Barbosa, Ricardo Leite

GEG- Engineering Structures for Life, Porto, Portugal
Contact: carlos_miranda06@hotmail.com
jmatos@civil.uminho.pt
jbarbosa@geg.pt
ricleite@geg.pt
Abstract
The aim of this paper is to present a real case study regarding the long multi-span viaducts. Briefly,
the authors show the global structural concept used in Mexico City´s long viaduct to ensure a good
behavior to accommodate differential settlements that can occur. It is important to highlight that
the design was developed by GEG.
Keywords: long multi-span viaduct, precast, design, structural concept
1 Introduction 2.1 Efficiency

The Government of Mexico has initiated the Efficiency begins by satisfying the functional needs
construction of Highway Siervo de la Nación of the bridge (new connections). Aspects like the
located in Mexico City and connecting Tepexpan to safety of the users, strength, and serviceability are
Río de Los Remedios in order to improve the attended in the design´s phase.
vehicular traffic and to communicate more directly The structural logic was meant to follow a global
and efficiently, generating significant savings in the structural concept of flexibility and
operating costs for road transportation of people accommodation, giving greater comfort to the
and goods. The integration of this highway into a viaduct to support differential settlements that can
metropolitan area, developed largely along the occur along his length due to inadequate subsoil
Gran Canal river, the local sensibilities like the conditions.
presence of oil, electrical, water and railway
infrastructures, were decisive for an important part To avoid excessive forces that could arise from the
of the structure (with 7̴ Km and 4 lanes) to be built settlements if the structure were continuous, the
lifted from the soil. GEG´s design team choose a solution that includes
the “turn off” of all spans. There are expansion
2 Design aspects joints and cork at all supports allowing the
discontinuity of the superstructure. (see figure 2)
The fundamental objectives, efficiency, economy,
Following the structural logic, to get a coherent
and elegance constitute the leading ideas to
flow of forces and a good balance of loads and
achieve a successful viaduct design.
effects “born” a longitudinal structural system
338
composed by 30 m simple and rigid frames

successively as in figure 1.
Figure 1. Longitudinal structural system

The simple frames are connected to the supports To reduce construction time and consequently the
by bearings placed under beams to allow an cost, precast structural elements were used, that
efficient transfer of vertical loads. (Figure 2) also allow to minimize pollution effects around the
urban area. (Figure 3) In order to minimize the
The rigid frames ensure a better behavior of the
costs of maintenance and operation, is provided
structure to horizontal actions (earthquake) and
easy access to all parts of the bridge and especially
still, to improve ductility levels. The rigid
to the most vulnerable parts as well as replacement
connection of the beams to columns is due to the
of bearings without interruption of traffic.
diaphragm. (Figure 2)
Figure 3. Cross Section- Precast beams
2.3 Elegance
The design was meant to achieve good proportions
between the various elements of the structure due
to integration in an urban area but also to respect
the public desire.
Figure 2. Support detail
The inadequate subsoil conditions lead to the 3 Conclusions
development of a special pile foundation. Piles The design described in this paper presents more
present shaft and base resistance but they are not than one structural solution along his length.
supported in bedrock to allow the flexibility However, this paper shows the typical solution. The
desired. The pile has a square section with a two key aspects to get a flexible viaduct, are the
circular hollow that is defined strategically to following: the “turn-off” of all spans and the
decrease the self-weight and to allow the drilling fondation that allows a flexible structure over time.
ground posteriorly if necessary. The objective of
this solution is to get a structure that never is
supported in the bedrock.
2.2 Economy
Cost is a key factor, much importance has been
given to whole-life cost and not construction cost
alone. The cost of construction, maintenance and
use are parameters included in the life-cycle cost.
339
Effects of Structural Deterioration and Infrastructure Upgrading on

the Life-cycle Seismic Resilience of Bridge Networks
Luca Capacci, Fabio Biondini
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Politecnico di Milano, Italy
Contact: luca.capacci@polimi.it
Abstract
The life-cycle seismic resilience of aging bridges and road transportation networks is investigated
considering the long-term effects of bridge structural deterioration and network upgrading
interventions under uncertainty. The proposed methodology is applied to a highway network with
spatially distributed reinforced concrete (RC) bridges exposed to chloride-induced corrosion and
different earthquake scenarios. A new road segment including a bridge is added over the lifetime to
strengthen the network connectivity and improve the system resilience. The results show the
detrimental effects of structural deterioration at the network scale and the benefits of
infrastructure investments for network upgrading to enable long-term resilient infrastructures.
Keywords: Seismic resilience, system functionality, recovery process, bridges, aging, deterioration,
road networks, network upgrading, earthquake scenario, life-cycle assessment.
widespread and severe damage of bridges and

1 Introduction other vulnerable system components can cause
Civil infrastructure systems are the backbone of direct monetary losses associated with essential
modern societies and the definition of proper maintenance and repair interventions, as well as
design, maintenance, and management policies for indirect economic consequences induced by lack of
new and existing structural facilities is a strategic network connectivity and downtime [3]. It is
priority for a sustainable development of countries. therefore necessary to ensure adequate levels of
Structures and infrastructures are exposed to the system resilience over the lifetime to withstand the
detrimental effects of natural and man-made effects of extreme events and recover promptly
disasters along with aging and deterioration and efficiently the pre-event performance and
processes over the system life-cycle [1]. functionality [4, 5].
Communities are hence called to cope with the The life-cycle seismic resilience of transportation
impact of disruptive events, such as earthquakes, infrastructure systems is investigated in this paper
without suffering disproportionate sudden based on a multi-hazard probabilistic framework
consequences and long-term effects with respect for seismic assessment of aging bridge structures
to the hazard exposure. and traffic analysis of road networks. The proposed
In this context, road transportation systems are methodology is applied to a highway network with
critical to ensure a quick deployment of relief aids spatially distributed reinforced concrete (RC)
and resources to repair the surrounding facilities in bridges exposed to chloride-induced corrosion and
the post-event emergency response [2]. Indeed, different earthquake scenarios. The effects of a
340
network upgrading, consisting of a new road reduction of the ultimate steel strain εsu=εsu(δs), as
segment and a bridge added to strengthen the shown in [10]. It is worth noting that the formation
network connectivity, are also investigated. The of oxidation products may lead to propagation of
results highlight the effectiveness of the proposed longitudinal splitting cracks and concrete cover
framework in assessing the detrimental effects of spalling [1, 10]. However, deterioration of concrete
bridge structural deterioration at the network scale induced by corrosion is not considered as a critical
and quantifying the benefits of infrastructure issue for the application presented in this paper.
investments for network upgrading to enable long- Corrosion initiation is associated with a critical
term resilient transportation infrastructures. threshold of chloride concentration Ccr and the
corrosion rate is related to concentration C=C(t) by
2 Seismic assessment of RC bridges means of a damage rate coefficient qs. Fick’s laws
of diffusion are used to describe the chloride
2.1 Damage probability of single bridges ingress process and the diffusion equations are
solved numerically by means of cellular automata.
2.1.1 Time-variant fragilities Further information about diffusion simulation and
damage modelling can be found in [10, 11].
The life-cycle seismic capacity of RC bridges is
investigated under uncertainty by means of time-
2.2 Damage probability of a group of bridges
variant fragilities PEs,b, which provide the
probability of exceedance of a limit state sb given 2.2.1 Seismic hazard assessment
the occurrence of a seismic event of intensity ib at
time t0 [6]. The peak ground acceleration is The seismic demand is evaluated based on the
assumed as seismic intensity measure. The bridge ground motion prediction equation proposed in
seismic capacity is evaluated based on incremental [12]. The seismic intensity ib at the site xb of the b-th
dynamic analysis [7]. The damage measure is bridge in the network is related to the earthquake
associated with the maximum drift θmax,b, defined scenario in terms of magnitude M and focal
as the maximum ratio of the bridge pier top distance between bridge site xb and epicenter
displacement to the pier height. The attainment of location xe [13]. Furthermore, area sources As are
the damage states sb is associated with the identified to account for “background” seismicity
following time-variant drift thresholds θs,b [8]: and characterize the seismic exposure of regions
with lack of information on local active faults [14].
• SD - Slight Damage (sb=1): θ1,b=θy,b;
• MD - Moderate Damage (sb=2): θ2,b=θy,b+0.3θp,b; 2.2.2 Network damage probabilities
• ED - Extensive Damage (sb=3): θ3,b=θy,b+0.6θp,b;
The combination of bridge initial damage levels in
with θp,b=θu,b-θy,b, and where θy,b and θu,b are the
a given network is defined by means of an integer
mean values computed by non-linear static analysis
index s based on the ordered selection without
of the drifts leading to first yielding and ultimate
repetitions of the damage states sb of each bridge:
bending curvatures, respectively, at the base of the
bridge piers. Structural Collapse (SC, sb=4) is 𝑁𝑁 𝑁𝑁𝑏𝑏 −𝑏𝑏
𝑠𝑠 = 1 + ∑𝑏𝑏 𝑏𝑏�𝑁𝑁𝑠𝑠,𝑏𝑏 � ∙ 𝑠𝑠𝑏𝑏 (1)
reached when the dynamic equilibrium under
ground motion is no longer fulfilled. Finally, No
where Nb is the total number of bridges in the
Damage (ND, sb=0) affects the bridge if θmax,b<θ1,b.
network and Ns,b is the number of possible damage
2.1.2 Time-variant effects of corrosion states of the b-th bridge. Along with the
earthquake scenario (M, xe), the time-variant
The main effect of corrosion in RC structures is the probability of occurrence of the s-th network
reduction of the cross-section of reinforcing steel damage combination associated with the initial
bars [9]. The steel mass loss is measured by a seismic capacities, assumed herein as fully
damage index δs∈[0;1]. Corrosion may also cause a correlated for each pair of bridges, depends on the
significant reduction of steel ductility. This effect is location xb and age tb=t0−tc,b of each bridge, where
related to the steel mass loss by means of a tc,b is the bridge construction time.
341
It is worth noting that the conditional probability of • No Restrictions (db=0): the traffic on the bridge
the s-th damage combination can be defined either is regular and the speed limit vlim corresponds
with reference to the epicenter location xe: to the maximum allowed speed vmax;
• Weight Restriction (db=1): heavy vehicles are
𝑃𝑃𝑠𝑠 = 𝑃𝑃(𝑠𝑠|𝐱𝐱𝑏𝑏 , 𝑡𝑡𝑏𝑏 , 𝑀𝑀, 𝐱𝐱𝑒𝑒 ) (2) forbidden, i.e. fh=0, and the speed limit is
reduced to vmin.
or associated with the seismic area source As, • One Lane Open Only (db=2): light and
exploiting the total probability theorem and emergency vehicles can transit only on one
assuming that the likelihood of occurrence of a lane, i.e. nL=1;
seismic event with given magnitude is equal at any • Emergency Access Only (db=3): the transit of
point of the area As [15]: emergency vehicles only is allowed, i.e. fl=0;
• Closure (db=4): no vehicles can transit over the
𝑃𝑃𝑠𝑠,𝐴𝐴 = 𝑃𝑃(𝑠𝑠|𝐱𝐱𝑏𝑏 , 𝑡𝑡𝑏𝑏 , 𝑀𝑀, 𝐴𝐴𝑠𝑠 ) (3)
bridge, i.e. fe=0 or nL=0.
This formulation accounts for the different age of The decision variables db=k with k>1 are inclusive
the bridges and, in turn, allows accommodating of the traffic restrictions associated with db<k. The
network layout changes over the lifetime, for network restrictions combination is defined by
example associated with the inclusion of new road means of an integer index d in terms of the decision
branches and additional aging vulnerable facilities. variable db, consistently with the criterion
proposed for the network damage combinations:
3 Seismic resilience of road networks
𝑁𝑁 𝑁𝑁𝑏𝑏 −𝑏𝑏
𝑑𝑑 = 1 + ∑𝑏𝑏 𝑏𝑏 𝑑𝑑𝑏𝑏 ∙ �𝑁𝑁𝑑𝑑,𝑏𝑏 � (4)
3.1 Network functionality
3.1.3 Traffic analysis and functionality measure
3.1.1 Traffic flow and travel time
The vehicle flow fij of any road arc i-j can be
The performance of road networks can be assessed
identified based on the user-equilibrium condition
based on their traffic flow response, given the
enforced by the Wardrop’s gravitational model
Origin-Destination traffic demand and the network
[17], which consists in the minimization of the total
topology. The travel time cij of the road arc i-j can
travel time TTT of all the users of the road network.
be expressed as a function of the related vehicle
More details concerning with the traffic analysis,
flow per unit of time fij [16]. In particular, the flow
the solution of the related optimization problem
depends on the arc practicability in terms of
and the definition of total travel time TTTd=TTT(d)
practical capacity f crij=nL(vcr/dmin) and travel time at
under traffic restriction combinations d can be
free flow c0ij=Lij/vlim. They depend on the arc length
found in [16, 19].
Lij, number of open lanes nL, arc road class
associated with the minimum allowed distance dmin The functionality level Qd=Q(d)∈[0;1] of the road
between vehicles, critical speed vcr, and speed limit network associated with the combination d of
vlim (either vmax or vmin). Detailed information on the traffic restrictions is defined as follows [8]:
traffic model can be found in [8].
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑢𝑢
𝑄𝑄(𝑑𝑑) = (5)
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑑𝑑
3.1.2 Type of users and traffic limitations
The traffic capacity of a road arc may be impaired where TTTu=TTT(d=1) is the total travel time in
by traffic restrictions applied to regulate the transit unrestricted conditions, i.e. no traffic regulations
on damaged bridges [17]. Three different types of are applied to any bridge.
traffic users and related traffic flows are
It is worth noting that the condition of unrestricted
considered: light vehicles fl, heavy vehicles fh, and
transit with TTTd=TTTu and Q=1 is fulfilled both
emergency vehicles fe. Traffic limitations on the
before the seismic event occurrence and after full
b-th bridge are identified by a decision variable db
recovery of all the bridges.
based on the following Nd,b=5 restrictions [16]:
342
3.2 Network resilience A seismic event striking the network at time t0

would cause a sudden drop of functionality from
3.2.1 Bridge recovery process the pre-event level to Q0=Q(d=s) under the traffic
restrictions imposed by the initial damage
In the aftermath of a seismic event, each bridge in
combination s. Therefore, post-event restoration
the network may suffer an initial loss of seismic
activities lead to progressive functionality jumps
capacity, leading the road managers to enforce a
from Qj-1 to Qj at time tj with j=1,…,Nj.
serviceability limitation. In particular, the traffic
restriction db=k is applied to the b-th bridge if the
3.2.3 Resilience levels and resilience measure
earthquake induces the damage state sb=k.
The resilience level Rs associated with the network
The idle time ∆ti,b represents the interval between
damage combination s is defined as the average
the occurrence time t0 and the repair initiation for
integral of the network functionality over the
the b-th bridge. In the following, the idle time is
recovery time interval ∆th. Considering the
neglected and the repair actions of each bridge in
stepwise form of the network recovery function,
the network are assumed to start at time t0.
the resilience integral can be reduced to the
The bridge recovery process develops over a series following sum:
of time steps depending on the initial damage and
1 𝑁𝑁
the specific recovery strategy. The partial recovery 𝑗𝑗
𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠 = ∆𝑡𝑡 ∑𝑗𝑗=0 𝑄𝑄𝑗𝑗 ∆𝑡𝑡𝑗𝑗 (7)
times tp,b are related to time instants in which the ℎ
attainment of intermediate seismic capacity

where ∆tj= tj−tj−1 is the j-th recovery time step.
thresholds allows the enforcement of less severe
traffic limitations up to the complete reopening of A comprehensive quantification of resilience is
the bridge to all users. In particular, p=1,…,Nj,b, obtained weighing the resilience levels Rs of the Ns
where Nj,b is the total number of jumps in the network damage combinations with the
network recovery process. The final recovery time corresponding damage probabilities:
tr,b is associated with the completion of the repair
𝑁𝑁
actions. During the recovery process, each initial 𝑅𝑅 = ∑𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠 𝑃𝑃𝑠𝑠 ∙ 𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠 (8)
traffic limitation db=k with k>0 is partially released
through a sequence of progressively less severe The pointwise measure of resilience R associated
restrictions db=h with h<k. The full serviceability of with the epicenter location xe can be effectively
the bridge, i.e. db=0, is reached at time tr,b. complemented by an average measure of
resilience over the seismic area source As:
3.2.2 Network recovery process
𝑁𝑁
𝑅𝑅𝐴𝐴 = ∑𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠 𝑃𝑃𝑠𝑠,𝐴𝐴 ∙ 𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠 (9)
At the network level, the repair activities carried
out on each bridge lead to the definition of a
constant stepwise model for the progressive 4 Application
restoration of the functionality [20]. In this way, the
road network functionality is described by a 4.1 RC box girder bridge under corrosion
discrete set of values associated with the network
The four-span continuous RC bridge shown in
restrictions d, evolving from the initial damage to
Figure 1 is considered [21]. The total length of the
the fully restored state. The recovery function of
bridge is 200 m, with spans of 50 m, as shown in
network functionality over a time interval
Figure 1a. The height of the piers is 14 m. Figure 1b
∆th=(th−t0), where th is a given horizon time, is
shows the box girder cross-section of the deck. The
hence defined in stepwise form as follows:
piers have circular cross-section and are reinforced
with 36 steel bars with 30mm-diameter, as shown
𝑄𝑄(𝑡𝑡) = 𝑄𝑄𝑗𝑗 , 𝑡𝑡𝑗𝑗 ≤ 𝑡𝑡 < 𝑡𝑡𝑗𝑗+1 ∀𝑗𝑗 ∈ �0, 𝑁𝑁𝑗𝑗 � (6)
in Figure 1c. Concrete and steel nominal strengths
where tj=th for j=Nj+1 and Nj=∑bNj,b is the total are fc=40MPa and fsy=450MPa, respectively. The
number of jumps in the network recovery process. piers are exposed to a chloride diffusive attack on
343
the external surface, with nominal chloride bridge B3 are consistent with its age tb=3=t0−tc. More
concentration C0=3% [wt.%/c]. A nominal details on the resilience levels for each damage
diffusivity coefficient D=15.8×10-12 m2/sec is combination can be found in [15].
assumed for concrete. The corrosion damage is
evaluated by assuming a nominal damage rate
coefficient qs = (0.02 year−1)/C0, with corrosion
initiation related to the attainment of a nominal
critical threshold of concentration Ccr=0.6wt.%/c.
Figure 2. Road highway network
4.3 Network functionality and resilience

Table 1 summarizes the main traffic parameters.
Furthermore, vcr=65 km/h and dmin=30 m/cars are
Figure 1. RC bridge: (a) geometrical dimensions; assumed. Traffic restrictions are applied to the
(b) deck cross-section; (c) pier cross-section, with bridges depending on both the initial damage state
reinforcement layout. and post-event recovery, enforcing stepwise
increments in the network functionality. Partial
Concrete strength fc, steel strength fsy, viscous and final recovery times are listed in Table 2.
damping ξ, diffusivity D, steel damage rate qs,
surface chloride concentration C0 and critical Table 1. Traffic parameters of the network
chloride concentration Ccr are assumed as
Main New Side
uncorrelated random variables with prescribed Link
Highway Highway Road
density distributions. The fragility analysis is carried
L [km] 10 15 40 1
out by Monte Carlo simulation based on Latin
Hypercube Sampling. The non-linear time-history nL 3 3 2 1
dynamic analyses are performed in each realization vmax [km/h] 130 130 90 90
for a set of 10 artificial earthquakes generated to vmin [km/h] 70 70 50 50
comply with the elastic response spectrum given by
Eurocode 8 for soil type B [22, 23]. Further details Table 2. Recovery times for each damage state
on both the probabilistic modeling and simulation
process can be found in [6, 8, 13, 15]. Damage tp=1,b tp=2,b tp=3,b tr,b
State [days] [days] [days] [days]
4.2 Highway road network with upgrading sb=1 - - - 30
The life-cycle resilience of the road network shown sb=2 39 - - 90

in Figure 2 is investigated. The network includes sb=3 82 103 - 180
one Origin and one Destination nodes connected sb=4 165 218 262 360
by a main highway and a detour route with a re-
entry link. Two identical bridges B1 and B2 built at Figure 3 shows the 3-D plots and the related 2-D
tc,b=1=tc,b=2=0 are located on the main highway close contour maps of the pointwise resilience R for the
to the OD nodes at xb=1=[−5;0] and xb=2=[5;0]. A network in the original configuration under a
network upgrading is applied at construction time seismic event with magnitude M=6.75 occurring at
tc. It consists of a new highway branch (dashed line times t0=0, 30, and 60 years. These results,
in Figure 2) and a bridge B3 located at xb=3=[0;5], obtained considering a square grid of epicenters
and having the same structural characteristics of with grid size of 0.2 km, show that the most
bridges B1 and B2. The time-variant fragilities of important bridge in terms of system functionality
344
and network resilience is bridge B1. In fact, bridge the benefits of the upgrading for delayed seismic
B1 is farther than bridge B2 from the re-entry link, events, as shown in Figure 4c (t0=2tc=60 years).
which enhances the network redundancy providing
The resilience improvement associated with the
a bypass through road segments where traffic is
network upgrading can be captured in a more
impaired by damaged bridges. Such trend is limited
synthetic way by an average measure of resilience
for t0=0 (Figure 3a), since both bridges are not
RA computed over a given seismic area source As.
affected by corrosion damage. However, it
This is shown in Figure 5 for a 10-km radius circular
becomes more evident for t0=30 years (Figure 3b)
area source centered at x=[0;0]. The resilience RA
and t0=60 years (Figure 3c), when the structural
capacity of both bridges is impaired by corrosion. versus the occurrence time t0 of a seismic event
The beneficial effects of the upgrading in terms of with magnitudes M=6.0, 6.5, and 7.0 is compared
resilience R are shown in Figure 4. The construction over a 100-year lifetime for the road network in the
of a new highway branch at time tc may provide an original configuration (dashed line) and after the
immediate significant gain in seismic resilience, upgrading (continuous lines) carried out at times
more important the closer the epicenter is to the tc=30 and 60 years. These results indicate that the
network area. This can be appreciated by short-term effectiveness of the upgrading
comparing Figure 3b (t0=30 years) to Figure 4a increases with both the earthquake magnitude and
(t0=tc=30 years), as well as Figure 3c (t0=60 years) to severity of corrosion damage. However, as already
Figure 4b (t0=tc=60 years). However, the harmful pointed out, aging and deterioration may reduce in
effects of corrosion damage can severely reduce the long-term the initial benefits of the upgrading.
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 3. Resilience R of the road network without upgrading considering a seismic event with magnitude
M=6.75 occurring at times (a) t0=0, (b) t0=30 years, and (c) t0=60 years.
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 4. Resilience R of the road network with upgrading at construction time tc considering a seismic event
with magnitude M=6.75 occurring at (a) t0=tc=30 years, (b) t0=tc=60 years, and (c) t0=2tc=60 years.
345
(a) (b)
Figure 5. Resilience RA of the road network versus the occurrence time t0 of a seismic event with magnitudes
M=6.0, 6.5, and 7.0 for a 10-km radius circular area source As: network in the original configuration (dashed
line) and with upgrading (continuous lines) carried out at construction time (a) tc=30 years and (b) tc=60 years.
5 Conclusions initial beneficial effects of the upgrading can be

substantially reduced by the detrimental impact of
The life-cycle resilience of highway road networks bridge aging and structural deterioration.
with spatially distributed RC bridges exposed to
chloride-induced corrosion and different In order to assist decision makers in the definition
earthquake scenarios has been investigated. The of effective, reliable, and sustainable emergency
proposed approach is based on a probabilistic management strategies informed by a life-cycle
framework for seismic capacity assessment of multi-hazard probabilistic criteria, further studies
aging bridges and traffic response analysis of are necessary to investigate the interaction
transportation infrastructure systems. It has been between bridge seismic fragilities and traffic
shown that this framework can effectively assess restrictions, as well as between direct monetary
the interdependency between seismic hazard cost of repair actions and indirect economic losses
scenario, defined in terms of magnitude and induced by network downtime.
epicenter location, and environmental exposure of
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347
Carbon reinforced concrete in construction practice

Frank Schladitz, Matthias Tietze, Matthias Lieboldt, Alexander Schumann, Maria Patricia
Garibaldi, Manfred Curbach
Technische Universität Dresden, Germany
Contact: frank.schladitz@tu-dresden.de
Abstract
One of the world's largest R & D projects within the construction industry focuses on carbon
reinforced concrete technology. Civil engineering is an old-fashioned industry with very slow
innovation strength. Despite this difficulty, a new method of construction, planning and industrial
production shall be established to solve most pressing foreseen problems. The new composite
material made of carbon and concrete is leading the way to establish a new durable, lightweight
and resource efficient building method. Furthermore, the use of carbon reinforced concrete in single
construction projects has increased in the last years. The purpose of this paper is to show the range
of application that is already possible in carbon reinforced concrete.
Keywords: Carbon concrete composite, carbon reinforced concrete, textile reinforced concrete,
durability, rehabilitation, strengthening, fibre reinforced concrete
conditions, the protective layer (concrete cover) is

1 Introduction now considerably thicker than what it was many
Concrete is an excellent building material. It can be years ago. In this manner, the protective alkaline
formed in many shapes, can carry high environment around the reinforcement is
compression forces, is impermeable to water and maintained for longer period of time.
can be used to sustain wide temperature ranges for The other path that has been pursued for
an extended amount of time. In reinforced decades—especially within the scientific
concrete, steel bars and grids are embedded in the community—is the search for alternative, non-
concrete matrix so that such steel reinforced corroding reinforcement materials. Stainless steel,
concrete (RC) components can also carry tensile bamboo, and wood, as well as fibres made of
stresses. Today, steel reinforced concrete is the basalt, glass and carbon have been investigated. In
most widely used building material worldwide. Germany, the current main focus of research is on
But there is one problem: the steel reinforcement alkali-resistant (AR) glass and carbon fibre
can corrode. In most cases, due to long-term reinforcements. Combining such fibres with
carbonation, the concrete suddenly loses its concrete produces high-performance composites,
alkaline nature, which is essential for the also known as textile reinforced concrete (TRC),
protection of the steel reinforcement, or it is carbon (reinforced) concrete or carbon concrete
exposed to corrosive substances (e.g. de-icing salts, composites. This article provides an overview of
seawater). Corroded reinforcement can result in the development, material, manufacturing
massive structural damage because of the volume processes, practical applications and current
increase, which in turn is associated with an research activities related to carbon concrete
increase in maintenance costs. To counteract this composites. In Figure 1, some definitions are
effect, depending on the component's exposure shown.
348
safety, as well as demolition and recycling are

underway. Technology implementation projects
were launched at the beginning of 2017. Since the
beginning of 2018, the focus switched to projects
involving specific products, services, and
applications. Parallel to the topics mentioned
above, there are projects in which the focus is on
market-oriented and applied research by individual
companies. This is intended in order to increase the
product’s appeal to the market in the near future.
3 Materials
Figure 1. Definition of reinforced concrete, carbon 3.1 Carbon
reinforced concrete, textile reinforced concrete,
short fibre reinforced concrete, and C³ project The carbon reinforcement consists essentially of
(Graphic: Frank Schladitz) carbon filaments and an impregnating coating. The
basis for the carbon filaments is a carbonaceous
starting material, which is converted into
2 Research in Germany graphitized carbon by pyrolysis [3]. Research
Since the 1980’s, research on non-corroding suggests that, in theory, virtually everything that
reinforcements has intensified, see [1]. Large contains carbon can be used as raw material, which
Collaborative Research Centres (SFB) funded by the really is a big deal. For some years already, research
German Research Foundation (DFG) and numerous has been underway to capture carbon from the air
smaller research projects funded by e.g. the for production of carbon filaments, see [4]. The use
Federal Ministry of Education and Research and the of lignin, which previously was just a waste product
Federal Ministry of Economics and Energy had led in paper production, is already being successful on
to extensive basic research that extended until the an industrial scale. Currently, however, crude oil is
beginning of the 2000s. the raw material of preference, as its supply is
"unlimited" in comparison to the quantities used in
Since 2014, there is an ongoing, large-scale
its production, and it is an inexpensive and easy to
research project "C3 – Carbon Concrete Composite"
process resource. Up to 50,000 of these carbon
(C³ Project), which is primarily dedicated to the
filaments form a carbon yarn.
development and market launch of carbon
concrete, see [2]. With approximately 45 million For all filaments of yarn to contribute in
euros funding and more than 160 partners (2/3 transferring the load transfer, they must be joined
companies and associations as well as 1/3 research together. Otherwise, only the outer filaments of a
institutions) throughout Germany, this project is filament bundle with direct connection to the
currently Germany’s largest research project in concrete would act as reinforcement. The inner
construction and certainly one of the largest in the filaments would remain unstressed, and thus
world. The major project comprises more than 50 unused. This required internal bond is ensured by
individual research projects. From 2015 to 2017, an impregnating coating which additionally
four wide-ranging projects focused on improves the bond between the carbon and the
groundbreaking work on reinforcements, concrete. Depending on the required stiffness of
impregnations, binders, concretes, structures, the reinforcement, for example formulations based
design methods and materials testing. At the on styrene-butadiene or epoxy resin are used,
beginning of 2016, projects that had the aim to which are applied in a step by step process while
remove market entry barriers started. Topics such processing the yarn.
as manufacturing and processing processes,
Compared to reinforcing steel, carbon is four times
standards and approvals, occupational health and
lighter (density 1.8 g/cm³ instead of 7.8 g/cm³) and
349
up to five to six times stronger (3,000 N/mm² 3.2 Concrete

instead of 500 N/mm²). As a result, carbon is 20
The concrete used varies from ultra-high-strength
times more efficient than reinforcement steel.
special concrete to high-strength fine concrete, as
Like steel reinforcement, carbon reinforcement is well as standard commercial-type concrete.
offered as a grid in a flat resp. mat-like form, or as Depending on the manufacturing process (casting
a rods. The reinforcement grids are produced in a or laminating) and the expected use (strengthening
textile manufacturing process. Thus, this or new construction), the concrete composition is
reinforcement is often referred to as textile chosen. The good adhesion of the fresh concrete to
reinforcement. These textiles are available in form the substrate is a crucial factor when used for
of sheets or on coils with a width of up to 2.40 m strengthening purposes. In the casting process in
and a length up to approx. 80 m (on one coil). The the precast plant, the flow and shrinkage
yarn spacing can be varied and is usually approx. 10 characteristics, as well as the aggregates used, are
to 50 mm—depending on the application. important factors.
For the rod-shaped reinforcement, several carbon When using carbon reinforcement, there is no
yarns are joined to form a rod using the extrusion longer the need to protect the reinforcement from
process (pultrusion). The surface profiling of the corrosion by providing an alkaline environment in
bars is currently mostly done by winding, milling or the vicinity of the reinforcement; therefore,
sanding. Defining the most economic option is still completely new concrete mixes can be used. For
being investigated. Figure 2 shows examples of example, resource-saving binder systems are to be
some carbon textiles and Figure 3 shows a selection mentioned, but also systems whose production is
of rod-shaped carbon reinforcements. associated with a significant reduction in CO2
emissions.
The detailed C³ project results, with extensive
explanations of the various concrete mixes
proposed, will be published in the coming months.
3.3 Carbon reinforced concrete

The combination of carbon reinforcement and
concrete produces carbon concrete. The non-
corroding reinforcement makes it possible to
reduce the protective concrete cover to a minimum
of a few millimeters. This allows material savings of
Figure 2. Selection of carbon textile reinforcement
more than 50 %. Façade slabs made of reinforced
(Photo: Chris Gärtner)
concrete with a thickness of 7 to 8 cm are only 2 to
3 cm thin with carbon concrete. For strengthening
of building components, one layer of steel
reinforced shotcrete can be about 7 cm thick.
Instead, if the layer is made of carbon concrete, the
thickness is only 1–2 cm, providing the same
performance.
To get a feel for the material carbon concrete,
Figure 4 shows a comparison of stress-strain
relationships as measured in tensile tests for
various types of reinforced concretes. For detailed
description please look at [5].
Figure 3. Selection of carbon bar reinforcements
(Photo: Chris Gärtner)
350
for larger element dimensions, with as many

different profiles as possible. Carbon and AR-glass
reinforced slabs with thicknesses of only 10 to 30
mm offer an excellent alternative to the existing
reinforced concrete solutions. Plane slabs are
offered by Hering Bau GmbH in various systems
with slabs up to 3 × 5 m in size. The smaller panels
are mainly reinforced with AR glass mats—the
larger panels are reinforced with carbon
reinforcement.
Figure 4. Typical tensile test results of concrete
with various reinforcements (from [5])
4 Projects
4.1 Introduction
The first known applications within practical
projects date back to the 1990’s. In Canada and
Japan, among others, rod-shaped carbon
reinforcements were used in various components
of bridges [6]. A few bridge projects within the
U.S.A., using rod-shaped carbon reinforcements
can be found in [7]. In Germany, there are no
known applications with rod-shaped carbon
reinforcements. Rod-shaped glass reinforcements,
however, are already an integral part of the
building industry in Germany. Extensive
information on completed projects can be found in
[8].
In Germany, the main focus of applications has
been on using textile reinforcements made of AR
glass and carbon. Until a few years ago, the same Figure 5. Installation of facade elements by
four to five projects where usually reported. In the ArchitekturBeton (Photo: Max Bögl, Thomas
past three years, however, the number of practical Weinberger Companies)
projects has risen so much that only a small
selection can be presented here. From such a An impressive example of a successful mixed
collection of projects, a few relevant ones are construction method in combination with steel
presented in the following sections to show the reinforced concrete is the "New Market" city
variety of feasible applications, not only for newly- quarter in Neumarkt i. d. Oberpfalz, for which Max
built structures, but also in the renovation and Bögl Fertigteilwerke GmbH & Co. KG supplied the
strengthening field. More detailed descriptions and prefabricated parts. Figure 5 shows the assembly of
projects can be found in [9] to [11]. a prefabricated part and Figure 6 shows the entire
facade after completion.
4.2 New Construction Based on the extensive experience with the
The field of applications with the most practical facades and claddings, sandwich wall elements
projects are facades and claddings. The demands with an inner shell made of reinforced concrete, an
on curtain wall facades are increasing these days. insulating layer, a sliding grid and a textile-
The façade panels shall be available in a wide reinforced outer shell were also developed. The
variety of colors, with an ever-increasing demand advantages of this wall construction include the
351
reduced wall thickness, the reduced component namely the 322 m high pylon of the Yavuz-Sultan-
weight and the reduced quantity of expensive Selim bridge across the Bosphorus Strait in Istanbul
colored concrete. – is worth mentioning. Both, glass and carbon
reinforcement was used for the facade panels.
Figure 8 shows the arrangement of the panels
manufactured by Fibrobeton at a height of 300 m.
Figure 6. Load-bearing filigree facade system

thanks to the combination of steel reinforced
concrete, in combination with thin wall
prefabricated textile reinforced concrete (Max
Bögl, Reinhardt Mederer Companies)
At the Eastsite office park in Mannheim, such a Figure 8. Slabs with glass – and carbon
sandwich wall has already been successfully used reinforcement over the Bosphorus Strait in
in several buildings. Starting 2017, the construction Istanbul (Photo: Fibrobeton)
of sandwich walls with textile reinforcements has A second application field to be mentioned here is
also been the subject of a general building that of bridges. Four bridge projects have already
inspection approval. Figure 7, shows an example of been completed in Germany, see [12] and [13]. All
a sandwich wall element. bridges were designed as pedestrian bridges with
bicycle paths. The first two bridges in Oschatz and
Kempten were built from individual segments,
approx. 1 m long. The 3 cm thick segments,
reinforced with AR-glass mesh reinforcement,
were clamped together with steel tendons. The
single span girders have spans of 8.60 m and 16 m
respectively.
Figure 7. Sandwich-Element used in the Office Park

Figure 9. Bridge comprised of 18 segments in
Eastsite (Photo: solidian GmbH)
Kempten (Photo: Harald Michler)
As a transition to the topic of bridge construction
The third bridge built in Albstadt, Germany, is 97 m
described below, the use of façade panels as
long and it is comprised of six segments reinforced
cladding for the world's highest bridge pylons -
352
with AR glass textile and prestressed with steel different geometries, both bridges have the same
tendons. Each individual segments is up to 17 m support system. Longitudinally, the load is
long. Figures 9 and 10 show the two bridge types. transferred via steel girders. As part of the
rehabilitation work, the existing deck was replaced
by two carbon concrete slabs, capable of
transferring the load in the transverse direction
and into the steel substructure. Such slabs were
only 14 cm thick at the thinnest point. The 5.7 m
wide and 6.5 m long bridge in Margrethausen is
rated for loads of up to 24 tons The sister bridge in
Pfeffingen is almost 4 m longer and about 2 m
narrower, and has a total permissable load of 40
tons [14]. Figure 12 shows the bridge under
construction.
Figure 10. T-Beam bridge comprised of six

segments in Albstadt-Lautlingen (Photo: C³ – Jörg
Singer)
The fourth and first-of-its-kind all carbon
reinforced bridge was built in Albstadt-Ebingen.
The bridge has a span of 15 m, a width of 3 m and
a weight of 14 tons. The roadway deck is 9 cm thick
and the thickness of the parapet is only 7 cm. The
bridge can carry the weight of a snow-scraper and
salt spreading service vehicle weighing up to 10
tons. Figure 11 shows the bridge under
construction.
Figure 12. Road bridge made of carbon reinforced
concrete (Photo: solidian GmbH)
A new bicycle bridge made of prestressed carbon
reinforced concrete (cbc slabs) is i.a. presented in
[15].
4.3 Strengthening
Besides the strengthening of shells, dome
structures and floor slabs, already reported in
IABSE Paper [16], there are a few instances in which
carbon reinforced concrete has been used for
Figure 11. Carbon concrete bridge in Albstadt- bridge strengthening.
Ebingen (Photo: solidian GmbH) Among them, the rehabilitation of the base area of
Furthermore, as part of the rehabilitation of two a 50 m long and 15 m wide culvert can be
road bridges in Albstadt (in the vicinity of mentioned here as well as the implementation of a
Margrethausen and Pfeffingen), the companies protective and levelling layer made of lightweight
solidian, Max Bögl, Knippers Helbig, Stotz Bau and concrete for an 18 m long pipeline bridge.
RWTH Aachen replaced the reinforced concrete The first major applications for road bridges include
components of the two old bridges with thin and the rehabilitation of a single-span bridge in 2012
durable carbon concrete components. Despite the and the renovation of a multi-span bridge in 2014,
353
see [17] and [18]. In both cases, an overlay of construction market. By renovating existing
carbon concrete was placed above the existing buildings and infrastructure with such a carbon
riding surface of the bridge. Figure 13 shows the textile, the service life of the structure is extended
strengthening works on a multi-span bridge. over many decades. The material also contributes
to the conservation of valuable resources and
reduces the construction and maintenance costs.
Current research is making a significant
contribution to identify and to overcome market
barriers and it will lead to an accelerated
dissemination of the new material in the coming
years.
6 References
[1] Scherer S., Schladitz F. and Curbach M. Textile
reinforced Concrete – from the idea to a high
performance material. In: Brameshuber, W. (Ed.):
Figure 13. Implementation of an carbon concrete Proceedings of the FERRO-11 and 3rd ICTRC in
overlay (Photo: Mario Hansl [17]) Aachen. Bagneux, France: Rilem Publications
S.A.R.L., 2015, 15-33
In 2016, the strengthening of an old railway arched
bridge, built in 1910, took place, see [19]. The [2] C³-Konsortium: http://www.bauen-neu-
arches, with spans of up to 19 m in length, showed denken.de [cited 2018 Jan 31]
large cracks. The strengthening was carried out by [3] Frank E., Steudle L. M., Ingildeev D., Spçrl J. M.
applying a full-surface carbon concrete layer on the and Buchmeiser M. R. Carbonfasern: Präkursor-
undersides of the arches. Figure 14 shows the Systeme, Verarbeitung, Struktur und
bridge after completion of the strengthening Eigenschaften, Angew. Chem., 126, 5364-5403
works. [4] Stuart J., Lau J., Ren J., Li F.-F., Lefler M. and Licht
S. New approach to carbon dioxide utilization:
The carbon molten air battery. ACS National
Meeting 2015, Boston, paper ENVR 569
[5] Jesse D. and Jesse F. High Performance
Composite Textile Reinforced Concrete -
Definitions, Properties and Applications. In: 3rd
International fib Congress. Washington, D.C.,
2010, pp. 157, CD and presentation
[6] Rizalla S. H. and Tadros G. FRP for prestressing of
concrete bridges in Canada. ACI Special
Publication (2003) 215, 75-90
[7] Ushijima K., Enomoto T., Koso N. and Yamamoto
Y.: Field deployment of carbon-fiber-reinforced
Figure 14. Arch bridges after completion of the polymer in bridge applications. PCI Journal 61
(2016) 5, 29-36
strengthening works (Photo: Frank Schladitz)
[8] Schöck: Combar,
5 Conclusions https://www.schoeck.de/de/combar [cited 2018
Jan 31]
The collection of examples shown here, as well as
[9] Ehlig D., Schladitz F., Frenzel M. and Curbach M.;
the various pilot projects in the fields of building
Textilbeton - Ausgeführte Projekte im Überblick.
construction and civil engineering in which Carbon Beton- und Stahlbetonbau 107 (2012) 11, 777-
Concrete Composite was put to test, show the 785
potential for an economical application in the
354
[10] Erhardt E., Weiland S., Lorenz E., Schladitz F.,

Beckmann B. and Curbach M.:
Anwendungsbeispiele für
Textilbetonverstärkung. Beton- und
Stahlbetonbau 110 (2015) S1, 74-82
[11] Rempel S., Will N., Hegger J. and Beul P.: Filigrane
Bauwerke aus Textilbeton. Beton- und
Stahlbetonbau, 110 (2015), S1, 83-93
[12] Michler H. Segmentbrücke aus textilbewehrtem
Beton – Rottachsteg Kempten im Allgäu. Beton-
und Stahlbetonbau, 108 (2013), 325-334
[13] Helbig T., Unterer K., Kulas C., Rempel S. and
Hegger, J.: Fuß- und Radwegbrücke aus
Carbonbeton in Albstadt-Ebingen. Beton- und
Stahlbetonbau 111 (2016), 676-685
[14] Rempel S. Erste Straßenbrücke aus Carbonbeton.
proceedings to the Carbon- und Textilbetontage
2017. Dresden, 26./27.09.2017, 40-41
[15] Zürcher Hochschule für Angewandte
Wissenschaften. Die leichteste Betonbrücke der
Welt steht in Winterthur, press report, 2017
[16] Schladitz F., Tietze M., Lieboldt M. and Curbach
M. Carbon and concrete – the future of
construction? IABSE Symposium Report, IABSE
Conference Guangzhou 2016: Bridges and
Structures Sustainability-Seeking Intelligent
Solutions, 733-743, CD
[17] Feix J., and Hansl M. Pilotanwendung von
Textilbeton für Verstärkungen im Brückenbau. In:
Curbach, M. (Ed.): proceedings to the 25.
Dresdner Brückenbausymposium. 09./10.3.2015
in Dresden, Dresden: Institut für Massivbau der
TU Dresden, 2015, 99-110
[18] Egger M. and Feix J. Textilbeton im Ingenieurbau,
proceedings to the Innsbrucker Bautage 2017,
23. Februar 2017 in Innsbruck, 88-108
[19] Al-Jamous A. and Uhlig K. Sanierung der
historischen Betonbogenbrücke in Naila. In:
Curbach, M. (Ed.): proceedings to the 27.
Dresdner Brückenbausymposium. 13./14.3.2017
in Dresden, Dresden: Institut für Massivbau der
TU Dresden, 2017, 71-78
355
Future applications in Carbon reinforced concrete (CRC)

Matthias Tietze, Frank Schladitz, Alexander Kahnt, Patricia Garibaldi, Robert Zobel, Manfred
Curbach
Technische Universität Dresden, Germany
Contact: matthias.tietze@tu-dresden.de
Abstract
The world of construction becomes smarter. New building processes, such as building information
modeling (BIM), automated manufacturing (Industry 4.0) and sustainable building are an integral part
of today’s industry. Also, new material combinations, like carbon reinforced concrete, capture more and
more construction applications. The number of practical examples of carbon reinforced concrete has
increased. However, this is only the beginning, as the development goals have not been reached yet.
After the first approved systems, further questions arise, including high-temperature-resistant
reinforcement, economic production processes and the vision of an integral planned, automatically
produced, and sustainable smart building. In this vision, the embedded carbon reinforcement is part of
the infrastructure that enables smart-home applications and pushes the research ahead. For example,
pre-pregs of carbon reinforced concrete are being developed, based on well-known carbon fiber
reinforced plastic (CFRP) applications. The curing process can be controlled and brought to an end at
the construction side, days, or even weeks after the pre-fab production has taken place. Automated
robots are capable of placing the carbon yarn in the pre-fabricated formwork. So, the typical
manufacturing (value) chain is becoming outdated, as the usual rebar or grid manufacturing is omitted
– these are also part of the current developments. Also, mineral coatings for the high-temperature-
resistant reinforcement are also under development, and it is showing promising results. Another niche
industry revolves around multifunctional pre-cast components with integrated heating and energy
storage and load-bearing functions, which are already cheaper than the classic separated components.
We lead the C³ carbon concrete composite R & D project and have an overview of the latest forward-
looking and visionary development approaches in carbon reinforced concrete.
Keywords: Carbon reinforced concrete, generative planning, carbon concrete composite, high-
temperature resistant coating systems, textile reinforced concrete, robotics in construction
makes carbon concrete even more appealing to the

1 Introduction building industry.
Carbon concrete research continues to focus on
traditional and crucial topics such as load-bearing 2 Future applications in CRC
behaviour, durability, and design. At the same
Following, several novels and industry-oriented
time, the research extends beyond the established
research projects in the field of carbon concrete
limits. The following novel developments from the
will be presented, in particular, the areas of new
C³ - Carbon Concrete Composite Research Project
production and processing methods, new mineral
illustrate the current work on new production
coatings for carbon concrete reinforcement and
methods, as well as the advancement that has
new electrical functionalities for carbon concrete.
been made towards new application areas. This
356
2.1 New manufacturing and processing At present, the integration of new functions into
carbon concrete elements is being promoted
Pre-pregs, or pre-impregnated fibres, are well
within the construction industry [2]. This involves
established in the plastics sector. Carbon textiles,
testing the use of fibers to include sensor
for example, are impregnated with a resin (the
technology, energy storage, and light
matrix) during production and then stored in a cool
functionalities. The use of carbon for data
place so that the resin does not crosslink - i. e. does
transmission is also underway, and it is showing
not cure. Only days or weeks later - when used on
promising results.
site - the semi-finished products, which can still be
shaped freely, are cured, e. g. by applying heat. This
2.3 New coating and reinforcement
clearly facilitates handling by the user and reduces
the risk of errors when connecting the fiber and Mineral coatings and carbon concrete
matrix. Transferring such a process into the reinforcement bars are topics of increasing
production of carbon concrete is currently being interest. Up to now, the individual carbon
tested [1]. filaments have been combined with plastic
coatings and bonded to the surrounding concrete.
The temperature range of applicability of the
plastic coatings is limited to 100°C. Common
carbon reinforcements can only be subjected to
tension, and not to any significant compression.
The goal is to combine the individual carbon
filaments with a mineral matrix, which could
extend the range of application to significantly
higher temperatures, and could considerably
improve the ability of the reinforcement to carry
Figure 1. Pre-preg’s of Carbon Concrete compressive forces [3].
(Photo: Steffen Jäger, SKZ gGmbH)
2.2 New functions

Multifunctionality, namely the integration of
electrical functions in carbon concrete, is enabled
by the unique material properties of carbon. The
carbon fibers are electrically conductive and have
an electrical resistance. The feasibility of
simultaneously using carbon as both reinforcement
and a heating element has already been Figure 1. Carbon concrete reinforcement bar
demonstrated in a first prototype application. (Photo: Sabine Wellner, TU Dresden)
3 References
[1] Grauer, O., Lägel, E. Concrete-Infusion,
Injection, Pre-Preg. Tagungsband 9. Carbon-
und Textilbetontage. 2017; S. 159
[2] Schütze E., Tietze M., Curbach M., Hülsmeier
F. Heizen mit Bauteilen aus Textilbeton - Das
Projekt smarttex. CC Magazin 2. 2013; S. 79
[3] Bösche, T., Ortlepp, S., Zernsdorf, K.
Figure 2. Heating with carbon concrete Carbonbetonstab. Tagungsband 9. Carbon-
(Photo: Stefan Huth, AiL HTWK Leipzig) und Textilbetontage. 2017; S. 161
357
Crack width calculation methods for large-scale concrete structures

for the Ferry-Free E39
Reignard Tan, Terje Kanstad, Mette R. Geiker
Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
Max A.N. Hendriks
Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
TU Delft, Delft, the Netherlands
Contact: reignard.tan@multiconsult.no
Abstract
Motivated by the establishment of a Ferry-Free E39 coastal highway route, crack width calculation
methods for design of large-scale concrete structures are discussed. It is argued that the current
semi-empirical formulas recommended by Eurocode 2 is inconsistent and overly conservative for
cross sections with large bar diameters and covers. A suggestion to formulating a more consistent
crack width calculation method is given.
Keywords: Crack width calculation methods, large-scale concrete structures, Ferry-Free E39.
1 Introduction
The coastal highway route E39 stretches along the
west coast of Norway, and has a total length of
approximately 1100 km. The highway route
includes several fjord crossings, which can be up to
several km long. The crossings today are operated
by seven different ferry-connections and the route
has a total travel time of 21 hours. The Norwegian Figure 1. Conceptual study of a two-span
Public Roads Administration (NPRA) has initiated suspension bridge for the crossing of one of many
the Ferry-Free E39, which has the aim of replacing fjords at the Ferry-free E39. Illustrative photo by
the ferry-connections with bridges and tunnels. the Norwegian Public Roads Administration
This would ultimately reduce the travel time by the (NPRA).
half. An example of one of many conceptual studies
for the fjord crossings is the two-span suspension The suspension tower structure is one of many
bridge depicted in Figure 1, each span being up to large-scale concrete structures that is intended to
2 km long. The suspension tower connecting the be part of the Ferry-Free E39. The experience
two spans can be up to 480 m in height over the feedback from designing such structures is that the
seawater level, resting on a gravity based concrete crack width calculations in the Serviceability Limit
structure that is to be founded at a depth of 450 m, State (SLS) often becomes unfavourably governing
see Figure 1b). in determining the reinforcement amount. The
need of controlling the crack width is in the design
358
process primarily related to appearance, tightness average predicted crack widths that were 50%
and durability [1]. For the suspension bridge larger than the measured crack widths, and
illustrated in Figure 1, however, the reduction of struggled in particular in predicting crack widths for
the stiffness due to cracking in the suspension large covers (90 mm) and bar diameters (32 mm).
tower becomes paramount in determining the The combined observations from the theoretical
structural dynamic response. and experimental study suggests that the range of
applicability of the semi-empirical formulas
2 Crack width calculation methods remains limited and that a more consistent
for large-scale concrete structures calculation method should be formulated in design
of more general RC structures. The authors of this
One of the ongoing research activities in the Ferry- paper are currently working on such formulation,
Free E39 is the PhD project undertaken by the first by explicitly solving the resulting differential
author, which has the overall objective of equation for the slip. It is seen that this method
improving the crack width calculation methods for more consistently covers the physical aspects
large-scale concrete structures. Crack width related to cracking observed in experiments.
calculations for reinforced concrete (RC) structures
in Norway are normally carried out using the semi- 3 Conclusions
empirical formulas recommended by Eurocode 2
(EC2) [2], which are considered adequate in design The semi-empirical formulas in Eurocode 2 predict
of relatively small beams and one-way bearing crack widths that are overly conservative and
plates. For this purpose, Tan et al. [3] investigated inconsistent compared to what is observed in the
the range of applicability of the semi-empirical experimental study of eight relatively large RC ties.
formulas for design of more general RC structures, The theoretical study suggests that a more
both from a theoretical and experimental point of consistent calculation method is obtained by
view. The theoretical studies showed that the semi- explicitly solving the resulting differential equation
empirical formulas were derived in an inconsistent for the slip.
manner that opposes the basic principles in solid
mechanics. This is related to simplifications that are Acknowledgements
made rather than directly solving the resulting The Norwegian Public Roads Administration in
differential equation for the slip. This leads to connection with the Ferry-Free E39 project funds
inconsistent formulas, which can be exemplified by the work presented in this paper.
the fact that the equilibrium in the maximum crack
distance formula is violated by the cover term. The
4 References
experimental study involved testing of eight
relatively large RC ties (400x400x3000mm3) with [1] Balázs et al. Design for SLS according to fib
the primary aim of investigating the modelling Model Code 2010. Structural Concrete. 2013;
uncertainty of the semi-empirical formulas. The 14(2): 99-123.
specimens were reinforced with eight deformed [2] CEN: EN 1992-1-1, Eurocode Design of
steel bars and were exposed to tensile forces by Concrete Structures – Part 1-1: General
pulling four embedded M36 steel rods in the bar Rules and Rules for buildings. European
ends. The primary variables in the study were the Committee for Standardization, Brussels.
reinforcing bar diameter, which either was 20 mm 2004.
or 32 mm, and the cover, which either was 40 mm
or 90 mm. Crack widths were carefully measured at [3] Tan et al. Experimental and theoretical
discrete load steps using image analysis. investigation of crack width calculation
Subsequently, statistical analysis was used to methods for RC ties. Under review at
obtain the 95%-quantile of the measured crack Structural Concrete. 2017.
widths, which further was compared to the
predicted crack widths by the semi-empirical
formulas. The results showed that EC2 [2] in
359
Strength Properties and Microscopic Observations of Concrete with

Plastic Wastes as Partial Aggregate Substitute
Andres Winston C. Oreta, Maejann E. Cuartero and Nikko Paolo P. Villanueva
De La Salle University, Manila, Philippines
Contact: andres.oreta@dlsu.edu.ph
Abstract
Sustainable construction can be promoted by producing construction materials with recycled waste.
This study aims to address the issue of recycling plastic wastes and providing a means of livelihood
in a relocation site of typhoon victims and urban settlers in Metro Manila by exploring the
production of quality concrete hollow blocks (CHB) mixed with waste plastic wastes. In the study,
the strength properties of concrete with various types of plastic wastes (PW) such as plastic bags
(PB) and noodle wrappers (NW) as substitute to fine aggregates were investigated. Different percent
substitutions, specifically 2.5%, 5%, 7.5% and 10%, were considered for each mix. The behaviour
and strength properties of the concrete with and without PW were analysed and compared
Moreover, the microscopic structures of the various types of mixes were observed using a Scanning
Electron Microscopy (SEM) and related to the failure mode and strength performance. Results show
that concrete with PB outperformed the other concrete mixes with plastics due to the plastic bag’s
high stretchable property, compared to the noodle wrappers. In addition, plastics, in general,
provide additional ductility to the concrete enabling them to tolerate more deformation at lower
loads. The final product of the study is a mix design for producing non-load bearing concrete hollow
blocks (CHB) that can be used for low-cost housing in the Philippines.
Keywords: recycle, plastic waste, hollow blocks, concrete, low-cost housing, sustainable
construction, scanning electron microscopy
shredded plastic wastes (PW) such as noodle

1. Introduction wrapper (NW), plastic bags (PB) and a combination
Addressing the sustainability of a community of both as partial aggregate substitute. The
especially resettlement areas is a growing concern strength properties and behaviour are observed
considering the increasing number of population, through laboratory tests using the universal testing
problems involving food security, economic machine and a scanning electron microscopy
opportunities and waste disposal. To address these (SEM).
issues, strategies on recycling of waste materials
and providing means of livelihood to the 2. Materials and Methodology
community need to be developed. One strategy is
2.1 Plastic Wastes
to find ways on the use of plastic wastes for
construction of low-cost housing. This paper The problem of plastic waste management
presents the production of non-load bearing contributes to a need to find possible ways to make
concrete hollow blocks (CHB) with various types of use of these materials. It was found out that the
360
most abundant plastics in the community are

plastic bags (PB) or Polyethylene (Figure 1) and
noodle wrappers (NW) or Polypropylene (Figure 2).
These two types of plastics vary on different
properties. Polyethylene (PE) is characterized to
have an ultimate tensile strength of 20 MPa and a
tensile elongation at yield of about 600%, which
makes it stretchable [1]. Meanwhile,
Polypropylene (PP) has an ultimate tensile strength Figure 3. Shredded Plastic (NW & PB)
of 33 MPa tensile elongation at yield of about 85%,
according to Rabigh, P. [2]. Given these properties
2.2 Concrete Specimens
of the different plastics found in the community,
the study compared the mechanical properties of The cement, Type 1 Portland with Philippine tuff
PB-CHB, NW-CHB and a combination of PB and NW cement (Blended cement type 1P), as well as, the
or COM-CHB with that of a conventional CHB. fine aggregates - river sand (Class A: Fine) were
purchased from a local manufacturer. Both were
ensured to be following the specification of the
standards of Portland cement and fine aggregates
in Standard Specification for Portland cement
(ASTM C150) and Standard Specification for
Concrete Aggregates (ASTM C33), respectively.
The base mix design followed for the experiment
was a cement-to-sand ratio of 0.088 by weight. This
base mix design was chosen after the different trial
and errors, and was also suggested by a local
manufacturer. The aggregate for the mix was
substituted by plastic bags (PB-CHB), noodle
Figure 1. Plastic Bag (PB) wrappers (NW-CHB), and an equal combination of
the two (COM-CHB). For each type of mix, different
batches with a substitution (by volume) of fine
aggregates by plastics for 2.5%, 5%, 7.5% and 10%
were done. One 0% substitution batch was
conducted to serve as the mix design for
conventional CHB.
2.3 Summary of Tests
The testing of the specimens was done following
the standards provided by the ASTM in testing the
CHB. Compressive strength tests were performed
Figure 2. Noddle Wrapper (NW) during the 7th, 14th, 21st and the 28th day periods
to evaluate the strength development for each
The plastic materials were collected from the batch. For every compression test, three samples
wastes of the community. The plastic bags and per batch were used as indicated in the ASTM
noodle wrappers were segregated from other C140. Only one batch for the 0% substitution of
plastics and stored separately. With the use of the plastics was done to serve as the conventional CHB
shredder, the plastic wastes were shredded into to be compared to. Since there were 3 combination
small sizes as shown in Figure 3. of aggregates, sand and plastic bags, sand and
noodle wrappers, sand and equal combination of
plastic bags and noodle wrappers, a total of 12
361
specimens per batch underwent the compressive Table 1. 28th Day Compressive Strength (MPa)
strength tests. Moreover, 4 different batches for
each combination of aggregates, namely 2.5%, 5%,
%PW 2.5% 5.0%. 7.5%. 10.0%
7.5%, and 10%, were done. The specimens were
cured by immersing them on a pond for 7, 14, 21 PB-CHB 3.63 3.23 3.13 2.80
and 28 days.
The stress-strain test was done only in the 28th day NW-
3.23 3.10 2.91 2.37
period for each batch in order to evaluate the CHB
deformation and strain. Three cylinders were made
COM-
for each batch for the following batches: all the 3.74 3.51 3.02 2.40
CHB
percent substitution of NW-CHB, conventional
CHB, 5% of PB-CHB and 5% of COM-CHB. After No 3.91
testing, small scrapes of CHBs were taken. A Plastic
microscopic analysis through the use of Scanning
Electron Microscopy (SEM) was then conducted in PB-CHB
4
order to analyse the bond between concrete and
plastics. Results of Tests 3.5
Com pressive Strength (MPa)
3
3. Compression Tests
2.5
The compression tests were conducted in order to 2

observe the development of the strengths of
different CHB mix and substitutions. Figures 4, 5 1.5
and 6 shows the strength development of the CHBs 1 PB (2.5% )

for the various curing days of 7, 14, 21 and 28 while PB (5.0% )
PB (7.5% )
Table 1 presents the 28th day compressive 0.5 PB (10.0%)
strengths. The figures show that on the 7th day of 0

curing, CHB with plastics can develop about 61% to 0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28
Curing Days
75% of their final strength and at more than 80% at
the 21th day of curing. Moreover, the addition of Figure 4. Compressive Strength of PB-CHB
plastics for every mix creates a decrease in
compressive strength. It can also be observed that 3.5
NW-CHB
on the 28th day of curing, every mix design passed
the minimum strength of 2.1 MPa required by the 3
Philippine National Standards (PNS) as shown in
Com pressive Stren gth (MPa)
Table 1 with the range of the 28th day compressive 2.5
strengths of 2.80-3.63 MPa (PB-CHB), 2.37-3.23 2

MPa (NW-CHB) and 2.40-3.74 MPa (COM-CHB).
1.5
The conventional CHB with no PW has an average
strength of 3.91 MPa. 1
NW (2.5%)
NW (5.0%)
0.5 NW (7.5%)
NW (10.0%)
0
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28
Curing Days
Figure 5. Compressive Strength of NW-CHB
362
COM-CHB
4
3.5
Com pressive Stren gth (MPa)
2.5
1.5
1 COM (2.5%)
COM (5.0%)
COM (7.5%)
0.5 COM (10.0%)
0
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28
Curing Days
Figure 8. NW-CHB (Left: NW, Right: Concrete)
Figure 6. Compressive Strength of COM-CHB
4. Scanning Electron Microscopy

Images
After the compressive test of CHBs, small
specimens of conventional CHB, CHB with plastic
bags and CHB with noodle wrappers were
gathered. These specimens were then subjected to
Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) to observe
their microscopic structure.
Shown in Figure 7 is CHB with no plastics. From this,
it can be seen that whiskers are present in concrete
which suggest an interconnection between the Figure 9. PB-CHB (Top: NW, Bottom: Concrete)
constituents of concrete which contributes to the
wholeness of the sample.
In Figure 8, the CHB with noodle wrapper is shown.
It can be observed that the right part where
concrete is seen, a bond between the aggregates is
present. However, on the left part where the
noodle wrapper is located, there is little to no
whisker connections to be seen between the
concrete and noodle wrappers. The same
observation is generated for the plastic bags as
shown in Figure 9. The bottom part of the image
shows the concrete and the top portion shows the
plastic. However, with regards to its stretch
properties, noodle wrappers show little to no
stretch as attributed to its low tensile elongation
property, as seen in Figure 8, unlike the plastic bags
which showed signs of being stretched due to its
Figure 7. CHB with no plastics higher tensile elongation.
With these results, it can be said that plastics does
not bond well with sand and cement. Plastics are
363
present in the concrete, but it does not act as part Looking into the interior texture of the CHB, it was
of the concrete. The plastics can be perceived as observed that for conventional, COM-CHB and PB-
voids, which in turn become the source of cracks CHB, the bonding of the sand, cement and water is
and failures of the whole specimen. efficient because the concrete formed does not fall
apart. However, for the NW-CHB, it was observed
5. Observed Failure Modes that the concrete tend to be grainy (Figure 13). This
characteristic can be due to the noodle wrappers
After testing, the CHBs were closely observed to covering a larger area, thus, possibly hindering
determine the influence of plastic. As shown in efficient distribution of water in concrete. As
Figures 10-12, the crack propagated in the areas opposed to plastic bags, which can crumple, hence,
where there are plastics. More so, it can be offering a smaller surface area to block the
observed that the plastics bags exemplified its dispersal of water. Moreover, this effect of the
stretching properties while the noodle wrappers noodle wrappers starts to show at 5% substitution,
showed little to no stretch. and gets worse at higher substitutions, which
means that at 2.5%, the amount of noodle
wrappers is still on a tolerable amount.
Figure 10. Failure Mode of PB-CHB
Figure 13. Failure Mode of NW-CHB

Concrete cylinders were also tested until failure to
observe the stress-strain behaviour and failure
mode of cylinders with and without plastic.
Figure 11. Failure Mode of NW-CHB
The stress-strain diagrams of the different mixes

with 5% substitution and the conventional is
analysed. In Figure 14, the curves for the different
types of plastics used are almost coinciding.
The conventional mix offers the highest strength,
followed by the plastic bag mix, the combined, and
the noodle wrappers the least as shown in Figure
14.
Figure 12. Failure Mode of COM-CHB
364
6. Mix Design for CHB with PW

Two parameters are considered in the
determination of the best mix design. Firstly, when
it comes to the economic benefit, the best mix
design is decided based on the maximum
decreased in cost. For PB-CHB, NW-CHB, and COM-
CHB, the most economical mix falls under the 10%
substitution, having a cement-to-sand ratio of
0.088, and a water-to-cement ratio of 1.33. From
the Cost Analysis performed, there is an expected
decrease of 5.64% in cost if such substitution is
implemented. This mix design can also serve as a
Figure 14. Stress-Strain Curve basis for adjustments so that the desired product
The type of plastic used remains the deciding factor can be achieved. On the other hand, when
as to how much more each mix can resist. As considering the strength and performance of CHB,
mentioned, the plastic bags offer a higher tensile the 2.5% substitution, for all the mixes, is the best
elongation which makes the mix capable of mix design.
resisting more loads and allowing further Figure 16 shows the mix design matrix of all the
deformation before failure, as compared to the different percent substitution and the different
noodle wrappers. The range at which the material types of CHB outputs. The type of curing,
can allow further strain is defined by its ductility. immersion and sprinkling is also reflected in the
Plastics can be said to decrease the amount of load matrix. The study showed higher values when
that can be carried by concrete, but it increases immersion is used for curing compared to
ductility on the specimen, much like a fibre sprinkling. The dimensions of the CHB are shown in
reinforcement. This is the reason why at higher Figure 17. This matrix can be used by the
substitutions, a much higher deformation can be community as a guide in the production of CHB
resisted by the specimen before rupture. However, with PW. In the middle part of the figure, the
plastic bonds with the concrete because of friction, constant amounts of cement and water which is
making it easily pulled out after a certain amount enough to make an output of 18 CHB is shown. On
of load [3]. the corners of the matrix, different substitutions
can be taken, depending on the preferred cost per
CHB.
After choosing the preferred %PW, the 28th day
strengths of PB-CHB, NW-CHB and COM-CHB are
shown for the user to choose which strength would
be needed, depending on the application. A higher
compressive strength can be used for partitions
and walls, while the lower compressive strength
Figure 15. Cylinder Failures (No Plastic, NW & PB) can be used for fences. When the cost and the
strength are chosen, the needed amount of sand is
A comparison of the mode of failures of the indicated, thus, completing the raw materials in
cylinders is shown in Figure 15. The conventional creating CHBs. However, the use of this matrix
mix (No Plastic) experienced a shear failure, while would require some knowledge on the use of
the cylinders with PW experienced bulging and volumetric box in order to incorporate the plastic
longitudinal cracks. Failure planes occur where in the mix.
there is no bond between plastic and concrete.
365
Figure 16. Mix Design Matrix
Figure 17. Dimensions of a Non-Load Bearing CHB

The volumetric box is a guide on the percentage of
substitution of the plastic waste. To use the
volumetric box in Figure 18 , simply fill the box with
sand up to the marker of the %substitution. Then
fill up the remaining space with plastic waste. Mix Figure 18. Volumetric Box (6 CHB only)
the contents of the volumetric box with required
cement and water. The volumetric box shown is for Figure 19 shows a laborer using the volumetric
production of only six CHB. Hence to produce 18 box in the CHB production and Figure 20 are the
CHB in the matrix, simply do the substitution three final CHB products.
times.
366
which is defined by its ductility. However, in

general, the addition of plastics for every mix
creates a decrease in compressive strength.
The type of plastic produces different effects on
the CHB. Noodle wrappers are found to produce
the most unfavourable results where the mix
produced smaller strength and least stiffness.
Plastic bags offer a higher tensile elongation than
the noodle wrappers, making the CHB resist more
loads before failing.
The final product of the study is a mix design
for producing non-load bearing concrete
Figure 19. Using the volumetric box hollow blocks (CHB) that can be used for low-
cost housing in the Philippines. A mix design
matrix of all the different percent substitution and
the different types of CHB outputs is presented.
This matrix can be used by the community as a
guide in the production of CHB with PW. A
volumetric box is presented to guide the users on
the percentage of substitution of the plastic waste.
References
[1] Rabigh, P. Polypropylene Homopolymer for
Biaxially Oriented Film. Retrieved July 5, 2016 from:
http://www.petrorabigh.com/en/DATASHEET/FS3
011E%20Ver012015.pdf.
Figure 20. Sample CHB with Plastic Wastes
[2] WS Hampshire Inc. (n.d.). Polyethylene.
Retrieved July 5, 2016 from:
http://www.wshampshire.com/pdf/psg_uhmw_p
7. Conclusion olyethylene.pdf.
The study explores the use of PW for the [3] Pesic, N. et. al. Mechanical Properties of
production of CHB for low-cost housing in a Concrete Reinforced with Recycled HDPE Plastic
community in the Philippines. Specifically, the Fibres. Construction and Building Materials, 115,
study focused on determining the effects of the 362 – 370 , 2116.
different types of plastic at different percent
substitutions to CHB. Plastics are proven to have a
detrimental effect on the performance and
strength of a CHB. Since plastics do not bond well
with cement as seen through the SEM, it results to
gaps that pave way for propagation of cracks
leading to failure. Moreover, because the noodle
wrappers do not crumple, unlike the plastic bags, a
larger surface area hinders the distribution of
water in concrete that makes the CHBs with noodle
wrappers have a grainy texture.
As the percent substitution increases, plastics can
provide higher tolerance against deformation,
367
Behavior of Reinforced Concrete Beams with 700 MPa High-Strength

Reinforcement – Flexure and Serviceability
Joo-Hyung Lee, Jae-Yeol Cho
Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea
Contact: jycho@snu.ac.kr
Abstract
Using high-strength reinforcement could provide various benefits to construction industry; material
and cost savings, reduction of rebar congestion, and efficient use of high-strength concrete.
However, the value of reinforcing steel’s yield strength allowed in Korean design codes was limited
to being no greater than 600 MPa. Thus it needs to increase the maximum allowable yield strength
value in order to use 700 MPa high-strength rebars in Korean construction field. The objective of
this research was the investigation of flexure and serviceability of beams reinforced with the high-
strength steels. The performance of RC flexural beams designed according to the current KCI design
code with 700 MPa high-strength steels would be evaluated by experiments and structural analysis.
By analysing the results of the studies, this research would lead to revision recommendations of the
KCI design codes to increase reinforcing steel’s maximum design yield strength to 700 MPa.
Keywords: high-strength reinforcements; RC beams; flexure; serviceability
Design Code (2012) about flexure and serviceability

1 Introduction by performing RC beam experiments and structural
Using high-strength reinforcements could give a analysis.
variety of benefits to civil engineering field. For
example, by using the reinforcements it could save 2 Flexure and Serviceability in
material and costs, and could reduce rebar Korean Design Code
congestion problem. In addition, high strength
concrete could be used more efficiently with high At first, the articles which are relevant to the
strength of reinforcements. reinforcement’s yield strength in aspect of flexure
and serviceability in KCI 2012 were reviewed. KCI
However, the material properties of the high 2012 is one of the main design codes about
strength steels are different with the properties of concrete structures in South Korea and its design
normal strength steels in some aspects; such as concept is ultimate strength design like ACI 318
having no distinct yield point and less ductility. design code.
Thus before allowing to use the high strength steels
in concrete design codes, it needs to figure out the 2.1 Flexure
performance of the RC beams reinforced with the
steels thoroughly. Articles about flexure in KCI 2012 are relevant with
the rebar’s nominal yield strain, except the case of
This research is about verifying the applicability of minimum flexure rebar article. The critical values of
using SD700 high-strength rebars for Concrete
368
maximum flexure rebar and strain limit are failure; cracks at the bottom center, diagonal
respectively 2 y and 2.5 y . And the minimum cracks near the supports and concrete crushing at
flexure rebar amount is in reverse proportion to the top center.
the steel’s yield strength. Thus the flexure design
articles are closely relevant with the yield strength
of rebars and it needs to figure out the effects of
using high-strength rebars.
2.2 Serviceability
In serviceability aspect, crack widths and deflection
are the main design facts. For crack widths control,
the spacing between tensile rebars are limited to
certain value in the most cases. And for deflection
control, KCI 2012 limits the minimum member’s
height according to the span length. Both of crack
widths and deflection design articles are also linked
with the yield strength of steels.
Figure 1. #2 Specimen experiment result
3 RC Beams Experiments
4 Conclusions
3.1 Experiment Specimens
To verify the applicability of SD700 high-strength
RC beam specimens were designed and fabricated rebars for RC beams in aspect of flexure and
as 300x450 mm cross section and 5,000 mm clear serviceability, RC beams flexure experiments with
span length (The specimen for minimum rebar normal concrete strength were performed. Every
amount had smaller size). specimen showed ultimate flexure strength more
than nominal strength and typical flexure failure.
3.2 Experiment Variables After performing additional experiments with high-
Experiment variables were chosen in order to strength concrete, the overall applicability of
figure out the effects of rebar strength, concrete SD700 high-strength rebars could be verified.
strength and amounts of tensile rebars.
5 Acknowledgements
Table 1. Experiment Variables
This work was supported by the Industrial Strategic
Variables
Technology Development Program (10063488)
[MPa]
funded by the Ministry of Trade, industry & Energy
1 Rebars strength 400, 700 and the BK21 PLUS research program of the
Concrete National Research Foundation of Korea.
2 compressive 24, 40, 60
strength 6 References
As ,max (2  y )
[1] KCI. Concrete Structure Design Code. Seoul:
Tensile rebars As ,min
3 KCI; 2012.
amounts
Strain limit (2.5  y )
3.3 Experiment Results

As analysing the experiment results, every
specimen showed ultimate flexure strengths which
exceed the nominal strengths and typical flexure
369
Review of the Most Common Repair Techniques for Reinforced Concrete

Structures in Coastal Areas
Maria Rashidi, Eric Ancich, Maryam Ghodrat
Western Sydney University, NSW, AUSTRALIA
Peter Buckley
Martin/Martin Inc, Colorado, USA
Contact: m.rashidi@westernsydney.edu.au
Abstract
Asset managers are faced with the challenge of maintaining concrete structures in coastal environment, within
the financial constraints of maintenance budget allocations, such that they remain functionally and structurally
safe for the remainder of their design lives. For these reasons concrete remediation is fast becoming an
important component of asset management in coastal areas. This research describes remediation techniques
and practice currently being employed by prominent public and private organisations responsible for
maintaining concrete structures in the Illawarra region (New South Wales, Australia). These common
remediation techniques range from conventional restoration, cathodic protection and structural strengthening.
The research also considers the underlying factors used to evaluate the effectiveness of these techniques and
practices. A model of good practice for concrete remediation in the Illawarra is developed from the literature
and industry research undertaken. This model is developed for concrete suffering deterioration caused by the
corrosion of steel reinforcement and is aimed to provide intelligent concrete remediation options based on
sound principles and industry knowledge.
Key Words: Reinforced Concrete, Repair, Maintenance, Strengthening.
deterioration occurs as a function of local exposure

conditions, concrete properties and interaction of
1 Introduction loadings and other physical mechanisms. Often the
initial manifestation of concrete deterioration is
The popularity of concrete as a construction
cracking of the exposed surfaces, which may pose
material can be attributed to its versatility, low cost
aesthetic problems; lead to an increased rate of
and durability. It is reasonable to expect concrete
deterioration; or present a hazard to public safety.
that is correctly specified, mixed, placed, and
Ultimately, deterioration may degenerate into a
embedded reinforcement correctly positioned, will
serious structural problem, which will have an
last indefinitely in non-aggressive environments,
effect on the safety, function and operation of the
with minimal maintenance and repair. In reality, an
structure [1].
ideal situation rarely exists and various entities
such as environment and the inherent properties of The aim of this paper is to address the various
concrete influence a structure’s serviceability techniques available to asset managers and
performance. The subsequent concrete remedial engineers for the repair and protection of
370
concrete structures. Choosing the optimum prevent further carbonation or sulphation of

remedial method is based on several factors such concrete,
as: the cause of deterioration, the time and cost
-be weatherproof to stop driven water entering the
required to conduct repairs, required extension of
concrete and providing more free oxygen for the
service life, the function of the structure,
corrosion reaction,
characteristics of the service environment, and
local availability of remedial techniques and -have a water vapour permeability such that it
materials [2]. The repair methods presented in this allows the free transfer of water vapour out of the
review include: Ingress protection, concrete structure,
restoration-by replacement, restoring passivity, -be resistant to degradation by ultra-violet light,
increase resistivity/moisture control, cathodic
control, control of anodic areas, cathodic -be abrasion resistant,
protection and additional strengthening. -in case of any future maintenance being
necessary, be easy to refurbish,
2 Ingress protection -as a secondary consideration, it should have
aesthetic values, including attractive colour and
Ingress protection is the method used to prevent or texture. Furthermore it should have the ability to
control the rate of concrete deterioration by remain clean over long periods-by having a low dirt
preventing the introduction of adverse agents that retention figure,
promote steel reinforcement corrosion or chemical
attack. These adverse agents include water, water- -contain mould and lichen inhibitors-especially
borne chlorides and sulphates, aggressive liquids, important in warm humid climates,
carbon dioxide, and acidic gases. Effective ingress -have a high diffusion resistance to chloride ions
protection systems include protective coating and from external sources.
crack sealing techniques which will be discussed in
the following sub-sections [3]. 2.2 Crack sealing and repair
Cracks in concrete have often posed a big threat on
2.1 Protective coatings
the durability of the structure. Cracking of concrete
Protective coatings are one manner in which is a random process, highly variable and influenced
concrete deterioration can be prevented or by many factors. They may affect appearance only,
reduced. Surface coatings used to protect concrete or they may indicate significant structural distress
include anti-carbonation coatings, chloride barriers, or lack of durability. Cracks may represent the total
sulphate resistant coatings, acid/chemical barriers, extent of the damage, or they may point to
and vapour barriers [4]. problems of greater magnitude. Their significance
According to Raina (2005), an idealised protective depends on the type of the structure, as well as the
coating (membrane) applied to the surface of nature of the cracking. Successful long-term repair
concrete would possess the following technical procedures must attack the causes of the cracks as
attributes [3]: well as the cracks themselves. Cracking of concrete
cover allows a direct pathway of contaminates like
-it should be permanently elastometric to fill the chloride ions, oxygen, water, carbon dioxide and
cracks and compensate for the normal movements sulphur dioxide to penetrate directly to the steel
of the structure, -have a high diffusion resistance to reinforcement. It is generally accepted that crack
carbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide gases, thus the widths greater than 0.5mm can initiate crack-
membrane will act as a barrier to slow down or induced corrosion [5].
371
Before a crack sealing technique is selected for the breakdown in the passive film or loss of passivity
repair of concrete, careful evaluation of the will result in the activation of corrosion [8].
progression and cause of cracking must be
The most effective technique to restore passivity
undertaken. Gravity filling and epoxy injection are
will depend on the mechanism that caused
the major crack repair techniques.
depassivation and hence, activation of corrosion
i.e. carbonation or chlorides. The passivity restoring
3 Concrete restoration –by techniques available are realkalisation of concrete,
replacement chloride extraction, replacement of contaminated
concrete with fresh concrete, and realkalisation of
Concrete restoration is a common repair principle carbonated concrete by application of external
used to repair spalled, laminated and badly cracked cementitious renders [9].
concrete associated with steel reinforcement
corrosion. For patch repairs or other concrete 5 Increasing resistivity/moisture
restoration techniques to be effective, all
contaminated concrete beyond the depth of the
control
reinforcement and adjacent to the damaged area
Another strategy to combat steel reinforcement
must be removed. When chloride infested or
corrosion is to increase the electrical resistivity of
carbonated concrete remains in locations adjacent
the concrete. By reducing the moisture content of
to repairs, a phenomenon known as incipient
the concrete, the resistivity of the concrete will
anode corrosion occurs. This causes reinforcement
increase. This causes an increase in the electrical
corrosion and subsequent concrete spalling in
potential needed to activate and sustain steel
areas adjacent to the repair [6].
reinforcement corrosion. The moisture content of
The main methods of concrete restoration by concrete can be reduced using the following
replacement are: Hand –applied mortar, techniques, covering concrete with protective
Replacement- by recasting with concrete, coatings, overcladding to shelter the concrete,
Replacement of the concrete by spraying concrete electro-osmosis treatments or heating.
or mortar.
Electro-osmosis is an electrochemical treatment
that causes water molecules to diffuse to the
4 Restoring passivity outside of concrete under the application of an
applied direct electrical current, eventually drying
Reinforcement embedded in fresh concrete is the concrete out. Heating the concrete can be used
protected from corrosion by an adherent passive to the same affect. After the application of heat or
film of iron oxide that forms on the surface of the electro-osmosis treatment a protective coating
reinforcement [7]. Under this condition, the may be applied to prevent rewetting [7].
reinforcing is said to be in a passive state and A good way to ensure the moisture content of
protected from corrosion. The passive film is concrete is low, is to ensure the drainage systems
formed and maintained by the highly alkaline are working properly. The drainage systems of
environment of fresh concrete. Disruption in the concrete structures should be routinely maintained
passive film may occur by a loss in alkalinity of the to dissipate water runoff quickly. This will prevent
host concrete-most often caused by the process of water from pooling on concrete surfaces, raising
carbonation, or by the electrochemical action of the moisture content of the concrete. If water
chloride ions at the surface of the reinforcement, continues to pool on the surface of the concrete,
or a combination of both mechanisms. The the existing drainage system should be redesigned
or a new system installed to dissipate the water.
372
6 Cathodic control since direct access to the reinforcement is needed.

There is also the risk of corrosion occurring in
To understand the principle of cathodic control the locations adjacent to the repair caused by the
corrosion process will be revisited. Electrochemical incipient anode effect [11].
corrosion consists of two half-cell reactions, one Alternative anodic control treatments are anodic
occurring at the anode and the other occurring at and multi-functional inhibitors (operates as both a
the cathode. These two reactions are dependent cathodic and an anodic inhibitor). These treatments
on each other. That is, the rate of electron are applied to the surface of concrete by roller,
production at the anode must be equal to the rate brush or spray and are absorbed through the cover
of electron consumption at the cathode. Therefore of the concrete to the reinforcement. Some
if either of these half-cell reactions is disrupted, it proprietary inhibitors claim to increase the chloride
will affect the overall rate of corrosion. threshold for corrosion initiation from 0.4% to 2.0%
Cathodic control involves changing the conditions chloride ions by weight of cement [8]. The length of
at potentially cathodic regions on the steel application is dependent on the permeability of the
reinforcement [10]. concrete. It is recommended that inhibitors be
used in conjunction with other repair treatments
This reaction is dependent on the availability of for an effective remedial strategy. One such
oxygen. Therefore, if oxygen can be restricted from strategy may entail an inhibitor treatment followed
diffusing to the level of steel reinforcement to take by the application of a protective coating, however
part in the cathode reaction, the rate of corrosion the condition and characteristics of the concrete
can be reduced or stopped. will dictate the effectiveness of this repair strategy.
Examples of cathodic control techniques include:
-Limiting oxygen content by saturation i.e. 8 Cathodic protection
submergence,
Cathodic protection (CP) systems are particularly
-Limiting oxygen content by encapsulation i.e.
suited to large structures requiring massive patch
resins, grouted sleeves, etc,
repair caused from chloride-induced corrosion. In
-Cathodic control with the use of cathodic or multi- such situations the only other options are, to
function inhibitors that are externally applied and demolish and rebuild, structurally strengthen or
permeate to the reinforcement, forming a film on completely encase the concrete structure from
the surface of the reinforcement restricting the ingress of deleterious substances.
access of oxygen [3].
CP systems will immediately halt or reduce
corrosion but cannot rehabilitate the steel nor
7 Control of anodic areas return it to its original condition. They require a
supplemental anode to be bonded to the surface of
The control of anodic areas uses the same principal the concrete. These anode materials must be
as discussed for the principle of cathodic control of capable of sustaining oxidation reactions without
areas of the steel reinforcement. That is, if the suffering physical damage. A direct current and
anode reaction can be controlled then the overall potential is then applied, by connecting the positive
rate of steel reinforcement corrosion can be terminal of the power supply to the supplemental
controlled. The anode reaction may be controlled anode and the negative terminal to the steel
by the application of barriers, chemical, or reinforcement. Electrons are forced into the steel
sacrificial coatings to the reinforcement. The reinforcement (impressed current) at a greater
application of these systems however, is restricted, voltage than the corrosion potential, forcing the
373
steel reinforcement to become more electro- application to bridge girders. Inserting reinforcing
negative [12]. bars and bonding them in place with epoxy attains
additional strength. This technique consists of
Electrons are produced by the supplemental anode
sealing major cracks, drilling holes that intersect
and consumed at the steel reinforcement, which is
the crack plane at approximately 90 degrees, filling
cathodically protected. At the steel surface,
the hole and crack with injected epoxy and placing
reduction reactions occur, producing hydroxyl ions.
a reinforcing bar into the drilled hole [13].
The production of hydroxyl ions reverts the pore
water back to an alkaline substance, which One example of external reinforcement for
regenerates the passivating state of the steel strengthening is the method of stitching. Stitching
reinforcement. An additional benefit to this involves drilling holes on both sides of the crack
method is that the negatively charged chloride ions and grouting in U-shaped metal units with short
are forced away from the more electro-negative legs (staples or stitching dogs) that span the crack.
steel reinforcement towards the supplemental Stitching is commonly used when tensile strength
anode, which further assists in the establishment of must be re-established across major cracks. It
the passivating layer on the steel reinforcement. should be noted that stitching a crack tends to
stiffen the structure, and this stiffening may
increase the overall structural restraint, causing
9 Additional strengthening concrete to crack elsewhere. The stitching
procedure consists of drilling holes on both sides of
Corrosion of reinforcement occurring in a concrete
the crack, cleaning the holes, and anchoring the
structure or member causes a reduction in
legs of the staples in the holes, with either a non-
strength, which may also influence structural
shrink grout or an epoxy resin-based bonding
behaviour and stability. Advanced corrosion causes
system. The staples should vary in length,
a reduction in steel reinforcement section,
orientation, or both. They should be located so that
reduction in concrete section due to spalling, and a
the tension transmitted across the crack is not
reduction or loss of composite behaviour due to
applied to a single plane within the section but is
deterioration of the bond between the
spread over an area [8].
reinforcement and steel. Subsequently the member
undergoes a reduction in structural capacity,
9.2 Post-tensioning
resulting in a change in structural behaviour with
possible stability problems. Post- tensioning is a desirable solution when a
major portion of a member must be strengthened,
Structural strengthening techniques can be used to
when cracks have formed that must be closed, or
increase or restore the structural or functional
when excessive deflections have to be
performance of concrete structures suffering from
counteracted. In this technique prestressing
advanced reinforcement corrosion. The design of
tendons, bars or straps are used to apply a
strengthening systems is subject to design and
compressive force to the concrete. Post-tensioning
construction constraints unique to each structure.
can be effective in providing additional shear
A few strengthening techniques available to
strength, flexural strength and tensile strength in
remedial engineers and asset managers will be
concrete members. Adequate anchorage must be
discussed in this review [11].
provided for the prestressing steel, and care is
needed so that the problem will not merely
9.1 Adding embedded or external
migrate to another part of the structure [4].
reinforcement
Adding embedded reinforcement to strengthen
reinforcement concrete has been well proven in its
374
9.3 Plate bonding 9.5 Enlargement

Steel plates bonded to the tensile face of concrete Enlargement is the addition of concrete and
beams increase flexural strength, stiffness, and can reinforcement to increase the dimensions of an
reduce deflections and cracking. Bonded steel existing structural member [16]. This technique can
plates can also be applied to vertical faces of be used successfully on beams, slabs, columns, and
concrete beams to increase shear capacity. The walls, to add stiffness and load carrying capacity.
technique of plate bonding involves, steel plates The enlargement is bonded to the existing member
which are glued to the concrete surface by an to create a monolithic member [15].
epoxy adhesive creating a three phase concrete-
glue-steel composite system. Anchors are used to 9.6 Span shortening techniques
position the steel plates while the epoxy cures and
Span shortening can be used to increase flexural
give additional shear capacity between the plate
capacity or stiffness of a slab or beam. This
and the concrete [13].
technique is simple, cost and time effective. The
methods of span shortening include enlarging the
9.4 Fibre Reinforced Polymers (FRP)
column capitals, adding steel or concrete braces, or
Fibers in concrete opened new methods in design placing sub-framing within the span [17].
and construction of concrete structures and
provided efficient ways to improve some 9.7 Injection of voids or cracks with resins or
properties such as durability, ductility, grouts
deformability as well as load bearing capacity [14].
Grout is a plastic material with negligible shrinkage
FRP have an excellent strength to weight ratio, with to fill the voids or gaps completely and should
comparatively simpler installation and unlimited remain stable without crumbling, cracking and de-
material length. FRPs are being used extensively in lamination [18].
Europe and Japan for bridge strengthening,
Injection grouting is a process of filling the voids,
because of their advantages over epoxy bonded
cracks or honeycombs under pressure in concrete
steel plates. FRP have many advantages over epoxy
structural elements for repairing of cracks,
bonded steel plates including ability to be used in a
strengthening of damaged concrete and
wider range of situations, can be formed into
restoration of stiffness. Injected resins and grouts
complicated shapes, lighter with the same strength,
increase the tensile capacity in concrete members,
easily cut on site. However the main disadvantages
by bonding cracks, voids, and other discontinuities.
of FRP being applied externally is the risk of fire,
There are different types of grouts used for
vandalism or accidental damage unless protected
remediation of concrete members. The selection of
[15].
type of grout for particular type of concrete should
be based on the compatibility of the grout with the
original material [19].
10 Summary
This research included an extensive review of remediation principles and techniques for the repair and
protection of concrete. Reinforcement corrosion is the major cause of concrete deterioration in coastal areas.
For this reason the model of good practice for concrete remediation in those types of regions, was defined
375
explicitly for reinforcement corrosion. The aim of the model is to give a range of intelligent concrete
remediation options based on sound principles and industry knowledge that allow asset managers to select the
best ‘course of action’ for their needs and under the constraints of each particular situation. Table 1
summarizes the concrete remediation principles and techniques discussed in this review.
Table 1 Summary of remediation principles and techniques for reinforced concrete

Principle Remediation Techniques
Ingress protection  Protective coatings

 Crack sealing and repair
Concrete restoration  Patch repair-Hand applied mortar

-by replacement  Recasting with concrete
 Sprayed concrete (shot-crete)
 Electrochemical realkalisation
Restoring passivity  Realkalisation by application of cementitious renders
 Chloride extraction
 Replacement of contaminated or carbonated concrete
Increase resistivity /  Reduce moisture content by surface coating or overcladding

Moisture control
Cathodic control  Reducing oxygen supply at the cathode by saturation
or surface coating
 Applying barriers, chemical or sacrificial coating to

Control of anodic areas the reinforcement
 Applying inhibitors which penetrate to the reinforcement from
the concrete surface
concrete surface
Cathodic protection  Applying an appropriate electrical potential
 Adding embedded or external reinforcement

 Post-tensioning
Additional strengthening  Plate bonding
 Fiber Reinforced Polymer (FRP)
 Enlargement
 Span shortening techniques
 Injection of voids or cracks with resins or grouts
376
10 References
[1] M Rashidi, Lemass, B, and P Gibson, "A decision support system for concrete bridge maintenance," in AIP,
vol. 1233, 2010, pp. 1372-1377.
[2] M Rashidi and B Lemass, "A Decision Support Methodology for Remediation Planning of Concrete
Bridges," Journal of Construction Engineering and Project Management (JCEPM), vol. 1, no. 2, pp. 1-10,
2011.
[3] V.K Raina, Concrete Bridges: Inspection, repair, strengthening, Testing and Load Capacity Evaluation.: Tata
McGraw-Hill Publishing Company, 2005.
[4] S Yehia, O Abudayyeh, I Fazal, and D Randolph, "A decision support system for concrete bridge deck
maintenance," Advances in Engineering Software, vol. 39, no. 3, pp. 202-210, 2007.
[5] C.A Issa and P Debs, "Experimental Study of Epoxy Repairing of Cracks in Concrete," Construction and
Building Materials, vol. 21, no. 1, pp. 157-163, 2005.
[6] M Rashidi, B Samali, and P Sharafi, "A new model for bridge management: Part B: Decision support system
for remediation planning," Australian journal of civil engineering, vol. 14, no. 1, pp. 46-53, 2016b.
[7] M Rashidi, Ghodrat, M, B Samali, B Kendall, and C Zhang, "Remedial modelling of steel bridges through
application of analytical hierarchy process (AHP)," Applied Sciences, vol. 7, no. 2, pp. 1-20, 2017.
[8] P.S Buckley, "Concrete Remediation Techniques with Recent Applications and Future Needs," University of
Wollongong, Dissertation- Bachelor of Engineering 2000.
[9] M Rashidi and M.N Hadi, "Modelling of high strength concrete reinforced columns wrapped with FRP," in
The 5th Civil Engineering Conference in the Asian Region & Australasian Structural Engineering
Conference., Barton, A.C.T, 2010.
[10] M Rashidi, B Samali, A Azad, and H Hatamian, "Asset management of steel bridges," in Mechanics of
Structures and Materials: Advancements and Challenges, Perth, W.A, 2016, pp. 187-192.
[11] B Yanev, Bridge Management. Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, 2007.
[12] R.D Woodson, Concrete Structures Protection, Repair and Rehabilitation.: Elsevier, 2009.
[13] F Branco and J De Brito, Handbook of Concrete Bridge Management.: ASCE, 2004.
[14] M Rashidi and M.N Hadi, "Modelling of high strength concrete reinforced columns wrapped with FRP," in
The 5th Civil Engineering Conference in the Asian Region & Australasian Structural Engineering
Conference., Barton, A.C.T., 2010.
[15] M Rashidi and P Gibson, "A methodology for bridge condition evaluation," Journal of Civil Engineering and
Architecture, vol. 6, no. 9, 2012.
[16] M Rashidi, S Kempton, and B Samali, "Analysis of bridge abutment movement through a case study," in
Mechanics of Structures and Materials: Advancements and Challenges, London, 2017, pp. 85-90.
[17] M Rashidi, B Samali, and P Sharafi, "A new model for bridge management: Part A: Condition assessment
and priority ranking of bridges," Australian Journal of Civil Engineering, vol. 14, no. 1, pp. 35-45, 2016a.
[18] M.N Fardis, Innovative Materials and Techniques in Concrete Construction.: Springer, 2012.
[19] M Ghodrat, M Rashidi, , and B Samali, "Life cycle assessments of incineration treatment for sharp medical
waste," in Energy Technology: Carbon Dioxide Management and Other Technologies.: Springer, 2017.
377
Challenges and innovation in large-scale infrastructure projects – the

WHSD project
Nikolaj R. Pedersen, Jonas S. Jacobsen, Søren Lausten
Major Bridges International, COWI, Denmark
Contact: nrpe@cowi.com
Abstract
The Western High Speed Diameter – Central section – is a major infrastructure project comprising
marine viaduct bridges, cable stayed bridges and a double-deck truss girder bridge. This paper
demonstrates how an aesthetic design was obtained to match a spectacular scenery set by the city
of Saint Petersburg, Russia. It is discussed how the choice of spectacular solutions influenced the
structural design and construction. The engineering innovations to complete the project, which had
significant urban constraints, included state-of-the-art bridge deck launching and lowering
sequences and attracted some of the world’s leading specialists within their field.
Keywords: Cable stayed bridges, marine viaducts, construction engineering, large-scale project
execution, urban constraints, aesthetic design.
considerable treasures, collections of art and

1 Introduction palaces.
1.1 General introduction As the city had developed through recent years, it
was becoming increasingly urbanized, and a
The central part of the Western High Speed massive infrastructure investment was needed to
Diameter (WHSD) project in Saint Petersburg, ease severe traffic congestion problems in the
Russia, is a newly constructed 2 x 4 lane highway historic city centre.
west of city with a total length of 11.7 km, mainly
bridge structures. The project comprises large- The project had significant urban constraints and
scale bridge structures such as a major double-deck challenges, which attracted some of the world’s
truss, two iconic cable stayed bridges, and several leading engineering specialists within their area to
large-scale marine viaducts and a tunnel. The provide state-of-the art planning and structural
project opened to traffic in late 2016. engineering. Additionally, the bridges included
several exceptional features to match the city’s
1.2 Scenery many unique landmarks.
Saint Petersburg holds approximately 5 million 1.3 Purpose

citizens and is a major regional hub in the western
part of Russia with a significant industrial power. This paper will introduce the bridge structures and
Founded by Peter the Great in 1703, it is formerly discuss the innovative aspects in construction and
the capital of Russia, and in terms of cultural design developed for the project. Furthermore, it is
heritage, Saint Petersburg is regarded as one of the demonstrated how an aesthetic design was
significant cities in this part of the world with obtained in this large-scale infrastructure project
378
and which challenges these solutions imposed to  Approximately 7 km marine viaducts with a
the design and construction. typical span of 85 m to 110 m, including
The authors’ organization were appointed as the ramps and fly-overs.
Employer’s consultant throughout the project as  A signature cable stayed bridge
the Engineer’s Representative and in charge of the (Korabelny) with inclined pylons and a
site supervision. This included presence on site of main span of 320 m crossing the Korabelny
approximately 80 staff during the entire fairway.
construction period.  A signature cable stayed bridge (Petrovsky)
with an inverted cable system and a main
The authors were all stationed on the construction span of 240 m.
site throughout the different phases of the project  900 m section to cross the Morskoy Port
and therefore had unique opportunity to follow the area as a double deck steel truss with two-
execution of the project and act in the collaborative level traffic with a maximum span of 168
environment between the employers, the m.
designers and the general contractor – refer also to  3 km at-grade section at Vasilievsky Island,
section 8 - Acknowledgements. including a 290 m cut-and-cover tunnel to
This paper will not go into particular detail with underpass the Smolenka River delta (not
each structure, as it will simply be too extensive for discussed in this paper).
a single paper, but rather introduce the unique
features that were encountered in the project on
an overall level. As it will be demonstrated, the
project provided some – in the authors’ view –
outstanding examples of how state-of-the-art
engineering is needed to cope with a rapidly
urbanized space and in particular within the
beautiful scene set by the city of Saint Petersburg.
2 Western High Speed Diameter –

central section
The Western High Speed Diameter is a 46.6 km toll
road, which is divided into several stages. The
central stage refers to the 11.7 km section, which
consists mainly of different bridge structures west
of the city centre – refer also to Figure 1.
Construction commenced in April 2013 and the
central section opened to traffic in December 2016.
Figure 1. Map of Saint Petersburg with an
Table 1. General numbers for the WHSD – central indication of the general WHSD project. The central
section part is located west of the city.
Construction commenced April 2013

3 Marine viaducts
Opened to traffic December 2016
3.1 Introduction of structures
Length of central section 11.7 km
Figure 2 shows a typical profile of one of the five
Estimated construction cost 2.2 billion € main marine viaducts. The 7 km marine viaducts
are for the main part low level bridges with spans
The 11.7 km central section comprises the
varying between 85 m to 110 m. The low level
following key elements:
379
bridges are partly erected by launching, partly by including nose, rollers, launching beams and
heavy lifting. guides.
10-12 days cycle were typical through the
launching process. This included lift of the new
section to the launch bay, welding of the section to
the launched girder, erection of cross beams and
the launching.
Particularly attention was given to the geometrical
control during the launching and at segment
assembly to obtain the desired shape upon
completion. As seen in Figure 5 significant
Figure 2. View of typical marine viaduct; approach deflection occurs during the launching.
to Korabelny cable stayed bridge.
Typical build-up of the bridge superstructures of
the marine viaducts are composite structures with
a concrete deck cast on top of a steel grillage as
presented in Figure 3. The grillage consists of
longitudinal main beams connected with cross
beams and with cantilevers on the outside of the
main beams (essentially large ladder beams).
Main beam connections are welded whereas the
crossbeams and cantilevered beams are bolted to
the main beams. The major part of the bolted
connections are friction connections. For the two
cable stayed bridges and for the double deck, all Figure 4. Red launching nose and pier with rollers.
connections between the steel segments are
bolted together.
Figure 5. View along a launched girder.

Figure 3. Steel grillage supported by concrete piers
3.3 Heavy lifting
3.2 Launching Parts of the marine viaducts were assembled at
ground and then erected in heavy lifts with crawler
Uphill launching and/or curved launching were
cranes. Heavy lifting was typically chosen at
typical scenarios. Figure 4 and Figure 5 show
locations where it was possible to make a ground
characteristic views of the launched girder
380
access to put crawler cranes into place. A typical lift The clear signature of the bridge is the inclined
is illustrated in Figure 7. pylons that have a 12° inclination towards the main
span. The pylons further have architectural steel
The beams were welded together at ground before
claddings on the back span sides.
lifting, and then either lifted directly from the
erection ground or transported with self-propelled The city of Saint Petersburg is well known for its
modular transporter (SPMT) to the right location – many bascule bridges crossing the canals of the city
see Figure 6. centre. Therefore, the inclined pylons create a very
clear coherence with the city’s trademark bridges
Generally, heavy lifting was preferred over
as seen in Figure 8 and Figure 10.
launching where it was possible. Where launching
is a linear construction process, where the
construction process needs to be completed step-
by-step, heavy lifting provided the contractor some
freedom in rearranging construction works as
needed.
Figure 8. A typical bascule bridge in Saint

Petersburg.
4.2 Impact on construction

Such a structural system has some significant
impacts on the construction.
Figure 6. Transportation of preassembled main
steel beams on SPMT’s.
Figure 7. Lifting of beams by crawler cranes.
4 Korabelny cable stayed bridge

4.1 General features
Figure 9. Temporary deck support at the pylons.
The cable stayed bridge over Korabelny Fairway has
a main span of 320 m to allow for ship traffic to pass
into the industrial quay areas facing the Gulf of
Finland to the west, as well as allowing passage
through the canal to Lake Ladoga east of Saint
Petersburg.
381
Figure 10. Korabelny cable stayed bridge.
The bridge deck was erected traditionally with Hence, the deck will have a spring support at the
balanced cantilever construction, however in order pylons corresponding to the stiffness of the
to maintain balance, two back span segments had horizontal cables. When the deck expands due to
to be erected prior to the first main span segment. increasing uniform temperature, the horizontal
stay cables will slightly de-tension, and when the
This required a massive temporary support at the
deck contracts due to decreasing uniform
pylons as shown in Figure 9.
temperature, the horizontal stay cables elongate
Deck segments were preassembled on temporary and hence increase their tension.
platforms. Subsequently the main span segments
Obviously, such a system could only be installed
were loaded to a barge, floated into the fairway,
after all deck segments have been installed, and
and lifted into design position with a strand-jack
hence a temporary horizontal support during
gantry crane placed on the deck. The back span
construction was also needed. This can be seen in
segments were lifted directly from the temporary
Figure 9.
platforms under the back spans.
The Korabelny bridge is hence a good example of
4.3 Impact on design how an aesthetic design can be obtained to fit into
the urban surroundings, and the consequences in
The inclined pylons have some obvious impacts on
terms of increased design and construction
the design. Whereas the main span cables become
complexity was assessed to be acceptable.
more steep and hence more effective, requiring
less strands in each cable, the back span cables
become more horizontal and hence less effective in
Table 2. Korabelny cable stayed bridge
carrying loads on the bridge.
In particular, it required a large tie-down force in Span configuration 150 + 320 + 150 = 620 m
the anchor piers, and the last pair of cables needed Continuous, composite
Deck type
to be double-cables with 2 x 127 strands (in deck
comparison, the next pair of cables were 1 x 91 Segment length (typ.) 18 m
strands).
Pylon height 125 m
The longitudinal articulation of the bridge is also
unique. The bridge deck was continuous through
the whole length from anchor pier to anchor pier
(i.e. 620 m continuous deck). The longitudinal
restraint was provided at each pylon in terms of 4
nos. 31-strand horizontal stay cables.
382
Figure 11. Petrovsky cable stayed bridge.

 Side stays – 2 x 2 x 9 cables on each pylon
5 Petrovsky cable stayed bridge with a reversed fan system (20 to 55
The Petrovsky cable stayed bridge has a main span strands in each cable)
of 240 m and spans the Petrovsky Channel, which Whereas the central stays are arranged in a
is mainly trafficked by the ferries to the standard fan system, the side stays are arranged in
neighbouring cities (Tallinn, Helsinki, etc.). a reverted fan system, where the shortest stays
The bridge is located just near the new Krestovsky near the pylons are anchored in the top of the
Stadium (also known as Zenit Arena, as it will house pylons, whereas the longest stays are anchored in
the home soccer team Zenit Saint Petersburg), and the lower parts of the pylons.
it is highly visible from the vibrant shore areas and This creates a unique reversed visual effect as
parks of Savushkina. shown in Figure 11 and with an architectural steel
Therefore, there was a strong request to have a top, the pylons almost symbolise the masts of a
unique landmark bridge crossing the Petrovsky ship.
Channel.
5.2 Impact on design and construction
5.1 Cable stays The arrangement of the side stays is a very unusual
As it is shown in Figure 11, such a landmark is configuration, because the longest stays then
obtained by a unique stay cable configuration. become more flat, and hence less effective, thus
requiring more strands in each cable.
In principle, there are three types of stay cables:
The back spans were erected using launching,
 Lateral stays – 3 cables on each side of the whereas the main span deck segments were
pylons (all 27 strand cables) connected by erected by a strand jack gantry crane on the deck
a concrete cross beam at pile cap level lifting off the segments of a barge in a traditional
 Central stays – 2 x 9 cables on each pylon way.
arranged in a standard fan system (34 to 69
strands in each cable) However, the arrangement of the side stays implies
that main span deck erection and the stay cable
383
works cannot commence, until 1) the back span putting scaffolding on the ground, the bridge deck
launching is completed; and 2) the pylon is needed to be launched off a service bridge (see
completed all the way to the top, since the first stay Figure 12), even though the alignment had non-
cable to be installed must be anchored in the top constant horizontal radii.
of the pylons.
Altogether, the consequence is that almost all
major construction works become on the critical
path, and hence a delay of one item will delay the
complete construction. Hence the construction is
very sensitive to delays e.g. in back span launching
or pylon completion. As it turned out during
construction, this had an actual impact on the
construction schedule for the bridge as a whole.
Table 3. Petrovsky cable stayed bridge
60 + 110 + 240 + 110 + Figure 12. Double deck launching from service
Span configuration
60 = 580 m bridge. The nose is 80 m long.
Continuous, composite
Deck type
deck
Segment length (typ.) 13 m
113.6 m (124.6 m with
Pylon height
architectural steel top)
6 Double deck truss bridge

6.1 Alignment
The southern part of the central section passes
through an area with significant urban constraints
over a distance of approximately 900 m. Figure 13. Double deck truss with scaffolding on the
The typical span is 144 m, and maximum 168 m at side of the piers.
the crossing of the harbour navigation channel.
As the alignment has to pass through an industrial
harbour area with restricted access to toll areas
(Morskoy Port), as well as across rail lines and a
schoolyard, this had a significant impact on the
types of solutions that could be applied in this part
of the project.
Firstly, there was only space for single piers instead
of double piers as used in the remaining part of the
project. Therefore, in order to maintain 2 x 4 traffic
lanes, the traffic had to be separated into a two-
storey solutions, e.g. known from the Øresund
Bridge. Figure 14. Erection joints of the double deck truss.
Secondly, as there was no easy access for lifting
equipment such as crawler cranes, nor place for
384
6.2 General features of the double deck 7 Conclusions

truss
The WHSD – central section – is a major piece of
The double deck bridge crosses the sea channel infrastructure, and it provides some outstanding
with a 52 m vertical clearance, which is the examples of how an aesthetic design to match a
entrance to the harbour. It is launched over 900 m spectacular scenery can be obtained.
both with variations in the vertical plane and a
The impact of the design choices and innovations
small curve in the horizontal plane. Figure 12 shows
were discussed and it was demonstrated how
the launching of the double deck at an early stage
large-scale innovations and aesthetic design can go
in August 2015. The red launching nose in the
hand-in-hand also in major infrastructure projects.
picture is 80 m long – approximately the same
length as a football pitch. Making outstanding landmarks for massive
infrastructure projects is naturally inherent with an
Table 4. Double deck truss
additional cost and engineering challenges.
Span However, the WHSD – central section – proved that
Max. 168 m, typ. 144 m
configuration when planning new solutions to fit into existing,
Truss girder, orthotropic steel urban environments, spectacular solutions can be
Deck type
deck in both levels of traffic obtained with state-of-the-art engineering.
10 m (between top and bottom
Truss height
chords of truss)
8 Acknowledgements
Truss width 20.4 m (typ.)
Client (concessionaire):
6.3 Consequences for design and Public-private-partnership agreement (PPPA)
construction between:
As a result of the irregular horizontal alignment,  Open Joint Stock Company Western High
the scaffolding needed to support rollers for the Speed Diameter (OJSC WHSD), and
launching needed to extend significantly outside  Limited Liability Company Northern Capital
the perimeter of the piers. This can be seen e.g. in Highways (LLC NCH).
Figure 13, where the centre of the deck is clearly General contractor:
offset compared to the centre of the pier.
 IC-içtas insaat and Astaldi (ICA)
Furthermore, in order not to have excessive offsets
of the piers during construction, the steel deck Designers:
segments were preassembled with erection joints  AO Institute Stroyproekt
that were cut subsequently after the launching and  Institute Giprostroymost Saint-Petersburg
brought back into place to form a smooth
horizontal alignment. Engineers Representative and Construction
Control:
Generally launching – and subsequently the
lowering processes to the bearings – of such  COWI A/S (the authors’ organization)
massive and geometrically irregular structures is a Where not explicitly stated, the photos in this
highly complex construction and requires state-of- paper are the copyright of the clients.
the-art construction equipment and planning.
Specialists from all over the world participated in
the planning and execution of the whole
construction.
385
The Harbour Passage Bridge in Hamburg

Karl-Heinz Reintjes
sar-eng, Berlin, Germany
Contact: info@sar-eng.de
Abstract
The Harbour Passage Bridge in Hamburg is an outstanding motorway bridge project in Germany today. The
bridge, with a total length of 5.7 km, is the key structure in the extension of the federal motorway A 26. Three
parts of the bridge can be defined. First, the crossing of the Süderelbe, a cable-stayed structure is projected
with a main span of 350 m. The second main feature is a bridge circle that functions as an intersection. The
third feature is the eastern part of the bridge. A modular system is projected setting values on simple
construction and erection methods.
Keywords: cable-stayed bridge; steel-concrete composite superstructures, circle bridge intersection;
modular system bridge; aesthetical design; efficient modular design;
1 Introduction
The Harbour Passage Bridge in Hamburg is the key structure of the project A 26 harbour passage. The
bridge is 5.7 km in length. Varying and difficult boundary conditions have to be considered, leading to
an array of design solutions. The outstanding part of the bridge is the crossing of the Süderelbe River
with a cable-stayed bridge having a main span of 350 m. Representations of the planning process are
provided in detail in [1].
2 The project A 26 from the A 7 to the A 1

The Harbour Passage in the course of the A 26 is located between the A 7 in the west and the A 1 in
the east. The length is 9.7 km. The A 26, coming from the west, is connected with the A 7 by a complete
freeway crossing. The A 26 ends with the connection A 26 / A1. A connection with another freeway,
the A 231, lies in between (Figure 1). The Harbor Passage will be an important part of the freeway
system in Hamburg and serves countrywide functions. In addition to the crossings with the freeways,
four intersections with city streets have to be built. In the eastern part of the passage, a tunnel is
planned. The freeway is planned for a traffic of 65000 V/24 h. The alignment is planned for a maximum
speed of 80 km/h. The cross section has a width of 31 m.
386
Figure 2. The project A 26 Harbour Passage
3 The Harbour Passage Bridge

The bridge starts at the intersection Moorburg, crosses the river Süderelbe, has an intersection with
city streets in the middle and ends at the connection with the A 231 in the east. The total length of the
bridge is 5.7 km. Three parts of the bridge can be defined. In the western part, the river Süderelbe is
crossed by a cable-stayed bridge with a length of 690 m and a main span of 350 m. The western
approach bridge has a length of 800 m and the eastern approach of 600 m. In the centre of the bridge,
an intersection with city streets is located. To fulfil traffic needs in confined space, a bridge circle is
developed with parallel ramps. In the eastern part of the bridge, the bridge design can be chosen
according to efficiency principles.
4 The cable-stayed bridge across the Süderelbe

The possible corridor for the bridge is confined tightly. The power plant Moorburg, the harbour Hohe
Schaar, several industrial areas, and a railway line lead stringently to a crossing in the neighbourhood
of the existing Kattwyk Bridge. The Kattwyk Bridge is a large vertical lifting bridge with two visually
prominent towers. In addition, the future Süderelbe bridge will be seen from the Hamburg city center
in a single view along with the existing Köhlbrand Bridge, a well-known cable-stayed bridge icon with
a main span of 325 m. The difficult building conditions and aesthetical demands called for a special
design procedure. An international design competition was initiated.
4.1 Basis for the competition

After extensive planning with the investigation of tunnel solutions and different bridge positions, the
corridor for the crossing of the Süderelbe was found. The position of the bridge had to be near the
existing Kattwykbrücke at a distance of about 40 - 80 m. The conditions of the river Süderelbe, a much-
navigated waterway, led to a main span of about 350 m and a vertical clearance of 53 m. The alignment
of the river bridge was planned in straight geometry in order to facilitate construction and building.
The neighboring industrial areas led to small curvature radii in the side spans of the river bridge and in
the approach bridges. The basis for the competition was established herewith.
387
4.2 Competition Procedure

A realization competition was chosen: the winner would get the order to plan the structure until
realization. The application was open internationally for qualified engineers and architects. Twelve
competition participants were selected from the applicants. The participants came from Germany,
Canada, England Denmark, Slovenia, the Netherlands, and Austria. The jury session was held in May
2013.
4.3 Result of the design competition

The twelve participation works showed the whole spectrum of possible structure types. Two works
proposed a cable-stayed bridge with one pylon; seven works proposed a cable-stayed bridge with two
pylons; one work proposed a cable-stayed bridge with four pylons; one work proposed a tied arch; and
one work put forward a skewed strut frame. Several works comprised design elements known from
other bridges, such as the curved bridge of Terenez, the split pylons of the Millau bridge, or the
separated one-part superstructure, showing that most of the original design elements are already built
and syncretic solutions, adapted for the particular situation, are followed up.
The cable-stayed bridges with two or more pylons were taken into further consideration; the symmetry
with the two towers of the neighbouring lifting bridge and the complementarity with the Köhlbrand
bridge were decisive. Three of the works showed a curvature in the main span. These works were not
considered further. One of the cable-stayed designs proposed a concrete superstructure; four of them
proposed a steel-concrete composite superstructure and five a steel superstructure in the main span.
Six works included concrete pylons while four included steel pylons. All the ten cable-stayed designs
included a monolithic connection between the pylons and the superstructure and showed one-part
superstructures.
4.4 Design of the competition winner

The competition winner was a working partnership between Schlaich Bergermann und Partner,
Stuttgart; WTM Engineers, Hamburg; and Dissing+Weitling, Kopenhagen. The basis is a cable-stayed
bridge with two pylons, a main span of 350 m and side spans of 88 m (Figure 2). Characteristic design
elements are the pylons, under and over the superstructure divided in a V-form. Also divided is the
one-part superstructure by a 5 m space (Figure 3). The two superstructure-halves are connected with
each other by steel cross girders situated at a distance of 12 m. The superstructure of the main span is
in steel; the superstructure of the side spans is steel-concrete composite. The pylons are made of
concrete, are monolithically connected with the superstructure, and have a height of 140 m.
388
Figure 2. Competition Winner. Overall View
Figure 3. Competition Winner. Separated one-part superstructure. Split Pylon
4.5 Design modifications

In competitions, the participants have to compose their work fast, without interaction with the project
stakeholders and mostly without iterative working steps. It can be expected that the need for planning
modifications occurs in the planning steps afterwards. In this case, a problem at the eastern end of the
river bridge became apparent. The space for the extensive foundation of the end pier could not be
secured between a neighbouring city street bridge and high-risk industrial pipelines. Finally, an
intermediate pier was designed and the end pier relocated. Owing to symmetry reasons, this, too, had
to be done at the western end of the bridge. After this modification, the river bridge has a span
sequence of 80 – 90 - 350 – 90 – 80 m. The visual impact was not changed essentially and there was
no major increase in cost because the approach bridges have comparably high building costs, as well.
4.6 The approach bridges

The western approach bridge has a length of ca. 800 m, and the eastern bridge ca. 600 m. The spans
vary between 45 and 105 m. A large box with cross girders was chosen as the cross section; this mostly,
to have a similar cross section to that of the river bridge and a similar visual impression (Figure 4). The
box depth varies with the spans.
389
Figure 4. Cross section of the approach bridges. One half of the superstructure.
5 Intersection Circle bridge

An intersection with city streets had to be planned at the middle of the bridge. The harbour bridge has
a height of ca. 30 m above ground at this place. Railways lie under the bridge, presently crossing the
city streets on the same level. In the future, the crossing has to be on different levels. Therefore, the
city streets had to be lifted to Level 1. Additionally, the city streets have a crossing at this position
which could not be relocated. This project problem could be solved only by a circle bridge on Level 1.
Considering the neighbouring industrial areas, a solution with long parallel ramps to the A 26 was
developed; this is certainly a costly design, but all the necessary connection requirements could be
fulfilled by this (Figure 5). There are several examples where the same solution was built in comparable
situations. After investigating continuous bridge circles and segmented circles, a circle with four
segments is planned.
Figure 5. Intersection circle bridge
390
6 Eastern Bridge – Design for Efficiency

The eastern part of the harbor bridge has a length of 2300 m. There is no visual connection to the river
bridge and the approach bridges. Besides, the surrounding is formed by industrial and railway areas.
Therefore, aesthetic issues are not of first priority, and the design can be chosen after principles of
efficiency. The height of the bridge varies between 15 and 25 m above ground. Owing to areal
boundary conditions, the possible spans lie between 30 and 70 m and vary a lot. Additionally, the
alignment shows different curvatures. Concrete bridges, built on formwork or by incremental
launching, were not dealt with because of these conditions.
Composite bridges were investigated in detail. First, the cross section that is planned for the approach
bridges (Type A, large box with cross girders, see Figure 4). Second, cross sections with small boxes.
Here two differing types were investigated: type B 1 (VTR-system, small boxes with concrete cross
girders, see Figure 6) and type B 2 (small boxes with steel cross girders, see Figure 7). All three types
work with precast segments for building the slab. Building the slab by travelling formwork is not an
efficient construction method when building time is an issue, as it is in most cases today. The main
difference between type B 1 and type B 2 lies in the fact that at B 1 the cross girders are built as precast
concrete segments. At B 2 the cross girders are made of steel and are welded together with the boxes
in the fabrication work-shop or in the assembly site.
Figure 6. Type B 1. VTR-System
Figure 7. Type B 2
391
The building and the maintenance costs vary greatly between type A and types B. A synopsis is given
in [2, 3]. In relation to the costs of the superstructure, a difference of 30 % can be deduced. The decisive
parameter in the calculation is the steel unit price. The unit price of the small box cross sections is
distinctly smaller than the unit price of the large boxes because of the simple construction, the simple
fabrication, the basic assembly on site and the easy erection by lifting large steel parts directly on the
piers. Additionally, the maintenance of the small boxes is much lower, because the inspection of the
boxes´ interior can be reduced or completely omitted, see [3]. The difference between B 1 and B 2 is
comparatively small. When one considers the uncertainties that include such tender calculations, the
differences are not significant. The result is that the cross section with small boxes is the efficient
construction type.
7 Conclusions
The Harbour Passage Bridge shows a sequence of diverse and challenging project problems. At the crossing
of the Süderelbe, a design was found that won recognition both in the public and in the professional world.
At the intersection in the middle of the bridge, the developed solution, the bridge circle, is a costly
construction, but it fulfills all the necessary functions and can be justified as the last remedy. The eastern
part of the bridge gives the scope to think about the most efficient design for composite bridges.
8 References
[1] Reintjes, K.-H. Planungswettbewerb Süderelbbrücke Moorburg. Bericht zu Durchführung und Ergebnis
des Realisierungswettbewerbs. Bautechnik 91 (2014), Heft 2. S.114-122.
[2] Reintjes, K.-H. Cross Sections of large Composite Bridges – Performance based Design. Proceedings 39th
IABSE Symposium. Vancouver 2017. S. 189.
[3] Reintjes, K.-H. Querschnittssysteme großer Verbund-Balkenbrücken. Konstruktiver Ingenieurbau.
12/2017; 2/2018.
392

Configuration Design of Viaduct Pier in Urban Highway

Yanjun Jin, Keli Xiao, Lin Li, Aijia Zou, Xinglong Duan, Wei He
Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China

Chongwei Yuan
China Southwest Architectural Design and Research Institute Corp.LTD, Chengdu, China


Abstract
Urban highway viaduct plays an indispensable role in reducing the pressure of the urban traffic. The
configuration design of the pier is very necessary which need to meet both the structural safety and
aesthetic logic, especially in rapidly developing economies. Some valid principles of the pier
configuration design were summarized. Based on the characteristics of urban highway viaduct pier,
the reasons why the piers aesthetic design is more difficult was analysed and some methods for the
configuration design was given. Based on a bridge project that is located in Chengdu, China, three
configuration design schemes of piers were analysed and compared from different aspects, which
reflect some emphases of the pier configuration design. The configuration design of urban viaduct
pier is significant to increasing aesthetic perception and shaping the urban culture, and should be
adopted by the designer
Keywords: configuration design; urban highway viaduct; bridge pier; aesthetic.

Urban highway viaduct plays an indispensable role
1 Introduction in reducing the pressure of the urban traffic. The
Configuration has no clear term definition in Bridge visual appeal of urban viaduct forms is greatly
and Structural Engineering. The meaning of influenced by the substructure units. Due to the
configuration is an arrangement of a group of lack of aesthetic considerations, pier, a key
things, and is a chemical terminology as well. [1] component of urban viaduct, often makes viaduct
tends to be short of the personality of the modern
The traditional bridge design focuses more on the city. The configuration design of the pier is very
safety, applicability and durability of the structure, necessary which need to meet both the structural
but lacks aesthetic considerations, which often safety and aesthetic logic, especially in rapidly
leads to the lack of individuality and the formal developing economies.
similarity to bridges.
Different from traditional design, the configuration 2 Principle of configuration design
design encouraged in this paper satisfies both the
Bridge designs must be governed by valid rules.
functional requirements of structure and the
aesthetic logic. In 1990, David Billington of Princeton University
defined the three principles of good bridge design
393
as Efficiency, Economy and Elegance. The three aesthetic design. This chapter will mainly introduce
principles are also applicable to configuration the aesthetic design method of pier configuration.
design of pier.
The term pier is used to refer to the collective
However, a developing country which has system of columns and pier caps that support the
advanced at high speed tend to focus only on superstructure at a single location. Urban highway
efficiency and economy of bridges while ignoring viaducts are more difficult to design from an
the aesthetic design of bridges. (Figure 1) It is not aesthetic standpoint and the reasons are as
cost effective to come back to reconsider bridge follows.
aesthetics until the country's economy develops to
(1) For urban highway viaducts, the height of the
a certain degree of strength. [2]
pier is often less than the width, which makes
the pier cap large and visually clumsy in
relation to the total pier.
(2) Generally, piers should not be the visual focal
point of a bridge composition. The main visual
emphasis of the visual formation should
remain on the horizontal lines of the
superstructure. But, the viewer's attention is
directed away from the superstructure about
urban highway viaducts.
(3) People prefer to very slender structures
supported by slender piers or columns.
Figure 1. bridge pier ignored the aesthetic design In view of the above reasons, configuration design
The configuration design advocated in this paper is of pier directly effects the success or failure of the
fundamentally a design method to consider whole bridge's aesthetic design, and the designer
efficiency, economy and elegance of bridge should pay enough attention to it.
coordinately, especially the coordination between Some aesthetic design methods for Pier
efficiency and elegance. In other words, while the configuration will be introduced in the following.
bridge satisfies structural reliability, it pays
attention to the aesthetic design of structure. 3.1 Columns design
For the aesthetic design of bridges, Fritz Leonhardt The width of columns perceived by the viewer is
emphasizes in his writings Bridges: Aesthetics and normally controlled by light reflecting from the
Design, that beauty must be based on function, column surfaces and edges. A square or
determined by structure itself, should pay rectangular column with strongly beveled edges
attention to environmental factors, and should will appear slender than a circular column due to
influence people, which is very valid. The the greater number of surfaces.
configuration design of the pier should follow these
principles as well. [3] According to the characteristics of the pier, some
kinds of design methods were summarized.
Although the paper attempts to isolate the design
of the substructure, designers should remember 3.1.1 Creating vertical line in column surfaces
that all aspects of the structure must be considered
A pier that visually has more vertical lines will
in relation to the whole bridge.
appear slender and can make people have a great
visual perception. Rome column grace of logical
3 Method of configuration design form This is the reason that the rome column has a
Different from the traditional structural design, the grace form. (Figure 2)
configuration design, in addition to the reliability
Bridge piers can give people a slender sense by
design of the structure, also emphasizes the
digging up the vertical grooves or other methods.
394
can add variety and interest, particularly when

combined with flat superstructures.
A Y-shape column as shown in figure 4.

Figure 2. Rome columns

Figure 4. A Y-shapes column
3.2 Pier caps design

When viewed from a position approaching the
bridge, the pier cap is clearly separate and distinct
from the horizontal lines of the superstructure.
visual confusion and disruption of the horizontal
flow of the superstructure.

Designers should attempt to diminish the
Figure 3. Piers of Renmin South Road overpass
prominence of the pier cap and the pier cap ends.
bridge in Chengdu
The most effective methods of diminishing the
3.1.2 Decorating Columns visual impact of the pier cap are to eliminate the
pier cap entirely, or eliminate the cantilevered ends
Suitable decoration can always give people a good of the pier cap.
visual perception, which can weaken the heavy
sense of bridge piers. The capitals of standard architectural columns can
be curved, arched, or flared to visually integrate
The decorative elements used of the local cultural the column with the superstructure or pier caps.
symbols have great significance to the heritage of
urban culture. [4] Integrating the pier cap with superstructure or the
columns are effective way for Pier configuration
Piers of Renmin South Road overpass bridge in design. An Integral pier as shown in figure 5.
Chengdu takes cultural symbols as a decorative
element at the pier top, which is shown in figure3.
3.1.3 Transforming the pier form

Square and round columns are easy to form but
they lack imagination. The use of V-, X-, or Y-shape
395
The project is located at the southeast corner of

Central Park, Tianfu New District, Chengdu. The
east side is facing Shuzhou Road, the west side is
Tianfu Avenue, the south side is planned
commercial land, and the northern side is Tianfu
Central Park. (figure 7 and figure 8)
Integrated Transport Hub Project of Chengdu Expo
City is a multi-line transfer hub, adopted the
planning ideas including multi-traffic transfers such
as cars, trams and subways. According to the city
planning, Fuzhou Road adopted the design idea of
sunken square. A large span of open space is
provided by the bridge structure and the space
under the bridge is fully utilized as the urban
landscape and commercial space. (figure9)
This chapter mainly introduces the pier

configuration design of this bridge project.
Figure 5. An Integral pier
4 Case analysis
This chapter is based on a bridge project that is a
sub-project of Integrated Transportation Hub
Project of Chengdu Expo City.
4.1 Project background

The project site Integrated Transport Hub Project
of Chengdu Expo City is located in the south of
Chengdu Tianfu Square that is the center of
Chengdu and the distance between them is about
28km. (figure 6) Figure 7. Aerial view of Integrated Transport Hub
of Chengdu Expo City
Tianfu Avenue
Shuzhou Road
Fuzou Road
Central Park
Integrated Transportation Hub

Figure 8. Location map of Integrated Transport
Hub of Chengdu Expo City
Figure 6. The project site of Integrated Transport
Hub of Chengdu Expo City
396
4.2 Bridge project situation

The bridge located in Fuzhou Road, connected to
the south extension of Tianfu Avenue on the west
and to Shuzhou Road on the east. The horizontal
arrangement of this bridge needs to cross Metro
Line 6 Station while the vertical arrangement needs
to cross Metro Line 1 and Line 18. The position of
the bridge pier is limited, and the bridge is a
bidirectional force system. The total length of the
bridge is 380.5 m, and the width of the deck is 76m.
The bridge elevation as shown in figure 10.

Figure 9. Use of the space under the bridge
Fuzou Road Shuzou Road

Figure 10. The bridge elevation

Figure 11. The cross section of main girder(cm)

Given that the project is positioned as the adopts the fishbelly and two-way slope section
International City Transport Complex-the City form. The fish belly is composed of 7 circular
Reception Room, the bridge has higher aesthetic curves. The cross section as shown in figure 11.
landscape requirements. Therefore, the design of
the bridge needs more consideration of aesthetic 4.3 Configuration design of piers
requirements while satisfying the structural
The bridge adopts a rigid frame system, and the
reliability.
bridge pier and the main girder are consolidated.
In view of the structural characteristics and Compared with other girder Bridges, the structure
aesthetic requirements of the bridge, the bridge of the pier cap is eliminated entirely, which has a
adopts multi-span continuous rigid frame system, good visual effect.
and the cross section of the bridge main girder
397
According to the characteristics and aesthetic

requirements of the bridge project, three design
schemes for bridge piers were proposed.
Five piers were arranged in scheme A and four piers
were arranged in scheme B in the lateral direction.
Double V-shaped piers were arranged in scheme C
in the lateral direction.
The bridge cross section of three schemes is shown
in figure 12~14.
Next, three schemes of bridge piers will be
analysed and compared from the five aspects of

pier structure, Influences on Subway project,
construction difficulty, the overall cost and the Figure 14. Cross section of scheme C(m)
aesthetic effect.
4.3.1 Pier structure
Pier standard cross section are round.
In scheme A, as the lateral fulcrum of the
superstructure is more, the height of the main
girder and the pier diameter are smaller. The
height of the main girder cross section is 2m and
the pier diameter is 2.6m. the lateral distance of
fulcrums of superstructure is 15m +2 × 18m +15m.
In scheme B and scheme C, as the number of bridge
piers is less in the lateral direction, the diameter of
the bridge pier is larger, which is 3.2m. In scheme
B, the lateral distance of fulcrums is 16.25m
+26.5m +16.25m, and in scheme B, the lateral
distance is 18.75m +22m + 18.75m.
Figure 12. Cross section of scheme A(m)
Because of the lateral spacing of bridge piers in is
less than in scheme C, the cross section height of
the main girder is small, which is 2m in scheme C
and is 3m in scheme B.
4.3.2 Influences on subway project

The bridge project is an important component of
Integrated Transportation Hub Project of Chengdu
Expo City, and the influence to the subway project
caused by the bridge project should be given
sufficient attention.
In Scheme A, pier column needs to be installed at
the station platform center of metro line 6, which
has a greater impact on the subway project.
Figure 13. Cross section of scheme B(m)
In Scheme B, piers are close to Metro Line 6 rail line
area. The transfer layer escalator and pedestrian
walkway are set on the outside of the pier, which
has little impact on the subway project.
398
In Scheme C, piers are separated from the station,

which has the least influence on the subway
project.
4.3.3 Construction difficulty and the overall cost

The construction difficulty and cost are the content
that the bridge design must consider, which also
can’t be ignored in the configuration design of
bridge pier.
In scheme A, there is interference between the pier
and the subway station to construction. The
Figure 16. Effect drawing of scheme B
number of piers is much, the construction period is
relatively longer, and the cost is the highest.
Scheme B has the advantages of simple structure,
small number of the pier, shortest construction
period, but relatively cost is higher.
In scheme C, double V-shaped piers are more
complex, the construction period is longer, but the
cost is relatively low.
4.3.4 The aesthetic effect

More consideration for is the biggest difference
between the configuration design and the
traditional structure design. The aesthetic design
for the bridge project is very important because of Figure 17. Effect drawing of scheme C
its function orientation. The effect drawing of the In scheme A, the diameter of the pier is smallest,
three schemes are shown in figures 15 ~ 17. the visual appearance is relatively slender. Because
of the horizontal space of piers is smaller, and the
space under the bridge is the smallest, the field of
view is not wide enough.
In scheme B, the lateral space of the bridge under
the bridge is relatively larger, and the field of view
is relatively open, but round vertical columns lack
imagination.
In scheme C, the lateral space of the middle piers is
the largest, and the field of view is open. The Y-
shapes pier can add variety and interest of visually.
Figure 15. Effect drawing of scheme A In a word, the aesthetic effect of scheme C is better.
4.4 Summary
Based on a bridge project that is a sub-project of
Integrated Transportation Hub Project of Chengdu
Expo City, three schemes of bridge piers will be
analysed and compared from the five aspects of
pier structure, Influences on Subway project,
399
construction difficulty, the overall cost and the

aesthetic effect.
The emphases of the pier configuration design
were manifested which have been listed below.
(1) The creation of the space under the bridge and
the improvement of visual perception should
be given sufficient attention.
(2) The coordination between piers and the
surrounding environment should be
considered, such as the relationship between
the bridge pier in the case and subway project.
(3) The influence of construction difficulty and the
overall cost to the whole project cannot be
ignored.
5 Conclusions
The urban highway viaduct is significance to the
development of the city. The design of urban
highway viaduct pier directly affects the success or
failure of the whole bridge's aesthetic design, and
the designer should pay enough attention to it.
The configuration design of the pier is very
necessary which need to meet both the structural
safety and aesthetic logic, especially in rapidly
developing economies.
The pier configuration design must be governed by
valid rules such as the three principles of good
bridge and bridge aesthetic viewpoints emphasized
by Fritz Leonhardt, and should consider all aspects
of the structure in relation to the whole bridge,
such as the creation of the space under the bridge
and improvement of visual perception.
6 References
[1] Gao S., Ge S. J., and Pan C. P. Landscape Design
of Urban Rail Transit Viaduct [J]. Science and
Technology Innovation Herald, 2010, (18): 151-152.
[2] Tang Y.L. Landscape Aesthetic Design of Urban
Rail Transit Viaduct [J]. Urban Rapid Rail Transit,
2009, 22(06): 48-52.
[3] Gong H.F., Xiao R. C., Xu L. P., et al. Conceptual
design of bridge [M]. Jiangsu, China: China
Communications Press, 2010: 58-65(in Chinese).
[4] Niu S., and Li Q.L. Characteristics and
Classification of Urban Viaducts [J]. Shanxi
Architecture, 2008, (28): 3-4.
400
Standardized Manufacturable Steel Orthotropic Decks for Urban

Bridges
Sougata Roy
Sougata Roy, LLC, Bethlehem, PA, USA
Contact: sougata.r@gmail.com
Abstract
Prefabricated modular steel orthotropic deck panels can provide effective solution for accelerated
construction of bridges in constrained urban landscape. These welded steel decks are ideal
manufacturable products incorporating repeated details that are amenable to automated
fabrication. Based on the lessons learnt from service performance of these decks and the
knowledgebase from significant research performed over the years, a standard deck design is
proposed, which can be easily integrated as a prefabricated modular deck for rapid and economic
construction of short and medium span steel girder and stringer bridges both for new construction
and rehabilitation. This deck design effectively addresses the challenges to wide spread
implementation of steel orthotropic decks for medium and short span bridges, providing a life-cycle
cost-effective solution for urban bridge infrastructure.
Keywords: steel orthotropic deck, manufacturable bridge deck, fitted floor beams.
resulting in effective life cycle cost and increased

1 Introduction implementation of this deck form. Moreover, if
Use of orthotropic deck has been mostly limited to properly designed, an orthotropic deck system is
new design and rehabilitation of long span the only system likely to provide more than 100
signature bridges and movable bridges, temporary years’ service life with minimum maintenance [1].
structures in battle zones and large urban
construction projects, and emergency bridge 2 Critical Connection Details
replacements in the aftermath of natural disasters.
The most critical in an orthotropic deck is the floor
The primary impediments to more wider
beam-to rib welded connection, which is subjected
application of orthotropic decks for routine short
to complex in-plane and out-of-plane deformations
and medium span bridges are lack of robust
under passing wheel loads. In modern orthotropic
standards, increased efforts required for advanced
deck construction, the ribs are passed continuously
analysis and design, relatively high initial cost
through matching cut-outs in the floor beams,
owing to intensive fabrication, and most
often with an additional cut-out in the floor beam
importantly due to concerns regarding higher
under the rib soffit, and with or without internal
possibility of in-service fatigue cracking from a
bulk head plates or stiffeners. These additional cut-
large number of welded connections. In-service
outs in the floor beam web under the rib soffit
performance and laboratory experiments have
requires expensive labour intensive fabrication and
shown that orthotropic deck connections can be
are less amenable to automation. Alternatively, a
accomplished by less fabrication intensive details,
1
401
rib-to-floor beam connection without an additional on the connection detail and configuration [1. 2]. In
cut-out in the floor beam web under the rib soffit comparison, fillet welded fitted floor beam
and without any internal stiffening of the rib wall connections showed better performance. Only a
can be adequate, provided the floor beam depth few instances of fatigue cracking were reported for
under the rib soffit is sufficient [2, 3]. This this detail. This connection detail exhibited infinite
connection is amenable to fabrication automation life fatigue performance with sufficient depth of
and can be cost-effective; however, careful fit-up floor beam under the rib wall [3].
and appropriate sizing of welds between the rib
and the floor beam would be necessary. 4 Conclusion
Another critical detail is the rib-to-deck plate Based on the knowledgebase a standard
welded connection. Torsionally stiff closed ribs, orthotropic deck is proposed consisting of 16 mm
welded from one side, are generally used for thick deck plate, 8 mm thick ribs, and 50%
efficient transverse distribution of loads. For penetration for the rib-deck weld. The ribs are
suppressing fatigue cracking from the weld root proposed to be 300 mm deep with 300 mm top
and through the weld throat, this connection is width and spaced at 600 mm centres. The floor
often specified as a minimum 75~80% partial joint beam is proposed to be 12 mm thick, fitted around
penetration (PJP) groove weld. Although this weld the ribs. The spacing of the floor beams is to be
is automated, a joint preparation is often specified limited to 15 ft. The proposed details are cost-
for consistent weld penetration with a reduced effective, requiring minimum human intervention,
welding energy over the entire length that facilitating an orthotropic deck that is amenable to
adversely affects economic fabrication and automated fabrication and manufacturable.
manufacturability of the connection Because of the
sheer length of this connection, the rib-deck plate 5 Acknowledgements
weld contributes to the increased cost of
fabrication of orthotropic decks. Significant The author gratefully acknowledges his mentor and
research around the world has shown that colleague Dr. John W. Fisher for introducing to
adequate fatigue resistance of orthotropic deck research on orthotropic decks, and his students
connections can be accomplished by details and research assistants R.S. Deo Alapati, Nirab
without joint preparation and lesser penetration, Manandhar, Soham Mukherjee, Xudong Zhao,
resulting in effective life cycle cost and increased Katelyn Kitner, and Yeun Chul Park for their
implementation of this deck form [1, 2]. contributions. The author is also indebted to the
work of several researchers who have contributed
3 Lessons Learnt to the vast knowledgebase on orthotropic bridge
decks.
In service performance and laboratory testing
showed that orthotropic decks developed fatigue 6 References
cracking from the rib-deck plate welds when deck
plates were less than 14 mm thick or, when the [1] Fisher J.W., and Roy, S. Durability of Steel
connection was fillet welded. The thickness of the Orthotropic Bridge Decks. IABMAS2014 Jul
deck plate is controlled by the performance of the 7-9, Shanghai, China. 2014.
wearing surface. For wearing surface durability, a [2] Kolstein, M.H. Fatigue Classification of
deck plate thickness of 16 mm is preferable. Welded Joints in Orthotropic Steel Bridge
Fatigue cracking of the rib-deck plate weld did not Decks. Ph.D. Dissertation. T.U. Delft, The
occur when the weld penetration was at least 50% Netherlands. 2007.
the weld throat was at least equal to the rib wall
thickness. [1, 2] [3] Mukherjee S.M., and Roy S. Fatigue
Evaluation of a Steel Orthotropic Deck for a
Fatigue cracking of rib-to-floor beam connections Lift Bridge by Laboratory Testing of a Full
mostly occurred in details with additional cut-out. Scale Prototype. Proceedings of ASCE
Several modes of cracking were found depending
2
402
Experimental Investigation of the Punching Shear Behaviour of

RC Slab-Column Connections Under Seismic Loading
Amr Abdelkhalik
Assistant Lecturer, Structural Engineering Department, Badr University, Cairo, EGYPT
Tamer Elafandy
Associate Professor, RC Institute, Housing and Building National Research Center, Giza, EGYPT
Amr Abdelrahman
Professor, Structural Engineering Department, Ain Shams University, Cairo, EGYPT
Alaa Sherif
Professor, Civil Engineering Department, Mataria, Helwan University, Cairo, EGYPT
Contact: alaa_sherif@m-eng.helwan.edu.eg
Abstract
Reinforced concrete flat slab-column structures are widely used because of their practicality.
However, this type of structures can be subjected to punching-shear failure with in the slab-column
connections. Without shear reinforcement, the slab-column connection can undergo brittle
punching failure, especially when the structure is subjected to lateral loading in seismic zones. This
research is a part of an extensive investigation about the punching shear behavior of interior RC
slab-column connections under seismic loading. The current paper represents only the results of the
first two tested specimens. The main objective is to discuss the nature and mechanism of effect
seismic loading on punching shear behaviour. Finally, the experimental results are analyzed and
compared to international codes such as American Code ACI318-14[1] and Euro Code EC2-2004[2].
In light of these results, some preliminary conclusions are presented.
papers will be distributed in the electronic conference proceedings.
Keywords: Punching Shear; Shear Studs; Seismic Loading; Interior slab-column connections.
1 Experimental Program
Full scale specimens were tested. The specimen The specimens represent interior slab-column
can be regarded as part a prototype structure of Connections, which are isolated specimens with
which the flat concrete slab spans 4.5 m between dimensions corresponding to the lines of contra
columns. The slab thickness is 200 mm. flexure under gravity loads [3,4].
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ABSE Conference – Engineering the Developing World
The control specimen FP-GR-CTRL, was subjected up to punching shear failure. Figure 1 shows the
to a monotonic vertical load up to punching shear concrete dimensions of specimens (FP-GR-CTRL)
failure. Specimen FP-VR-0.4 was subjected to a and (FP-VR-0.4).
constant vertical load and a reversed cyclic loading
(a). Specimen (FP-GR-CTRL)
(b). Specimen (FP-VR-0.4)

Figure 1. Concrete dimensions of tested specimens FP-GR-CTRL and FP-VR-0.4
1.1 Description of Specimens and Flexural

Reinforcement
In the tension surface of the concrete slab, the ties are used in order to make the column strong
flexural reinforcement ratio is 1.62% within a width enough to transfer the axial load and unbalanced
of 824 mm from the center of the slab as shown in moment to the slab. Figure 2 shows the
Figure 2. The reinforcing ratio on the compression reinforcement details of the tested specimens (FP-
surface of the slab is 0.6%. The reinforcement is GR-CTRL) and (FP-VR-0.4). For control purposes,
designed to ensure punching shear failure of these standard concrete cubes were cast alongside the
connections not failure due to flexure. [5,6]. The specimens and were tested at the same day as the
reinforcing ratio of the columns is 4.86% and closed specimen. The compressive concrete cube strength
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For specimens FP-GR-CTRL and FP-VR-0.4 equal 25 (Fu) of 600 MPa. All the previous reinforcement had
and 35 N/mm2 respectively. a modulus of elasticity (Es) of 200 GPA.
The main reinforcement was made of deformed
steel bars (Grade 40/60) of actual yield stress (Fy)
of 400 MPa, and actual ultimate tensile strength
(a). Flexure reinforcement mesh (b). Compression reinforcement mesh
(c). FP-GR-CTRL (d). FP-VR-0.4 (e). Column reinforcement

Figure 2. Reinforcement details of tested specimens FP-GR-CTRL and FP-VR-0.4
1.2 Test Setup, Boundary Conditions and

Loading Scheme
The specimen FP-GR-CTRL was tested under a of cracks took place. A schematic of test set up of
monotonic vertical load up to punching shear specimen FP-VR-0.4 is shown in Fig.4. Figure 5
failure. Figure 3 shows the test setup of the show the protocol cyclic loading of specimen FP-
specimen FP-GR-CTRL. A single concentrated load VR-0.4.
of applied on the column using 1000 KN hydraulic
jack. A stiff steel I-beam is continuously supporting
the edges of the specimen. At the end of each load
step, the load was held constant for a period of two
minutes, during which measurements and marking
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Figure 3. Test Setup, Boundary Conditions and Figure 5. Loading path of horizontal cyclic load
Loading Mechanism of specimen FP-GR-CTRL
Figure 4. Schematic of test setup of specimen Figure 6. Instrumentation Scheme for Specimen
FP-VR-0.4 FP-GR-CTRL
2 Instrumentation
Measurements were made thoroughly for crack pattern was monitored and marked on the
displacements and steel strains at key locations of specimen with the associated load level indicated
the tested specimens as shown as in Figures 6 and next to it.
7. All LVDTs and strain gauges were connected to a
computer controlled data acquisition system. The
(c). Strain gauges' positions in flexure and

(a). LVDT to measure of Lateral (b). Vertical Displacement at
compression mesh reinforcement
drift of top and bottom column bottom surface of the slab
Figure 7. Instrumentation Scheme for Specimen FP-VR-0.4
3 Experimental Results
3.1 Observation and Crack Pattern
Cracks on the slab surfaces started from the slab was observed at about a vertical gravity load
corners of the column at the tension side. In the equal 290 KN (about 43.5% of the failure load). For
specimen FP-GR-CTRL (concrete strength: 25MPa) specimen FP-VR-0.4 (concrete strength: 35MPa)
the First crack at the compression surface of the cracks on slab surface started from corners of the
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column at the tension side, first on the top slab crack patterns of top and bottom slab surfaces for
surface (which was subjected to tension from both specimens FP-GR-CTRL and FP-VR-0.4 are
gravity load equal 230 KN) and then on bottom shown in Figure 8. Both specimens failed in a pure
surface. First crack at the bottom of the slab was punching mode.
observed at about 0.6~0.8% drift ratio. The final
(a). Crack pattern of specimen FP-GR-CTRL
(b). Crack pattern of specimen FP-GR-CTRL
Figure 8. Crack pattern and punching shear failure cone of each specimen
3.2 Load-deflection Curves
In specimen FP-GR-CTRL, the punching shear the load-deflection response of slab as well as
failure occurred at a vertical load of 667 KN and the shear stress calculated at a distance d/2 from
maximum displacement measured under the column face versus the measured vertical
bottom surface equals 13.36 mm. Figure 9 shows displacement.
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(a) Load-deflection response (b) Shear stress-deflection response

Figure 9. Ductility response of specimen FP-GR-CTRL
In specimen FP-VR-0.4, the horizontal lateral load at 4% drift ratio. For positive peak load was 132KN
applied at the top column end versus its horizontal at 3.05% drift ratio.
lateral drift ratio is shown in Figure 10(a). The
specimen is subjected to a vertical load of 230KN Figure 10 (b) shows the backbone curve of the
which corresponds to 34% of the failure load of hysteresis curve of the lateral load versus lateral
specimen FP-GR-CTRL and which corresponds to drift. The backbone curve is formed by connecting
40% of the nominal punching shear capacity peak points at the first cycle of each same-drift
according to ACI318-14. As shown in Table 1, the cycle’s group.
peak lateral negative load for FP-VR-0.4 was 148KN
Table 1. Peak load and drift ductility of specimen FP-VR-0.4
Note : Nominal punching shear capacity of concrete Vo= 0.333√𝑓𝑐 bo d (ACI 318-14, in metric units) While The
actual punching shear capacity of concrete =2.26x1696x174/1000=667KN from experimental results of controlled
specimen FP-GR-CTRL at d/2 from column face.
(a). Horizontal load versus horizontal drift ratio at top (b). Backbone curves of horizontal load versus horizontal
column end drift ratio at top column end
Figure 10. Horizontal load versus horizontal drift measured for specimen FP-VR-0.4
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3.3 Comparison Between Shear Stress at Failure from Experimental Results and Theoretical
Calculations from International Codes such as ACI318-14 and EC2-2004.
Tables 2 and 3 compare the experimental results result (𝒗EX / 𝒗c =0.99) for specimen FP-GR-CTRL and
with the punching shear stress resistance of the ( 𝒗EX / 𝒗c =1.054) for specimen FP-VR-0.4.
slab according to ACI 318-14 (Eq.1) and EC2-2004
(Eq.2). Both codes accurately estimate the failure
VC = 0.333√𝑓𝑐 (1)
stresses for FP-VR-0.4. ACI underestimates the
failure shear stress for specimen FP-GR-CTRL (𝒗EX / 1
VC = 0.18𝑘(100𝜌𝑓𝑐𝑘 )3 (2)
𝒗c =1.36), while EC2 accurately estimate the test
Table 2. Failure shear stress (N/mm2) according to ACI318-14 (At d/2 from column face)
Ratio 𝒗EX / 𝒗c
Specimen 𝒇′ 𝒄 (𝑵/𝒎𝒎𝟐) b0 (mm) d 𝒗c (N/mm2) 𝒗EXP (N/mm2)
FP-GR-CTRL 25 1696 174 1.665 2.26 1.36

FP-VR-0.4 35 1696 174 1.97 1.802 0.915
Table 3. Failure shear stress (N/mm2) according to EC2-2004 (At 2d from column face)
𝒗EXP Ratio 𝒗EX / 𝒗c
Specimen 𝒇′ 𝒄𝒌 (𝑵/𝒎𝒎𝟐) K 𝝆% b0 (mm) d 𝒗c (N/mm2)
(N/mm2)
FP-GR-CTRL 25 2 1.62 3185 174 1.221 1.204 0.99

FP-VR-0.4 35 2 1.62 3185 174 1.364 1.437 1.054
Figure 11 presents the relation between the relation between the ultimate design drift ratio DRu
displacement and the shear stress calculated at a and the gravity shear ratio V/V0 as shown in Figure
distance d/2 from column face according to 12[7,8]. Fig. 12 includes test result of FP-VR-0.4 as
ACI318-14. Punching shear failure occurred at well as some test results without shear
shear stress equal 2.26 MPa for specimen FP-GR- reinforcement from the literature. The results
CTRL. While for the specimen FP-VR-0.4 punching indicate that the draft ratio was achieved without
shear failure occurred at shear stress equal 1.802 shear reinforcement in contrary to the ACI
MPa. Equation 3 of ACI318-14 determines the zone requirements
in which shear reinforcement is required as a
.
Figure 11. Displacement response versus shear Figure 12. Maximum drift ratio DRu which can
stress at distance d/2 from column face for be achieved in interior slab-column connections
specimens FP-GR-CTRL and FP-VR-0.4 without shear reinforcement
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409
[4] Dilger, W.H., “Flat Slab-Column Connections.

DRu = 0.035 - 0.05*(V/Vo) Progress in Structural Engineering and Materials”
for (V/Vo ≤ 0.6) (3) John Wiley & Sons. Ltd. 2000; Volume 2, Issue 3, p.
386-399.
DRu = 0.005 for (V/Vo >0.6)
[5] Choi, K. K., Taha, M. M. R., Sherif, A. G.
4 Conclusions “Simplified Punching Shear Design Method for
Slab-Column Connections Using Fuzzy learning”,
This paper presents the first test results of an ACI Structural Journal Vol. 104, No.4, p. 438-447,
experimental investigation of the punching shear July-August 2007.
response of interior slab-column connections. The
following are the main conclusions [6] ACI-ASCE Committee 421.Shear Reinforcement
for Slabs (ACI 421.1 R-99). American Concrete
1- The Experimental results in the test of slab- Institute, Farmington Hills, Michigan, 2005.
column connections showed a clear difference in
the shape and distribution of cracks around the RC [7] Robertson, I.N., Kawai, T., Lee, J., and Enomoto,
column section due to punching shear failure B.” Cyclic Testing of Slab-Column Connections with
subjected to vertical load only or vertical load plus Shear Reinforcement,” ACI Structural Journal, V.99,
seismic loading. No.5, September-October, pp.605-6013, 2008.
2- The Experimental results showed that the [8] Robertson, I., and Johnson, G.” Cyclic Lateral
punching shear resistance of the slab-column Loading of Nonductile Slab-Column Connections,”
connections are reduced if subjected to lateral ACI Structural Journal, V. 103, No. 3, May-June, pp.
cyclic loading in addition to the vertical load. 356-364, 2006.
3-The code provisions of ACI318-14 and EC2-2004

predicted accurately the failure loads for the tested
specimens.
4- Tests subjected to cyclic moments (own test and

from the literature) indicate that the anticipated
drift ratio can be achieved without shear
reinforcement indicating conservative provisions
of ACI 318-14 in this regard.
5 References
[1] ACI 318-14, “Building Code Requirements for
Structural Concrete and Commentary”, American
Concrete Institute, Farmington hills, 2014.
[2] European Standard, “Eurocode 2: Design of

concrete structures”, CEN, European Standard,
2004.
[3] Megally, S., and Ghali, A., “Punching Shear

Design of Earthquake-Resistant Slab-Column
Connections”, ACI Structural Journal, 97, 5, Sept.-
Oct. 2002, pp. 720-730.
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SEISMIC BEHAVIOR OF SIX-STORIED RC RESIDENTIAL STRUCTURE

WITH EXISTING LLRS
Chaithra P
Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Nitte Meenakshi Institute of Technology.
H Sharada Bai & Ambrish G
Professor & Research Scholar, Department of Civil Engineering, UVCE, Bangalore University.
Contact: chp_foc@yahoo.com
Abstract
Using an appropriate structural system is critical to good seismic performance of buildings. While moment-
frame is the most commonly used lateral load resisting structural system, addition of other structural
systems like structural walls, frame-wall system improve the seismic resistance. Structural system chosen
should be suitable for good earthquake performance, with vertical and horizontal members of lateral load
resisting system (LLRS) that can carry earthquake effects safely during strong earthquake shaking. Studies
on real structures, practically adopted are negligible. Present work deals with the comparison of seismic
performance of the structural system under consideration with existing features (Lift core RC wall & Infill
effect along the boundary walls) as LLRS in the building using response spectrum and time history method..
Keywords: Seismic response, RCC, earthquake, response spectrum, time history, LLRS
1 Introduction effects safely during strong earthquake shaking.

Using an appropriate structural system is critical
India is one of the most disaster prone countries, to good seismic performance of buildings.
vulnerable to almost all natural and man-made
disasters. A large number of reinforced concrete
multi-storied frame buildings got heavily damaged
and many of them collapsed during past
earthquakes leading to enormous loss of life and
property.
The old practice before 1960s had been to design
buildings primarily for gravity loading and to check Figure 1. Lateral load resistance of typical building
the adequacy of the structure for safety against
lateral loads in a cursory manner. It has now been Moment resisting frames are generally composed
established that the design of a multi-storey of columns, beams and slabs. The floor slabs are
building is governed by lateral loads and it should quite rigid in their plane and are responsible for
be the prime concern of the designer to provide distribution of lateral load among the various
adequate safe structure against lateral loads [1]. frames.
Figure-1 [1] shows schematic plot of resistance of Shear walls are often introduced in multistoried
various structural components of a framed buildings to resist lateral forces when frame
structure against lateral loading. systems alone are insufficient. Shear walls have
Structural system chosen should be suitable for very high in-plane stiffness and strength, which
good earthquake performance consisting of can be used simultaneously to resist large
vertical and horizontal members of Lateral Load horizontal loads and support gravity loads, making
Resisting System (LLRS) that can carry earthquake them quite beneficial in seismic performance of
buildings [2]. Structural walls provide an efficient
411
bracing system and offer great potential for lateral approach. To complete the primary objective, a
load resistance [3]. Shear walls in building must be few secondary objectives are also defined:-
symmetrically located in plan to reduce ill effects  To investigate the effectiveness of RC walls
of twist in the structure. provided for lift core as shear wall to resist the
horizontal earthquake loads.
 Structural assessment of RCC framed
structures with infill effect. This will enable to
understand the effect of infill as lateral load
resisting system.
 To find the combined effect of RC wall and infill
effect provided in the structure to resist the
earthquake forces.
3 Building description
Figure 2. Effect of infill frame as compared to bare
The structure considered for study is a residential
frame (Ref: Internet)
apartment building of G+5 stories with a plan area
Masonry infills are normally considered as non- of about 675m2. It has two lifts provided with a
structural elements and their stiffness capacity of 10 people each. The general
contributions are generally ignored in practice. architectural drawing of building is shown in
Masonry infill walls behave as constituent part of figure-3.The cross-section of beams and columns
the structural system and determine the overall are chosen such that they satisfy the design check
behavior of the structure especially when under gravity loads and the beam-column layout is
subjected to lateral loads [4]. They act as bracing shown in figure-4. The details of the structure
panels, which resist horizontal earthquake forces, considered are shown in table-1. Properties of the
increasing structural strength and stiffness [5], materials considered in the building are tabulated
figure-2. in table-2.
Table-1: Building Details
2 Objectives Typical height of floors 3m
The past earthquakes in which many concrete Foundation depth from ground level 1.5m
structures are severely damaged or collapsed Slab thickness 150mm
indicate the need for evaluating the seismic Wall thickness- Exterior 200mm
adequacy of buildings. Most of the earlier Interior 150mm
research works concerned to such evaluation and Column dimension 200mmx600mm
analysis have considered only typical structures Beam dimension 200mmx450mm
with varying number of bays (for example 3bays Plinth beam dimension 200mmx450mm
to 6bays in each direction) and varying bay width. Shear wall thickness (for lift core ) 200mm
Studies on real structures, practically adopted are Staircase & lift head room 2m
very less. Hence, in the present study an attempt Parapet wall – height 1m
is made to evaluate the seismic resistance and thickness 200mm
behavior of a realistic six storied apartment
Table-2: Material properties
building, a RC framed structure considering the
Grade of concrete M25
existing features of lift core walls (acting as shear
Grade of steel Fe415
walls) and boundary infill walls (as part of infill
Modulus of elasticity of concrete (Ef) 25000Mpa
frames) each separately as well as together in
Poisson’s ratio of concrete 0.2
comparison to that of bare frame (without
Density of concrete block 17.65kN/m2
considering them as structural components) by
Modulus of elasticity of concrete block 27.5X105kN/m2
means of dynamic analysis – response spectrum
Poisson’s ratio of concrete blocks 0.2
and time history methods. The seismic analysis
will form part of a broader structural assessment
412
Figure 3. Architectural Plan of the apartment structure considered for the present study
Figure 4. Beam-Column layout plan of the apartment structure considered for the present study
walls along the periphery = 9.53kN/m

3.1 Loads
parapet wall load (on terrace floor) = 2.65kN/m
3.1.1 Dead load  Lift area load – 10kN/m2
The self-weight of all structural components such  Two overhead water tanks are provided of
as slabs, beams, columns is self-calculated by the equal capacity above staircase head rooms.
software based on the section properties and The plan dimension of the tank is 3m x 5.4m
material constants. Other dead loads applied on with a total height of 2.25m.
the structure as per IS: 875(Part 1)-1987 are:- Dead load of the tank is 280kN. Load due to
 Floor finish (includes the weight of mortar, water stored (includes water for domestic
flooring material & ceiling plaster) = 1.5kN/m2 requirement & emergency storage for fire-

Wall loads –interior walls = 7.15kN/m fighting) – 15kN/m2 per tank
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3.1.2 Live load In these models, RC wall is that provided for the
As per IS: 875-Part II following live loads for lift core areas and the infill effect is considered
residential structure have been considered:- only along the periphery or the boundary walls of
•
Loads on all floor slabs – 2.0 kN/m2 the building. The openings in the exterior walls are
• Loads on corridors and staircases – 3.0 kN/m2 neglected in modeling the infill effect. Due to
• Loads on roof slabs – 1.5kN/m2 reduction in thickness of interior partition wall
compared to exterior walls and uncertainty of
3.1.3 Seismic load
their position, infill effect is not taken into account
In addition to gravity loads, earthquake loads are
for interior walls. A typical 3D model for the above
considered for the analysis of the structure
mentioned cases, modeled in ETABS is shown in
located in seismic zone-4. The seismic details of
figure-5.
the building are listed in table-3.
Table-3 Seismic load details by IS: 1893-2002
Parameter Values adopted Codal ref.
Zone IV Table-2
Soil Type-II Graph-2
Importance factor 1 Table-6
Response reduction 3 Table-7
When seismic loads are present mass source
needs to be defined as per codal provisions to
specify how lateral mass is to be considered for
analysis and for reduction in applied live loads. As
the imposed load for present residential
apartment structure is 2kN/m2 & 3kN/m2 Figure 5. 3D view of model in ETABS
(<=3kN/m2), as per IS: 1893(Part-1)-2002, 25% of
4.1 Lift core walls
the imposed load has been considered for seismic
Shell elements are used to model shear walls in
weight calculation along with total dead loads.
ETABS. So as to distribute the loads realistically
4 Methodology the shell element will be meshed.
The analytical structural model is created in such a 4.2 Infill effect

way that the different structural components are In modeling the masonry infill panels the
represented as accurately as possible (i.e. equivalent diagonal strut method is used for the
characteristics like mass, strength, stiffness and analysis of the frame models C & D. By FEMA code
deformability) in ETABS. The models considered [6], the effect of infill can be considered by
for the comparative study are tabulated in table-4. introducing a diagonal pin-jointed strut equivalent
to the infill. The equivalent strut will have the
Table-4 Models considered for the analysis
same thickness and modulus of elasticity as the
Model Title Explanation
infill panel, while the width w is given by the
Bare Bare frame model with no RC
A frame wall and no infill effect, but
following equations (1&2) and pictorially
structure infill mass is considered. represented in figure-6.
Structure Frame model with provision of
with RC RC wall for lift core areas and
B
wall & no no infill effect, but infill mass is
infill effect considered.
Structure Frame model with infill effect
with infill and infill mass are considered,
C
effect & but RC wall is not provided. Figure 6. Diagonal strut modeling of infill panel
no RC wall
Structure Frame model with infill effect 𝑤 = 0.175(𝜆′ ℎ′)−0.4 𝑑 (1)
with infill and infill mass are considered,
D 4 𝐸𝑚 𝑡 sin 2𝜃
effect & RC wall is modeled for lift core 𝜆′ = √ ⁄4𝐸 𝐼 ℎ (2)
𝑓 𝑐
RC wall areas.
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where,
Em = modulus of elasticity of infill material
Ef = modulus of elasticity of frame material
l'= beam length between center lines of columns
l = length of infill wall
h’ = column height between center lines of beams
h = height of infill wall a. Bhuj earthquake at Ahmedabad
Ic = moment of inertia of column
t = thickness of infill wall
d = diagonal length of strut
θ = angle between diagonal strut and the horizontal
In the present case the effective width of strut
calculated is different in every span due to
variation in bay widths. Hence, values of the b. Uttarkashi earthquake at Uttarkashi
calculated width (w) vary between 0.3 to 0.5m.
5 Dynamic analysis
The dynamic analysis is carried out by response
spectrum and time history methods.
5.1 Response spectrum method c. Chamoli earthquake at Gopeswar
Seismic design of structures is performed using
the maximum force induced in the structure due
to earthquake shaking. Since absolute maximum
of such response is useful in design, a graph of
maximum response generated for a spectrum of
SDOF structures with different natural periods and
the same damping under the same earthquake d. India-Burma border earthquake at Bokajan
ground motion. The response spectrum Figure 7. Strong motion records of India
corresponding to acceleration of the building, considered for the present study
called the acceleration response spectrum given in
IS: 1893 -2002 (Part-I) is used for the present Table-5: Earthquake records of India considered
study. for the present study
Earthquake Date Mag PGA (m/s/s)
5.2 Time history method Bhuj/Kachchh 26 -01-2001 7.0 1.038
The time history analysis cannot be applied by Uttarkashi 19-10-1991 7.0 3.040
using composite, envelope motions, as can be Chamoli 28-03-1999 6.6 3.528
done for the response spectrum procedure. India-Burma Border 06-08-1988 7.2 2.200
Rather, multiple time histories that together
provide a response that envelops the expected 6 Results and discussions
motion must be used. Hence in the present study The results of comparative analysis between all 4
a combination of four severe past earthquakes models of the multi-storey apartment structure
data in the country are considered to get an idea adopted in the present study analyzed by both
of the average response. The real time earthquake response spectrum and time history methods are
database was collected from “Center for presented and discussed.
engineering strong motion data”, from the
stations setup by IIT Roorkee. The earthquake 6.1 Modal time period
strong motions considered for the time history Natural time period of building depend on the
analysis of the structure are given in table-5 and distribution of mass and stiffness.
figure-7 along with respective magnitude (Mag)
and Peak Ground Accelerations (PGA).
415
1.5 A 6
Modal time period (s)
B 5
C
1 D 4
Storey
3
0.5 A
2
B
0 1 C
Mode-1 Mode-2 Mode-3 D
0
Figure 8. Effect of LLRS on modal time period of 0 10 20 30 40 50
Displacement & Drift -X (mm)
fixed base building
Figure 10. Variation of storey displacement and
As seen in figure-8 a bare frame structure shows inter-storey drift for buildings with and without
highest time period. Bare frame structure has a LLRS by response spectrum method
modal time period of 1.30 seconds. It reduces to
0.98 seconds, 0.87 seconds and 0.74 seconds for 50 Bhuj
Uttarkashi
Displacement-X (mm)
models – B, C and D respectively. It is observed 40
that natural period of building reduced by 20-45% Chamoli
with the consideration of LLRS, due to increase in 30 IB1988
stiffness of the structure. The infill participate in
20
the lateral response and as a consequence alter
the lateral stiffness of buildings. RC walls have 10
large in-plane stiffness and strength. Hence,
0
natural periods (and modes of oscillation) are
A B C D
significantly lowered by 45% with the presence of
both shear walls and infill effect consideration. Figure 11. Maximum storey displacement for
6.2 Base shear buildings with and without LLRS subjected to
Figure-9 shows the variation in base shear and is different earthquakes by time history method
the least for the case of simple moment-frame 10 Bhuj
building. On addition of shear walls and infill Uttarkashi
effects in the building, the seismic weight of the 8 Chamoli
Drift-X (mm)
structure increases, thereby increasing the base 6 IB1988

shear by 1.15 to 1.7 times that of bare frame
structure. 4
8000 A 2
B
Base shear (kN)
6000 C 0
D A B C D
4000
Figure 12. Maximum storey drift for buildings with
2000 an2 without LLRS subjected to different
earthquakes by time history method
0
Modeling the infill wall along with the frame
Figure 9. Effect of LLRS on base shear of models
elements (i.e., beams and columns) incorporate
considered
additional lateral stiffness, thereby the
6.3 Maximum story displacement and drift deformations reduced. Lateral displacements and
Figure-10 depicts that the relative storey drift is significantly lowered (by 30% & 20%
displacement or drift decreases when the lateral respectively) after consideration of RC wall in the
load resisting elements are distributed along the bare frame. The deformations are much lower (by
plan length of the building. 40% & 50%) when shear walls are considered in
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combination with infill effect, these RC walls have of the structure is varied considerably with the
large in-plane stiffness and strength against excitation of different earthquake data. The
earthquake forces. earthquakes which caused maximum
deformations in the building display lower
The results of a response spectrum analysis are
accelerations in the structure and vice-versa.
typically different from that of dynamic analysis
using the ground motion directly. In figures 11 & 6.5 Effect of shear wall and infill on lateral
12, it is observed that the deformations are load resistance
maximum for earthquakes with higher PGA values As observed in earlier graphs of displacement and
i.e., Chamoli earthquake. Hence it can be drift i.e figure-10, the deformations reduced
concluded that the deformations of the structure effectively with the presence of shear wall in the
is dependent mainly on peak ground acceleration structural plan. Analysis carried out on model-A &
of the input earthquake data B verifies that RC walls (SW) can take up higher
6.4 Maximum story acceleration percentage of earthquake forces compared to
The earthquake inertia forces are proportional to columns (Col) as seen in figure-14.
the product of the building mass and the In plan a total of 13m length of shear wall is
earthquake ground accelerations. As the ground provided along both X and Y directions. In X-
accelerations increase, the strength of the direction walls attract about 57% earthquake
building and the capacity must be increased to force towards themselves compared to 88
avoid structural damage. columns spread along the plan which resist the
6 other 43% of the earthquake forces coming on the
structure. But in Y direction the columns are
5
taking up slightly more lateral load of 61% and this
4 could be attributed to the fact that out of 88
Storey
3 columns about 76 are oriented with longer

dimension along Y direction. The lateral stiffness
2 A
of columns along longer direction is more.
B
1 C X-direction Y-direction
D
0
SW
0 1 2 3 Col
Acceleration-X (m/s2) 39
43
SW Col
Figure 13. Variation of story acceleration for
57 61
buildings with and without LLRS by response
spectrum analysis
Figure 14. Percentage lateral loads resisted by
Table-6: Peak acceleration (m/s2) for buildings shear walls and columns in both X and Y direction
with and without LLRS
Earthquake Magnitude PGA A B C D Therefore, two advantages arise out of the use of
Bhuj 7 1.038 1.66 1.61 1.55 2.62 structural walls in RC buildings. Firstly, such
Uttarkashi 7 3.040 3.08 3.55 3.86 2.75 buildings have large initial stiffness, which reduces
Chamoli 6.6 3.528 1.73 2.26 2.36 2.34 the lateral deflection and hence damage under
IB1988 7.2 2.200 2.35 2.18 3.01 3.44 earthquake shaking. Secondly structural walls,
owing to their large lateral stiffness, draw most of
In figure-13, it is observed that with the addition
the lateral force and thereby help reduce
of infill effect the storey acceleration of the
demands on columns. This facilitates moment
structure increases by 2 times. However on
frames to be lightly reinforced, which makes
inclusion of only RC wall the variation in peak
buildings with structural walls more economical
acceleration is marginal. As tabulated in table-6, in
and easy to construct, than buildings with only
time history method the acceleration of the
moment frames without structural walls.
structure is mainly dependent on the magnitude
and acceleration of earthquake striking the The masonry infill walls though constructed as
structure. It is observed that the peak acceleration secondary elements behave as a constituent part
417
of the structural system and determine the overall The present work was carried out prior to the
behaviour of the structure especially when it is release of new earthquake code IS: 1893-2016.
subjected to seismic loads [8]. By the modeling The results might get modified with reference to
based on FEMA approach, masonry walls act as revised code and this work is under progress
bracing panels, under the application of lateral
force. In addition, infill walls decrease a building’s 8 References
vibration period (figure-8) and deformations [1] Singh Y, Lateral load resisting systems for
(figure-10) thereby increase its initial lateral multistoried buildings, IIT Roorkee
stiffness and rigidity, which can result in better [2] Firoozabad E S, Rao K R M & Bagheri B, Effect of
performance under earthquake shaking. Shear Wall Configuration on Seismic Performance
Sum of base reactions in columns when subjected of Building, Proceedings of International
to lateral force due to earthquake:- Conference on Advances in Civil Engineering, 2013
[3] Chandurkar P P & Pajgade P S, Seismic Analysis of
Model-1 (Bare frame) = 4474.46 kN
RCC Building with and Without Shear Wall,
Model-3 (Frame with infill effect) = 6842.01 kN International Journal of Modern Engineering
From the above results it can be seen that frames Research (IJMER), 2013, Vol.-3, Issue-3, pages
with infill effect considered have more structural 1805-1810
strength (with increase in 52%) in comparison to [4] Tamboli H R & Karadi U N, Seismic Analysis of RC
Frame Structure with and without Masonry Infill
the bare frames due to the additional resistance
Walls, Indian Journal Of Natural Sciences
offered by infill when lateral loads are applied. In International, 2012,Vol-3, Issue-14
most cases, when engineers do not consider the [5] Pradhan P M, Equivalent Strut Width for Partial
infill effect during analysis, structure will be under Infilled Frames, Journal of Civil Engineering
designed for lower base shear. Therefore it can be Research, 2012, 2(5): pages 42-48
concluded that the presence of infill wall can [6] FEMA 356, Pre-standard and commentary for the
affect the seismic behavior of frame structure to seismic rehabilitation of buildings, 2000
large extent, and the infill walls increase the [7] Kelly T E. (2001) Base isolation of Structures -
strength, stiffness and rigidity of the structure. Design guidelines, Holmes Consulting Group Ltd.
[8] Amato G, Fossetti M, Cavaleri L & Papia M, An
7 Conclusions updated model of equivalent diagonal strut for
infill panels, Eurocode 8 Perspectives from the
Based on the study carried out in the present Italian Standpoint Workshop,2009,119-128,
analysis following conclusions are drawn for the Napoli, Italy
building under consideration to evaluate the [9] Semnani S J, Rodgers J E & Burton H V, Conceptual
seismic performance:- Seismic Design Guidance for New Framed Infill
 On modeling the infill wall along with the Building, GeoHazards International, Supported by
frame elements incorporate additional Earthquake Engineering Research Institute
&Thornton Tomasetti Foundation, 2014
strength, stiffness and rigidity of the structure.
[10] Murty C V R, Goswami R, Vijayanarayanan A R &
Hence significant reduction in modal time
Mehta V V, Some Concepts in Earthquake
periods (by 40%) and deformations (by 35%) Behaviour of Buildings, Gujarat State Disaster
are observed. Management Authority, Government of Gujarat,
 The deformations are much lower 2012
(displacement by 40% and drift by 50%) than [11] IS: 13928, Improving earthquake resistance of
bare frame structures on consideration of low-strength masonry buildings – guidelines,
shear walls (lift core walls) particularly with Bureau of Indian Standards, 1993, New Delhi
respect to acceleration in combination with [12] IS: 456, Plain and reinforced concrete – Code of
infill effects in the building. practice,4th Edition, Bureau of Indian Standards,
2000,New Delhi
 Shear walls when introduced in the plan of a
[13] IS: 1893, Indian Standard code of practice for
building, being stiffer than moment-resisting criteria for Earthquake resistant design of
frames; attract more earthquake force towards structures, Part-1, General provisions and
themselves (about 60%) as compared to buildings, Bureau of Indian Standards, 2002, New
columns. Delhi.
418
Transitioning to Seismic Design

Timothy Tiong
Esteem Innovation (Asia) Sdn Bhd, Puchong, Selangor, Malaysia
Contact: timothytiong@esteemsoft.com.my
Abstract
Malaysia is currently in the process of transitioning from non-seismic to seismic design. Existing
Malaysian building codes do not require seismic loads to be considered. However, with recent
seismic activity in Malaysia and nearby region, Malaysia is spurred into action to consider seismic
loads. Seismic design brings with it unique considerations and challenges. This paper will examine
the effects of seismic activity on structures and how they can be considered in design. Discussed in
this paper are the considerations required for structures complying with Malaysian National Annex
(MS EN 1998-1) which includes the response spectrum, modal analysis, modal combination,
accidental eccentricity, load combinations and seismic design. Computer methods using the Esteem
Structural Software will be presented.
Keywords: transition; seismic; analysis; design; detailing; structural; engineer; software; reinforced
concrete
this paper will present a discussion on the benefits

1 Introduction of seismic design.
Malaysia is moving towards seismic design as part
of its compliance in structural design. As Malaysia 2 Seismic Competency
has no known earth-quake fault-line running
through it, seismic design has been neglected 2.1 Seismic Forces
without significant repercussions. However, with
Seismic design, like gravity or wind design requires
the increase in seismic activity around the world,
an understanding of the assumptions in obtaining
Malaysian engineers are becoming more aware of
the forces. Malaysian structural engineers are
the potential destruction caused by earthquake.
familiar with gravity and wind load forces. Seismic
This awareness has opened the door for a
forces are like wind forces in that both have lateral
transition to seismic design. Previously Malaysia
loadings. The difference between them is that
used the concrete code BS8110 which has no
seismic forces are caused by earthquake (Figure 1)
provision for seismic design. To prepare for seismic
while wind forces are caused by wind pressure. In
design, the Institute of Engineers have reviewed
addition, seismic ground motion lasts for a short
seismic codes around the world and decided to
period and the direction of forces change quickly
adapt the Eurocodes [1].
while wind pressure persists for a longer period
This paper explores issues of competency, cost and and the direction of forces change slower. Last but
aesthetics for a transition to seismic design. For a not the least, the mass of the building affects the
transition in competency, this paper will look at the magnitude of the structural response to
incorporation of seismic design in the Esteem earthquakes while wind forces are independent of
structural software which aims to be compliant to building weight.
the Eurocodes. An overview of the seismic
For a smooth transition to seismic design,
capability added into the existing software is
structural engineers need to be competent and be
presented in this paper. For cost and aesthetics,
familiar with the concepts in seismic analysis [2] as
419
well as the requirements of the Malaysian seismic Esteem software brought together all these seismic
code [3]. concepts. Esteem is a unique software in that it
aims to give concise and comprehensive output
from consulting engineers’ perspective with
minimal user input. Therefore, it is simple to
activate seismic design. First, the response
spectrum must be specified and second the seismic
option is to be activated. Esteem will then consider
seismic in its analysis, design, reporting and
detailing.
Engineers need to understand the assumptions
when using the software. The next section will
discuss about the various concepts in seismic and
Figure 1. 1940 EL Centro ground motion (N-S)
how Esteem considers them.
record
2.3 Seismic Theory
2.2 Structural Seismic Software
Every structure has a different response to seismic
A transition to seismic design will be greatly aided
motion in terms of magnitude and distribution. The
by software that is able to automatically carry out
response magnitude is affected by the hazard
the analysis and design to the Eurocode standards.
probability, damping and the stiffness of the
Software can help engineers to improve their
ground compared to the stiffness of the structure.
competency by acting as a tool and check for
A higher hazard probability corresponds to a higher
seismic design. Customised default parameters
design ground acceleration. A higher damping
that comply with the standards will save the
corresponds to lower response. A more similar soil
engineer both time and oversight. In Malaysia,
period with the structural dynamic mode will cause
engineers have softwares that can carry out the
more amplification in the response of that dynamic
analysis, design of standardised structures and
mode. The distribution of the response depends on
produce detailing ready for construction.
the stiffness of the structure. The seismic equation
The Esteem structural software integrates the is as shown:
input, analysis, design and detailing processes for
cast in situ reinforced concrete. Originally, Esteem [𝑀]{𝑥̈ } + [𝐶]{𝑥̇ } + [𝐾]{𝑥} = {𝑃(𝑡)} (1)
can do static analysis. To satisfy seismic
requirements, Esteem has added on dynamic Whereby [M] is mass matrix, [C] is damping matrix,
analysis. There are 6 stages of process in Esteem. [K] is stiffness matrix, {x} is displacement vector and
They are the Input, Pre-processing, Analysis, Post {P(t)} is external force vector which is time
processing, Design, and Detailing. dependant.
To add in seismic capability, each of the 6 stages 2.4 Time History Analysis
incorporated concepts in seismic. For the input
stage, seismic parameters had to be added. The Time history analysis solves for this equation (1) of
relevant parameters are the response spectrum, motion for each time step of seismic ground
type of modal analysis and design type. In the pre- motion. The ground motion chosen should be
processor, the mass matrix had to be created. For recorded on ground with similar stiffness to the
the analysis, the modal analysis engine had to be ground that the structure will be built upon.
integrated into the original static engine. In the Carrying out a time history analysis for a large multi
post processing, modal combination is carried out. degree of freedom model is both time consuming
For the design, seismic load combination to and requires a large amount of memory to store
Eurocode is considered and in the detailing stage the information. Figure 2 shows the time history
the requirements of EC2 and EC8 are considered.
420
acceleration results for a single degree of freedom With the response spectrum, the maximum global
(SDOF) model. response of the structure for a certain mode of
vibration can be known without carrying out a time
history analysis. Two methods of analysis that use
the response spectrum are the equivalent lateral
force analysis and modal response spectrum
analysis.
2.6 Modal Analysis
[𝐾]{∅} = 𝜔2 [𝑀]{∅} (2)

Figure 2. Time history analysis of single degree of
free model (T = 1s) for EL Centro ground motion Using modal analysis which solves for (2), the
dynamic behaviour of the structure can be
2.5 Response Spectrum analysed separately from the magnitude of the
As engineers are mainly interested in the peak response. The dynamic behaviour of the structure
response of a structure, the response spectra are is given by carrying out a modal analysis which
created. The response spectrum is based upon the involves solving for the eigenvalues, ω2 and
peak responses of multiple SDOF systems with a eigenvectors, φ. The eigenvalues corresponds to
spectrum of periods which are subjected to a the natural period of the mode while the
ground motion of a certain ground type. The peak eigenvectors corresponds to the relative
responses and natural period of the SDOF models displacement of the nodes for that mode (Figure 5).
are plotted to give the response spectrum as A requirement for modal analysis is that it needs to
shown in Figure 3. The design response spectrum have sufficient modes such that the sum of the
given by building codes are based upon multiple mass participation for each of the seismic load case
response spectrums (Figure 4). Curve fitting is used achieves 90% of the total seismic mass. In addition,
to define equations for ease of use [3]. not all the modes are significant to the seismic
response in a certain direction. Therefore, Esteem
by default is set to automatically obtain the
required number of modes to satisfy the mass
participation requirement as well as only analyse
for the significant modes.
Figure 3. Acceleration response spectrum for EL

Centro ground motion
Figure 5. First five modes of a structural model
2.7 Modal Response Spectrum Analysis

(MRSA)
Figure 4. Acceleration response spectrum for Sabah Combining the dynamic response of the structure
(Peak ground acceleration: 0.05g; Ground type: C; from a modal analysis with the magnitude of the
Importance factor: II; Behaviour factor: 1.5) response from the response spectrum gives us the
421
modal response spectrum analysis method. Esteem

𝑛 𝑛
automatically links the response spectrum with the
modal results to give the distribution of response 𝑅𝐶𝑄𝐶 = √∑ ∑ 𝜌𝑖𝑗 𝑅𝑖 𝑅𝑗 (4)
for each mode (Figure 6). 𝑖=1 𝑗=1
3/2
8√𝜁𝑖 𝜁𝑗 (𝜁𝑖 + 𝛽𝑖𝑗 𝜁𝑖 )𝛽𝑖𝑗
𝜌𝑖𝑗 = 2
(1 − 𝛽𝑖𝑗2 ) + 4𝜁𝑖 𝜁𝑗 𝛽𝑖𝑗 (1 + 𝛽𝑖𝑗2 ) + 4(𝜁𝑖2 + 𝜁𝑗2 )𝛽𝑖𝑗2
(5)
𝜔𝑖
𝛽𝑖𝑗 = (6)
𝜔𝑗
As shown in Figure 7, if the periods are well spaced

apart, then the factor 𝜌𝑖𝑗 (5) would only be
significant when 𝛽𝑖𝑗 (6) is calculated using the same
period. This reduces the CQC equation to become
the same as SRSS.
Figure 6. Member forces for the 1st mode for

seismic motion in the global x-direction
2.8 Modal Combination

Modal combination is required to combine the
responses of the modes. The three methods of
Figure 7. Graph of 𝜌𝑖𝑗 vs 𝛽𝑖𝑗 based on 5% damping
modal combinations are summing the absolute
values (ABS), taking the square root of the sum of SRSS is suited for manual calculation to check the
the squares of the values (SRSS) and complete results while CQC is more suited for computers to
quadratic combination (CQC). The ABS method calculate.
assumes that the peak responses happen at the
In Esteem, the default method of modal
same time. This is a conservative assumption.
combination is CQC. As observed in Figure 8, the
Therefore, the SRSS (3) and CQC (4) method of
forces are all positive after modal combination
modal combination is used to estimate the
because the direction of the response is lost after
probabilistic magnitude of the forces with CQC
combination.
having an additional consideration for period
spacing. SRSS will give inaccurate results if the
periods are closely spaced.
The SRSS and CQC equations are as shown below.
𝑅𝑆𝑅𝑆𝑆 = √∑ 𝑅𝑖2 (3)

𝑖=1
422
Figure 8. Combined modal member forces for Figure 9. Member forces for ELFA for seismic
seismic motion in the global x-direction motion in the global x-direction
2.9 Equivalent Lateral Force Analysis (ELFA) 2.10 Mass eccentricity

A further simplification can be made which is To account for the fact that the position of the
based on the most significant mode and an centre of mass in a structure is not constant, an
assumption that the structure has a constant additional 4 seismic load cases corresponding to a
vertical stiffness along its height. This method is structural modal with the centre of mass shifted in
called the equivalent lateral force analysis (ELFA). the 4 orthogonal direction by an eccentric length.
There are height and regularity restrictions when There are two methods for considering this. The
using the ELFA method. For structures not within first is to shift the centre of mass in the four
the scope of ELFA, MRSA should be used. The ELFA orthogonal directions by the eccentric length
method can be used for a quick estimation of the (Figure 10). This results in four modal response
forces and to check software results. As observed spectrum analysis. The second method is to obtain
by comparing the member forces in Figure 8 and the inertia force and multiply it with the eccentric
Figure 9, usually the base shear from ELFA is larger length to obtain the eccentric torsion and apply it
than that of MRSA because MRSA only needs to to the structure in a static analysis (Figure 11). The
consider 90% mass participation and modal first method gives four seismic load cases that is
combination method gives a smaller base shear. already combined with the eccentric torsion while
Esteem also does ELFA but does not allow ELFA to the second method gives four separate load cases
be run if there are transfer elements because they for the seismic lateral load case and the eccentric
might indicate vertical irregularity. Esteem also torsion (Ex, Ey, Erx and Ery). Esteem automatically
checks the period of the structure to determine if implements the second method.
ELFA can be used. However, if MRSA is carried out,
ELFA can also be analysed alongside it for
comparison purposes.
423
Figure 12. First 12 default seismic load

combination
Figure 10. Mass eccentricity shifting mass method
2.12 Biaxial Load Combination
For biaxial column and wall design, the axial forces
and moments in the two orthogonal directions
needs to be considered together. However, as the
direction of forces is lost in a modal combination, a
sign combination needs to be performed. Esteem
by default considers 256 combinations for biaxial
design. Figure 13 shows the first 12 biaxial
combinations.
Figure 11. Mass eccentricity eccentric torsion

method
Checks for interstorey drift needs to be carried out
to satisfy serviceability requirements and p delta
effects. Esteem does this automatically.
2.11 Load Combination

To consider the fact that the earthquake can attack
in any direction, the seismic load cases in the two
Figure 13. First 12 default seismic biaxial load
orthogonal directions needs to be analysed and
combination
combined. The seismic load cases are also
combined with other load cases. In Esteem, the
2.13 Results Interpretation
default 64 seismic load combination satisfies this
requirement. Figure 12 shows the first 12 Esteem has many customisations that makes it
combinations. suited for buildings. One unique feature of Esteem
is its ability to give band strip analysis results from
area elements. This is helpful for shear wall and
diaphragm design as the averaged forces can be
extracted for design.
424
seismic response through energy dissipation and

larger displacement. Nonlinear push over analysis
can be carried out to determine the inelastic
capacity of the structure. This analysis is also used
to check for undesirable soft storey behaviour.
Esteem does design that is compliant to the
Eurocodes (Figure 15). For inelastic design, the
engineer needs to design the structure to yield
without failing.
For significant inelastic design which is categorised
in EC8 as Ductility Class Medium (DCM) and
Ductility Class Medium (DCH), there are additional
requirements for the yielding failure modes to have
a ductile behaviour. In addition, capacity design
Figure 14. Bandwidth results display (Wall In-Plane needs to be considered to ensure that the elastic
Moment) failure modes do not fail before the yielding failure
modes.
2.14 Design and Detailing Based on the design, Esteem can produce the
As seismic forces might be uneconomical for elastic relevant detailing that is ready for construction
design, engineers can design the structure for (Figure 16).
inelastic behaviour. Inelastic behaviour reduces the
Figure 15. Beam design calculation
Figure 16. Beam detailing
425
Good seismic design requires good layouts for

2.15 Results Validation
shorter transmission of forces and smaller
A unique feature in Esteem software is its ability to rotational eccentricity.
carry out automated comprehensive validation on
input data, loading take-off, mesh quality, analysis 4 Conclusion
integrity and output design data. One of which is to
ensure that the input loads are equal to the output In conclusion, a transition to seismic design
loads (Figure 17) and it checks the correctness of requires engineers to understand seismic
the software results. structural behaviours. Key concepts such as the
estimation of forces and its distribution, additional
design consideration based on assumed inelastic
behaviour and combination with other load cases
needs to be understood. Structural analysis design
and detailing software can aid in the transition by
providing a reference for compliance to code of
practice. Public awareness of the benefits of
seismic design will also aid in this transition.
5 References
[1] IEM Position Paper Committee (MY).
Position Paper for Concrete Codes of Practice
in Local Construction Industry after 2008.
Selangor (MY): Institute of Engineers
Figure 17. Results validation report Malaysia; 2008. 24 p.
[2] Hart, G., Wong, K. Structural Dynamics for
3 Public and Aesthetics Structural Engineers. New York: John Wiley &
Seismic consideration brings with it additional Sons; 1999. 608 p.
design constraints in the form of cost and building [3] Department of Standards Malaysia.
layout. This might cause resistance in the public Malaysia National Annex to MS EN 1998-1:
who have never experienced significant seismic 2015, Eurocode 8: Design of Structures for
attack and casualties caused by structural collapse. earthquake resistance – Part 1: General
Therefore, seismic design brings with it the need to rules, seismic actions and rules for buildings.
innovate for economical design. Technological 2015 [revised 1 Sep 2017, cited 10 December
innovation can lead to more economical and safer 2017]. Available from
structures in the future. This could be achieved https://www.msonline.gov.my/
through better use of materials, more skilled
labour and construction techniques. A side effect
of requiring skilled labour and better construction
technique is the need to train workers to be more
proficient and efficient which would increase their
standard of living as well as reducing cost due to
fewer mistakes made and labour required.
Seismic design will inadvertently influence the
architectural layout. Structural system can be
artfully exposed to inspire confidence in the
structure and influence the overall aesthetics.
426
The Seismic Performance Evaluation of RC High-rise Buildings

Designed to Various Building Codes
Waqar Hassan
AIT Solutions, Asian Institute of Technology (AIT), Bangkok, Thailand
Naveed Anwar
Pramin Norachan
Fawad A. Najam
National University of Sciences and Technology (NUST), Islamabad, Pakistan
Contact: nanwar@ait.ac.th
Abstract
This study evaluates and compares the expected seismic performance of a high-rise building when
designed according to various international building codes. Using a 40-story reinforced concrete
(RC) case study building, the comparison among the three most widely used building codes (ACI
318/ASCE 7-10, BS 8110 and EC-2/EC-8) is presented in terms of structural design and seismic
performance. The case study building has a dual structural system (moment-resisting frame and
shear walls) and is assumed to be located in a highly active seismic region. First, its linear elastic
model was created and analysed to perform the code-based design for gravity and seismic loads.
The building is designed separately for three codes following their prescribed load combinations,
cracked stiffness modifiers and seismic design factors. Then, the detailed performance evaluation
of case study building (separately designed for each building code) was carried out using the
nonlinear response history analysis (NLRHA) under different input ground motions. Based on
obtained results, a comparison of three building codes is presented in terms of the design, seismic
performance and economic considerations.
Keywords: high-rise buildings; dual systems; code-based design; nonlinear dynamic analysis;
performance-based seismic evaluation.
standards for the design, construction and

1 Introduction maintenance of constructed objects such as
Building codes are a set of rules and regulations buildings and non-building structures. These
specifying the minimum safety, health and energy standards are often prepared by the international
427
organizations and their committees based on the building in terms of displacements is almost same
general consensus of subject experts, researchers, for all other design codes. Similarly, Santos [2]
engineering community and governmental compared design criteria for buildings among
agencies. The codes become the law of a various codes. Obtained results were compared by
particular jurisdiction when officially enacted by applying several design standards on a regular ten
any particular governmental or private authority. story building. It was observed that difference in
design spectra shapes can cause differences in
With the rapid economic growth and urbanization,
overall results which can be even more than 100
the construction of tall buildings increased in the
percent in some cases.
middle of 20th century. A variety of social
requirements for commercial or aesthetic reasons More recently, Asmita et al. [3] reviewed seismic
and limited availability of land has resulted in design and evaluated high rise structures using
more challenges and difficulties for design and various international codes. Main objective was to
evaluation of high-rise buildings. examine the differences caused by using various
international codes during analysis of tall
Recently, occurrence of actual observed damages
buildings. However, details results showed that
especially human lives during earthquakes in
building designed using Euro code performs better
various parts of the world has proved that
as compared to Indian and American codes. It was
capacity of resisting earthquake loads is quite
also observed that Euro code serves to be the
insufficient. Buildings having non-ductile
most economical design and Indian code is the
reinforcement details were the main reason of the
least economical code.
structural inadequacy. Low lateral strength, poor
proportioning of frame members might also be This study will also focus on seismic performance
the one of reason in few countries which reduce comparison of a case study high-rise building with
seismic resistance in the buildings. For preserving shear walls, located in a high seismic zone and
life of public and structure all such important designed according to three international building
factors should be considered to prevent major codes (ACI, BS and EURO).
damage. Various seismic codes help to improve
the behavior of the structures so that they may 2 Methodology
withstand the earthquake effects without
significant loss of life and property. In order to In this study, a 40-story shear wall building
design an earthquake resistant structure, the structure located in a highly active seismic region
designer must have a good knowledge about (Makati, Philippines) is selected. It is first designed
various seismic design codes. The structural design according to three building codes. Then, the
practice in different countries involves the use of seismic performance is evaluated by comparing
different codes. However, the common and major various key response indicators, both at local
objective is to ensure the life of occupants. (members) level and global (structural) level, by
subjecting the building (separately designed
It should also be noted that satisfying a structure according to these codes) to a site-specific suit of
from one code may not compliance with the ground motion records.
design provisions given by another code. It is
expected that a comparative seismic assessment The case study building is a residential tower
of buildings designed to various codes will help to originally designed by the MKA (Magnusson
identify the code which can ensure better seismic Klemencic Associates) according to LATBDSC [4].
performance as compared to others. The lateral forces are mainly resisted by the
reinforced concrete structure core wall built
Recently, several studies have attempted to around the elevator shaft and special moment
perform such a comparison. Karthiga and Titus [1] resisting frames connecting the core. The typical
designed a ten story RC building using four plan and 3D view is shown in Figure 1, while basic
different international codes. It was found that BS features, dimensions and other structural and
code has consumed the highest reinforcement as non-structural details are shown in Table 1.
compared to other codes and the performance of
428
Table 2. Selection of codes

Design Codes Seismic Codes
ACI 318-14 ASCE 7-10
BS 8110-1997 EURO-8
Euro Code-2-2004 EURO-8
The linear elastic model of case study building is

created in ETABS [5] and is used to perform code-
based design. The model includes shear walls,
columns, coupling beams, beams and slabs. Shear
walls, slabs, are modeled using shell elements.
Columns, coupling beams and beams are modeled
Figure 1. 3D view & typical layout plan of building using frame elements. The stiffness parameters
for various elements are varied in each model for
several types of analysis. A critical damping ratio
Table 1. Basic geometric information of the case of 5% is used for DBE analysis in compliance with
study building and section sizes codes. For determining the design seismic
Description Dimensions demands, the standard Response Spectrum
Location Philippines Analysis (RSA) procedure is applied for DBE level
No of Stories 40 m for all three codes. Design parameters (e.g.
Width 35 m reinforcement ratio) obtained from three widely
Length 30 m used building codes i.e. ACI 318 [6]/ASCE 7-10[7],
Total Height (40-story) 121.92 m BS 8110 [8] and EC 2/EC 8 [9] (Table 2), were
Width to Length ratio 1.12 compared in terms of their adequacy for providing
Width to Height ratio 3.5 better seismic performance as well as for
Length to Height ratio 4 economic considerations.
Foundation: Fixed support (columns), pinned
support (shear walls)
The detailed nonlinear models were then created
Total no of lift-cores 2 in PERFORM 3D [10]. The models include inelastic
Dead Load Self-weight member properties for elements that were
Live Load 1.5 KN/m2 anticipated to be loaded beyond their elastic
Superimposed dead load 2.5 KN/m2 limits. These include flexural response of coupling
Reinforced concrete shear walls beams, girders and shear wall. The shear walls
Core wall  SW-1: 1000 mm, L01-L20 were modeled using nonlinear concrete and steel
 SW-2: 750 mm, L21-L40 fibers. The steel fibers are modeled using the
Reinforced concrete columns: Park’s model, while concrete is modeled using the
 800mm x 800mm (L01-L10) Mander’s model [11]. Girders, conventional RC
Columns
 700mm x 700mm (L11-L20) beams and coupling beams were modeled with
 600mm x 600mm (L21-L40) moment hinges at the ends. The deformations
Reinforced concrete Beams: capacities are taken from Table 10-7 of ASCE 41-
Beams  B-400X750 (L01-L10) 13 [12]. The performance evaluation is carried out
 B-400X650 (Inner) (L01-L20)
using nonlinear response history analysis (NLRHA)
 B-500X750 (T-Inner) (L21-L40)
under MCE level earthquake with an approximate
Conventional coupling Beams:
Coupling return period of 2475 years (2% probability of
 CPB-750X750
Beams exceedance in 50 years). The input ground
 CPB-800X800
Slab 150 mm reinforced concrete slab motions were obtained from a recent Probabilistic
Seismic Hazard Analysis (PSHA) study for the city
429
of case study building (Makati city, Philippines).

Seven pairs of ground motions were modified to
match with the MCE-level response spectrum
shown in Figure 2 and were used in the detailed
NLRHA procedure. Table 3 shows the acceptance
criteria for MCE-level seismic hazard.
2.5
MCE DBE
SPECTRAL ACCELERATION (G)
2.0
Mode 1 (2.69 s) Mode 2 (0.81 s) Mode 3 (0.66 s)
1.5
Y Direction
1.0
0.5
0.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
PERIOD (S)
Figure 2. The DBE- & MCE-level response spectra

used in this study
Mode 1 (2.47 s) Mode 2 (0.87 s) Mode 3 (0.66 s)
Table 3. Acceptance criteria for maximum Torsion
considered earthquake (MCE)
Item Value
Maximum of mean values
Peak transient shall not exceed 3%.
drift Maximum drift shall not
exceed 4.5%.
Maximum of mean values
shall not exceed 1%.
Residual drift
Maximum drift shall not
exceed 1.5%.
Coupling beam
≤ASCE 41-13 limits
inelastic rotation
Column Inelastic
Rotation
Mode 1 (2.24 s) Mode 2 (1 s) Mode 3 (0.75 s)
Shear wall
≤0.05 in tension and ≤0.02 in
reinforcement
axial strain
compression Figure 3. The vibration mode shapes
Remain elastic. (Check for 1.5
Shear wall shear 3.1 DBE-Level Response Spectrum Analysis
times mean value)
Girder inelastic It is observed that the base shear computed at
rotation DBE level by using ASCE 7-10 was 1.24 and 1.37
Girders shear Remain elastic.
times higher than Euro-8 in X and Y direction
respectively (Figure 4). Since BS don’t have their
3 Results and Discussion own seismic code so, Euro-8 were used as a
Figure 3 shows the natural periods for first three seismic code of BS due to which base shear came
vibration modes in both directions and torsion. same in both cases.
X Direction Figure 5 shows the story shear and moment
comparison in X-Direction of the case study
430
building. As expected, ASCE 7-10 [7] is resulting in The elastic story drifts were also evaluated and
higher story shears and corresponding overturning compared at the DBE level earthquake in both X
moments. and Y directions. Although they are within
acceptable limits, ASCE 7-10 has slightly higher
Response Spectrucum -Base Shear Comparison
7.20% 7.20% more drift as compared to Euro-8 (Figure 6).
5.8% The summary of reinforcement requirement for all
5.3%
3 codes is shown in Figures 7 to 10. BS code has
Base Shear (% age)
3.1%
resulted in more reinforcement in selected
2.7% coupling beams, main beams and columns.
Column Rebar( %age)

2.0% 1.8%
X Along Direcrtion Y
ASCE 7-10 Un scaled RS-ASCE 7-10 RS-EURO 1.5%
REBAR PERCENTAGE
1.1% 1.0% 1.1%
1.0% 1.0% 1.0% 1.0% 1.0%
Figure 4. RS-Base Shear comparison (DBE-Level) 1.0%
Story Shear (X) Story Moment (X) 0.5%

45 45
40 40 EURO-8 0.0%
ACI BS EURO
35 35 ASCE 7-10
L0-L10 L11-L20 L21-L30
30 30
Story Level
25 25 Figure 7. Column reinforcement

20 20
Shear Wall Rebar (% Age)
15 15 2.0%
10 10
1.5%
Rebar (% age)
5 5
0 0 1.0%
0 20000 40000 0 500 100015002000
Shear Force (KN) 0.5%
Moment (10^3 KN-m)
0.0%
Figure 5. Story shear and moment comparison (X- ACI BS EURO
P-1 P-2 P-3 P-4 P1-A P2-A P3-A P4-A
DBE Level)
Figure 18. Shear wall reinforcement
Story Drift-X Story Drift-Y
50 45 Coupling Beam Reinforcement Comparison
ASCE 7-10 40 27682
EURO-8 24465
40 35
30 18822
30 17854
25 16114
Story Level
As TOP (mm2)
20 12572
20
15
10 10
5
0 0
0.00% 0.20% 0.40% 0.00% 0.10% 0.20% 0.30% ACI BS EURO
Story Drift Story Drift Along Codes
CPB-750X750 CPB-800X800
Figure 6. Story drift (X, Y Directions ) DBE Level) Figure 9. Coupling beams Reinforcement
431
12000 Top + Bottom Reinforcement 11331 NL-ACI NL-EURO NL-BS

9554 45
10000 NL-Story Shear (X) 40
8167 7753
8000 35
As (mm2)
6249
6000 4697 30
Story Level
4000 2922 25
2554 2778
20
2000
15
0
10
ACI BS EURO
B-500X750 B-400X750 B-400X650 5
0
Figure 10. Beams reinforcement -120000 -60000 0 60000 120000
Shear Force (KN)
The total amount of longitudinal reinforcement Figure 12. NL story shear (X-MCE level)
was also compared between three design codes. It
was found that Euro code required less Figures 12 and 13 show the comparison of story
reinforcement of about 183 tons as compared to shear and overturning moments in both X and Y-
ACI and 200 tons less than building designed by BS directions.
code. The comparison between three codes is NL-Story Moment (X)
45
shown in Table 3.
40
Table 3. The comparison of reinforcement 35
Reinforcement Comparison (Weight in Kg) 30
Story Level
ACI BS EURO 25
Columns 67,598 81,484 64,362 20
Beams 280,522 334,593 387,196 15
Coupling Beams 73,784 86,949 60,791 10
Shear Walls 480,852 412,804 204,048 5
Total Sum (Kg) 902,756 915,830 716,396 0
-3000000 -1500000 0 1500000 3000000
3.2 MCE-Level Nonlinear Response History Story Moment (KN-m)
ACI EURO BS
(NLRHA) Analysis
The detailed NLRHA procedure was carried out Figure 13. NL story moment (X-MCE level)
using 7 pairs of MCE-level ground motions. It is
Under MCE level earthquake, the story
observed that the computed base shear for Euro
displacements and drifts (averaged value from 7
code is lower than those of ACI & BS codes in both pairs of ground motions) in both X & Y direction
X and Y directions (Figure 11). were compared among three models. Mean
NLTH-ACI NLTH-BS NLTH-EURO values of peak transient drift ratios were also
19.50%
18.27%
17.16%
compared under MCE level earthquakes and were
13.68%14.38%
checked against the limit of 0.03. The maximum
Base Shear (% age)
11.59% story drift ratio from any ground motion was

compared against the limit of 0.045. It is observed
that all models performed satisfactorily in
transient drifts and residual drift ratios and
remained within the acceptable limits (Figures 14
x Along Direcrtion Y and 15).
Figure 11. Nonlinear (NL) base shear expressed as
a percentage of total seismic weight
432
Story Displacement (X) considerations. It is observed that all of structural

45 members evaluated from three models are within
40 allowable limit and performed satisfactorily under
35 MCE level. However, designing a building by Euro
30 code can save 185 tons of longitudinal steel as
Story Level
25
compared to building designed by ACI & BS codes.
20
Therefore, Euro standards can comparatively
15
serve to be the most economical design codes for
10
the site specific hazard at the site of case study
5
building (Makati city, Philippines).
0
-0.80 -0.60 -0.40 -0.20 0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80
Displacement (m) 5 References
ACI EURO BS
[1] Karthiga S., Titus H.E. Design and comparison of a
Figure 14. NL story Displacement (X-MCE level) residential building (g+10) for seismic forces using
the codes: IS1893, Euro code8, ASCE 7-10 and
British code. International Journal of Research in
Transient Story Drift (X) Engineering and Technology, 2015; 4(5)
45
40 [2] Santos S.H. Comparative study of codes for the
seismic design of structures. Mathematical
35
Modelling in Civil Engineering. 2013; 9(1)
30
Story Level
25 [3] Asmita R.W., Salunke P. J., Narkhede T.N. Review

20
On Seismic Design and Assessment of High Rise
Structures Using Various International Codes.
15
International Journal of Scientific Research and
10
Development. 2016; 4(3): 1851-1855
5
[4] LATBSDC. An alternative procedure for seismic
0
-3.50% -2.00% -0.50% 1.00% 2.50% analysis and design of tall buildings located in the
Drift (% age) Los Angeles region. 2015; Los Angeles Tall
ACI EURO BS Limit Buildings Structural Design Council.
[5] CSI v9.7.4. Extended Three Dimensional Analysis
Figure 15. Transient Story Drift (X-MCE level) of Building System, 2011. Computer and
Structures, Inc.: Berkeley, California, USA.
4 Conclusions [6] ACI Committee 318. Building Code Requirements
This study presented the design and expected for Structural Concrete (ACI 318-14). American
seismic performance of a case study high-rise Concrete Institute.
building according to three most widely used [7] ASCE 7-10. Minimum design loads for buildings
building codes (ACI 318/ASCE 7-10, BS 8110 and and other structures. American Society of Civil
EC-2/EC-8). The building is designed separately for Engineers; 2010.
three codes following their prescribed load [8] BS 8110. Structural use of concrete. Part I: Code
combinations, cracked stiffness modifiers and of practice for design and construction. British
seismic design factors. Then, the detailed Standards Institution, UK. 1997.
performance evaluation of the building
[9] Eurocode 2: Design of Concrete Structures: Part 1-
(separately designed for each building code) was 1: General Rules and Rules for Buildings. British
carried out using the nonlinear response history Standards Institution; 2004.
analysis (NLRHA) under different input ground
[10] PERFORM 3D v4. Nonlinear analysis and
motions. Based on obtained results, a comparison
performance assessment for 3D structures.
of three building codes is presented in terms of
California, USA: Computers and Structures Inc.
the design, seismic performance and economic 2006.
433
[11] Mander JB, Priestley MJ, Park R. Theoretical

stress-strain model for confined concrete. Journal
of structural engineering. 1988;114(8):04-26.
[12] ASCE 41-13: Seismic evaluation and retrofit of
existing buildings. ASCE, 2012.
434
Innovative Upgrading of Heritage Buildings: Structural Case Studies
Kribanandan Gurusamy Naidu

Abstract
The challenge of integrating old and new in the development of urban spaces is constrained by commercial
realities and an ignorance of the value of maintaining historical relevance as society develops. Malaysia has
had its fair share of such historical gems being destroyed without much consideration for heritage but there
also exists significant projects where proper design and engineering have been applied for conservation and
adaptive reuse.
In this paper innovative options for structural upgrading of masonry buildings is considered using techniques
which provide a basis for achieving structural integrity without compromising the visual appearance and
historical value. This includes examples of a shop house upgraded following significant settlement due to
adjacent construction and an adaptive reuse of a school which was converted into a theatre.
Keywords: Heritage Upgrading, Masonry Gothic Arches, Structural Strengthening,
1 Introduction
A masonry shop house in Taiping, Perak was badly building housed a family business until adjacent
affected by construction being undertaken at an construction activity forced the owners to move
adjacent lot. There was significant evidence of from the premises due to an eviction order.
settlement at the front and back of the building,
leading to significant cracking of a party wall, front The actual construction details of the adjacent
and rear walls and the main walkway Arch building was not made available but the site visit
Supporting the upper floor and wall. confirmed that the original 2 storey building next
door had been torn down to make way for a 3
The building is a 2 storey pre-war shop house with storey structure on piled foundations with a lift at
an overall layout plan as shown in Figure 1. The the rear.
Figure 1 Plan View of Shop House
435
The only precaution taken to protect the shop sampling and testing programme which formed
house was an attempt to support the common the basis on which to develop a remedial
corridor arch at the front of the building which intervention programme keeping the compatibility
was totally inappropriate for a structural masonry of new and old materials in view and as far as
arch and had potentially accentuated the serious possible minimizing the extent of physical
damage caused by imposed stress concentrations intervention. The building was reinstated in an
due to the settlement and vibration. The adaptive reuse and converted into a theatre.
structural Engineer who designed the new
adjacent 3 storey shop house was asked by the
local authority to provide a report and a basis for
remedial intervention. The initial suggested
2 Visual Building Audit
approach to epoxy inject the cracks were
2.1 Shop House in Taiping
considered wholly inadequate and not a serious
measure of what was required to reinstate the A site walk through was undertaken to view the
shop house to its original design intent and to condition of the structure. There was considerable
guard against long term settlement and cracking evidence of settlement of the columns in gridline
associated with the disturbed foundations. A/1-3 as shown in Figure 2. This led to uneven
loads on the masonry columns causing the
The former Victoria Institution now called
characteristic structural cracking of the Arch,
Kompleks Taman Budaya, located in the center of
where cracks of up to 50 mm in width were noted.
Kuala Lumpur on the former Jalan Bandar was to
A closer examination of the party wall from the
be upgraded and extended in an adaptive reuse of
adjacent shop house confirmed that the structural
a cultural heritage building by converting it into an
cracking extended to this wall along Gridline A2-
auditorium. The main structure, hereby called
A5 where cracks of up to 30 mmm were noted.
“Conservation Building” was built in 1893 and was
in ruins having deteriorated over time due to
In general the party wall away from the new
physical impact of human activity as well as
development was structurally intact. An
weathering over time and the impact of a fire in
immediate intervention was proposed to
1999. The building was built primarily of masonry
structurally reinstate the front Arch, the common
at ground level and timber frame at the upper
party wall along gridline A and other settlement
level and had been abandoned for several years
and cracking points. It was noted that the
(see Figure 2). Following the gazettement of the
structure was not loaded with the full
building under the Monument Act 1976, a
complement of live loads which can be expected.
contract was let to rebuild the structure in an
The cracking on the walls and the Corridor Arch
adaptive reuse of a cultural heritage building to a
were clearly to do with settlement and vibration
modern auditorium for the Arts. Besides the
loads associated with the adjacent construction
upgrading and conservation works, a new Annex
rendering the building unsafe to use at the time of
building with a basement was included as part of
the investigation. There was also a considerable
the development of the site. Prior to any
amount of water ingress into the building
intervention associated with the upgrading /
particular at gridline A-B’/5-7 and also at the
rectification works, a detailed condition survey
building corners at gridline A1 and A5 which had
was undertaken covering the external and internal
not been a problem previously.
building elements as well as the infrastructure
services. This was followed by an in depth
436
Figure 2. A Record of the defects at the Main Arch at the Shop House Front and at the Party Wall
two (32) samples of Timber were extracted for
testing. It was confirmed that the floor joists,
2.2 Victoria Institution Kuala Lumpur
rafters and columns were mainly Merbau, the wall
A global visual survey [1,4] was undertaken of the plate was generally Chengal and the Purlins were
building to identify the size, number and spacing found to be of Keruing while the floor boards and
of timber joists, state of the plaster and exposed spaces were found to be of Meranti. Based on the
brickwork, plant growth, rising damp and other visual inspection and testing there was no
defects. A sample of the defects are indicated in indication of common timber infections such as
Figure 3 and included. wet or dry rot and it was concluded that the
timber could be re-used after treatment for cracks
a) Exposed brickwork, as plaster was
and splits.
delaminated or cracked
b) Bricks not present dislodged or broken The brick work where it was visible particularly up
c) Cracking on the walls, stairs and Arches to first floor level appeared in good condition and
d) Paint peeling and mould growth was a generally unaffected by fire though mould growth
widespread problem due to the dampness on and rising damp was a problem. At the upper
the walls levels, some charring was noted. The plaster,
Ground related movement was evident in where it existed up to first floor level, was
Zones A,B, C and T completely delaminated. The overall testing of
e) Structural cracks at staircase 4 which compressive strength, moisture content and
appeared to be due to settlement, requiring mineral components indicated the properties of
trial pits to study the foundation system and the bricks were normal indicating no major
reasons for the problem defects and could be reused without treatment
f) Some of the walls had been re-plastered despite the fire and exposure to the elements.
(Zones S and T) using cement based mortar
The problem of moisture movement from ground
and no records were available.
into the masonry elements was clearly a problem
The timber joints were generally charred due to leading to a rising damp issue. The original
fire damage but the unaffected elements were in protection to rising damp was provided by a base
general intact despite being exposed completely capping at about 300 mm above ground level
to the environment for at least 3- 4 years. Thirty- throughout the structure. It was evident that this
protection had broken down locally and a
437
proprietary injection system was recommended to more sustainable option in terms of architectural
reinstate the protection. value, materials use, neighbourhood disruption,
waste disposal and overall cost. By avoiding
The condition of the paintwork was generally
expensive demolition and rebuild, the
found to be poor. At most of the areas, water
development of repair and refurbishment
stains, paint peeling / flaking and mould growth
techniques retains the aesthetic and historic value
was noted. Based on the exposed conditions, it
of a building including its appearance and
was believed that the adhesion strength was fairly
providing a sustainable structural solution.
low if not negligible.
Other defects noted included mould growth, plant Before any interventions, it is important to
growth and cracking on the walls and arches. Due determine the root cause of the problem. In some
to dampness of the walls, mould growth was a cases, the repair program will need to include
problem in all areas. In some areas this had adding appropriate vertical or horizontal
affected 50 to 80 % of the wall areas. In several expansion joints to accommodate the differential
areas, cracking on the plaster was noted but of movement of the masonry elements which may
particular concern was cracking noted at the have caused cracking in the first place. If the
arches, walls and stairs at Zones B, C, J, T. These defects are related to settlement, it may be
were surveyed in detail and localised structural necessary to repair or underpin the foundations
remedial action was proposed [2]. before any stitching of the cracks on the brick
The adaptive reuse of the facility meant several masonry. In historic buildings, it is important to
internal pillars had to be removed and a new roof preserve as much of the original materials as
and loading points provided. This meant extra possible and consider repair options which are
loads on some load bearing arches and reduction relatively reversible and do not damage the
of loads in others. This required a detailed design original building fabric.
analysis to consider remedial intervention.
In the case of the Taiping Shop house there was a
3 Innovative Approaches for the clear case of serious settlement cracking due to
Structural Reinstatement of foundation movement arising from the adjacent
Masonry Structures construction activity at the time of our
investigation in 2013. In the case of Victoria
3.1 Overview Institution the main structure, was in ruins at the
time of the investigation in 2003 having
Demolition of older buildings and rebuilding is deteriorated over time. For the latter significant
often considered the preferred option when such deterioration of the main arches required
structures come into disrepair. Increasingly immediate intervention and the problem of
however repair and refurbishment is seen as a settlement at some locations had to be arrested.
438
Figure 3. A Dilapidation Survey of defects at Victoria Institution
materials with glass fibre as the base ie Maperod

3.2 Taiping Shop House
G and Mapewrap Foccio. Where masonry wall
Several innovative techniques have been cracks need to be repaired by a stitching method,
developed for the structural intervention of the glass fiber rod MAPEROD G is a suitable
masonry buildings. Among the key developments material due to the compatibility of modulus of
in this area includes the use of stainless steel elasticity (40,800N/mm2) to the lime mortar. It
helical ties and slim ties developed by Helifix. also has a good tensile strength of 760 N/mm2 to
These form very strong axial ties to resist lateral help bridge the cracks in case there is further
forces, yet are flexible enough to accommodate movement. As glass fiber is also corrosion
natural building movement without introducing resistant it will be protected in future even though
further stresses in the substrate. The associated it is embedded in the highly porous substrate such
concealed, non-disruptive installation techniques as masonry. In the case of the Taiping shop house
provide many outstanding benefits, from the the latter approach (ie) mapei rod was used as the
simplicity of their design to ease of installation materials were easily transportable and MAPEI
and their long term performance. had the infrastructure to get the materials to site
quickly despite this being imported.
More recently the options for repair has been
further advanced by Mapei using alternative
arches were of major concern. To fix the problem
3.3 Kompleks Taman Budaya (Victoria the Cintech Anchor
Institution)
Only the structural reinstatement requirements System consisting of steel bars enclosed in a mesh
are considered herein [3]. In this context the fabric sleeve which is keyed into the masonry with
presence of structural cracking located at the a pumpable grout was considered. However due
Masonry Arches was considered serious enough to the time lag and expense of bringing the
that these would have become unstable when solution from overseas a alternate local approach
loads are applied. Three arches namely A25, A26 was developed as discussed below. The area
and A48 and also several masonry walls in the around staircase 4 where serious settlement had
perimeter of the building above the masonry
439
taken place required strengthening of the Based on the assessment and the effects of the
foundations before any application of load. new loading from the raised roof and new
materials, remedial options [2,3] to stabilise the
The arches present in Kompleks Taman Budaya
deformed and weak arches from collapsing was
(former Victoria Institute) is of the Victorian
developed as follows:
Gothic style, which was favoured by British
Architects between mid 1800’s and early 1900’s  Arch stitching and consolidation and
and commonly used throughout the  Arch repair and crack repair
Commonwealth countries during this period. The
The arch stitching and consolidation was used to
Gothic arch style has a very high arch thrust at the
increase the strength of the arches identified to
springing level, hence usually requiring buttressing
carry the new imposed loading. The arch repair
to resist the outward thrust. The wall and piers in
and crack stitching was carried out locally in areas
the Kompleks Taman Budaya provide the
where the cracks could compromise the arch
resistance to this outward thrust.
stability.
The survey in July 2003 revealed a series of cracks
The arch stitching and consolidation relies on the
in the arches and the possible causes were
steel reinforcement and the bond between the
considered as follows:
reinforcement and the masonry to provide the
 Debonding of the arch ring from the wall strength to take the thrust forces developed by
due to uneven loading, the applied loads. The traditional methods to
 cracks at arch centre and springing due to assess the arch strength includes mechanism
hinges developing from failure of the arch analysis and the semi-empirical Modified Mexe
thrust mechanism, Method. Both methods rely on calculating the
 deformation of the arch due to foundation position and limiting load to produce a four hinge
movements and failure mechanism as shown in Figure 4. The
 failure of the arch from the imposed loads mechanism analysis method was adopted to
analyse the arches.
Figure 4. The expected four hinge failure mechanism in a Gothic Arch

undertaken between gridlines 1-5/A included the
4 Overview of Remedial following:
Interventions a) Stabilization of six column foundations A/1,
A/2, A/3, A/4, A/5 and A/6 with soil grouting
4.1 Reinstatement of a Shop House in
using OPC and Intraplast –Z.
Taiping b) Removal of wall plaster and re plastering
The extent of the remedial works was confirmed using Mape-Antique MC
based on the visual examination and following c) The column at gridline A/3 was fully removed
hammer tapping and hacking to confirm the and reconstructed by re-using the existing
extent of the problem. The final remedial works bricks.
440
d) The columns at gridline A/2 and A/5 were ie approximately to a depth of 140mm to provide
partially removed and the bricks reinstated the full anchorage. To structurally bond the
and injected using Mape-Intique I by a low MAPEROD G and MAPEWRAP FIOCCO to the
pressure injection method. masonry wall, epoxy adhesive ADESILEX PG2 TG
e) The Arch and wall cracks were repaired by a was selected. Epoxy has high durability and good
stitching method using Maperod G and mechanical properties in terms of compressive,
Mapewrap G Fiocco. Mapewrap Primer SP flexural, tensile and shear strength. To enhance
and Adesilex PG2 material. the bonding to the masonry wall, all contact
surfaces of the masonry were primed with
In this case the stitching could only be performed
MAPEWRAP PRIMER 1 SP to consolidate the
at one-side and for this reason MAPEWRAP G
porous surface and eliminate dust. The crack lines
FIOCCO was selected as an appropriate method.
were reinforced at every 4-5 brick intervals and
MAPEWRAP G FIOCCO is made into an L-shaped
inserted into the pointing layer for a minimal
anchor using epoxy impregnator MAPEWRPA 31
impact on the existing masonry wall. The full
SP and is bonded at both ends of the MAPEROD G.
extent of the repairs is illustrated in Figure 5.
The anchor is planted deep into the masonry wall,
Figure 5. Significant Cracking of the Arch and Party Wall and the proposed approach to crack stitching.
The remedial work was carried out by a specialist contractor and the repair materials were supplied by
Mapei. The works were carried out successfully and the shop house reinstated to its original condition.
the applied loads and strengthening will be
4.2 Reinstatement and Adaptive Reuse of
required as shown in Figure 6.
Victoria Institution
The arch strengthening requirements were based
The reinstatement of the Conservation Building on the arch thrust force given in the output. The
needed rigorous consideration and planning. critical arches analysed were Archs no. 25, 26 and
Following a detailed investigation, sampling and 48. Arch no. 25 which supports the T4 roof truss
testing of the building and the surrounding ground gave a CLF of 0.27, while arches 26 and 48 which
conditions the approach to reinstatement of the supports the T3 roof truss post gave a CLF of 0.51.
arches was confirmed as follows.
Based on the arch thrust forces for the above
The mechanism analysis gives the Critical Load analysis, remedial option Arch 1 was developed.
Factor (CLF). If the CLF is below 1 then the arch The reinforcement provided is for the worst-case
ring has developed hinges and has failed to carry result, which is on Arch No. 25 and this was -used
for Arches No. 26 and 48.
441
Figure 6. Four approaches to repairs – Gothic Arches

to determine the length of the anchors required
For the Remedial Arch 3 option, the arch thrust
to bridge the crack and stabilise the arch. Also for
forces was used to determine the length of bond
Remedial Arch options 2, 3 and 4 the length of
required to be achieved to prevent debonding of
anchors was adjusted on site based on the
the arch ring from the main wall. Similarly for the
masonry condition to achieve the required bond
Arch Repair and Crack Repair (Remedial Arch
length.
Option 2 and 4) the arch thrust forces were used
5 Conclusions and Kompleks Taman Budaya, JTK Report

1201/02/7025 dated 30th Dec 2002.
Recommendations
[2] Kribanandan Gurusamy Naidu
[1] Masonry structures require special
approaches for structural reinstatement Remedial approach for the conservation
with careful consideration to detail. The building, Kompleks Taman Budaya, JTK
compatibility of new and old requires in report 1201/03/7039, 24th Feb 2003
depth assessment before execution. [3] Jayesh Patel, Kribanandan G N
[2] The upgrading and reinstatement of two Update on Remedial approach on
heritage buildings was demonstrated and Conservation Building, Kompleks Taman
successfully undertaken in one case, using Budaya, JTK report 1201/03/7065, 5th Sept
innovative materials specifically identified 2003
for the works and another with local
materials adapted for masonry [4] Kribanandan Gurusamy
strengthening following a design review. "The Restoration and Upgrading of the
100 year old Victoria Institution: the
6 References adaptive reuse of a School into an
[1] Lim Soon Keat, Kribanandan G N Auditorium", The 11th International
Conference on Durability and Building
Approach to investigation, Sampling and Materials and Components, 11-14 May
Testing of the Conservation Building, 2008 in Istanbul, Turkey.
442
Rebuilding of Tokyo’s SUITENGU shrine
Tomohiro Iida, Kazutomi Nakane, and Naoki Aso

Takenaka Corporation, Koutou ward, Tokyo, JAPAN
Contact: iida.tomohiro@takenaka.co.jp
Abstract
Tokyo’s Suitengu is a traditional Japanese shrine located in the urban area that is often visited by
people praying for safe delivery in childbirth. There are two structural features which provide both
quakeproof and high fire-resistance required in the urban area. Its main structural features are the
integral base isolation system for several buildings of different sizes and the application of base
isolation to the low-story section that extends throughout the entire shrine precincts. The second
feature is main shrine buildings constructed with a traditional wooden visible interior and exterior
and an inner structure of reinforced concrete that ensures both earthquake safety and fire-
resistance. These features are useful to rebuilding the traditional buildings which is often seen in
the developing world in rapid urbanization area which requires high safety of buildings.
Keywords: Integral base isolation system; super-fine octagonal column; ultra-high strength
concrete; hybrid construction of concrete and wood.
1 Introduction
Tokyo’s SUITENGU is a traditional Japanese harmonize traditional wooden design of the
shrine known for praying for safe delivery. We main building of shrine which is made full use of
designed new SUITENGU based on the concept MIYADAIKU carpenter’s skills, and modern
that it connects solemn old shrine and modern design of buildings for waiting and gathering
townscapes as a rebuilding of regional landmark which is an abstraction of nagaya-mon (gate)
familiar from 200 years ago. Therefore, we and KURA (warehouse) of samurai residences.
Photo 1. Exterior view
443
three buildings placed so as to enclose the shrine

It’s hard to build traditional wooden shrine
precinct: the Shaden (shrine pavilion), the Machiai
because it doesn’t have both function of seismic
and Sanshuden (waiting room and the assembly
safety and fire resistance required in the
hall). Corridors going in three directions between
Japanese urban area. In order to solve this the buildings are also placed on the first floor.
problem, we developed the new structural
design method. To respond to the owner’s strong desire to
provide safety and peace of mind to the many
There are two main structural features. First is worshippers including expectant mothers who will
the integral base isolation system for several come to the shrine in the event of a major
buildings with different scale and application on earthquake, instead of simply providing base
the low storied part which spread whole isolation for the shrine pavilion, meeting room
precinct of the shrine. We chose RC frame & and assembly hall on the second floor slab level,
wall Structure with heavy weight and high an integral base isolation system was used in
rigidity which is suitable for solving the problem which a base isolation floor was placed beneath
of seismic isolation effect due to low weight and the parking area and all areas frequented by
weight eccentricity in this type of building. And worshippers were base-isolated (Figure. 2). This
in order to suppress the twist of the seismic reduced acceleration throughout the entire shrine
isolation layer, we arranged a highly rigid LRB on precinct and improved earthquake resistance.
the outer peripheral part to increase torsional There is a self-drive-in parking structure and back
resistance and to bring center of gravity and yard on the basement floor and first floor covering
rigidity closer. This system provides high level the entire site. Above this are the three buildings
of safety and relief to worshipers over the entire of different sizes that make up the shrine
precinct during the earthquake. Then it can also complex: shrine pavilion, meeting room and
be used as a regional shelter. As the second, assembly hall. For this reason, the center of
main building of shrine is composed of gravity of the buildings is unevenly distributed in
traditional wooden interior and exterior and RC the planar direction, and the complex will be
inner structure that have a both function of subject to torsional force in the event of an
seismic safety and fire resistance. The shrine earthquake. Accordingly, lead rubber bearings
looks like wooden building because RC inner S h rin e g ro o v e W a itin g ro o m
structure is completely hidden by the wood.

S h rin e p a v ilio n Shrine precinct A ssem b ly h a ll Main entrance
2 Overview of building Po lice b o x
Location: Nihonbashi, Chuo Ward, Tokyo

Building scale: 1 basement floor, 6 above- Entrance
ground floors, 1 penthouse Figure 1. Building

floor layout
Maximum height: 24.14 m
Construction area: Approximately 2,000 m2
Total floor area: Approximately 5,000 m2
3 Overview of structural planning

3.1 Use of integral base isolation extending
throughout the entire shrine precinct
Figure. 1 shows the building layout of the shrine.
There is a parking area on the basement floor and Figure 2. Integral base isolation system
the first floor. On the second floor and higher are
444
(LRB) of different rigidity have been placed building complex, and it was difficult to ensure
around the periphery of the buildings, as shown in balanced planar rigidity. There was also a problem
Figure. 3, so the center of gravity of the base in that it was difficult to extend the base isolation
isolation layer will be as close as possible to the primary natural period because of the low-rise,
center of rigidity in order to deal with this lightweight nature of the buildings. Accordingly,
torsional force. Oil dampers were also placed these problems were resolved by using the high
around the periphery of the buildings in order to rigidity and high specific gravity of concrete to
provide damping performance with respect to effectively place earthquake-resisting walls to
torsional vibration as well as horizontal motion. ensure rigidity, while at the same time using the
considerable dead weight of these walls to extend
The upper structure has a complex planar and
the base isolation primary natural period.
elevation shape due to the characteristics of the
▽RFL
4,000
▽6FL
3,800
▽5FL
Assembly hall(high weight)
3,800
23,050
▽4FL
3,800
3,800
▽3FL Shrine pavilion and waiting room(low weight)
11,450
3,800
3,800
▽2FL
3,800
3,800
▽GL ▽1FL
50
7,650 50
3,450
3,450
▽B1FL
7,650
4,200
4,200
▽MFL
LRB(1 lead plug typeLow rigidity) LRB(4 lead plug typeHigh rigidity)
6,400 1,900
5,600
27,775
6,400
5,600
Elastic sliding bearing (low friction)

1,875
Oil damper(X-direction 4units,Ｙ-direction 4units)
1,875 6,750 5,950 7,550 5,600 8,200 5,450 7,850 8,350 2,700 6,800 2,300
69,375
Figure 3. Framing elevation and base isolation plan
445
3.2 Development of super-fine octagonal

columns made of ultra-high strength
concrete
As this shrine complex was constructed in an
urban area, the site area was limited. For this
reason, in order to secure as large an area as
possible for the waiting room and slope, super-
Figure 4. Super-fine octagonal columns made of
fine octagonal columns made of ultra-high
ultra-high strength concrete Layout plan
strength concrete were developed. The reduction
in seismic force achieved through the use of the
base isolation system made it possible to increase
the concrete strength to ultra-high strength
(Fc120), enabling the diameter of the columns of
the structural body to be reduced to 250 mm,
which is the minimum diameter allowed under the
Building Standards Law for columns offering two-
hour fire-resistant performance. The structural Photo 2. Interior views
plan has the structure bear primarily vertical load, (Left: Waiting room, Right: Slope)
while in the event of an earthquake the horizontal
force is transmitted through the slab to the
earthquake-resisting wall skeleton on both sides.
In addition, exposed concrete finishing with
wooden grain pattern was used for the surface of
the columns to create a design that achieves both
slimness and the wooden columns that are in
keeping with a shrine pavilion. Figure. 4 shows the
placement of the slim columns, while Photo 2
shows the interior of the waiting room and the
slope. The result is an open space that without the
oppressive feeling that may result from the use of
large columns. The use of steel fibers was thought
to be one effective means of increasing concrete Photo 3. Structural experiment Test specimen
strength. However, as the waiting room and slope placement
are areas in which children and expectant mothers Tie hoop:D10-180φ
Sleeve
will actually touch the columns, it was presumed (Mechanical)
@100(MK785)
that the fibers may protrude from the uneven pw=0.57%
cryptomeria board tongue-and-groove formwork, Joint t20

Main reinforcement:
possibly leading to injury. Accordingly, pg=2.99%
4-D22(SD590)
experiments to check performance were “A”cross-section

conducted using synthetic fibers as the only
additive (Figure. 5 - Figure. 7 and Photo 3 - Photo No.2
Joint t20 Concrete : Fc120
5). As a result, high-strength concrete was M/Qd : 3.60
developed that achieved structural load-carrying Main reindorcement : 4-D22(SD590)
Sleeve
capacity and two-hour fire-resistant performance (Mechanical) Tie hoop : D10○@100(σv =785N/mm2)
without the use of steel fibers.
[Front view]
Figure 5. Test specimen summary
446
Anticipated range of deformaition of

3.3 Shrine pavilion: a fusion of traditional
200
main building (±1/500rad)
wooden finishing and reinforced
150 試験体
concrete skeleton
TestUnit1003
specimen No.2
100 The site is located in a fire zone, so the entire
building complex including the shrine pavilion
せん断力：Ｖc[kN]
50
Shea force
0
Experimental
実験値 value needed to be a fire-resistant structure. For this
Flexural
曲げひび割れ発生
Main
主筋降伏
cracking
reinforcement yielding
reason, an “inner box structure” was devised to
-50
Shear cracking
せん断ひび割れ発生
Shear reinforcing bar yielding
せん断補強筋降伏
add earthquake resistance and fire resistance
-100
Crushing
圧壊発生 through the use of an enclosed concrete skeleton,
Cross-sectional
断面解析値 analysis value
-150
Calculated
計算包絡線envelope housed within the beautiful inner and outer visible
Shear strength following
曲げ降伏後のせん断強度flexural yielding
-200
-20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20
sections created by the traditional wooden roof
Member angle of-3rotation
部材角：Ｒ×10 [rad.] (×10-3rad) truss and finishing (Figure. 8).The freedom of
Figure 6. Load deformation curve concrete in terms of the ability to freely create
any form made it possible to create a skeleton
shape that would not obstruct the finishing or the
equipment housed within. The shrine pavilion was
N N designed using the rules of the old Japanese
N
measuring system, called Shakkanho. As the span
o. o. o.
No.2 No.0 2 No.0 2
did not match that of the parking area below, the
2 2 2 thickness of the slab beneath the shrine pavilion
R=1/200rad. R=1/100rad. R=1/50rad. was increased to 500 mm to make it possible to
transmit the stress generated by the staggered
Photo 4. Properties of test specimen failure column positions. Care was taken with the detail
work as well. For example, out of consideration
40.0
for differences in deformation characteristics
Pass line
30.0 2hours×1.2＝144minutes
Vertical
displacement
resulting from the drying and aging of concrete
Vertical displacement（mm）
20.0 Allowable
displacement
and wood, brackets that are able to track
10.0
0.0
deformation were used for the joints between the
-10.0
-20.0
-30.0
-40.0
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
Heating time（minutes）
(a)Vertical displacement
6.0
Pass line Deformation rate
4.0 2hours×1.2＝144minutes
Deformation rate（mm/min）
Allowable deformation
2.0 rate
0.0
-2.0 cross-section
-4.0
-6.0
-8.0
-10.0
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
Heating time（minutes）
(b)Vertical deformation rate

Figure 7. Two-hour fire resistance test results
plan view
Figure 8. Shape of concrete skeleton

inside shrine pavilion
447
two materials, and a portion of the vertical load

was applied to the wooden finishing members to
⑦To assembly hall RFL level
make it more difficult for gaps to occur as a result Construction joint
of shrinkage. The inverted construction method

was used to construct the lower section of the Inverted construction Ordinary construction
shrine pavilion. In this method, the inner box of ③’ Shrine pavilion skeleton ⑥To waiting room RFL
the shrine pavilion was constructed in advance level
⑤2F slab (shrine precinct

and the concrete was allowed to dry for an ②’2F slab (shrine precinct level))
①1F initially constructed slab level)
④1F
extended period of time, in order to reduce the ③B1F ③B1F
effect on the wood work and with the aim of ② Foundation level ②Foundation level
Foundation lvel
completing the reconstruction quickly so shrine
visits could be resumed. Figure. 9 shows the
Figure 9. Scope of inverted construction and
construction process. As the skeleton construction
skeleton construction procedure
status differed for the inverted construction
sections and the ordinary construction sections, a
study was conducted to confirm the difference in
the amount of settling due to differences in load Table 1. Earthquake list
during construction. Construction joints were Name of Vel. Acc. Time
placed in the boundary sections that were greatly earthquake [cm/s] [cm/s2] [s]
affected by the difference in settling, in order to El Centro
50.0 510.0 53.8
prevent stress from occurring due to member 1940 NS
deformation. Taft
50.0 496.9 54.4
1952 EW
Hachinohe
4 Overview of response analysis 1968 NS
50.0 348.9 234.0
Notification wave
4.1 Design input ground motion 54.7 291.1 120.0
Phase:Random
Three types of design input ground motion were Notification wave
44.8 276.4 120.0
Phase:Kobe
adopted with consideration given to the seismicity
Notification wave
and site ground characteristics in the area of 69.5 324.0 120.0
Phase:Hachinohe
construction: “Notification wave (wave matching Site Wave:
notification spectrum)” “Site wave (simulated 40.9 274.7 120.0
Kanto Earthquake
Kanto Earthquake wave)” and “Observed waves
(standard 3 waves).” Two ground motion input
levels were also established: “Level 1 (ground
motion that occurs rarely)” and “Level 2 (ground Primary natural period of building 3.1sec
motion that occurs extremely rarely).” For Level 2 250
Pseudo-velocity response spectrum (Level 2, h = 0.05)
Notification (random phase)
ground motions, Table 1 shows a list of ground Notification (Hachinohe phase)
motions, while Figure. 10 shows the pseudo- 200 Notification (Kobe phase)
Pseudo-velocity (cm/sec)
Kanto Earthquake
velocity response spectrum (Level 2). Near the 150
El Centro NS
Taft EW
primary natural period of the building, the Hachinohe NS
notification wave (Kobe phase) was dominant. 100
50
4.2 Target earthquake-resisting
performance 0
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0
Period (s)
Table 2 shows the design criteria for the
earthquake response established for the input Figure 10. Pseudo-velocity response spectrum
level of each ground motion. (Level 2)
448
Table 2. design criteria

Level 1 Level 2
Ground motion level (rarely occurs) (extreme rarely occurs)
Target Value Result Target Value Result
Maximum sory drift 2.5 x10-3rad 0.5 x10-3rad 2.5 x10-3rad 0.5 x10-3rad
Short-term Short-term
Member response allowable stress Satisfied allowable stress Satisfied
level level
Horizontal displacement 1/2 of limit shear Satisfied 2/3 of limit Satisfied
of laminated rubber strain (  =36.0%) shear strain (  =233.0%)
Compressive Standard surface 2.0x Standard
Laminated rubber surface pressure pressure surface pressure
Satisfied Satisfied
bearing Tensile
Not produced (Max. -1.0N/mm2 (Max.
surface pressure
14.08N/mm2 15.12N/mm2
Compressive Standard surface Standard surface
Min. Min.
Elastic sliding surface pressure pressure pressure
1.73N/mm2) 1.19N/mm2)
bearing Tensile
Not produced Not produced
surface pressure
Velocity Satisfied 0.9x limit Satisfied
Oil damper 1/3 limit velocity
(limit: 150 cm/s) (30.3 cm/s) velocity (102.6 cm/s)
results satisfy the design target values. Moreover.

4.3 Response analysis model the placement of many earthquake-resisting walls
resulted in an extremely small value for story drift
Figure. 11 shows the model used for the
in the upper section (1/1000 or less). In addition,
earthquake response analysis. The mass
the maximum response acceleration for the 3rd
wasconcentrated at the location of the center of
floor and below, which are the areas that will be
gravity on each slab, and an equivalent shear
used primarily by worshippers, was kept to
model with degrees of freedom in the X and Y
approximately 150 cm/s2 with respect to the
directions was created. The configuration of the
target value of 200 cm/s2, reducing the danger of
building complex was a triple tower configuration
people and furniture being toppled even in the
in which three buildings (shrine pavilion, waiting
event of a major earthquake.
room and assembly hall) were placed on the
second floor slab level which formed the top of RFL
the parking area. For this reason, the model was 6FL
created with the second floor to the basement
5FL
floor as one bar and the upper floors as 3 bars. Layer3
The waiting room and the assembly hall are Layer2 4FL 4FL
connected on the third and fourth floor levels by Connecting spring
Layer1 3FL 3FL
the slabs and beams, so connecting springs were
placed between the mass points at the joints. In 2FL
addition, the base isolation system was placed at Shrine Waiting Parking area Assembly
pavilion room hall
the corresponding coordinate positions, and the 1FL
topmost floor was modeled as a rigid floor, in B1F center of gravity

B1FL
order to evaluate the effect that the torsion of the Base isolation layer
base isolation layer would have on the
building.Results of response analysis Figure 11. Response analysis model
Figure. 12 shows the results of earthquake
response analysis in the X direction in the event of
a Level 2 earthquake. In each case, the response
449
Random* Random* RFL Random*

0.227
Hachinohe* Hachinohe* 6FL Hachinohe*
Kobe* Kobe* 0.327 Kobe*
Layer3 Kanto eq Kanto eq 5FL Kanto eq
0.020 ElCentro ElCentro 0.340 ElCentro
Layer2 Taft 4FL Taft 4FL Taft
0.068 Hachinohe 0.125 Hachinohe 0.160 Hachinohe 35,000
Layer1 3FL 3FL
0.042 0.062 0.157 Notification wave (Kobe phase)
Floor
Floor
2FL 2FL 2FL 30,000
Floor
0.101 Hysteretic energy absorption 0.0%

1FL 1FL 1FL Total energy input
0.116 25,000
B1FL B1FL Internal viscous energy 11.1%
B1FL
Energy (kN・m)
1/1000 1/1000 1/1000
MFL MFL MFL 20,000
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 Energy absorbed by
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50
Maximum response story drift (10-3rad) Maximum response story drift (10-3rad) Maximum response story drift (10-3rad) laminated rubber with lead plug 54.4%
15,000
Parking / Shrine Waiting room Assembly hall
10,000
(a) Maximum response story drift *Notification Kinetic energy
2 2 RFL 255.6
200cm/s Random* 200cm/s Random* 5,000
Energy absorbed by oil damper 34.5%
Hachinohe* Hachinohe* 6FL 190.4
Kobe* Kobe*
0
Layer3 155.9 Kanto eq Kanto eq 5FL 168.3
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
ElCentro ElCentro
Layer2 155.7 Taft 4FL 157.6 Taft 4FL 160.1 Time (sec)
Hachinohe Hachinohe
Layer1 155.3 3FL 156.0 3FL 157.4
Random*
Floor
Floor
2FL 2FL 2FL Hachinohe*

Floor
155.2 155.4 155.3

Kobe*
1FL 154.5 1FL 1FL Kanto eq
ElCentro
Figure 13. Changes over time in building
B1FL B1FL B1FL 200cm/s2 Taft
MFL
154.2
MFL MFL
Hachinohe energy absorption
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Maximum response Acc (cm/sec2) Maximum response Acc (cm/sec2) Maximum response Acc (cm/sec2)
Parking / Shrine Waiting room Assembly hall

Maximum response Acceleration *Notified
*Notification
Figure 12. Results of response analysis (X direction, Level 2)

Figure. 13 shows the changes over time in the resisting and fire-resistant performance and being
amount of energy absorbed by the building when able to build shapes freely) were utilized to devise
a notification wave (Kobe phase) is input as a a hybrid “inner box structure” of concrete and
seismic wave. The ratio of energy absorption by wood. This achieved a shrine pavilion that has the
laminated rubber with lead plugs was beautiful traditional wooden architecture in the
approximately 54%, and the ratio of energy visible sections in the interior and exterior, even in
absorption by oil dampers was approximately a fire zone. In addition, inverted construction was
35%. This indicates that approximately 90% of the used for the bottom section of the shrine pavilion.
total energy input to the building is absorbed by This secured a dry shrinkage period for the shrine
the base isolation layer, so the building has pavilion concrete and increased the quality of the
extremely high base isolation effectiveness. wood construction, as well as greatly reducing the
overall construction time and making it possible
5 Conclusion for shrine visits to be resumed at an early date.
In base isolation planning, many highly rigid In the renovation of traditional builidings in the
earthquake-resisting walls were used to prevent rapid urbanization area like newly specified area
deformation of the upper structure, while at the as city planning district, heightened concern in
same time the considerable weight of these walls recent years regarding disaster prevention
was used to extend the natural period in order to measures has increased needs in terms of the
increase the effect of base isolation. In addition, employment of state-of-the-art base isolation
the reduction in seismic force through base technologies. At the same time, fortuitous
isolation made it possible to develop super-fine advances in wooden architecture have increased
octagonal columns made of ultra-high strength the desire to keep the original material and shape
concrete, with the minimum column diameter of buildings in a fire protection district. The use of
(250 mm) that provides two-hour fire-resistant a base isolation structure and a hybrid
performance. As a result, effective use was made construction of concrete and wood in this building
of the indoor space and a waiting room offers one solution to this type of architectural
environment with an open character was created. challenge.
For the shrine pavilion, the advantages of
concrete (in terms of providing high earthquake-
450
Reinforcement of old masonry by new structure

RYOHEI Yamazaki
TAKENAKA corporation, Tokyo, JAPAN
Contact: yamazaki.ryouhei@takenaka.co.jp
Abstract
KITAKARO Sapporo Honkan is a project that harmonized the new and old by creating a new
interior space and maintaining the exterior with contemporary technology .
In this project, by reinforcing the outer wall of a brick masonry building and a part of the hall with
new RC structure, it converted confectionary store .
Reinforcement methods are as below, 1) Reinforce the brick wall to be preserved, secure the
safety while construct, then dismantle existing part 2) Construct a new structure and integrate it
with the existing brick wall.
Keywords: masonry, reinforced concrete, reinforcement, walls, reinforcing bar, pinning
1 Introduction
KITAKARO Sapporo Honkan is a project that
harmonized the new and old by creating a new
interior space and maintaining the exterior with
contemporary technology while inheriting the
value of the historic building representing Sapporo
City , Hokkaido.
Construction of the existing Hokkaido Prefectural
Library was completed in 1926 as the first library
in Hokkaido. At that time it had a characteristic
facade design that was influenced by the most
advanced secession (Figure 1,Figure2). Thereafter Figure 1. View at completion of construction
its use was changed to an art gallery, and offices,
but in recent years it was not used much by the
public, so it was not being effectively utilized.
2 Conservation of Historic Building

Various measures were investigated to restore the
charm of the building at the time of its
construction so that it will contribute to
vitalization of the city, such as seismic isolation,
moving the building, etc. Finally a public call for
Figure 2. Drawing at completion of construction
451
project the aim was to showcase the attractions of

Sapporo as a historical city by regenerating this
Figure 3. Overall view after refurbishment
proposals was held with the condition of partial historical building to be used by many people, as a
conservation.In parallel with the studies of facility for widely transmitting information
conservation techniques including compliance regarding Hokkaido. Since its opening the building
with the existing laws and regulations and cost, has been featured in many media, and the
studies were carried out from a more social number of visitors has steadily increased, so the
viewpoint such as streetscape and landscape, initial objectives have been achieved.
vitalization of the local community, tourist appeal
utilizing local food ingredients, and nurturing
companies within Hokkaido. As a result of the Extent of Dismantling
studies a regeneration policy was adopted that
included not only conservation, but included
conservation and restoration of parts with value,
and new construction of parts to generate new
value (Figure 3,Figure 4).
The parts that were conserved and restored were
the external walls and entrance hall, which were
considered to have value for the future based on
surveys carried out in the past, and the other
parts were demolished and new shops were
constructed. In this way the aim was not just static
conservation of a historic building, but to generate Extent of Extent of
the building so that it can continue to be utilized Conservation 1 Conservation 2
in this era. （Entrance hall）（Outer wall）
Hokkaido receives many tourists from within Figure 4. Extent of conservation
Japan and overseas that are attracted by its rich
natural beauty, but there is little focus on
Hokkaido’s historical and cultural aspects. In this
452
A
N
3 Design Aims
The existing building was a hybrid structure
consisting of brick masonry vertical members and
reinforced concrete floors as horizontal members. B B
In brick structures from the 1910s and 1920s,
Normally the floors were made from timber or
structural steel framework. However, in the case
of this building it is considered that a reinforced
concrete floor was adopted from the start as it
was necessary to withstand heavy loads because
A
its initial use was as a library, although this (a) 1F plan
structural form was rare at that time (Figure 5).
In this refurbishment scheme, the image of
reinforced concrete horizontal members from the
time of completion of construction was retained,
and the floor of the 2F café facing the atrium was
constructed as a flat slab. Also, in order to
emphasize the major design feature of the
building, its brick construction, the brick wall as it
was when construction was completed was
exposed on the inside of the south external wall
facing the atrium, so that it is reminiscent of that (b) 2F plan
time (Figure 6).
The entrance hall alone has been well preserved
in the condition at the time of completion of
construction. The work and finishes which convey
the skills of the artisans of the 1910s and 1920s
has been preserved with the minimum of repairs.
This entrance hall is also the main flow line for
visitors after refurbishment, so it was not just
preserved, but it is a space that continues to be
alive at present.
The facade has a characteristic collonaded design (c) Section A-A
with shade, but the design tiles of the external
walls that resemble a book store are high quality,
produced by a method that is nearly handmade.
Tiles were not newly manufactured for repair of
the damaged parts, but the tiles from the part of
the building that was demolished were utilized, a
method of reuse after acid pickling was developed
(hardened cement mortar removal method), and
the external walls were restored without
damaging its characteristic texture (Figures 7,8).
(d) Section B-B

Figure 5. Plan and Section
453
Figure 6. Atrium
4 Survey of Existing Part
There were only a few existing drawings for the

building, it was constructed in the 1920s, and the
materials used were produced before the JIS
standards were formulated, so a detailed survey
of the building was carried out at the start of the
project. The survey items were as follows.
(a) Dimensional survey (spans, floor heights, etc.)
(b) Survey of member dimensions (brick wall
thicknesses, floor slab thicknesses, beam
dimensions, etc.) Figure 7. External wall tiles
(c) Concrete compressive strength tests
(d) Reinforcement survey (non-destructive and in
part a chipping survey)
(e) External wall brick strength tests (compression,
shear)
(f) Brick joint strength tests (a) before (b) after
(g) External wall tile integrity survey (locations of Figure 8. Rear of tiles before and after “mortar
separation, etc.) removal
454
The strength test results for the bricks used in the 5.2 New construction integrated with
existing external walls were good compared with strengthening of the brick walls
test results for buildings of a similar age. In the (Figures 10, 11)
structural calculations, allowable stresses were
determined by reference to the test results[1] and As a result of discussions, the existing brick walls
past experience (Figure 9). were considered to be an “outer skin” fixed to the
outside of reinforced concrete walls of the new
part. In other words, the brick walls of the
preserved external walls were not considered to
be part of the structure itself after refurbishment,
but were strengthened or supported by the new
construction part. Based on this concept it was
decided to strengthen the brick walls by applying
a reinforced concrete wall to the indoor side. The
objective of this was to reduce the in-plane
deformation of the brick wall during an
earthquake with an integral wall structure, with
the aim of achieving an inter-story drift of 1/1,500
or less. The two were made integral using
deformed reinforcement anchors arranged at an
inclination of 45° (strengthening (2)).
On the other hand, a part of the entrance hall and
the south side external wall have exposed bricks
on the inside for architectural effect, so a
reinforced concrete wall was not applied on the
Figure 9. Brick core boring inside, but strengthening was carried out by
inserting reinforcement inside of the bricks
5 Structural Design (strengthening (2)). In this strengthening method
by inserting reinforcement into the wall, a portion
5.1 Treatment of the Existing Part of the top of the existing brick wall was
temporarily removed at the eaves, thereby
Application for building approval was carried out exposing the top of the brick external wall, and a
for the building as an “extension”, as a part of the 75 mm diameter hole was formed by core boring.
floor of the entrance hall was to be preserved in
Then deformed reinforcement was inserted
the state that it was at the time of completion of
vertically while connecting with mechanical joints,
construction and used as it was after repair. At
and finally the hole was filled with grout to fix the
this stage a major problem was the materials used.
reinforcement. There was a certain amount of
Judged from the time of construction, it was clear variation in the accuracy of the hole drilling
that the materials used in the building were not depending on the effect of the hardness of each
materials designated for construction. Therefore individual brick, but in general the boring was
after many discussions, it was decided that the carried out to good accuracy within 1/200 of the
concrete and reinforcement used in the existing hole depth. The objective of this method of
building would be considered to have no load strengthening by inserting reinforcement within
resistance with respect to long term and short the bricks was to strengthen the brick wall in the
term loads in the structural calculations. out-of-plane direction, with the mechanism of
Therefore a new concrete slab was constructed resisting out-of-plane moments by the tensile
over part of the existing floor of the entrance hall resistance of the reinforcement and the
and the roof, so that it was configured from the compressive resistance of the bricks.
new part.
455
Strengthening (1)
Strengthening (2)
Strengthening (3)
Strengthening (1)
Figure 10. Schematic drawing of reinforcement plan
The new construction part bears all the seismic

forces of the existing brick walls (strengthening Strengthening (1)
(3)). There is no reinforced concrete wall on the
inside of the external brick wall on the south side RC slab
for design reasons, but it was confirmed that the Steel beam
horizontal load resistance of the brick walls due to RC beam
the shear strength of the bricks themselves and
the joints exceeded the seismic forces relative to
Steel bar φ16
Earthquake force
the self weight of the brick wall, and it was judged

that the seismic forces would be transmitted to
560
the continuous reinforced concrete walls. mortar

Strengthening (1): Strengthening of the entrance Steel
hall and the external brick walls on the south side column
Holes were drilled from the top of the brick wall,

reinforcement was inserted, and the holes were Integration of brick wall
filled with grout. (Figure 12)
Strengtheningand
(2) RC wall
Strengthening (2): Strengthening the interior and
east, west, south, and north external brick walls Foundation beam
An RC wall was provided on the interior side of the

brick walls, and they were integrated with Figure 11. Reinforcement method of brick wall
reinforcement anchors. (Figure 13)
Strengthening (3): New construction part
A wall-like reinforced concrete structure was
provided to take the seismic forces of the existing
part
456
(a) drilling
(a) anchors
(b) RC wall
Figure 13. Strengthening (2)
(b) elevationConstruction Plan
Figure 12. Strengthening (1)
[STEP 3] Inserting reinforcement into the holes in
5.3 Construction Plan the brick wall from the top
The site is located in the center of Sapporo City, so [STEP 4] Fixing the reinforcement within the holes
great care was taken with safety aspects during in the brick wall by pouring grout into the holes
construction, and a construction plan was
[STEP 5] Installing deformed reinforcement
prepared. The main construction steps were taken
anchors at an inclination of 45 on the inside of
in the following sequence (Figure 14,15).
the brick walls
[STEP 1] Removing roof and fascia boards to
[STEP 6] Constructing a reinforced concrete wall
expose the tops of the brick walls to be preserved
on the inside of the brick walls so as to embed the
[STEP 2] Drilling holes by core boring vertically deformed reinforcement anchors
into the wall from the top of the brick wall to be
[STEP 7] After strengthening of the brick wall was
preserved
completed, demolishing the existing part that is to
be removed
[STEP 8] Constructing the new part
457
Completion of strengthening of the brick walls

that were to be preserved was a precondition for
demolition of the existing part that was to be
removed. Construction was not carried out while
the building was in use, so by carrying out the
large scale step of demolition and removal of the
roof first, and then carrying out the coring within
the wall for the reinforcement insertion method,
the stability of the brick wall was initially
increased.
(a) [STEP 2･3･4] Method of insertion of
reinforcement into walls
6 Conclusions
There were many difficulties in this construction
for which there were few precedents, such as
accuracy control of the core boring in the
reinforcement insertion method, minimizing the
effect of construction vibrations on the outside
wall tiles, ensuring stability of the brick wall during
the construction period, etc., but these difficulties
were overcome, and the construction was safely
completed.
Since these methods use relatively simple (b) [STEP 5･6] Concrete strengthening of existing
construction method, we think that it is very structure (existing part)
useful for reinforcement and preservation for
masonry buildings in developing countries.
7 References
[1] Seismic diagnostic criteria for brick
buildings. Seismic diagnostic criteria for
brick buildings Revision 1st edition. 2012.
(c) [STEP 7] Demolition of existing structure
(d) [STEP 8] Construction of new structure

Figure 14. Situation of demolishing the existing part
Figure 15. Situation of demolishing the existing part
458
Structural Feasibility of ISO Shipping Containers for Core-dwelling

Housing
Cher Siang Tan
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor, Malayisa
Alain Nussbaumer
École polytechnique fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
Contact: tcsiang@utm.my
Abstract
The increment of the magnitude and frequency of natural disasters and mass human migration
activities around the world has pushed the needs of rapid construction for post-disaster
reconstruction and re-urbanization. Reusing ISO shipping container for building architecture stand
a chance to maximize rapid shelter solution and minimize carbon footprint at the same time.
Modifications on the ISO shipping containers to suit to core-dwelling housing needs, such as door
and window openings, will generate further stability issues on the container in resisting building
loads. A research aims to investigate the feasibility and structural integrity of modified ISO shipping
containers into core-dwelling house was carried out, collaborated between Swiss Federal Institution
of Technology Lausanne (EPFL) and Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM). This paper reports on the
outcomes from workshop, field trip and experimental investigation.
Keywords: Modular construction, ISO shipping container, post-disaster reconstruction, tropical
climax, structural integrity, lateral stiffness.
Inspired by automobile industry, modular

1 Introduction construction focus on the innovation of modules
The advancement of science and technology preassembled with wall panels, heating and
continually brings improvement to the living ventilating system, plumbing, lighting and electrical
standard of people around the world. Architects wiring [2-3]. Interchangeable parts and sewing
and engineers are pushed to rethink the current mechanism can be produced for house renovation
ecosystem of construction industry to find better and maintenance. Such practice could reduce the
design. From the engineers’ perspective, the needs construction time and passive impact to the
for innovation in steel design are discussed [1] and environment. At the same time, off-site
summarized into five main themes: i) integration, manufacturing of the building modules would
ii) modular construction, iii) novel joining methods increase the quality control, optimise material
and connections, iv) material advances and v) usage, which leads to sustainable construction.
education opportunities. The increment of the magnitude and frequency of
natural disasters around the world, especially in
459
hydro-meteological disasters, has pushed the carried out, collaborated between Swiss Federal
needs of rapid construction for post-disaster Institution of Technology Lausanne (EPFL) and
transitional shelters and reconstruction plan. Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM). This paper
Current refugee shelter provisions are being reports on the outcomes from a workshop
complained for late supply, expensive, contradict discussion, field trip to post-disaster area at
to local needs and not sustainable, i.e. destructive Kelantan, Malaysia and experimental investigation
to the environment due to improper urban on modified ISO shipping containers.
planning [4-5]. Urge for an improved transitional
shelters design is needed, which is immediate 2 Feasibility study via workshop and
availability, rapid and ease construction, open- field trip
ended design that adaptable to local social and
cultural needs, predesigned for long-term usage
2.1 CoHoU Workshop
(dismantling process, reusable structure and
structure’s second life), cost effective (utilise local A workshop entitled “CoHoU - Container House
materials, labour and technology) and and Urbanization” was conducted on 9-November-
environmental friendly. With these demands in 2015 at Universiti Teknologi Malaysia. It was the
mind, prefab steel shelters using ISO shipping third of CoHoU workshop series, where the first
containers could serve as a good alternative to the two were conducted in Switzerland and India. Five
current shelter supplies. presenters from both Malaysia and Switzerland,
with background of engineering and architecture
ISO shipping containers are built based on the ISO academicians and local district officer shared about
standard requirements [6-11] with corrosion building and living culture in Malaysia, Kelantan
resistant steel, stackable and able to withstand
flood relief management, fast transition between
critical loading and extreme weather condition
shelters and housing after natural disaster,
during land and sea transportation. Transportation
progressive housing with permanent core dwelling
activities of ISO shipping container are increasing
resistant to natural disaster, and construction of
over the years. In Year 2011, there are more than
affordable home for immediate resettlement in
570 million of TEUs (twenty-feet equivalent unit)
disaster affected zone. The discussion during the
containers being transported around the world
workshop highlighted six criteria on implementing
[12]. In some costal countries e.g. Malaysia, every
steel container houses in tropical countries like
year there are thousands of surplus containers left
Malaysia:
in the ports [13]. These surplus containers can be
melted down and recycled into raw steel materials, i. Construction cost should be competitive
which consume higher energy. Alternatively, the with conventional housing development.
old containers can be reused for new purpose such Although reused container is cheaper than
as prefab steel house. It offers second life for the new container, but the cost on fabrication,
containers and reduce storage problems of insulation and long-term maintenance
disposed containers at the ports. should be considered.
ii. Public acceptance on steel modular house.
To date, there are no engineering guidance for non- It has been a long historical period that
shipping application of the ISO container. Further residential house in Malaysia were built
more, modification on container, such as doors and with timber or reinforced concrete. Steel
windows opening, could alter the structural
framed residential houses, such as cold-
robustness of the container as stated in the ISO
formed steel house or steel container
codes. Researches have been carried out to
house would suffer some time to get
determine the behaviour of ISO container under
acceptance from the people. Younger
load simulation [14], blast resistance [15-16] stack
generation would be open to steel
dynamics [17], and container with wall openings
container house, if the other factors such
[18-20]. A research aims to investigate the
as heat, safety and cost are not much
feasibility and structural integrity of modified ISO
different to conventional concrete houses.
shipping containers into core-dwelling house was
460
iii. Residential house design should consider wooden structured houses were built on concrete
Malaysia tropical climate, sunlight and stubs about 0.75m height (Figure 1(a)). At Kuala Nal
rain. Although there were no extreme cold area, two 6m x 6m temporary steel modular houses
or hot season through out the year, but were given to two families (Figure 1(b)). Not far
warm temperature and humidity problems from the temporary steel modules, another larger,
must be overcome. Insulation on steel wall permanently constructed steel house is being built
must be provided. Passive design elements (Figure 1(c)), alongside with other concrete houses.
like sunshades, cavity walls, light shelves, These immediate houses were donated by
overhangs, roof and wall insulation would corporation and non-government organisations. At
increase thermal comfort and Gua Musang Disctrict, insurance company Etiqa
sustainability of the house. Addition to Takaful Berhad contributed permanent concrete-
this, designers must not ignore the local frame houses (Figure 1(d)) painted in yellow and
culture of house, such as verandah, open white. According to local news, a total of 66 houses,
interior with partition rooms, kitchen and cost MYR 3.5millions were built for the flood
toilet at exterior etc. affected families. 46 unit being constructed at
iv. Problem on law and regulation when Kampung Pahi and Lebir Land Development
converting the container house into Scheme (RKT Lebir), another 20 at Tanah Puteh.
permanent house. For example, uniform [23-24]. The 66m2 houses were built on concrete
building by law (UBBL) requires a living stumps at 2.44 meter above earth level to prevent
area must have minimum height of 2.7 damages of house in future flood incidents [24].
meter, but the container internal height is Similar elevated concrete-frame houses were built
only 2.39m. Such issue must not be in Bertam Baru by Malaysia Public Works (JKR)
neglected. Beside law enforcement, (Figure 1(e)).
financial aid like bank mortgage and
Although different types of houses were being
insurance coverage would be hard for new
built, it can be seen that almost all houses have
properties converted from old containers.
identical shapes and layout, for example, pitched
v. Positive ideas were also being discussed
roof, elevate from ground, verandah area at
during the workshop. Container
entrance, kitchen and toilet at the back of the
urbanization could serve as an inspiring,
house. It is important that the provided shelter
cross-disciplinary and sustainable
solution should fit the local building culture.
education for both engineering and
architecture students to convert ideas into Most of the post-disaster reconstruction houses
practice. were built at the same spot or at nearby area of
destroyed houses. Timber and steel modular were
2.2 Field trip to disaster affected area completed within days after disaster, where
concrete-frame houses took longer period to be
A field trip to the flood affected area in Kelantan
constructed. At Manek Urai area, Kelantan State
was made on 10th to 12th November 2015. During
and Selangor State governments contributed 60
the trip, researchers visited to five areas in Kuala
units of single-storey permanent concrete houses
Kerai District and Gua Musang District, i.e. Kg Pasir
for the flood refugees. The houses were built with
Parit, Kuala Nal, Manek Urai, Kesedar Lebir (Lebir
precast wall panels as shown in Figure 2. The
Land Development Scheme) and Bertam Baru. The
housing development project is still under
trip was hosted by local district officers, chief of
construction during the visit.
village and chief of mosques. The time of visit is
nearly one year after the 2014 Malaysia Flood,
which is considered the worst flood in the Kelantan
state’s history [21-22].
Through the site observation, it was noticed that
variable types of buildings were reconstructed for
the affected people. At Kg Pasir Parit, 9m x 6m
461
(a) Timber frame house at Kg Pasir
b) Two unit of steel modular at Kg Pasir

Figure 2. Sixty units of single storey precast house
under construction at Manek Urai, Kelantan..
3 Experimental test on modified ISO

shipping container
Experimental investigation on used container with
(c) One unit of steel-frame house at Kg Pasir opening modification was carried out in the
structure and material laboratory of Universiti
Teknologi Malaysia, as shown in Figure 3. Two ISO
shipping container, named SC1 and SC2, with were
prepared with different openings at different side
of the walls, as depicted in Figure 4. The roof and
floor panels of the containers remained
untouched. SC1 specimen had wider openings
compared to SC2 specimen. SC1 had one
(d) Concrete-frame houses at Lebir longitudinal wall / side wall with 2m wide times
2.1m height opening (6.5’ x 7’); the other side wall
with two 1m wide times 2.1m height (3’ x7’)
openings. The front wall has one 1.3m wide times
2.1m height (4.5’x 7’) opening. SC2 had multiple
100cm (4”) strip-openings along its longitudinal
direction, together with one door and one small
window opening at the front wall of the SC2
container specimen.
(e) Concrete-frame houses at Bertam Baru The container specimens were pinned to the
laboratory’s strong floor at the four bottom corner
Figure 1. Various types of post-disaster fixings, and loaded horizontally at top two corner
reconstruction houses in Kelantan. fixings, as shown in Figure 3. Initial loading was
462
applied to ensure the specimen settled in the test Table 1. Experimental results
rig and no slippage happened during actual test.
ISO 1496-1
During load test, the lateral deflection is detected Opening condition Test
Requirement
through linear variable displacement transducers [kN/mm]
[kN/mm]
(LVDT). Stiffness of containers were calculated
from load divided by deflection (kN/mm) and were Wide openings SC1 1.29 – 2.45 N.A.
summarized in Table 1.
Strip opening SC2 2.45 - 2.82 N.A.
ISO1496-1 [7] indicate that for longitudinal load
test, the displacement of the top corner fittings No opening N.A. 3.00
must not exceed 25mm to the bottom corner
fittings under 75 kN lateral load. Thus the minimum
lateral stiffness must be at least 3 kN/mm. Table 1
shows that the stiffness of modified container
range from 1.29 to 2.82 kN/mm, which do not pass
the ISO requirement. It proof that modified ISO
shipping container will suffer a significant loss of
structural integrity, depends on types of opening
modification. More in-depth and systematic
research works are needed to quantify the
reduction of lateral stiffness of modified ISO
shipping container.
Figure 3. Experimental setting up for SC1.
Figure 4. Test specimen layout (top) SC1 and (bottom) SC2.
463
Giriunas et al. [18] modelling results shows that The presented work has limitation of current state
lateral stiffness for walls without opening and fully- of the design of prefab container architecture and
opened wall were 35.7 kN/mm and 0.178 kN/mm post-disaster shelters. Further investigation in are
respectively. The experimental results laid needed for the holistic implementation of reusing
between the two stiffness of Giriunas et al. model, old container for new housing development.
which is rational. Besides that, Zha & Zhuo [19, 20]
experimental results indicated that longitudinal 5 Acknowledgement
lateral stiffness of 20ft container with one door
and two windows opening were 6.18 kN/mm and The research was funded by Swiss State Secretariat
6.27 kN/mm. The stiffness are not the same due to for Education, Research and Innovation (SERI)
different opening layouts. More analysis and Bilateral research collaboration with the Asia-
parametric study through numerical modelling Pacific region 2013-2016; Ministry of Higher
should be carried out before the structural Education Malaysia (MOHE-FRGS 4F834) and
investigation could come to a conclusive design Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM-RUG-T1
formula. 13H37).
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465
Shear Resistance Mechanisms on High-Panelized Steel Sheet Walls

with Burring Holes
Yoshimichi Kawai, Shigeaki Tohnai
Nippon Steel & Sumitomo Metal Corp., Tokyo, Japan
Kazunori Fujihashi
NS Hi-Parts Corp., Tokyo, Japan
Atsushi Sato, Tetsuro Ono
Nagoya Institute of Technology, Aichi, Japan
Contact: kawai.q9z.yoshimichi@jp.nssmc.com
Abstract
High-panelized shear walls containing 3.53–4.53 m long steel sheets with burring holes aligned
vertically are applied to large space flat buildings in seismic regions. A configuration with burrs on
the inside enables the construction of thinner walls and simplified attachment of finishing.
Machining of equipment piping holes can be omitted. The wall that receives the in-plane shear
force allows shear stress to concentrate in the intervals between the holes. Finite element
analyses and in-plane shear experiments revealed that all intervals between the holes were
simultaneously deformed, and buckling areas in the intervals were restricted by the use of ring-
shaped ribs of the holes. Post-buckling behavior depended on the shapes of tension field on the
intervals. The allowable design strength and indices of strength after buckling were developed.
Keywords: light-gauge steel structure; cold-formed steel; steel sheet; shear wall; burring hole;
high-panel; prefabricated house; steel framed house; seismic design; design formula.
The purpose of this study is to clarify the effects of
1 Design concept of steel shear walls wall heights and cross-rails on the shear walls.
Shear walls are panels in which steel sheets with Walls’ heights of 3.53, 4.03, and 4.53 m applied to
burring holes aligned vertically are fastened to single-story buildings such as large area stores,
studs and tracks (Fig. 1) [1]. The standard 2.73 m offices, and ware houses are considered (Fig. 3).
high walls are applied to low- to mid-rise buildings Cross-rails connected to studs placed parallel to
in places that require seismic resistances (Fig.2). each other at equal pitch are designed to
Burring holes are made by cold-pressing a sheet strengthen the load bearing capacities (Figs. 4, 5).
with small-radius holes. A configuration with burrs
on the inside and smooth walls on the outside
enables the construction of thinner walls and
simplified attachments of finishing. Machining of
various holes for electric devices and equipment
piping can be omitted (Fig.2) [1].
Steel shapes with burring holes for girders and
joists have been developed using the results of
previous studies [2]. The mechanisms for 2.73 m
high walls with burring holes were investigated by
analyses and cyclic loading experiments [1]. Figure 1. Steel sheet shear walls with burring holes
466
(unit:mm)
Figure 2. 2.73 m high walls in a four-story building
Figure 4. Burring holes and cross-rails of a wall
(unit:mm)
Figure 3. 4.53 m high walls in a flat building
2 Resistance mechanisms of walls

The shear behavior of the walls was investigated
by finite element analysis (FEA, MSC.MARC2014)
to estimate seismic resistance capacities according
to the effects of heights and cross-rails (Figs. 4, 5).
2.1 Model of shear wall with burring holes

height = 3.53 m height = 4.03 m height = 4.53 m
Target walls of height 3.53, 4.03, and 4.53 m with
cross-rails are shown in Fig. 5. Sheets of hot-dip Figure 5. Different heights and cross-rail locations
zinc–aluminum–magnesium alloy-coated steel (JIS
SGMC400, yield stress 295 N/mm2, thickness 1.2
mm) with burring holes (diameter: 200 mm)
aligned with a pitch of 320 mm were modeled
using shell elements (Fig.6a) and the mechanical
properties were modeled as poly-linear stress–
strain curves (Fig. 6b). Drilling screw (diameter:
4.8 mm) connections of the four edges of the steel (b)
sheet to frame members were modelled by shear
springs using experimental results [3, 4] (Fig. 6c).
The frame members were modeled by elastic
members. Cross-rails had 1/1000 deflection spline
curves representing eccentricity of the end joints.
One-way forced displacement was placed on top
and pin support connections were placed at the (a) (c)
bottom of the walls as shown in Fig. 6a. Figure 6. Finite element model and properties
467
2.2 Behavior of high-panelized wall (FEA) 45

40
The relation between shear load and story angle 35 Height:4030mm
Shear Load（ kN）

of the walls shows linear stiffness in the elastic 30 w/ cross-rail Height:3530mm
Height:4530mm
region until a serviceability limit of 1/300 story 25
angle (Fig. 7). The walls drastically change from 20
Height:3530mm
the elastic to plastic regions and maintain stable 15 w/o cross-rail Height:4030mm Shear
Height:4530mm Load
high strength until the ultimate state. The walls of 10
Story
variable height with cross-rails show almost same 5 Angle
behavior. The walls without cross-rails do not 0
0 10 20 30
show increasing strength under large deformation. Story Angle (x10-3radian)
Contour figures of the von Mises stresses and 1/1 Figure 7. Shear load-story angle relationship
deformation figures at the bottom left parts of the (N/mm2) (N/mm2)
walls, taken from the inclined bottom views 4

3.53 m 4.53 m
exhibit stress concentrations at the intervals high wall high wall
between the holes at 1/300 story angle, and they with 3
with
cross-rails cross-rails
experience simultaneous antiplane deformation at at 2
at
all intervals at 1/100 story angle (Fig. 8). The story story
deformations are limited in the intervals, and a angle: angle: 1
1/300 1/300
large out-of-plane waveform in the sheet is
0
effectively prevented by the ring-shaped ribs of
(N/mm2) (N/mm2)
the burring holes. The effects of wall height are
minimal in the elastic and plastic regions. 3.53 m 4
4.53 m
high wall high wall
The 4.53 m high walls with and without cross-rails with with 3
are compared and the stress directions in the cross-rails cross-rails
at at 2
principal stress flow are indicated by arrows (Figs. story story
9 a2, b2). The wall with cross-rails at 1/100 story angle: angle: 1
1/100 1/100
angle has ordered stress flow along the tangent
0
lines diagonally connect the ribs of the lined holes,
while the wall without cross-rails has disordered Figure 8. von Mises stress and 1/1 deformation
stress flows. The shear stresses at the center of 100
the intervals on the vertical section between the 80 1 3

Shear Stress (N/mm2)
4
3
holes of points-1-4 in Fig. 8 are shown in Figs. 9 a1, 60
2
b1. The shear stresses of the walls with cross-rails 40 0
are almost the same from the initial to the 20

ultimate state regions, while those of the walls 0
without cross-rails decrease after the elastic limit. 0 10 20
Story Angle（x 10-3radian)
30
(a1) (a2)
Mean horizontal shear forces at each drilling (a) 4.53 m high wall with cross-rails, right: fig. at 1/100
screw connections between the sheets and studs 100
3
at the same height of the wall are shown in Fig. 10. 80
Shear Stress (N/mm2)
The 3.53 and 4.53 m high walls exhibit larger 60

2
1
horizontal shear force at the connections than the 40
wall without cross-rails. Owing to the use of the 20 0 3

4
drilling screw connections, cross-rails develop 0
tension fields which prevent the deformation of 0 10 20
Story Angle（x 10-3radian)
30
burring holes and order the stress flows at the (b1) (b2)
(b) 4.53 m high wall without cross-rails, right: fig. at 1/100
intervals. In Chapter 4, these results are used for
develop the formula for strength indices after Figure 9. Shear stress at the hole intervals (left)
shear buckling at the hole intervals. and principal stress flow (right)
468
3 Allowable design strength formula (unit: N)

◆ : wall with cross-rails
+ : wall without cross-rails
Based on the mechanism of shear resistance of
the walls with burring holes, the allowable design
strength is derived. The wall drastically changes
from the elastic to the plastic region because of
shear buckling, which occurs simultaneously at all
intervals between the holes (Figs. 7, 8). The stress
in an interval is non-uniform, but the likeliness of
buckling to occur, depends on the flat rectangular
plate area that includes the interval, whose
diagonal constitutes the tangent line on which the
buckling waveforms are located (Fig. 11a). The
other areas between the holes and the upper or
lower edges of a sheet are extracted (Figs. 11b,
height = 3.53 m height = 4.53 m
11c). The allowable strength design value of a wall
is obtained by summing the buckling strength of Figure 10. Shear force of drilling screw connections
target rectangular W W
flat plate area Sheet
the intervals in the vertical direction (Eqs. (1-4)). ab
wb
edge
wb
hb
Qa = 2 × [t a × wa × t (n -1) +t b × wb × t +t c × wc × t ]× (W / H ) (1) r
θ
r
θ
{ [12 × (1 - u )]}
(b)
t i = k vi × p 2 × E × (t / hi )
wa
wo
H
i = a , b, c
ha
2 2
(2) target rectangular flat plate area
wa r
(ai / hi ) £ 1.0 kvi = 4.0 + 5.34× (hi / ai )
2 aa θ
(3) Burring
(ai / hi ) > 1.0 kvi = 5.34+ 4.0 × (hi / ai )
2 rib
hc
wc
Curved Burring Sheet
portion hole edge
ac
wc
(a) (c)
ha = La cos q , a a = 2r , L a = 2 (r + w0 / 2)2 - r 2 (4) Figure 11. Target flat plate areas for design
Qu≒Q0
Here, Qa is the allowable shear strength; τa, τb, and Tension &
compression
compression≒Q0/2 model
τc are shear buckling stresses at the intervals,
derived from Eq. (2) [5]; wa, wb, and wc are the
r
widths of the intervals; t is the thickness; n is the
number of burring holes; W and H are the wall θ
β ･r
width and height. E is the modulus of elasticity, ν Tension
is Poisson’s ratio, ha and aa are derived from Eq.

(4) and r is the radius of the burring holes. Compression
≒Q0/2
4 Strength index at 1/100 story angle Figure 12. Force balances of a wall w/o cross-rails
The walls with burring holes maintain stable Qu/2 Story drift angle = δ/(β･r)
δ=δ1+δ2
strength after shear buckling at the intervals (Fig. Qa/2
δ1=(Qu/2-Qa/2)/k
2k･δ1/2 2k･δ1/2 δ2=(Qu/2sinθ) ･L/(E･w0/2･t･sin2θ)
7). The wall strength at 1/100 story angle is used
as the index to evaluate the strength. The wall Stud δ=δ1+δ2
δ1 δ2
height has little effect on the strength, and cross- Drilling
screw θ
Qa/2
rails increasing the shear strength. Therefore, the 2k･δ1/2 2k･δ1/2 θ
r
θ
basic mechanism of the wall with no cross-rails is
βxr
w0 /2
θ
w0
developed (Fig. 12). The tension in an interval

balances with the compression of Qo/2 resisted by 2k･δ1/2
Qa/2
2k ･δ 1/2 θ
δ1
a burring hole. Qo/2 is equal to the allowable
strength Qa/2 for the wall without cross-rails.
Figure 13. Force balances of a wall with cross-rails
469
2k ･δ1/2 2k･ δ1/2

5 In-plane cyclic shear test of walls
In-plane shearing tests were conducted for high-
panelized walls with burring holes to confirm their
2k･ δ1/2 2k･δ1/2 Charged
seismic resistance, failure mechanism, and the
3.5kδ1 Burring applicability of design formulas. The loads were
holes of
a cross rail placed on top of the walls (Fig. 15). Three cycles
3.5kδ1 Cross rail =3.5 holes were conducted at the story angles 1/450–1/30 of
2k･ δ1/2 2k･δ1/2
the wall [7,8,9]. The specimens were the same as
those in Figs. 4, 5. The mechanical properties of
the steel sheets and the specifications of the
2k･ δ1/2 2k･ δ1/2 members and connections are shown in Table. 1.
The photos of 3.53-, 4.03-, and 4.53-m high walls
Figure 14. Charged burring holes by a cross-rail
used in the experiment indicate almost the same
The mechanism of the wall with cross-rails at behavior (Figs. 16a,b,c). The walls at story angles
1/100 story angle is developed (Fig. 13). The of 1/300 and 1/200 showed no local deformations
horizontal shear forces at screw connections per a and slight out-of-plane deformations on the all
burring hole, 2kδ1/2, derived from the cross-rails intervals between the holes at 1/100. The shear
are added to Qa/2, which balances with the buckling waveforms were created on the tangent
tension in the intervals between the burring holes. that diagonally connect the vertical holes at story
angles 1/50 and 1/30. The deformation areas
d d +d2 were limited in the intervals owing to the ring-
= 1 = 1 / 100 (5)
b ×r b ×r shaped ribs of the holes. The figures showing
deformation in Fig. 16 are very similar to those in
(Qu / 2 - Qa / 2) / k + Qu × L / (E × w0 × t × sin 3θ) (6) Figs. 8,9 obtained by FEA.
= 1 / 100
b ×r
Qu / 2 = Qa / 2 + (2 × k ) × (d1 / 2)
Cyclic loading Displace-
Q (7) Loading jack ment
meter
3,330~4,330
3,530~4,530
Shear wall 910

specimen
Q d2 =
(Qu / 2 sinθ) × L = Qu × L Displacement
(8)
E × (w0 / 2) × t × sin 2θ× t E × w0 × sin3θ× t
meter
Anchor
connection
(unit: mm)
é b × r /100 + Qa / 2k ù
\ Qu = 2 × ê ú (9)
ë1/ k + L/(E × w0 / 2 × t × sin θ) û
3
Figure 25. Setup of the wall test and loading cycles

Here, Qu is the shear strength of the wall at 1/100
Table 1. Mechanical properties of steel sheets and
story angle, wo is the width of the interval
specifications of members and connections
between holes without burring rib, β is the ratio of Member Standard Size, mechanical properties
pitch to radius of the holes, and wo/2 is the width Thickness: 1.22 mm (with coating),
Steel sheet
of the tension field at the interval. 2kδ1/2 is the with
1.18 mm (without coating)
horizontal force per burring hole due to screw Yield stress: 305 N/mm2,
burring
Tensile strength: 428 N/mm2,
connections and is derived from cross-rails that holes
JIS G3323 Elongation: 35 %
charge the compressions between middle points SGMC400 Both ends: BOX-75x75x2.2, 2 members
of side-by-side laying cross-rails or tracks (Fig. 14). Studs +C-150x75x15x3.0, 1 member
Center: C-150x44.5x12x2.2, 1 member
A cross-rail charges 3.5 holes for the 3.53 and 4.53
Tracks [-155x40x2.2 1 member
m high walls and 3.0 holes for the 4.03 m high wall. Cross-rail [-110x50x2.2 1 member
The compression of a cross-rail is Σ(2kδ1/2) = 8.75 Drilling Diameter: 4.8 mm
JIS B1055
(kN/mm) × δ1 (mm). Table 3 shows the strength screw Length: 19 mm
Anchor- Diameter: 36 mm,
values compared with experimental results. JIS B1180
bolt Nominal strength: 880 N/mm2
470
Story angle = 1/300 1/200 1/100 1/50 1/30

(a) Wall height = 3.53 m
Story angle = 1/300 1/200 1/100 1/50 1/30

(b) Wall height = 4. 03 m
Story angle = 1/300 1/200 1/100 1/50 1/30

(c) Wall height = 4.53m
Figure 36. Photos of shear wall specimens at story angles of 1/300–1/30 used for the experiment
471
50 50 50
Wall Height Wall Height Wall Height
40 40 = 4.03 m 40 = 4.53 m
= 3.53 m
30 30 30
20 20 20
Shear Load (kN)
Shear Load (kN)

Shear Load (kN)
10 10 10
0 0 0
-10 -10 -10
-20 -20 -20
-30 -30 -30
-40 -40 -40
-50 -50 -50
-50-40-30-20-10 0 10 20 30 40 50 -50-40 -30-20-10 0 10 20 30 40 50 -50-40-30-20-10 0 10 20 30 40 50
Story Angle (x10-3radian) Story Angle (x10-3radian) Story Angle (x10-3radian)
(a) Wall height = 3.53 m, (b) Wall height = 4.03 m, (c) Wall height = 4.53 m
Figure 47. Shear load – story angle relations
The relations between in-plane shear load and
story angle of the wall specimens are showed in
Figs. 17a,b,c. The 3.53, 4.03, and 4.53 m high walls
showed almost same behavior and significant
stiffness in the initial elastic regions. The stiffness
drastically changed from the elastic to the plastic
regions. The walls maintained high strength until
the ultimate state was reached. Under cyclic
loading, the shear load–story angle relations
exhibited pinching behavior with stable round
loops, which absorb seismic energy efficiently. The
shear load at the second cycle at the same story
angle decreased slightly, while the shear load at
the third cycle did not decrease furthermore.
Figure 18. Envelope curves of nine specimens used
The shear load–story angle relations of the walls for the experiment compared with FEA results
are compared using envelope curves (Fig. 18).
Table 2. Design strength from eq. (1) and shear
Three specimens of the same height, i.e., total
load at story angle 1/300 through experiment
nine, were taken. The Initial stiffness values of all Height Eq. (1) Shear load at story Shear load at story
the walls were similar. The 4.03 m high walls were (m) (kN) angle1/300 obtained angle 1/200 obtained
slightly stronger at the wall story angle 1/100, through experiment through experiment
than the 3.53 and 4.53 m high walls. The effect of (kN) (kN)
cross-rails was significant and the charging of 3.53 26.6 23.9 27.4
24.0 27.2
burring holes by cross-rails determined the 24.4 27.8
strength for the wall (Fig. 14). A cross-rail charges 4.03 25.1 25.0 28.0
3 holes for the 4.03 m high wall, and 3.5 holes for 25.8 28.5
the 3.53 and 4.53 m high walls. The dispersion of 25.1 27.9
three specimens of the same height is small. The 4.53 26.3 23.1 26.2
22.8 25.9
FEA results show similar trends but slightly higher 23.3 26.7
stiffness than the experimental results (Fig. 18).
The allowable shear strengths of the walls as Table 3. Index strength from eq. (9) and shear load
derived from Eq. (1) are those between wall story at story angle 1/100 through experiment
angles 1/300 and 1/200 (Table 2). The index Height Eq. (9) Shear load at story angle:1/100
strengths of the wall as derived from Eq. (9) are (m) (kN) obtained through experiment (kN)
almost the same as the shear loads at story angle 3.53 33.3 32.7 32.4 33.0
4.03 33.0 32.6 33.5 32.7
1/100 obtained via experiments (Table 3). 4.53 33.0 31.2 31.1 31.6
472
6 Conclusions 7 Acknowledgments
The seismic performance of high-panelized steel The authors appreciate the significant
sheet walls with burring holes aligned vertically contributions made by Makoto Kondo of NS Hi-
and the effects of wall height on shear walls were parts Corp. in the wall experiments and Yusuke
investigated via finite element analyses and Shimoda of Daiken Information System Corp. in
experiments. From this investigation, the the FEA.
following conclusions can be drawn:
Walls exhibited stiffness in the initial elastic region, 8 References
whereas they maintained stable strength under [1] Y. Kawai, M. Kondo, A. Sato, T. ONO, S.
large story angle, with simultaneous deformation Tohnai. Allowable Design Formula for Steel
of all the intervals between the holes. Sheet Shear Walls with Burring Holes. 7th
Furthermore, the walls were stable in their seismic International Conference on CIMS 2016.
energy absorption capability, as demonstrated by Baltimore.
the round loops of the load–story angle curves. [2] A. Sato, S. Mori, T. Ono, et al. Study on
Walls that experienced in-plane shear forces Buckling Strength of Light-gage Steel
allowed shear stress to concentrate between the Members with Large Opening. Proceedings
aligned burring holes. Stress concentration finally of constructional steel. 2014;Vol.22 716-723.
led to the ultimate state due to shear buckling. [3] K.Azuma, N.Takagi, H.Senda, C.Watanabe, T.
Karatsu. Application of Fastening System by
The initial elastic strengths until the serviceability Self-drilling Tapping Screws. Proceedings of
limit of a story angle of 1/300 for all the walls are constructional steel, 2006; Vol.14 705-712.
almost the same regardless of the wall height. [4] T.Toriyama, A.Sato, T.Ono, H.Okada. Screw
The post-buckling behavior depends on the strength of shear lap joint by drill screw
tension fields on the intervals and is restrained by connections. Architectural Institute of
cross-rails. The effect of cross-rails is significant; Japan, Tokai. 2013; Vol.51 217-220.
the burring holes charged by a cross-rail [5] American Iron and Steel Institute. AISI
determine the strength of a wall at story angle Standard North American Specification for
1/100. the Design of Cold-formed Steel Structural
Members. 2007
Based on the results, the allowable strength [6] K. Sakuragi, A. Sato, T. Ono, S. Hashimoto.
design formula of a wall is developed. The design Ductility Reduction Factor of Steel Sheet
value is obtained by summing the shear buckling Shear Wall with Burring Holes Used in Steel
strength of the intervals between the holes in the Framed House. 7th International Conference
vertical direction of the wall. The allowable on CIMS 2016. Baltimore.
strength design values obtained using the formula [7] The Japan Iron and Steel Federation. Guide
lie between the values at wall story angles 1/300 for Designing Cold-formed Steel Structures.
and 1/200 obtained through experiments. Gihodoshuppan, 2002
The index strength at story angle 1/100 is [8] Y.Kawai, R.Kanno, et al. Seismic Resistance
developed. The tension in an interval is balanced and Design of Steel-Famed Houses. Nippon
with compression resisted by burring holes and Steel Technical Report. 1999; No.79, 7-16.
horizontal shear forces at screw connections. The [9] H.Tanaka, Y.Kawai, et al. Development of
index values for story angle 1/100 for the walls are Corrugated Sheet Shear Walls with Large
almost the same as the shear loads obtained by Deformation Capacity for Residential Cold-
experiments. Formed Steel Framing. Pacific Structural
Steel Conference. 2013; Singapore, 206-211.
The R-value for the evaluation of seismic
performance of shear walls will be discussed in a
subsequent report.
473
Deformation Capacity of Web Perforated H-Shaped Beams

Toru Inaba, Tetsu Usami, Kenji Yamazaki, Fumi Ushiwata
Research and Development Institute, Takenaka Corporation, Chiba, Japan 
Nobuyuki Odajima, Okamoto Jun

Design Department, Takenaka Corporation, Tokyo, Japan 
Contact: inaba.tooru@takenaka.co.jp
Abstract
When designing web perforated H-shaped beams, it is common to reinforce the holes due to the deficit in
section’s area. However, previous studies revealed that non-reinforced web-perforated H-Shaped beams
had similar performances as non-perforated H-shaped beams without holes when the position and shape
of holes were designed considering the relationship between the acting stress for beams and the strength
at the reduced sections. While this design method of non-reinforced web perforated H-shaped beams
assumes a stress state of beams in the elastic state, it cannot always guarantee an appropriate
performance in the ultimate stage similarly to non-perforated H-shaped beams. So the purpose of this
study is to confirm the ultimate behavior of perforated H-shaped beams by experiment and FEM.
Keywords: Perforated Beams; Deformation Capacity; Static Loading test; Finite Element Method
Analysis
(in Figure 1) when the position and shape of holes

1 Introduction were designed considering the relationship
When designing web perforated H-shaped beams, between the acting stress for beams and the
it is common to reinforce the holes due to the strength at the reduced sections in [1] and [2].
reduced web sectional area. However, previous While this design method of non-reinforced
studies revealed that web-perforated H-Shaped perforated H-shaped beams assumes a stress
beams without reinforcement had similar state of beams in the elastic state, it cannot
performances as non-perforated H-shaped beams always guarantee an appropriate performance in
the ultimate stage similarly to non-perforated H-
shaped beams. Therefore, recent design method
is applied for many buildings considering the
ultimate behavior of beams when an unexpected
huge earthquake occurs. For this reason, it is
important to establish an appropriate design
method for non-reinforced perforated H-shaped
beams considering their ultimate behavior.
Therefore, the purpose of this study is to confirm
the ultimate behavior of non-reinforced
Figure 1. Non-reinforced perforated H-shaped perforated H-shaped beams by experiment. The
Beams authors present in this paper the experiment
474
H
h
: 1 element strain gauge B h
Hydraulic jack bf tf
Load cell : 3 element strain gauge
tw
Q
L
Lateral Constrain
2ρ
Specimen
d
Figure 2. Load device and definition of symbols
outline of non-reinforced perforated H-shaped Table 1. Sample specifications

beams and discuss the effect of the position of H B tw tf L ρ d Mp θp
Name
holes on the ultimate behavior of such beams. [mm] [mm][mm] [mm][mm][mm][mm][kNm] [/103rad]
And, by comparison with non-perforated H- N5_1 350 150 9 12 1750 0 0 314.7 7.63
shaped beams, the authors investigate the
E5_1 350 150 9 12 1750 196 418 314.7 7.63
suitable position of the holes that guarantees an
P5_1 350 150 9 12 1750 196 545 314.7 7.63
equivalent performance at the ultimate stage.
Then, they verify the validity of the analysis based P5_2 350 150 6 12 1750 196 498 284.6 7.83
on the experimental results, and perform a
parametric analysis of the non-reinforced web Table 2. Mechanical properties of the steel
perforated beam to classify the collapse behavior. material
t E σy σu εu Elng.
Name Y.R.
[mm] [N/mm2] [N/mm2] [N/mm2] [%] [%]
2 Confirmation experiment for
plastic deformation capacity of t6 5.9 204500 386.9 555.7 18.1 24.6 0.70
non-reinforced perforated beams t9 9.1 208300 374.4 548.2 19.2 26.9 0.68
t12 12.0 205233 367.9 546.1 18.2 26.0 0.67
2.1 Experimental plan
Figure 2 shows the loading set up for a cantilever Table 3. Definition of symbol
system including the defined symbols, and Tables
1 and 2 list the specifications and mechanical Mh :Moment at perforated section
properties of steel. All specimens had a centered Q : shear force (in figure 1)
hole of diameter 0.6 times the web height(h). For Mph :Full plastic moment at perforated section subjected
the cross-sections, H-350×150×9×12 section is to pure bending
named Section 1 in which each plate element had Mphf :Full plastic moment of flange at perforated section
a sufficient width/thickness ratio and H-
Qph :shear strength at perforated section
475
350×150×6×12 section is named Section 2 with a Perforated section strength correlation

large web width/thickness ratio, as a parameter.
Beam end strength correlation
Based on [1], the opening distance was M
Mp M=QL
determined as the shortest distance (limit
distance dL) from the edge where the perforated Mps
section yielded, at the same time as the edge Mh
reached the full plastic moment. However, two =Q(L-dLe)
parameters are set: the limit distance dLe Mh =Q(L-dLp )
corresponding to the reduced full plastic moment
Mps at the edge due to shear, and the limit
distance dLp corresponding to the full-plastic Q
bending moment Mp. Figure 3 shows a schematic
of the decision method for the opening distance d. Figure 3. Decision method for the opening distance
The definition of ohter symbol is showed in
table3. sides of specimens.
Reversed cyclic loading was applied horizontally,
2.2 Experimental results
with gradual increasing amplitudes. The
specimens had an element length to web height Figure 4 shows the experimental results in terms
(L/h) ratio of λ=5.0. To suppress lateral buckling, of the relationship of the non-dimensional
constraining elements were set up on both lateral moment and rotation angle, and the final
deformed shape of the specimens. The maximum
M/Mp H-350×150×9×12 M/Mp H-350×150×9×12
1.5 1.5
: Maximum : Maximum
1.0 1.0
0.5 0.5
0.0 0.0
-0.5 -0.5
-1.0 ρ=0.0[mm] -1.0 ρ=98.0[mm]

d=0.0[mm] θ/θp d=418.0[mm] θ/θp
-1.5 -1.5
-10 -5 0 5 10 -10 -5 0 5 10
(a)N5_1 (b)E5_1
M/Mp H-350×150×9×12 M/Mp H-350×150×6×12
1.5 1.5
: Maximum : Maximum
1.0 1.0
0.5 0.5
0.0 0.0
-0.5 -0.5
-1.0 ρ=98.0[mm] -1.0 ρ=98.0[mm]

d=545.0[mm] θ/θp d=498.0[mm]
-1.5 θ/θp
-1.5
-10 -5 0 5 10 -10 -5 0 5 10
(c)P5_1 (d)P5_2
Figure 4. Load history and final deformation
476
M/Mp M/Mp
1.6 1.6
1.4 1.4
1.2 1.2
1.0 1.0
0.8 N5_1_Skeleton 0.8
E5_1_Skeleton
0.6 0.6
P5_1_Skeleton P5_2_Sleketon
0.4 N5_1_Analysis 0.4
E5_1_Analysis N5_2_Analysis
0.2 0.2
P5_1_Analysis P5_2_Analysis
0.0 θ/θp θ/θp
0.0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
(a)Section1 (b)Section2
Figure 5. Skeleton curve of each cross-section and analysis
strength of specimen E5_1 with d=dLe was Lateraｌ Bracing
determined from local deformation near the
opening before the capacity at the beam end was Rigid Body(RB1) Q
reached. Specimen P5_1 with d=dLp experienced
an insignificant buckling at the flange of the beam
end simultaneously to the local deformation near
the opening when the maximum strength was Rigid Body(RB2)
reached, with a deformation capacity higher than
the one of N5_1. This is likely due to the reason Name Boundary Condition
1
that both the beam end and perforated section 4 RB1 1,2,3,4,5,6(Fix)
6 2
became simultaneously plastic, resulting in an RB2 3,4,5(Fix)
3 5
expanded plastic region larger than the one in
N5_1. For P5_2 with a large web height/web
thickness ratio (h/tw), excessive deformation Figure 6. Finite element method analytical model
around the perforated area occurred first, leading σ[N/mm2]
to an earlier deterioration than expected. 700
650
3 Influence of opening distance and 600
web height/web thickness on 550
plastic deformation capacity 500 E=205000[N/mm2]
450 σy=367.8[N/mm2]
Figure 5 shows the skeleton curve obtained from
400 σu=546.1[N/mm2]
the test cyclic loading and FEM analysis results of
εu=18.2[%]
a beam of the same shape subjected to a 350
Y.R.=0.67 ε
monotonic loading. For the analysis, the general- 300
purpose finite element method analytical 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20
software, ABAQUS/Ver. 6.14 was used. Figure 6 Figure 7. True stress-log strain relationship
shows the analytical model used in the finite
element analysis of the non-reinforced perforated the relationship between the true stress and
beam. The boundary conditions of the cantilever strain in Figure 7 by material tensile test.
beam are shown in Figure 6. Moreover, as this
Figure 5 shows that the analytical and
study targets local buckling, the deformation
experimental results were consistent with a high
outside of the beam surface shown in Figure 6 was
level of agreement and therefore the analytical
constrained. The yield behavior of the steel
results were sufficiently valid. As for the specimen
material used for the analysis was obtained from
477
ε[%] H-350×150×9×12 γ[1/100rad] H-350×150×6×12

-0.20 0.40
-0.18 @498_1
0.35
-0.16 εy=0.179[%] ＠498_2
-0.14 0.30
-0.12 0.25 γy=0.27[1/100rad]
-0.10 0.20
-0.08 0.15
-0.06 E5_1
N5_1 0.10
-0.04
-0.02 P5_1 M=0.7Mp 0.05
x[mm] M/Mp
0.00 0.00
0 200 400 600 800 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Figure 8. Strain distribution in the axial direction
Figure 9. P5_2 web shear strain
of the flange member
rate clearly decreased. Figure 9 shows the
with Section 2, analytical results for a monotonic progress of the web shear strain measured on
loading of a beam of the same shape without an both sides of the perforated section. The
opening is also shown. Figure 5(a) shows that in all diametrically opposite shear strains at the
specimens with Section 1, a plasticity rate of 4.0 perforated section, shown in the figure, locally
was secured. In addition, the maximum strength reached yield level, while the beam end remained
and plasticity rate for E5_1 were small compared in the elastic range. Therefore, the cross-section
to those of N5_1. As the strength of the beam end with large web height to web thickness could
was close to Mp, the perforated area designed experience localized deformation around the
considering the reduced total plastic moment Mps perforated area after plasticization, even when
yielded first. the limit distance is dLp.
Regarding this issue, Figure 8 shows the flange Table 4 presents various results obtained in the
strain distribution in the direction of the beam experiment. For all specimens with Section1, the
length of E5_1 and P5_1 at the moment level 0.7 plastic deformation ratios based on the skeleton
Mp. The figure shows that the strain distribution curves, Rsc, were satisfactory. However, for P5_2
near the perforated part in E5_1 reached yielding the plastic deformation ratio was smaller than the
locally at 0.7 Mp. On the other hand, although result of analysis of a same beam without holes.
P5_1 showed disordered distribution, strains Then, if a beam with a large web height to web
remained within the elastic range. Therefore, with thickness ratio is considered with a limit distance
a cross-section with a small web height to web given based on [1], the plastic deformation ratio
thickness ratio, the preferred plasticization of the can be overestimated.
perforated section was suppressed when d = dLp,
and the deformation capacity equivalent to a non-
perforated beam could be secured.
4 Parametric analysis of non-
reinforced perforated beams
Then, when comparing the skeleton curve of P5_2
and the monotonic FEM analysis results of the Based on the experimental results, the collapse
non-perforated beam in Figure 5(b), the plasticity behavior by plastic deformation of non-reinforced
Table 4. List of test results

Pmax(+) Pmax(-)
Name Mmax(+)/Mp Mmax(-)/Mp θmax(+)/θp θmax(-)/θp Rsc(+) Rsc(-)
[kN] [kN]
N5_1 256 257 1.43 1.43 6.07 5.20 6.90 5.91
E5_1 236 245 1.31 1.36 5.68 5.30 6.67 6.31
P5_1 255 254 1.42 1.41 8.63 5.22 9.81 6.31
P5_2 195 193 1.20 1.19 3.03 2.44 2.49 2.27
478
h/tw
100 Perforated section strength correlation
90 Analytical cross-section
M M e=QL
80 Mp
70
M ph
60
50 M phf
40
FA3)
30
20 FB3)
M h=Q (L-d Lp) Qp=Qph
10 FC3)
bf/tf Q
0
0 5 10 15 20
Figure 10. Width/thickness of the analytical Figure 11. Determination method for the limit
cross-section distance and opening rate
perforated beams modified based on the section investigated by these analyses, and the height or
shape and distance of the opening away from the width to thickness ratio limit of the H-beam
beam end was confirmed. Therefore, to clarify defined in [3]. The cross-sections used in these
these relationships, parametric analyses, with the analyses were selected based on [4].
aforementioned analytical method was performed.
Figure 11 shows the conceptual diagram on the
Figure 10 shows the height or width to thickness
decision method for the opening distance and
ratio of each plate element for beam members
shape. In these analyses, to understand the lower
Table 5. list of FEM models

H B tw tf λ=4.0 λ=5.0 λ=6.0
Name d d d
eh M eh M eh M
[mm] [mm] [mm] [mm] [mm] [mm] [mm]
Section3 816 303 17 34 907 0.51 d 1149 0.59 d 1388 0.60 d
Section4 148 100 6 9 118 0.39 b 152 0.49 b 184 0.56 b
Section5 494 302 13 21 426 0.40 d 545 0.50 c 663 0.57 c
Section6 194 150 6 9 141 0.33 c 183 0.45 b 223 0.52 b
Section7 390 300 10 16 272 0.30 b 353 0.42 b 432 0.50 b
Section8 792 300 14 22 1085 0.57 c 1367 0.60 c 1644 0.60 a
Section9 800 300 14 26 959 0.53 d 1213 0.60 d 1462 0.60 c
Section10 386 299 9 14 279 0.32 b 361 0.43 b 442 0.51 a
Section11 582 300 12 17 677 0.51 c 856 0.59 a 1033 0.60 a
Section12 456 201 10 17 509 0.50 d 645 0.59 d 778 0.60 c
Section13 600 200 11 17 913 0.60 c 1147 0.60 c 1378 0.60 a
Section14 300 150 6.5 9 363 0.53 c 459 0.60 c 554 0.60 c
Section15 396 199 7 11 433 0.49 c 549 0.57 c 663 0.60 c
Section16 175 90 5 8 176 0.47 d 224 0.56 c 271 0.60 c
Section17 248 124 5 8 265 0.48 d 337 0.57 c 407 0.60 c
Section18 446 199 8 12 559 0.54 c 706 0.60 c 850 0.60 a
Section19 198 99 4.5 7 215 0.49 c 273 0.58 c 330 0.60 c
Section20 700 200 9 16 1089 0.60 d 1367 0.60 (o) 1641 0.60 (o)
Section21 700 250 9 16 923 0.55 d 1164 0.60 d 1400 0.60 a
Section22 600 200 9 16 827 0.57 d 1041 0.60 c 1252 0.60 a
Section23 600 250 9 16 694 0.51 d 878 0.59 d 1059 0.60 c
Section24 1000 300 16 22 1794 0.60 a 2246 0.60 (o) 2692 0.60 (o)
Section25 1000 350 16 22 1618 0.60 a 2029 0.60 a 2435 0.60 a
Section26 1000 400 16 22 1472 0.59 c 1850 0.60 a 2222 0.60 a
Section27 650 200 12 25 821 0.55 d 1036 0.60 d 1248 0.60 (o)
Section28 650 300 12 25 581 0.42 d 743 0.51 d 902 0.58 d
Section29 750 250 14 25 1015 0.57 d 1279 0.60 c 1538 0.60 c
Section30 750 350 14 25 772 0.47 d 982 0.56 c 1187 0.60 c
Section31 850 400 16 25 982 0.51 c 1243 0.59 c 1500 0.60 c
Section32 600 250 12 19 753 0.54 d 950 0.60 c 1144 0.60 c
Section33 950 250 19 40 1330 0.59 d 1674 0.60 (o) 2014 0.60 (o)
Section34 950 350 19 40 1017 0.49 d 1290 0.58 d 1559 0.60 d
Section35 1000 250 16 25 1848 0.60 a 2312 0.60 (o) 2771 0.60 (o)
Section36 700 200 9 19 951 0.57 d 1198 0.60 d 1441 0.60 (o)
Section37 1000 250 16 32 1543 0.60 d 1938 0.60 (o) 2327 0.60 (o)
Section38 500 200 12 22 558 0.51 d 707 0.59 d 854 0.60 c
Section39 550 300 16 22 609 0.50 c 772 0.59 c 932 0.60 c
479
limit of the plastic deformation capacity of non- non-reinforced perforated beams. In this study,
reinforced perforated beams, the opening the collapse mode was classified into four types
distance and opening rate eh (=2ρ/h) were based on the relationship of the non-perforated
determined when the beam edge yielded, and the beam with the load deformation, and the final
perforated section also yielded with bending and behavior, based on the analytical results of the
shear. First, eh was determined so that the shear perforated beam obtained from the parametric
force Qp for the full plastic moment of the beam, analyses.
and yield shear strength Qph of the opening, were
The first failure form was buckling at the edge, as
equal. However, as in [5], if eh exceeds 0.6, the
shown in Figure 12(a). In this case, the behavior of
shear yield strength of the beam decreases
the perforated beam had a slightly low secondary
notably. Therefore, the same shape was assumed,
gradient, but had a similar load-displacement
and an upper limit for eh of 0.6 was set. As for the
relationship as the non-perforated beam. This
limit distance, based on the experimental results,
mode was common in models with a longer
the limit distance dLp determined by the full plastic
members.
moment Mp by bending was used. The limit
distance dLp and opening rate eh for each cross- The second failure form was flange compression
section and side length are listed in Table 5. between the edge and perforated section (flange
compression type) and the strength was
Figure 12 shows an example of the relationship
determined when the flange buckled from the
between the non-dimensional moment and
edge to near the perforated part [Figure 12(b)].
member angle, and the final deformation of the
This form was especially common in beams with a
M/Mp H-582×300×12×17 M/Mp H-390×300×10×16

1.6
:Maximum :Maximum
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4 λ=5.0 λ=6.0
Section11_n Section7_n
0.2
Section11_h Section7_h
0.0 θ/θp θ/θp
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
(a) Seciton11 (b) Seciton7
M/Mp H-550×300×16×22 M/Mp H-650×300×12×25
λ=6.0 λ=6.0
:Maximum :Maximum
Section39_n Section28_n
Section39_h Section28_h
θ/θp θ/θp
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
(c) Seciton39 (d) Seciton28
Figure 12. non-dimensional moment-member angle relationship and final deformation
480
large flange width/thickness. The load- 1) When the opening distance was appropriately
displacement relationships showed that the designed, based on [1], the perforated area
plastic deformation capacity of the perforated was sometimes preferentially deformed.
beam was lower than that of the non-perforated 2) Beams with small web height to thickness
beam. As the stress distribution in the flange ratios had plastic deformation capacities
member axial direction changed at the perforated equivalent to non-perforated beams when
part, the stress on the beam flange from the edge using the limit distance dLp.
to the perforated part after plasticization 3) Beams with a large web height to thickness
approached pure compression. ratios had lower plastic deformation ratios
compared with non-perforated beams, even
The third failure form was bending of the
for an opening distance of dLp.
perforated part, where the coupled deformation
4) Skeleton curves obtained from the
of the flange and web induced buckling by
experimental results of the non-reinforced
bending in the perforated part [Figure 12(c)]. This
perforated beams were consistent with
collapse mode resulted in a relatively large
analytical results.
deformation of the perforated part. As the web
5) Failure mode of non-reinforced perforated
height to thickness ratio of the perforated part
beams could be classified into four types
was sufficient and the deformation of the
based on their load-displacement
perforated part progressed, the plastic range
relationships and buckling behaviors.
spread to the edge, leading to a sufficient
deformation capacity. In some cases, perforated
beams had a higher plastic deformation capacity
than non-perforated beams. 6 References
The fourth failure form was the web shear of the [1] Ben KATO and Yoshifumi KANEKO: On the
perforated part [Figure 12(d)]. As the Access Limit of Web Perforation to Steel
height/thickness of the web and web cross- Beam End, Journal of Structural and
sectional area were insufficient, the progress of Construction Engineering (Transactions of
the shear deformation was predominant, inducing AIJ) No.496, pp.105-112, 1997.6 
buckling in the perforated part early, leading to a [2] Yoshifumi KANEKO and Ben KATO: Proof
decreased strength. Therefore, the plastic Stress and Plastic Deformation Capacity of
deformation capacity was much lower than that of Steel Eccentric Perforated Beam,
the non-perforated beam. This was especially Summaries of Technical Papers of Annual
common in the model with a small ratio of web Meeting, Architectural Institute of Japan,
height to beam length. All analytical results could Structures III, pp.639-642,2009.8.
be classified into the above four types. Column M
of Table 5 shows the collapse mode of each model. [3] Architectural Institute of Japan: Design
The analytical models in which local transverse Standard for Steel Structures—Based on
deformation occurred [indicated by (o) in the Allowable Stress Concept, 2007.7 
table] were excluded. [4] JFE Steel Corporation: Handbook of Steel
Structural Design, 2013.8 
5 Conclusions [5] Yasunaga FUKUCHI, Yasuo DOI, and Yuji
HOSOKAWA: On the Strength of Beams
In this experimental and analytical study, the with Circular Holes and a Design Method,
plastic performance of non-reinforced perforated 1. Non-reinforced Holes; Journal of
beams was confirmed. The findings are as follows: Structural and Construction Engineering,
No.296, pp.26-36, 1980.10
481
Development of retrofitting method against fatigue cracks in

orthotropic steel deck stiffened by trough ribs
Takahiro Shinno, Yoshiaki Mizokami, Akira Moriyama, Yuki Kishi
Honshu-shikoku bridge Expressway Co.,Ltd, Hyogo, JP
Masahiro Sakano
Kansai University, Osaka, JP
Contact: takahiro-shinno@jb-honshi.co.jp
Abstract
Orthotropic steel deck is suitable for a long span bridge because of its light weight. And closed
section ribs, we call “trough ribs”, are used for orthotropic steel deck in Honshu-Shikoku Bridges
because of excellent bending capacity with less number of weld lines and less areas of anti-
corrosion.
In orthotropic steel decks stiffened by trough ribs, fatigue cracks resulting from large vehicles have
been observed with the increase of the service years. The cracks found in trough-deck welds are
bead-penetrating type. Several retrofitting methods have been studied for these bead-penetrating
cracks so far. However, effective method that is applicable from the underside of the deck is still
under development.
In this paper, development of a retrofitting method using Thread Rolling Screw from the underside
of the deck, fatigue test results and application test in an in-service bridge are described.
Keywords: orthotropic steel deck; bead-penetrating crack; thread Rolling Screw; retrofitting
method from the underside of the deck
1 Introduction
The Honshu-Shikoku Bridges (Figure 1) that
connect Honshu and Shikoku by three routes
consist of ten suspension bridges including the
Akashi Kaikyo Bridge, the longest suspension
bridge in the world, five cable-stayed bridges, one
truss bridge and one arch bridge.
For these long-span bridges, dead load occupies
large part of the cross-sectional force of the major
members. In order to reduce dead load, they use Figure 1. Location of Honshu-Shikoku Bridges
light-weight orthotropic steel decks (OSD).
482
OSD consisting of deck plates, trough ribs, and general, full penetration welding cannot be done
cross ribs are supported by main girders in which and unwelded parts tend to remain at root. That is,
deck plates act as upper flange. for the re-welding, quality may not be assured and
anxiety for the reappearance of cracks from root
2 Conventional retrofitting methods remains.
of fatigue cracks For the plate splicing with stud bolts, quality
control may be difficult because of upward
OSD is frequently adopted to long-span bridges in
welding. Also, because the studs are welded to the
strait and urban expressway because of its light
deck plate in which stress amplitude by the live
weight and short building time. In recent years,
load is large, fatigue cracks from weld toe toward
many cases of cracks initiating from trough-deck
the deck may be a concern. Although several
weld root toward the surface of the weld bead
retrofitting methods for bead-penetrating crack
(hereinafter, “ bead-penetrating crack ” ) as
were proposed, there is no effective method that is
shown in Figure 2 are reported mainly in heavy
applicable from the underside of the deck
traffic route[1]~[4]．
currently.
3 Developed retrofitting method and

pavement outline of fatigue test
deck plate
The retrofitting method proposed here is a plate
splicing method that requires no traffic regulation
and applicable from the underside of the deck. In
this method, the deck is drilled from the underside
Bead-penetrating with caution not to damage the pavement, and
crack
Trough rib connection of the splicing plate and deck plate is
bearing joint with bolts or screws instead of
Figure 2. Bead-penetrating crack
conventional friction joint with torque shear bolts.
The following existing retrofitting methods have Bolt holes are perforated from the underside of the
advantages and disadvantages. Replacement of deck. Connection of splicing plate and trough rib is
trough ribs or plate-splicing require installation of one side bolt.
high-tension bolts from the topside of the deck.
In order to confirm performance of the method,
Rewelding[5] or plate-splicing with stud bolts are
fatigue tests with actual size test model (Figure 3)
applicable from the underside[6]~[9].
are conducted[10],[11]. The load is 260kN/axle,
Replacement of trough ribs or plate-splicing and 2-3 million times of direct loading is applied.
require traffic restriction for the removal of the
pavement. Therefore, social impact is large for
heavy traffic highways or strait-crossing longspan
bridges that have no alternative routes. Also,
pavement joint created by the partial pavement
removal and repaving may degrade waterproofing
performance.
For the re-welding from the underside, quality
control is difficult because the method forces
welders to weld in an upward direction. Also, if the
traffic cannot be closed, traffic vibration is not
avoidable during welding work and it may degrade
welding quality. Because welding inside the trough Figure 3. Actual size test model
rib is difficult and it is welded from the outside in
483
As bearing joint, tap bolt (TB) and Thread Rolling

Screw (TRS) are selected. In a method using TB, the
bolt is screwed after steel plate is perforated and
tapped. On the other hand, in a method using
Thread Rolling Screw (TRS), the bolt is screwed
forming female threads on perforated steel plate
[12]～[14]. Also, as a bench mark to evaluate these
methods, friction joint with torque shear bolt (HTB)
is tested as well. Connection of splicing plate and
trough rib is one side bolt (MUTF20) for all types.
Figure 4 shows details of each retrofitting method,
and Figure 5 shows TRS. Figure 5. TRS
L1(HTB) L2(TB) L3･L4(TRS)
Detail
Figure 4. Details of plate splicing

④ For three connection methods (HTB, TB, and
4 Results of fatigue test TRS), neither bolt loosening nor cracks from bolt
In fatigue test, the following results were holes are observed. They can be evaluated as
confirmed. equivalent within the range of the load and number
of repetitive loading of the test.
①It is found that deck cracks can be suppressed if
plate splicing is applied with bead cut. Even if bead ⑤From the view point of workability, TB and TRS
is not fully cut before plate splicing, remaining bead can be applied from the underside. Especially for
will be cut by repetitive loading and no deck cracks TRS, shaving process can be omitted compared
will be generated. with TB. TRS has higher workability and therefore
has advantage over TB.
②No deck cracks are found in the area where bead
is cut. However, bead cracks or deck cracks may
occur at the end of bead cut. From this,
5 Test application
countermeasure is required at the end of bead cut
5.1 Retrofit procedure
in order to suppress and monitor the reappearance
or progress of crack[15]． A retrofit procedure manual for plate splicing
method from the underside of the deck using TRS
③From the fact that bead cracks and deck cracks
based on results of fatigue test was made before
appear and grow if plate splicing is applied without application in actual bridge. The procedure is as
bead cut, it is confirmed to be necessary to cut follows.
bead.
(1) Drill monitoring holes at both ends of cracks
(Figure 6)
484
(2) Cut bead in trough-deck weld (Figure 7)

(3) Attach splicing plate temporarily using magnet
tool (Figure 8)
(4) Drill hole for TRSφ12 bolt in deck (drilling
diameter is φ11.5, Figure 8)
(5) Attach splicing plate temporarily using TRSφ
12
(6) Drill bolt hole in trough rib for MUTF20
(7) Tighten temporarily two MUTF20 bolts near the
center in trough rib side
Figure 7. Cutting bead
(8) Drill bolt hole in deck for TRSφ16 (drilling
diameter is φ15.5)
(9) Tighten TRSφ16 in deck (Figure 9)
(10) Tighten temporarily all MUTF20 bolts in trough
rib side
(11) Tighten fully all MUTF20 bolts in trough rib
(12) Rustproof with sealing and painting
(8)-(9) is executed for each bolt from the end of
splicing plate toward center. After all TRSφ16 have
been tightened, (10)-(12) are executed. Figure 10 Figure 8. Drilling hole for TRSφ12
shows splicing plate after installation, and Figure
11 shows details of each retrofitting method.
Also, some special tools were developed for the
retrofit. The followings are examples.
・Drilling blade with drill stopper: control drilling
depth not to damage pavement when drilling in
deck side(Figure 12)．
・Center pin with magnet：prevent drilled core
from falling inside of trough rib(Figure 13)．
Figure 9. Tightening TRSφ16
TRSφ16
MUTF20
Figure 6. Monitoring hole

Figure 10. Installed splicing plate
485
5.2 Factory test

Pavement 65mm
In advance of actual retrofit in the bridge, test with
actual size model is conducted in a factory for
Deck plate
training of workers and confirmation of efficacy of
Trough rib t=12mm Splicing TRSφ16
plate
developed tools. Some of checked items are as
t=6,8mm
MUTF20
follows.
t=8mm
 Efficient application angle of cutting machine
Figure 11. Details of retrofit
for bead cut, and how to recognize
appropriate cut depth.
 Selection of proper cutting tools for general
weld line and one close to cross rib for bead
cut.
 Confirm that the protrusion of cutter above
deck surface is less than 1mm by developed
drill stopper.
 Confirm that splicing plate does not move by
Figure 12. Drilling blade
the temporally fixation by magnet when
for deck side
drilling.
 Confirm that TRS can be tightened vertically
Figure 12. Drilling blade for deck side upward by the developed jig.
6 On-site test
On-site test was conducted in the bridge shown in
Figure 14 using inspection vehicle installed on the
bridge. Tests were conducted two times so far.
Although the first test was conducted with traffic
restriction above the test point as a precaution,
second test was conducted without. It was
confirmed that no problems were found in each
case. Since installation of splicing plate is
conducted upward direction by human power,
Figure 13. Drilling blade for trough rib splicing plate is divided into three parts to make the
weight of one part is less than 10kg.
Installation position of splicing plate
Downline Upline
Floor area：2.45m×5.52m
Figure 14. Section of the bridge
486
Table 1. Timetable of on-site test
day 1 day 2 day 3 day 4 day 5 day 6 day 7 day 8 day 9
Surface preparation
Surface treatm ent/P rotect paint

(O ne layer of organic zinc)
Installation of splicing plate
(C ut bead~ Tighten fully all bolts)
P ainting
Sealing of m onitoring hole
Table 1 shows the number of days for actual

7.3 Factory test and on-site test
retrofit. It takes a total of 9 days, while installation
of splicing plate takes 3 days, preparation and paint It is confirmed that the proposed retrofitting
work take remaining days. Currently, two years method is applicable from the underside of the
have passed since the first installation of splicing deck with no damage to the pavement. In addition,
plate, but no loosening of bolts, water leakage, or traffic restriction during retrofit is not required.
recurrence of cracks have been found. Currently, two years have passed since the first on-
site test of retrofit, but no loosening of bolts, water
7 Conclusion leakage, recurrence of cracks have been found.
Monitoring through holes at the end of cut bead
7.1 Results of fatigue test will be continued to confirm durability of the
retrofitting method. With improving tools and
It is found that deck-penetration cracks can be efficiency, we will continue retrofits for bead
suppressed by fixing plate after bead cut. Even if penetrating cracks.
bead partially remains before plate splicing,
remaining bead can be cut by repetitive loading
and no deck penetration cracks will be generated.
However, countermeasure are required at the end
of cut bead in order to suppress and monitor the
reappearance or progress of crack because bead
cracks or deck cracks may occur at the end of bead
cut.
7.2 Evaluation of connection methods

For three connection methods (HTB, TB, and TRS),
neither bolt loosening nor cracks from bolt holes
are observed. Since there is no distinct difference
in fatigue behaviour among three methods, they
have even fatigue performance with each other.
From the view point of workability, TB and TRS
have advantage because they can be applied from
the underside. Since shaving process can be
omitted compared with TB, TRS has higher
workability than TB.
487
section ribs”，Journal of Japan Society of Civil

8 References Engineers, Ser. A1 (Structural Engineering &
[1] Japan Road Association (JRA), Specifications Earthquake Engineering (SE/EE)), Vol.73, No.2,
for highway bridges part 2 steel bridges, 456-472, August, 2017
pp.193-213,March, 2014 [11] Mizokami Y., Kamata M., Kishi Y., Sakano M.,
[2] Japan Road Association (JRA), Manual of “A study on Retrofitting method using TRS for
fatigue design for steel highway bridges, pp.1- Fatigue Cracks in Orthotropic Steel Deck”,
55, March, 2002 EUROSTEEL 2017, September 13–15, 2017,
[3] Hirabayashi Y., Ushikoshi H., and Kinomoto Copenhagen, Denmark
T.,“Fatigue cracks in orthotropic steel bridge [12] Suzuki H., “Experimental study on strength of
deck in Metropolitan Expressway”, joints connected with thread forming screw”,
Proceedings of the Symposium on Steel Journal of Structural Engineering, Vol. 61 A,
Structures and Bridges, Vol. 10, pp.39-53, pp.614-626, March, 2015
August, 2007 [13] Okumura A., Sakano M., Fujinaga M., Fujii K.,
[4] Hanshin Expressway Co. Ltd., Countermeasure “Shear strength of φ16 thread rolling screw”,
for fatigue of steel bridges in Hanshin Japan Society of Civil Engineers 2015 Annual
Expressway, pp.80-99, March, 2014 Meeting, CS4-007, September, 2015
[5] Kawakami J., Takada Y., Sakano M. A report on [14] Okumura A., Sakano M., Fujinaga M., Fujii K. &
retrofit using welding against fatigue cracking Nishiyama K., “Shear strength of φ16 thread
on the orthotropic deck plate. Journal of rolling screw”, Conference of young
Constructional Steel，Vol. 15，pp.371-376， researchers, Society of Material Science,
November, 2007. October, 2015
[6] Tabata A., Aoki Y., Ono S., Yamaguchi T.,” [15] Mizokami Y., Hanai T., Kamata M., Shinno T.,
Proposal of reinforcing method using stud bolt Kanda H., “Development of bead-penetrating
for orthotropic steel deck stiffened by trough crack on orthotropic steel deck with trough
ribs”，Japan Society of Civil Engineers 2014 rib”, Japan Society of Civil Engineers 2016
Annual Meeting, I-466, September, 2014 Annual Meeting, I386, September, 2016
[7] Aoki Y., Tabata A., Ono S., Watanabe S., Baba
T., Yamaguchi T., ”Loading test of orthotropic
steel deck retrofitted by splicing plate with
stud bolts”，Japan Society of Civil Engineers
2014 Annual Meeting, I-467, September, 2014
[8] Nakai T., Tabata A., Ono S., Yamaguchi T., ”
Static loading test of actual size orthotropic
steel deck model retrofitted by splicing plate
with stud bolts” ， Japan Society of Civil
Engineers 2015 Annual Meeting, I-385,
September, 2015
[9] Ono S., Watanabe S., Tabata A., Nakai T.,
Yamaguchi T., Giga D., “Wheel load fatigue
test of orthotropic steel deck retrofitted by
splicing plate with stud bolts”，Japan Society
of Civil Engineers 2015 Annual Meeting, I-386,
September, 2015
[10] Mizokami Y., Moriyama A., Kobayashi Y.,
Sakano M., ”Test of underside of repair
method for bead-penetrating crack in
orthotropic steel deck stiffened by closed
488
Proposal for New Beam-End Connection with Rib Plates inside Steel
Panel zone of Beam-to-Column Joints
Kenji Yamazaki, Takuma Kawakami , Toru Inaba, Tetsu Usami, Kazuhiro Saburi
Takenaka Corporation, Osaka, Japan
Contact: yamazaki.kenji@takenaka.co.jp
Abstract
This paper presents the results of cyclic load tests for some beam-to-column joint specimens. Each
of the specimens consisted of a cantilever beam and columns. While one specimen contained a
reinforcing rib plate, the others did not. The results indicated that the way of reinforcement did
improve the ultimate bending strength, owing to the increase of bending moment at web plate in
of the beam-end connection.
Moreover, to facilitate the structural design of beams connected to columns of large width-
thickness ratio, a way of evaluating the strength of the reinforced beam-end connection using a
simple formula was proposed.
Keywords: Steel Buildings; Seismic Design and Response.
order to increase jMw. To verify the mechanical

1 Introduction performance of the proposed joint configuration
With the growing popularity of high-strength steel and show its usefulness, static incremental cyclic
and concrete-filled steel tubular columns, the load testing and finite element analysis were car-
beam-to-column joints in steel structures increas- ried out using a T-shaped partial frame model.
ingly feature cross-sectional areas with a large Moreover we propose an evaluation formula,
width-to-thickness ratio. If the beam-to-column based on an actual design, that can estimate jMw
joint is to have load-carrying capacity, the maxi- when using the joint configuration described
mum bending strength at the beam end connec- above. The evaluation formula is built out of sim-
tion jMu must be (connection coefficient)  times ple expressions that are convenient to apply yet
the beam's fully plastic moment bMp[1]. However, accurate enough for practical use. We also reveal
when the joint's cross-section has a large width- how jMw is affected by the parameters that consti-
to-thickness ratio, the bending moment jMw of the tute the evaluation formula, and demonstrate the
beam end web is reduced due to out-of-plane validity and the practicality of the proposed evalu-
deformation of the column skin plate, and the ation formula based on experimental results and
required jMu value may be difficult to obtain. FEM analysis.
In this paper, we propose a new joint configura-
tion that enables the use of joints with load- 2 Joint configuration
carrying capacity regardless of the width-to- The proposed joint configuration is shown in Fig-
thickness ratio by applying rib reinforcement in- ure. 1. Our proposed technique, which is intended
side the steel pipe at the beam-to-column joint in
489
for box-section joints, attaches a vertical rib plate 3 Experiment and analysis
aligned with the beam web inside the joint (this
configuration will hereinafter be referred to as the 3.1 Experimental plan
"WD" (for "Web Diaphragm")). The WD is inte-
grated by welding the natural groove that is The objects that were tested are listed in Table 1.
formed to the adjacent wall of the pipe. Since its The two test parameters used to confirm im-
height is smaller than the web configuration, the provement to jMw by reinforcement inside the
WD is not bonded to the upper and lower horizon- joint were (a) the presence or absence of rein-
tal diaphragms. forcement, and (b) the height of the WD, keeping
the other components the same.
The following components were used in testing.
Beam: BH-600x200x16x22 (flange width-to-
thickness ratio: 4.55, web width-to-thickness ratio:
34.8). Joint: B□-450x12 (width-to-thickness ratio:
35.5). Pillar: □-450x22 (width-to-thickness ratio:
18.5). For the beam welding, a shop welding type
construction method without scallops was adopt-
ed. Table 2 shows the mechanical properties of
the steel used in the material tensile tests.
STKR490 was adopted for the steel column and
Figure 1. Proposed joint configuration SM490A for all other components.
Table 1. Test objects

Beam-end WD WD
Name of
No. Components web con- Height Thickness hr/hw tr/tw
test objects
nection hr tr
1 F1-N Beam: BH-600x200x16x22 None
Joint: B□-450x12
2 F1-H06W Welded 334 25 0.6 1.6
Column: □-450x22
3 F1-H08W Diaphragm: td=25 445 25 0.8 1.6
Table 2. Mechanical properties of steel used in experiment

Plate
Steel y u EL.
Site thickness y/u
grade [N/mm2] [N/mm2] [%]
[mm]
Diaphragm, WD 25 335 527 0.63 29.8
Beam flange 22 356 544 0.65 30.1

SM490A
Beam web 16 364 531 0.69 28.2
Joint 12 345 535 0.64 26.6
Column STKR490 22 529 567 0.93 18.0
490
Figure 2. Shape and dimensions of test objects
Figure 4. Analysis model and analysis conditions

Figure 3. Loading cycle
Figure 2 shows the shapes and dimensions of the

test objects. For the application of stress, the col-
umn was fixed at both ends, and a cantilever type
configuration was employed to apply loads at the
tip of the beam. Lateral buckling was restrained in
the middle of the beam.
Figure 3 illustrates the loading cycle, which was Figure 5. - curve model
controlled by the beam member angle , with the
amplitude of  gradually increasing in force to 5,
10, 20, and 30/1000rad. Each amplitude was re- 3.3 Experiment and analysis results
peated twice.
Figures 6 and 7 show the load-deformation rela-
tionships for each test object.
3.2 Analysis plan
Figure 6 shows the cyclic loading hysteresis curves,
Figure 4 shows the analysis model and analysis
where the vertical axis is the beam end moment
conditions. Abaqus 6.11-1 was used as the analyti-
M, and the horizontal axis is . Figure 7 shows the
cal solver, and Abaqus/CAE6.11-1 was used for
skeleton curve obtained from the cyclic loading
pre- and post-processing. To model the area
hysteresis curve, where the vertical axis is M/bMpe,
around the joint, a series of 8-node, 4-sided con-
tiguous shell elements was used, while beam ele- and the horizontal axis is /pe.
ments were used to model the tips of the column Here bMpe and bMpn are the fully plastic moments
and beam. Translation in the Y direction was re- of the beam obtained from the tensile test yield
strained at the middle part of the beam. point y and the standard lower bound value Fy,
Figure 5 shows the - curve model used in the while pe is the elastic deformation angle when
bMpe is applied. jMu,cal is the sum of the maximum
analysis. The - curve is modeled as 5 piecewise
lines, with break points at y and u, and a further web bending strength Zwp.wy and the maximum
division into three lines between y and u. The flange bending strength Zfp.fu as estimated from
model sets the stiffness at the 2nd and 3rd lines to the tensile test. The dotted lines in the figures
represent the FEM analysis results, which appear
E/40 and E/60, respectively, with the value of  at
to accurately reproduce the experimental results,
u set to 0.09, and very small stiffness values be-
which are shown as solid lines. The maximum and
tween E/2,000 and E/3,000 assigned beyond u. E
minimum bending moments are marked with
is set to 205,000N/mm2. Only y and u are speci-
black triangles (▼). In Figure 6, these values are
fied in this model.
491
Mmax, Mmin, while in Figure 7 they are Mmax/bMpe, Figure 8 shows the final fractured states of the
Mmin/bMpe. The absolute values of the maximum test objects. All of the test objects experienced
and minimum bending moments for test objects cracking at the flange edge on the beam end ten-
F1-H06W and F1-H08W exceed the corresponding sile side, and once the cracks progressed to about
values for F1-N, almost reaching the level of jMu,cal, 10% of the beam width, the entire cross section of
thereby demonstrating that the plastic defor- the flange finally fractured. The photos show that
mation capacity is enhanced by the addition of the the fractures extend to the backing strip and the
WD. web.
M (kN・m) M (kN・m) M (kN・m) 1819

2000 1746 2000
2000 1575kN・m
bMpe=1355kN・m
bMpn=1228kN・m
1000 1000 1000
 (/1000rad)  (/1000rad)  (/1000rad)

0 0 0
-60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60
-1000 Exp. -1000 -1000
FEM
-1596kN・m
-2000 -1801 -2000 -1838 -2000
(a)F1-N (b)F1-H06W (c)F1-H08W

Figure 6. M- cyclic loading hysteresis relationship
M/bMpe M/bMpe M/bMpe 1.34

1.5
1.5 j Mu,cal/bMpe 1.5 1.29
1.0 1.16
1.0 1.0
0.35
0.5 Zwpwy/bMpe 0.5 0.29 0.5
-0.15
 /pe  /pe
0.16  /pe 0.0
0.0 0.0
-10 -5 0 5 10 -10 -5 0 5 10 -10 -5 0 5 10
-0.5 -0.29 -0.5 -0.34 -0.5
-1.0 -1.0 -1.0

jMw/bMpe
-1.18
-1.36 -1.5
-1.5 -1.28 -1.5
(a)F1-N (b)F1-H06W (c)F1-H08W

Figure 7. Skeleton curves
(a)F1-N (b)F1-H06W (c)F1-H08W

Figure 8. Final fractured state of test objects
492
-5* +5* -20* +20*

H/2 -20* +20*
-20* +20*
-5* +5* -5* +5*
*(/1000rad)
w(N/mm2) -30* -30* +30*
+30*
-600 -300 0 300 600 -600 -300 0 300 600 -600 -300 0 300 600
Exp.+5*
H/2
Exp.-5*
FEM flange flange
(a)F1-N (b)F1-H06W (c)F1-H08W

Figure 9. Beam end web stress distribution
Table 3. Joint bending strength
Name of bMpn bMpe jMu,exp exp

jMu,exp / bMpe
test objects [kN.m] [kN.m] [kN.m] =jMu,exp / bMpn
F1-N 1575 1.16 1.28
F1-H06W 1228 1355 1746 1.29 1.42
F1-H08W 1819 1.34 1.48
Table 4. Web connection bending strength
Name of Zwp.y jMwu,exp mexp

jMwu,exp / bMpe
test objects [kN.m] .
[kN m] =jMwu,exp / Zwp.y
F1-N 203 0.15 0.45
F1-H06W 450 393 0.29 0.87
F1-H08W 461 0.34 1.02
Tables 3 and 4 summarize the joint bending

3.4 Web connection bending strength
strength and web connection bending strength of
Figure 9 shows the beam end web stress distribu- the test objects. The values of jMu,exp in Table 3
tion w. The figure shows a good correspondence were chosen by comparing |Mmax| and |Mmin| in
between experiment and analysis. In addition, for the cyclic loading hysteresis curves in Figure 6 and
the test objects fitted with the WD, when selecting the smaller value. In Table 3, the value
=±20/1000rad, w rises up to the yield level corresponding to  is exp = jMu,exp/bMpn. Assuming
(364N/mm2) even near the center of the web. The that fracture of the base metal determines the
normalized web load moment jMw/bMpe obtained maximum strength of the joint, it is notable that
from the FEM distribution w is shown in Figure 7 for test objects F1-H06W and F1-H08W the values
as a dashed and double-dotted line. For the F1- of exp in Table 3 exceed the design value =1.35
H06W and F1-H08W test objects, which are fitted for fracture of the SM 490 base metal.
with the WD, jMw/bMpe is almost the same as
This experiment tested the objects one by one for
Zwp.wy/bMpe when M=Mmax. each parameter using steel from the same lot,
493
which means that the results fail to take into ac-

count factors such as variations in the strength of
the WD and joint and variations in manufacturing
accuracy. Still, the material strength values for the
WD and joint (listed in Table 2) were about the
same or slightly lower than the average reported
statistics for SM490[2], which are E[y]=367
N/mm2 and E[u]=531N/mm2. This experiment
therefore confirms that, given average or better
material strength, it is possible to achieve joint
strength exceeding =1.35 and good plastic de-
formation capacity of the beam under conditions Figure 10. Web connection collapse mechanisms
of reproducible manufacturing accuracy. In the
case of the F1-N test object, since the final frac-
ture was a beam flange fracture, it is possible that ′
the joint strength exceeded =1.35, but it was not 𝑗 𝑀𝑤𝑢 ∙ 𝜃 = 𝐸𝑐 + 𝐸𝑏 +𝐸𝑏 (2)
possible to demonstrate sufficient plastic defor-
mation capacity of the beam. Since Ea can be represented by the product of 
and the bending moment wdMu upon collapse of
The value jMwu,exp in Table 4 is jMw when jMu,exp is the WD, equations (1) and (2) yield the following
applied. In addition, mexp is the nondimensional- equation.
ized bending strength obtained by dividing jMwu,exp
by Zwp.wy. The evaluation formula in [1] gives the ′
𝑗 𝑀𝑤𝑢 = 𝑗𝑀𝑤𝑢 + 𝑤𝑑𝑀𝑢 (3)
value 0.43 for the nondimensionalized bending
strength in the absence of the WD, a value that is The method of construction described here sets
in general agreement with our experimental result the installed height of the WD as the center of the
mexp=0.45 for the F1-N test object. The values for web in order to equalize the burden of compres-
mexp rise depending on the presence of WD, even sion and tension by bending. wdMu is obtained
exceeding 1.0 in the case of the F1-H08W test from the fully plastic moment wdMp of the usual
object. rectangular cross-section. In this method howev-
er, it is difficult to ensure a sufficient length ba for
4 Evaluation formula the WD, which means the impact of shear stress
cannot be ignored. The impact of shear stress is
4.1 Web connection collapse load therefore taken into account as reduction in yield
For the web connection of a square hollow section strength. Letting (z) be the shear stress distribu-
column, the collapse load jMwu is given by the fol- tion acting on the WD, from the von Mises yield
lowing preliminary formula based on the principle criterion, the fully plastic bending moment wdMps
taking into account (z) can be represented by
of virtual work, where  is the virtual rotation
angle of the beam web end, Ec is the internal vir- 𝑑𝑎
tual work of the column flange collapse mecha- 2 2
𝑤𝑑𝑀𝑝𝑠 = 2𝑡𝑎 ∫0 𝑧√𝜎 − 3𝜏 (𝑧)𝑑𝑧
2 (4)
nism, and Eb is the internal virtual work of the
beam web collapse mechanism[1]. Since the shear stress distribution acting on a rec-
tangular cross section is a parabolic function, we
𝑗 𝑀𝑤𝑢 ∙ 𝜃 = 𝐸𝑐 + 𝐸𝑏 (1) can express (z) under the effect of wdMps by the
following equation.
Assuming the WD collapse occurs independently
of the above collapse mechanisms in the joint, as 3 𝑤𝑑𝑀𝑝𝑠 2𝑧 2
shown in Figure 10, we simply add its internal 𝜏(𝑧) = {1 − ( ) } (5)
𝑏𝑎 ∙ 𝑑𝑎 ∙ 𝑡𝑎 𝑑𝑎
virtual work Ea, giving the following equation.
494
Here, ta, da, ba, and y are respectively the thick- With ma representing the ratio of wdMu to the
ness, height, length, and yield strength of the rein- web's fully plastic moment Mwp0, we obtain the
forcing plate (WD). following equation.
Although wdMps can be obtained from equations 𝑤𝑑𝑀𝑢
𝑚𝑎 =
(4) and (5), the calculation is cumbersome and 𝑀𝑤𝑝0
impractical. We therefore replaced equation (4)
with the following equation, using Taylor expan-
sion to approximate the von Mises yield condition = 2𝑎𝜎 ∙ 𝑎𝑏 ∙ 𝑎𝑡 (−𝑎𝑏 + √𝑎𝑏2 + 𝑎𝑑2 ) (9)
up to the second-order term as shown in Figure 11.
𝑑𝑎
Here, a =(y/wy), ab=(ba/dj), at=(ta/tbw), ad= (da
2 3𝜏 2 (𝑧) (6) /dj), and Mwp0=(dj2tbwwy)/4. Furthermore, letting
𝑤𝑑𝑀𝑝𝑠 = 2𝑡𝑎 ∫ 𝑧 {𝜎𝑦 − } 𝑑𝑧 m0 be the ratio of jMwu to Mwp0, the ratio of jM’wu
0 2𝜎𝑦
to Mwp0 can be obtained from equation (3).
In addition, assuming that the shear stress acts on
′
the rectangular cross-section in a triangular distri- 𝑗 𝑀𝑤𝑢
= 𝑚0 + 𝑚𝑎 (10)
bution as shown in Figure 12, we can replace 𝑀𝑤𝑝0
equation (5) with the following equation.
m0+ma corresponds to the nondimensionalized
4 𝑤𝑑𝑀𝑝𝑠 2𝑧 bending strength when calculating the maximum
𝜏(𝑧) = (1 − ) (7)
𝑏𝑎 ∙ 𝑑𝑎 ∙ 𝑡𝑎 𝑑𝑎 beam web connection bending strength jM’wu
under reinforcement by the WD. If we assume an
upper limit for the web strength based on the web
cross-section defect height Sr associated with scal-
lops and other structural features, the nondimen-
sionalized bending strength can be expressed by
the equation
𝑚0′ = min{(1 − 2𝑠)2 , 𝑚0 + 𝑚𝑎 } (11)

Figure 11. Yield condition where s = (Sr / dj). In Figure 13, the relationship
between m’0 (calculated using equation (11)) and
ad is indicated by the solid line. The figure also
indicates the values of the variables other than ad,
which are set to constants representing a typical
beam-to-column joint.
m'0
1.0 Simple model [equation(11)]
Figure 12. Shear stress distribution 0.8  ignored
0.6
Basic model
From (6) and (7), we obtain wdMu as follows. m0 0.4
m0=0.35, s=0.04,
0.2
𝑤𝑑𝑀𝑢 = 𝑤𝑑𝑀𝑝𝑠
as=1.00, at=1.32, ab=0.40
ad
0.0
1 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
= 𝜎𝑦 ∙ 𝑏𝑎 ∙ 𝑡𝑎 (−𝑏𝑎 + √𝑏𝑎2 + 𝑑𝑎2 ) (8)
2 Figure 13. Nondimensionalized bending strength
of WD reinforcement
495
4.2 Equations m'0

1.0 a =1.6
Figure 14 through Figure 16 shows the m’0 - ad 0.8
1.4
1.2
relationship for different values (within the range 1.0
0.6
anticipated for practical use) of the ratios a, at, 0.8
0.4
and ab, corresponding to the strength, thickness,
m0=0.40, s=0.05,
and length of the WD. However, the variables that 0.2 a=Var., at=1.00, ab=0.50 ad
were not changed were assigned basic values as 0.0
follows: m0=0.4, s=0.05, a=1.0, at=1.0, ab=0.5. 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Figure 14 and Figure 15 show the effects of a and Figure 14. Effect of strength ratio a on m’0
at, respectively. While a and at have an equal
effect on m’0 in the evaluation formula (as can be m'0
seen from equation (9)), for practical use, rather 1.0
at = 2.5
than doubling or even tripling the strength of the 0.8 2.0
plate, increasing its thickness is much easier. This 0.6
1.5
is why the figures show at having more efficient 1.0

0.4 0.5
stiffening effect on m’0 for at compared to a. m0=0.40, s=0.05,
0.2 a=1.00, at=Var., ab=0.50 ad
Figure 16 shows that when ab exceeds 0.6, m’0 0.0
hardly changes, whereas below 0.6, m’0 drops 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
rapidly. Since the WD length ba depends on the
Figure 15. Effect of thickness ratio at on m’0
column width Bc, we can surmise that the effect of
ab will increase as Bc gets smaller.
m'0
1.0 ab =1.0
0.8
5 Conclusions 0.8 0.6
0.4
0.6
In this paper, we proposed a new joint configura- 0.2
tion, intended for a box-section beam-to-column 0.4
m0=0.40, s=0.05,
joint with an H-section beam attached, that in- 0.2 a=1.00, at=1.00, ab=Var. ad
creases the bending strength of the beam end 0.0
connection web, and then demonstrated its effec- 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
tiveness by experiment and analysis. Figure 16. Effect of length ratio ab on m’0
Moreover, we proposed a way of evaluating the
strength of the reinforced beam-end connection 6 References
using a simple formula.
[1] Architectural Institute of Japan: Recom-
mendations for the Design of Connections in
Steel Structures, Maruzen, 2012
In future work, it will be necessary to elucidate
how the WD's reinforcement effectiveness is af- [2] Aoki and Masuda: Statistical Investigation
fected by the thickness of the WD and its welding on Mechanical Properties of Structural Steel
method. It will also be necessary to elucidate the based on Tensile Tests, Architectural Insti-
structural performance of the proposed joint con- tute of Japan Journal of Structural and Con-
figuration when applied to concrete-filled steel struction Engineering, No. 358, pp. 94-105,
tubular columns. 1985.12
496
Design and Development of the Msikaba and Mtentu River Bridges

John Anderson,
HVA Joint Venture, Cape Town, South Africa
Contact: john.anderson@smec.com
Abstract
The story of the Msikaba and Mtentu River Bridges is a story about the Transkei Region in South
Africa. The area’s unfenced rural landscape is considered unique and is characterised by steep
gorges and rivers that run down to the Wild Coast. The civil engineers of the past avoided the area
and the main highway connecting the ports of Durban and East London runs 200 km inland. This is
now changing with the South African National Roads Agency’s SOC Ltd (SANRAL’s) procurement of
the new N2 Wild Coast Road that will realign the highway within 30 km of the coast. The project
includes two new crossings, one a 580 m span cable-stayed bridge, the other a 1.1 km long viaduct
with a 260 m central balanced cantilever span, across the deepest gorges on the route. Their design
and procurement is however driven not only by their physical environment but the need to create
jobs, business opportunities for small local enterprises and community development projects that
will leave a legacy and a long term economic benefit.
Keywords: Cable stayed, balanced cantilever, environment, community development
providers who work in the industrial heartland of

1 Introduction Gauteng.
The Wild Coast of South Africa is true to its name. Physically and economically isolated, the
Few roads run down to its coast and none along it. development of the area is a strategic goal for the
Its tribal lands are largely unfenced adding to the South African government. The new N2 Wild Coast
beauty of its rolling landscape that is interspersed Road (N2WCR) being developed by the South
with steep gorges and rivers that flow down into African National Roads Agency’s SOC Ltd
the Indian Ocean. The area contains many (SANRAL’s) is a key part of this strategy. The
dichotomies with its traditional tribal leaders that Scheme includes some 112 km of new road across
coexist with democratically elected local greenfields land between Port Edward and Ports
government structures. Its communities are rich in St Johns. Once complete, the route will be
culture and history but are relatively poor and approximately 85 km shorter than the current
largely supported by government grants and route and be up to 3 hours faster, particularly for
heavy freight vehicles.
497
2 The Employer’s Design

The detailed design of the bridges was originally
undertaken in 2003 to 2005 by SANRAL using the
FIDIC Red Book as its basis. The project was then
delayed until the construction works were
tendered in 2016 with the contract for the Mtentu
River Bridge being awarded in October 2017. It is
planned that the contract for the construction of
the Msikaba River Bridge will be awarded in August
2018.
The procurement of construct only contracts are
still standard practice in South Africa and this is
perhaps at odds with the Design and Build trend
internationally. SANRAL routinely delivers re-
measurable road and bridge works contracts with
values over R 1 Billion.
Although neither SANRAL nor the South African
construction industry has had experience in
designing and building large long span bridges, the
preference remained for the employer to develop
the detailed design. The design risks were managed
through the appointment of a Joint Venture team
Figure 1. Existing and Proposed Alignment of N2 that included local consultants specialising in
bridge design and an international firm with direct
The new highway will significantly change the experience in the design and construction of long
historical movement patterns within the region. span bridges.
People will no longer move northwards toward the
existing N2 but rather southwards and along the Similarly in the construction stage, contractors
coast to the towns of Port Edward, Lusikisiki and were obliged to comply with strict technical
Port St John’s. Access to urban centres and the requirements before their financial bids were
amenities they offer will be improved and considered. Emphasis was placed on the provision
significant growth of those centres is anticipated. of suitably experienced staff for key posts in the
contractor’s team. To meet these requirements
Expectations are high that scheme will make a local contractors formed Joint Venture’s with
positive economic impact. At the heart of the experienced international contractors.
project are two so called “mega bridges”, the
Msikaba and Mtentu River Bridges. As the first part For SANRAL procuring the detailed design meant
of the project being built the bridges are in the that they were able to actively manage compliance
frontline of these expectations. of the design with their well-developed standards
and procedures. It also enabled their direct input
SANRAL’s task is to combine the technical and into the form and functionality of the design and
economic drivers of large bridge construction with allowed them to make changes to the design
the need to maximise labour and the small and without substantial penalties. Through the
micro enterprise development needed in commissioning of extensive geotechnical
developing regions. The dichotomy becomes that investigations, site specific wind studies and wind
these bridges represent one of the South African tunnel testing they have removed a substantial
construction industry’s greatest challenges in one amount of risk and unknowns for tendering
of its most rural and undeveloped areas. contractors. This was considered an important
factor in procuring a competitive price for the
498
works. The construct only contract also enabled a The presence of competent rock near the surface
relatively short procurement period. on the cliff tops provided exciting opportunities for
the design team. Based on an initial appraisal of the
A disadvantage of procuring the contract with the
cliff stability, a setback of 50 m from the cliff face
FIDIC Red Book was the difficulty in accepting
was selected for the location of the bridge
alternative designs during the tender stage. It was
foundations. A total bridge length of 580 m was
considered ill advised to split the design
therefore conceived.
responsibility between the contractor and the
employer. The time required for the employer to The options considered during concept design
agree and adopt substantial changes to the design stage all cleared the gorge in a single span and
was also considered prohibitive. Alternatives were included a suspension bridge with an orthotropic
therefore not accepted during the tender stage but steel deck and 60 m high reinforced concrete
will be considered after award using FIDIC’s value towers; and an arch bridge that sprung from the
engineering provisions. base of the cliffs.
In the final evaluation, a cable stayed bridge with a
3 River Bridges composite steel and concrete deck was chosen
Crossing the deepest and widest gorges on the new form. It was nominally cheaper than the
N2WCR, the Msikaba and Mtentu River Bridges suspension bridge option with the arch bridge
were quickly identified as potential “mega being economically unviable. The striking form of
structures”. Given their 3 year plus construction the cable stayed bridge was undeniably attractive
periods they were ring fenced and procured but its technology was also considered more
separately to the rest of scheme. appropriate for the remote location. The erection
of the suspension bridge included a higher steel
3.1 Msikaba River Bridge content requiring on-site welding and was judged
to need more specialist erection knowledge.
There are few more dramatic settings for a bridge
than the natural beauty of the Msikaba Gorge. The The cable stayed bridge’s structural system is
deeply incised gorge is flanked by red sandstone straightforward although perhaps not typical. It
cliffs and filled with untouched indigenous forest. consists of two cable supported cantilevers that are
It is some 500 m wide and 250 m deep at the bridge connected in the centre of the span by a movement
location. Severe environmental constraints joint. There are no back spans. Large reinforced
together with the difficult access into the gorge concrete gravity anchors 130 m back from the
precluded consideration of options that involved pylons anchor the parallel back stays. The fanned
founding within, or access into the gorge. cable stays on the main span are anchored at 15 m
centres along the deck.
Figure 2. Visualisation of the Msikaba River Bridge
499
The pylon bases are subject to the vertical and

transverse load effects from the pylons as well as
the longitudinal thrust from the deck. The
transverse effects are dealt with internally bythe
provision of a tie slab between the pylon bases and
the remaining resultant downwards thrust from
the pylon and deck is resisted through a
combination of sliding resistance and passive
resistance from the rock mass. In considering upper
and lower bound values of the sliding resistance
the complex interaction between sliding and
Figure 3. Visualisation of the Msikaba Pylons passive resistance may be allowed for.
The appearance of the bridge is dominated by the
two identical inverted Y-shaped reinforced
concrete pylons that straddle the roadways. The
distinctive 120 m high pylons are combined with an
unusual cable arrangement that creates an
instantly recognisable form. The pylon’s circular
form accommodates the change in angle of the
main stays relative to the back stays and tapers
from a 4.5 m diameter at the pylon head to 6 m at
the top of the V. The pylon cable anchorage zone
features internal steel liners to transfer the tension
between cables and to transfer compression loads
into the concrete. Figure 5: Pylon Base
An important component of the bridge is the The pylon base is dimensioned to facilitate bearing
sandstone rock mass that surrounds the pylon base on an inclined surface, orientated perpendicular to
and the large buried gravity anchors. The stresses the resultant thrust. As a result the bearing
in the pylon base due to the application of vertical pressure is always positive and will not exceed the
and longitudinal loads are directly dependent on maximum permitted bearing pressure. The inclined
the properties of the rock mass and its behaviour surface is stepped in recognition of the horizontal
under the applied bearing stresses. The design bedding of the rock strata.
therefore had to carefully consider the possible The gravity anchorages resist the applied loading
range of the rock mass’s properties. To reduce this by their resistance to sliding on an inclined plane
range weathered rock will be replaced with lean and the bearing resistance of the rock normal to
mix concrete as required. In the case where applied that. In calculating the sliding friction a phi angle of
horizontal pressures are resisted by the rock, the 30 degrees in the rock is assumed. The
rock mass shall also be grouted and remedial discontinuities in the rock mass and the presence
measures will be applied to vertical discontinuities. of infill material between the bedding planes was
taken into account in calculating this value.
In considering the stability of the foundations
cognisance of the groundwater levels was taken. In
the extreme case of the gravity anchorages being
submerged, the use of skin friction between the
structure and the rock mass was permitted. A
friction value of 100 kPa was allowed where the
competency of the adjacent rock mass is judged
Figure 4: Applied forces from foundations
sufficient.
500
An idiosyncrasy of the bridge is that a pier, set back 3.2 Mtentu River Bridge
some 25 m from the cliff edge, is used in lieu of the
Situated some 24 km to the west of Msikaba is the
first set of cable stays on the main span pier that is.
Mtentu River Gorge. At the proposed bridge
The use of the stays was precluded because their
location, the Mtentu River runs through a broad
verticality and the subsequent impact on the pylon
and open valley, over 1 km wide and some 250 m
formwork. It was, however, discovered that the
deep relative to the undulating upland areas. As a
long term creep effects in the concrete deck slab
result the Mtentu River Bridge is far larger that its
induced an onerous hogging moment over the hard
Msikaba relative. Its scale and 1.1 km length pushes
support point that the pier created. As a result it
the boundaries of balanced cantilever and
was found necessary to jack the bridge downwards
incrementally launched (ILM) construction in a
at the pier support during the construction
challenging environment.
sequence to induce a relieving moment in deck.
The bridge comprises two 5 m deep approach
viaduct decks with 66 m spans and 55 m abutment
spans. These connect to each side of the main
bridge which crosses the gorge. The main bridge
spans are to be built as in-situ balanced cantilevers
and the approach viaducts are to be incrementally
launched. The 260 m long main span and the two
150 m long back spans will require a concrete box
Figure 6: Deck cross section
girder varying in depth from 15 m over the main
The bridge deck itself is a steel concrete composite piers to 5 m at mid-span and in the back spans.
section with box girder longitudinal beams and
The main twin leaf piers rise 135 m above ground
truss cross beams. The steelwork supports a 250
level and are built into the deck. The piers are
mm thick deep concrete slab. The section is
hollow and vary in width parabolically from 15
conventional and perhaps its most noteworthy
metres at the base to 8.7 m at the deck soffit with
feature is the longitudinal baffles that run across
a constant depth of 4 m. The approach viaduct
the truss cross beams. These baffles were inserted
piers vary in height from 25 m to 80 m above
following the wind tunnel testing of the deck.
ground level. The viaduct deck articulation will be a
Maintenance provisions include the design, supply combination of pinned and free-sliding bearings
and installation of a maintenance gantry that runs over the piers to accommodate the longitudinal
on rails beneath the deck. Two gantries are design forces. The piers will be supported off
provided for on each side of the gorge to eliminate spread footings bearing on competent rock.
the risk associated with a gantry crossing the
central movement joint.
Figure 7. Visualisation of the Mtentu River Bridge
501
The high piers of the approach viaduct will be

stayed during the deck launching operations.
Although a non-linear analysis showed the piers to
have suffcient strength, the concern was that any
release of the friction forces across the temporary
launching bearings might cause a potentially
dangerous dynamic movement of the pier head.
The ILM approach spans will be completed in
advance of the balanced cantilevers (BC). Finally
they will be stitched to the last segments of the BC
deck to create a continuous structure with
expansion joints at the abutments.
3.2.2 Main Span Balanced Cantilever

The construction of the spread footings for the
balanced cantilevers requires deep excavations in
soft ground and highly and variably weathered
rock. The typical batters used by contractors for
foundation excavations would result in extremely
wide excavations. This is unacceptable in the steep
wooded areas adjacent to the river that are
undisturbed and classified as environmentally
sensitive. The slopes on either side of the river are
at approximately 1:1.5 and to limit the excavation
footprint, slope stabilisation is required.
Figure 8. Balanced Cantilever Piers
3.2.1 Approach Viaducts

The approach viaduct is launched without the use
of temporary piers pushing the limits of this form
of construction for prestressed concrete box
girders. As a result the viaduct’s deck cross section
has to combine structural efficiency with the
preferred external section. Significant iteration was
undertaken to optimise the section so that it was
equally efficient in both hogging and sagging.
Figure 10. Gorge and Excavation Profiles
The detailed design of the slope stabilisation
mechanism is left to the contractor, however, the
innovative step of allowing these works to be re-
measurable was taken. The design approach and
quantities will be agreed in advance with SANRAL’s
designated on-site geotechnical engineer. In this
way SANRAL will actively work with the contractor
to limit the environmental impact of the
excavations and will share the commercial risk of
Figure 9. Approach Viaduct Deck Section unforeseen ground conditions.
502
The contract includes a number of contractor responsibility for the stability of the balanced
design items and makes provision for him to cantilever during construction and it is expected
undertake the erection engineering of the bridge that he will undertake further wind tunnel testing
considering his production methods and traveller to verify the chosen erection method.
weights. An important part of the erection
engineering and the design of the permanent
works was the review of the possible range of creep
effects that might result through the use of
commercial or local aggregates. Sensitivity studies
highlighted that the stresses across the central
stitch between the balanced cantilevers is sensitive
to the assumed creep coefficients. These
coefficients will be confirmed through the testing
of the aggregates and the prestressing across the
central stitch will be adjusted if required.
Although the design process for a balanced
cantilever is relatively straight forward, the art as
always, was conceiving a practical arrangement of
prestressing. Large anchors were used to reduce
the number of ducts required which then needed Figure 12. Wind tunnel testing
careful consideration of reinforcement detailing
and edge distances. Anchors were situated in the 4 Local Empowerment
webs and two layers of prestressing were Although the project contains many technical
employed. challenges, of equal importance is the effort that
SANRAL, its consultants and the contractors
expend on enterprise development.
The South African construction industry is
somewhat unique in that it combines a highly
regulated framework with a legally defined process
for job creation, training and the creation of
opportunities for small, medium and micro-sized
local enterprises (SMME’s). With this is a strong
requirement for broad-based black economic (B-
Figure 11. Prestressing duct layout BEE) empowerment. As a result the South African
Across the girder’s thin bottom slab at the mid- markets present a challenge for first time entrants.
span, vertical reinforcement was placed between A strong and experienced local partner is a
the tightly spaced ducts to prevent the necessity for any international contractor. Without
delamination of the slab. Although detailed them the critical interfaces with the local
reinforcement drawings are provided the communities would not be possible. South African
production of the bending schedules is set as the contractors are now engaged in the importance of
contractor’s responsibility. meeting government’s development targets. They
also fully understand the importance of
3.2.3 Wind Tunnel Testing communicating with local government and
communities and the pitfalls of not doing so.
The stability of each balanced cantilever is a critical
aspect of the design. Wind tunnel testing of the International contractors are required to register
balanced cantilever span was therefore with the South African Construction Industry
undertaken to test the employers design. This fact Development Board, and to obtain a relevant
does however not relieve the contractor of his grading. They must also apply for a B-BBEE
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contributor status level. Only Tenderers with B- 5 Conclusions

BBEE contributor status level 1, 2, 3 or 4 are eligible
to tender and a consolidated B-BBEE scorecard for In this latest chapter of the Transkei, the Msikaba
Joint Ventures is required. and Mtentu bridges are markers for the change
that the new N2WCR will undoubtedly bring to the
4.1 Local Participation local communities. SANRAL’s intent is that their
construction will lead the way in terms of providing
With respect to job creation the contract document employment for residents and business
sets strict local participation goals for the main opportunities for emerging contractors. The
contractor. The spend on labour must be a development of the project using an Employer’s
minimum of 5% of the contract value and 30% of design has allowed SANRAL to maximise these
that spend must be on women and 30 % on youth. opportunities.
There is also is defined target area from which
labour should be drawn. In this instance it is within The scale and nature of the bridges is a first in
a 10 km radius of the bridge site or as otherwise South Africa. Msikaba will be the longest cable
agreed with the local Project Steering Committee stayed bridge in Africa and the balanced cantilever
of the Mtentu Bridge will be one of the longest in
The spend on Targeted Enterprises such as SMME’s the world. The partnerships formed by local
must 30% of final contract value. Achieving such a consultants and contractors has enabled the
target on a technically complex bridge project is accrual of specialist skills that may hopefully be
obviously a challenge and for both the Employer exported and spread to other parts of Africa.
and the Contractor.
These highly technical bridges will precede the
In parallel to the project, SANRAL is therefore road and the Transkei’s remoteness will be evident
running a R120 Million community development to those working on the project. SANRAL bridges
and SMME training programme. This is providing the dichotomy of this fact through their work in
local labour and SMME with the necessary skills to engaging with the local government and
optimally participate in the bridge and the forth community structures on one side and the teams
coming N2WC road projects. From this programme of international consultants and contractors on the
a data base of local contractors is developed that is other.
shared with the Contractor
SANRAL has also been careful to include road works 6 References
and smaller appurtenant structures that could
[1] SANRAL, Code of Procedures for the
employ SMME’s and labour in the scope of the
Planning and Design of Highway and Road
bridge contracts. The main Contractor will use local
Structures in South Africa - Feb 2002
suppliers for fuel, security, administrative service
and cleaning and local companies in the
establishment of camps and housing for his
operations. Sewing facilities at the site will even be
developed to employ local women in the
manufacture of protective clothing.
Over and above the local participation goal, the
contractor is required to procure the following
material locally within South Africa:
 Structural steel including cable stays strands
 Electrical and telecommunication cables
 Cement – 100% produced in SA
504

Design and Construction of Beipanjiang Bridge

Liu Bo, Peng Yundong, Houman
CCCC Highway Consultants Co., Ltd, Beijing, China
（Formerly China Highway Planning &Design Institute Co. Ltd）

Zhou Daqing
Guizhou Highway Engineering General Company, Guiyang, China

Contact: liubo@hpdi.com.cn

Abstract
Beipanjiang Bridge is located above the Beipanjiang gorge of depth 565m on the border of Guizhou and
Yunan Province, Southwest China. The Bridge main span length 720m is currently the second longest span
steel truss girder cable stayed bridge in the world. After the bridge opened to traffic at the end of 2016, the
journey time from one side to another is substantially reduced from the original 3 hours to 5 minutes. In
the light of the characteristics of the steep terrain variation, karst geology and complicated local wind
environment, corresponding studies and investigations were carried out which included the bridge type
scheming, main deck structural system, deck erection method as well as freeze alarming technology of stay
cable during operation period. This paper describes the salient features, key design and construction
technology innovations of this project.
Keywords: Cable-stayed Bridge; karst geology; Steel truss girder; Bridge Erection Process; Cable freeze
alerting system.
The cable stayed bridge consist of two towers and
1 Introduction seven-span continuous steel truss girder with a
span arrangement 80m+2X88m+720m+2X88m
The Beipanjiang Bridge has a total length 1341.4m +80m. The approach spans on Yunnan side
spanning over the Beipanjiang Gorge on the comprise 3 nos. 34m continuous prestressed
border of Yunnan and Guizhou Provinces of China. concrete girders.
The bridge construction started in December 2012
and was completed for opening to traffic in
December 2016. The overall project cost is about
US$158 million.

Figure 2. Location of Beipanjiang Bridge
The bridge site is in the west of the Yunnan-
Figure 1. Birdview of Beipanjiang Bridge Guizhou plateau and upstream of Beipanjiang

505
basin. The gorge under the bridge has a width outcrops are light grey thick-bedded to massive
400m and a depth 565m from the deck level. The limestones. The main adverse geology from
terrains are steep on both sides with slopes at engineering prospective included karst,
angles 20-30 degrees. The site geology is fracturation zone, unloading fractures and landslip
dominated by Devonian-Jurassic strata and the along strata.
bedrock is soluble carbonate formation. The

Figure 3. Elevation of the Bridge
As the world’s highest bridge, this bridge is a vivid the management issues in the bridge operation
example of how civil engineering can overcome a and maintenance period become prominent.
number of natural hazards and challenges, such as
special geological condition, gorge wind 2 Design and Functional
environment, and ice freezing problem during Requirements
operation stage. Comparing with the river and sea
bridge crossings in the Eastern China, the salient 1) Road grade: dual carriageways two traffic
features of this project are: lanes in each direction
1) The gorge topography changes sharply (gorge 2) Design speed: 80km/h
depth about 565m) and the local wind 3) Design loading: Highway grade I to Chinese
environment is complex. Both are the governing Standards
factors for the bridge design wind loading
evaluation and operation period traffic safety. 4) Bridge maximum longitudinal gradient: 1.1%，
bridge deck cross fall：2.0%
2) The karst geological condition is a governing
factor for the determination of bridge foundation 5) Design basic wind speed ： V10=26.03m/s
type and location. (100 year return)
3) Because of the steep gorge terrain, the 6) Seismic peak ground acceleration ：
available construction space is very limited and 0.083g(475 year return), 0.125g(2000 year
construction logistic is extremely poor. return)
Correspondingly, the selection of girder structural
type is critical to solve the issues of bridge 3 Bridge Structural System
erection and long term structural durability.
4) As for the bridge deck level above 1500m, the 3.1 Determination of Girder Structural Type
meteorological disasters include ice freezing and From the perspective of structural behaviour, the
dense fog could greatly affect the traffic and single deck steel truss girder cable stayed bridge
structural safety during the operation period. Thus, does not have the superiority[1]. However, for the

506
long span cable stayed bridge to be constructed in orthotropic deck) with a maximum weight
mountainous area, the steel truss members can 28.8t/length 16m for a single member. All the
be decomposed and produced into smaller sizes steel structural components were fabricated off
for the ease of transportation and installation as site and bolt connected when delivered to site.
well as more suitable for the bridge erection and This can avoid the use of heavy lifting machineries
construction in the mountainous area. Therefore, not accessible to the site.
the bridge adopts the combined steel truss and
deck plate system.
In order to balance the dead and live loads in the
main and side spans, the concrete maintenance
access, infill concrete in truss members and
precast concrete counterweight on pier top were
employed to increase the self-weight[2]. A total
concrete weight of 7214t was imposed in the side
spans for counterweight purpose. In which, the
weight of precast concrete inspection access has a
weight 2776.4 tons at single side, counterweight
4437.6 tons was imposed over the crossbeam of
main truss near auxiliary and transition piers. The Figure 4. Main Bridge Deck Section
remaining is the weight of self compacting
Orthotropic deck was used instead of concrete top
concrete inside four main truss chords of side
slab in order to reduce the structural self-weight.
span.
The weight of each orthotropic deck is 31t. They
Precast concrete inspection access was were fabricated off site and connected to the top
incrementally launched together with the side chords of truss girder by site welding.
span steel truss girder. Concrete counterweight
was applied in two stages according to the loading 3.3 Bridge Bearings and Dampers
time. Stage 1 counterweight was applied after the Spherical bearings are used for resistance of
incremental launching of side span steel truss vertical loadings at the towers and side span piers.
girder. Stage 2 counterweight was applied after Although the structural analysis did not reveal any
closure of main span and release of longitudinal tension in bearings, the bearings adopted in side
temporary fixity between tower and deck. span piers have an uplift capacity 1000kN as an
extra safety margin. In addition, for the resistance
3.2 Main Deck
of wind loading, horizontal bearings are set in the
The truss depth is 8.0m, and the lengths of main bridge towers, and lateral concrete restraints are
span and side span segments are 12.0m and set at the transition piers.
12m/8m respectively. The main truss adopts
Four dampers are adopted between the truss
closed box section and H-shaped section, with
girder and tower cross beam. The function of
maximum chord section dimension □900mm×
them is to reduce the displacements in tower top
900mm and maximum plate thickness 44mm.
and mid span displacements as well as minimizing
Total weight is 25000t for steel truss and steel
the moment at the tower base. When damper
deck plate.
velocity indexα=0.2, there is a greatest reduction
The whole bridge has 93 nos. of segment, and the in tower top and mid span displacements.
theoretical gap of top (bottom) chords located Therefore, the damping device parameters were
between two segments is 20mm. determined as: velocity index α =0.2, linear
Considering the transportation difficulty in the site damping coefficient=1500[kN/(m/s)0.2], maximum
mountainous area, the steel truss segment is stroke ± 500mm and specified damping force
decomposed into 18 memberss (excluding 2300kN.

507

Figure 6. Artist’s Impression of Tower

Figure 5. Comparison of Tower Top Disp. & Base
Moment for Diff. Damping Velocity Index
3.4 Stayed Cable

Two planes of fan-shaped stayed cables were
adopted. Top of stayed cables are anchored to the
tower top by means of steel anchor beams
whereas the bottom of stayed cables are
anchored to the truss girder by steel anchor boxes.
Parallel strands stayed cables were used for the
ease of future maintenance and replacement.
There are total 112 pairs of stays in the bridge.
3.5 Tower and Foundation

Several tower shapes were considered and
compared during the conceptual design stage and
H-shaped concrete tower was eventually adopted
considering the aesthetic effects and structural
behaviour. The tower heights are 269m and 248m
at the Guizhou and Yunnan sides respectively.
Concrete grade C50 was used in the tower and its Figure 7. Tower and foundation layout
cross beam.
For the foundation, 28 nos. of 2.8m diameter
bored piles were adopted for each tower. The
piles are end bearing on the slightly weathered
lime rock. The tower pile cap has a plan dimension
38.2m x 21.4m with a thickness 6m.

508
4 Bridge Deck Erection either incremental launching method or

supported on temporary scaffolding. Considering
4.1 Side Span Erection the side span deck level is about 90m from
ground, the temporary scaffolding would be
Counterweights are needed in the side spans as
substantial and thus the incremental launching
described above. The side spans can be erected by
method was adopted for side span erection.

Figure 8. Bird View of Deck Erection Process
The self-adapting incremental launching system
(see Figures 9) was adopted, with the same mobile 4.2 MidSpan Erection
action as Loading Transfer Mechanism in truss For the main span deck structure, rotatable lifting
joint, which can achieve vertical lifting, crane on deck level was employed for the erection
longitudinal forward moving and transverse with maximum lifting weight 180t. The truss
shifting of the truss girder. During the incremental components were delivered to the lifting crane
launching, the deviation due to transverse shifting position by truck. The stayed cables were installed
was also monitored timely. Meanwhile, the in parallel with the main deck erection.
horizontal forces in the incremental process were
transformed into the internal force of the system,
which can accomplish the self-equilibrium
incremental launching, and did not produce the
horizontal force on the pier top.

Figure 10. Bridge Deck Erection Crane
In addition, in order to shorten the construction
Figure 9. Truss Girder Self-Adapting Incremental period of Yunnan side, the method of whole
Launching System segmental launching under the deck was adopted

509
for the cantilever erection. Details are indicated in is achieved through the lifting point of derrick
Figure 11. The principle of this erection method is: crane.
1) The longitudinal rail is set in the bottom chord 4) By using the derrick crane, the segment ready
of truss segment as erected in place for hoisting for assembly is lifted and adjusted to the design
the longitudinal moving wagon. position and to be joined to erected segment.
2) The vertical lifting system is set up near the The advantages of longitudinal launching
tower base for lifting the segment on ground cantilever erection: i) The whole segment lifting
pending for assembly. Through the conversion of can avoid unsymmetrical installation of stay cable.
lifting point, it can be transferred to the ii) The steel truss is assembled on the ground,
longitudinal moving wagon. which ensures overall equilibrium erection
without stress to members and minimizes working
3) By longitudinally moving to the front of the
at height, and hence improved the erection
erected segment, second conversion and transfer
accuracy and quality.

Figure 11. Schematic Diagram of Longitudinal Cantilever Launching
5 Design Challenges and Innovations

5.1 Wind Characteristics and Loadings on
Steel Truss in Mountainous area
The wind loading on the bridge becomes complex
due to the deep gorge, high deck level and tall
towers. It is difficult to obtain accurate wind
design parameters using the conventional
approaches[3].
In connection with the complicated topographic
condition and the aerodynamic properties of steel
truss girder, special engineering studies including
wind tunnel test and on site measurement of truss
girder vibrations and other structural behaviours
due to wind in similar mountainous terrain were
carried out.

Based on the 2 years continuous survey of the
Figure 12. Longitudinal Cantilever Erection Process
wind field and short term survey of wind profile at
the bridge site, the bridge design wind speed (see

510
Table 2), the average wind speed profile and wind carried out in wind tunnel and combined with
attack angle were obtained as wind speed records local wind characteristics on bridge deck and
with non-stationary characteristics. In the vehicle driving safety index, the wind speed limit
meantime, systematic site measurements were for vehicle driving was recommended for the
carried out for the wind induced vibration of the Beipanjiang Bridge.
steel truss and the wind loading of truss main Table 3: Vehicle Speed limit Recommendations
components in the mountainous area by using the for Beipanjiang Bridge
simultaneous pressure measurement technology. Wind Speed at Speed limit
The measured data of wind pressure on the truss Bridge Deck Level Recommendations
girder was obtained for the first time. In addition, Level 6 wind or wind
80km/h for heavy truck
combined with the wind tunnel test, the truss speed>13m/s
Level 8 wind or wind 80km/h heavy truck and
aerodynamic loading was accurately obtained, the
speed>20m/s medium truck
buffeting method under non-stationary wind was Level 11 wind or
established and the equivalent wind load was 70km/h for heavy truck
wind speed>29m/s
acquired.
5.2 Orthotropic Deck Design Optimization
Table 2: Design Wind Speed at Deck Level of
Beipanjiang Bridge In the conventional orthotropic deck design, at
Return Period(Year) Maximum Wind Speed（m/s） least 1-2 nos. of longitudinal beams are located
30 27.97 directly below the wheel positions of large trucks.
50 29 Under repeated wheel loading, the top plate
100 30.41 above the longitudinal beam may become a weak
point leading to fatigue issue[4][5]. In our design, we
have minimized the longitudinal beam with only
one in the middle and used more large secondary
transverse beams for supporting. This can avoid
the longitudinal beam directly under the truck
wheels and hence reduce the possible fatigue
hazard.

Fig.12 Site measured results of average wind profile

Figure 13. Minimized Longitudinal Beam Arrangement
in Orthotropic Deck
In this project, three dimensional solid modelling
Times (s)
was employed to identify the fatigue sensitive
Fig.13 The root mean square value (RMS) of the zone in orthotropic deck. The results indicated,
buffeting displacement across the main span the weld between U rib and top steel plate has
Besides, for the special wind characteristics in large stress concentration. When the traffic wheel
gorge, it may have a great impact on traffic safety. loadings imposed above two adjacent U ribs, the
Therefore, aerodynamic loading tests for several tensile stress becomes very large in the welds
types of vehicle running on bridge deck were between U ribs and top steel plate and this is the

511
major reason of occurrence of fatigue crack in this full operation. The traffic conditions in Yunnan,
position. Guizhou, Sichuan Provinces will be greatly
improved and the road service level will be raised.
Again, the journey time from one side to another
side of the bridge will substantially reduce from
original 3 hours to 5 minutes which is highly
beneficial to the economic and social
development in the area.
7 Conclusion
This paper provides an overview of the design and
construction of the Beipanjiang Bridge. The bridge
Distance to the diaphragm(mm) is located in a harsh site conditions and a few
Figure 13 Fatigue Analysis for the Weld between U-ribs design innovations were put forward to suit the
and Steel Top Plate due to wheel loading special site condition and improve the structural
performances.
5.3 Structural Health Monitoring Technology-
Stay Cable Freezing Monitoring
8 References
The disaster of freezing rain frequently occurred in
the western part of Guizhou Province. The [1] Niels J. Gimsing, “Cable Supported Bridges
Beipanjiang River Bridge is situated at a level Concept and Design”, published by John
higher than 1500m and the environmental wind Wiley and Sons
condition is very complex, the ice accumulation [2] Ma Biao, et al.,”Shanghai Minpu Bridge
and icing event would threat the bridge structural Design and Conception”, Shanghai
behaviour, structural safety and traffic safety. The Construction Technology Journal, Volume
U.S. Veterans’ Glass City Skyway Bridge was 5:2010
impacted by the freezing rain disaster and led to
[3] Xu Hong Tao, et al.,“Wind Field Testing for
large ice fragment falling into traffic lanes, which
Long Span Bridge in Mountainous Area and
endangered the safety of the bridge traffic and
Gorge”. Highway Transportation Technology
forced to close the traffic temporarily [6].
Journal, Volume 7:2011
For the freezing disaster monitoring system,
[4] Shi Yong Ji, “Bridge Welding Development
profound research had been performed for the ice
Facing 21st Century”, China Railway Science
accumulation mechanism and its influence factors.
Journal, May 2001
The remote monitoring technology of ice
accumulation on stay cables and the evaluation [5] China Railway Science Research Institute,
method of ice shedding thickness were completed. Study on Structural Details and Parameters
All these formed a prediction and early alerting for Orthotropic Deck System of Steel Box
system based on micro-environment, image Girder [R], 2010
identification and dynamic & static characteristics
[6] J. Kumpf, et al. “Automated Ice Inference and
of ice-accumulated stay cable system for ensuring
Monitoring on the Veterans Glass City
the safety of travelling public in event of ice
Skyway Bridge”, Journal of Bridge
freezing disaster.
Engineering, 2012 , 17 (SPECIAL) :975-978
6 Economic and Social Benefit [7] Zhang Jie. Research on method and system
for bridge security evaluation[C]. Thailand：
After the traffic opening of the Beipanjiang Bridge, IABSE Symposium , 2009
it signifies the Hang Rui Highway (G56) of total
length 3404km across seven provinces in China
from East sea side to Southwestern border is in

512
Sanmenxia Jingmen
90 7250 11600 24800 11600 7250 90
5700
18851300
1000
600
Han River
7500/cos9°=7593cm
Figure 3. Overall layout of the main bridge structure （unit：cm）

prestressing tendons. The thickness of the roof
3.4 The main tower
plate is 50cm, the side fulcrum of the side span
and the sub side span are partially thickened to The cable tower adopts reinforced concrete
80cm, and the location of the middle fulcrum is structure, which is a double column pylon type
partially thickened to 100cm. The thickness of the tower. The height above the beam top surface is
web is 50cm ~ 60cm ~ 90cm, and the location of 57m and the box section is used. The tower
the middle fulcrum is thickened locally. The floor bottom is within the range of 26.3m, and the
plate thickness of the side span and middle span is longitudinal width changes from 5.0m to 7.2m.
changed from 55cm at the midspan to 120cm at The transverse width of the tower is 2.8m and the
the root of the middle fulcrum beam according to tower has a 2m high cross link. One-cell single box
the circular curve, and the sub side span varies section is used for the tower, the thickness of the
from 55cm to 100cm linearly. The cross section of front and rear tower wall is 1.2m and the
the main beam is shown in Figure 3. thickness of the side wall is 0.6m. A schematic
diagram of the bridge tower structure is shown in
Figure 5.
580 580
135 20 225 200 200 225 20 135
177
55 35
100
1050
40
40
120 120
1210
600
70 6025
120 330 435 50
200
5700
4473
1069
1300
1210
510
40
40
1300
120
510
Figure 4. Cross section of the main beam（unit：

cm）
Figure 5.The structure of a bridge tower（unit：
cm）
513
3.5 Stay cable pivot section and the positive bending moment of
the cross section under the constant load and the
The stay cable has double cable plane
train load. However, comparing with the tower
arrangement in the transverse direction and a half
pier beam consolidation system and the tower
- sector arrangement in the façade direction. Each
beam consolidation and pier beam separation
cable tower has 8 pairs of stay cable with cable
system, the bending moment of the main beam
distance 1.0m. The cable span on the beam is
fulcrum section caused by temperature increases
9.0m. The anchorage mode of the cable and the
54 times, and the mid span section bending
tower and beam by setting the tooth block and
moment increases 34 times. Meanwhile, under
the tension is set inside the tower. The cable is a
the same arrangement of prestressed steel beam,
steel strand with a strength grade of 1860MPa,
the prestress effect can be more effective when
which the type of AT-55, AT-61, AT-79 are used,
the tower beam consolidated and the pier beam
and the length of the cable is 146.4m to 265.4m.
separation system is applied. For the overall stress,
tower beam consolidation and pier beam
4 Structural stress analysis separation system are superior.
4.1 Constraint system analysis The comparative analysis on the results of live
load displacement, the stiffness of the tower
The length of the bridge main span is 248m, and beam consolidation and pier beam separation
the bride is one part of the heavy haul railway, system is 1/1042, while the value is 1/1941 for
support reaction caused only by train load can up tower pier beam consolidation system. The result
to 49280KN. Large tonnage support should be shows that the tower pier beam consolidation
required if use tower beam consolidation and pier system can effectively improve the overall
beam separation system. In theory, it is advisable stiffness of the structure. However, the structural
to give priority to the tower, pier and beam stiffness and driving comfort requirements are
consolidation system to avoid the setting of large relatively low and the structure stiffness are non-
tonnage support. controlling factors for heavy haul railway bridge.
The main piers of the small mileage side and the Based on the above analysis, the tower beam
large mileage side of the bridge are 18.2m and consolidation, pier beam separation system is
18.7m high, respectively. The height is defined as selected because the tower pier beam
the distance between the bottom of the beam to consolidation system is difficult to realize. The
the ground line, which is about 1/13.3 of the 190000kN ball support of the main pier is
corresponding span. When the tower, pier and currently the second largest tonnage, the support
beam consolidation system is selected, as the is made by high performance materials and
height-span ratio of the main pier is relatively adopting segment sealing scheme, it can ensure
small, it will have a large temperature self-stress if durability stability and long service life.
a relatively rigid pier is adopted, the main beam
and the pier bottom all bear large tensile stress, 4.2 Fluence analysis of the main beam
the structure will be difficult hard to bear. If a height
relatively soft structure such as the double thin-
wall piers is selected, the main pier section area In order to study the influence of the main beam
and moment of inertia are small, and the height on the performance of the main beam, the
maximum compressive stress will exceed the combination of beam height is carried out when
largest concrete compressive stress limit. It also the main beam fulcrum beam height is set to 13m,
has some other shortcomings, such as the 13.5m and 14m respectively, while the height of
structure stress performance and the anti-collision middle span is set to 6m and 6.5m respectively.
ability are poor. Table 1 shows the most unfavorable load
combination stress at each control point under
Focus on the stress analysis of the main beam, the different beam height, and the meanings
double limb thin-walled system can effectively indicated by P1 to P7 are given below the table.
improve the negative bending moment of the
514
Table 1. Stress contrast table of the main beam on the upper and lower margin of the sub side
control point span fulcrum reach 19.1MPa, and the minimum
stress is only 0.12MPa. It shows the beam height
P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 is small and should not be reduced anymore.
[m] [m] [MPa] [MPa] [MPa] [MPa] [MPa] Through the comparison of the beam height, it is
13 6 2.47 1.36 1.65 1.74 1.5 known that within a certain range, the influence
of increasing the height of middle span beam or
13.5 6 2.14 1.01 1.93 2.16 1.63 the height of pivot beam on the main beam stress
is small, and the tonnage of main pier will over
14 6 2.13 1.01 1.94 2.51 1.76
190000kN. When the beam height is reduced, the
13 6.5 2.48 1.41 1.64 1.19 1.57 compressive stress on the upper margin of the
main beam reach up to 19.7MPa, it shows that the
13.5 6.5 2.49 1.41 1.64 1.61 1.71 height of the beam should not be reduced
14 6.5 1.6 1.17 1.89 2.03 1.81 anymore. Therefore, it is more suitable to use
13m - 6m combination for the middle support –
Note: the stress values in the table are all positive midspan beam height.
P1: The height of the fulcrum beam
P2: The height of the middle beam 4.3 Influence analysis of the bridge tower
stiffness
P3: Middle and lower of the sub side span
P4: Upper of the sub side span fulcrum The tower uses the double column bridge tower,
the height above deck is 57.0m, the bottom and
P5: Lower of the sub side span fulcrum
the top of the tower along the bridge is 7.2m and
P6: The upper margin of the middle fulcrum 5.0wide, respectively; the width is 2.8m in the
P7: The lower margin of the middle span cross bridge direction. In order to study the effect
According to table 1. The stress reserve of the of bridge stiffness on force structure, the
middle span lower margin will increase below structural characteristic of the bridge tower
0.3MPa when increase the height of the fulcrum stiffness at 0.1, 0.5, 1, 5, 10 times are analyzed.
beam and the middle beam. For the middle Table 2. Comparison of control section bending
fulcrum section, the best solution is the moment under different stiffness of bridge
combination of 14m and 6m, the compressive
stress in the upper margin of the middle fulcrum P2 P3 P4 P5
increased by 0.77MPa. For the side span, the P1
[kN.m] [kN.m] [kN.m] [kN.m]
optimal combination is 13.5m-6.5m, but only
0.05MPa difference with the 13m-6m 0.1 -2.79E+6 3.27E+5 -2.90E+6 4.11E+5
combination. Generally speaking, whether 0.5 -2.57E+6 3.01E+5 -2.69E+6 3.85E+5
increasing the height of the pivot beam or the
height of the middle beam, the impact on the 1 -2.53E+6 2.99E+5 -2.66E+6 3.83E+5
improvement of section stress is small. While for
5 -2.46E+6 3.02E+5 -2.62E+6 3.87E+5
the combination of 13m and 6m, the beam stress
has presented a good stress state, which indicates 10 -2.44E+6 3.05E+5 -2.61E+6 3.90E+5
that the beam height is suitable. When the middle
supporting point beam height is 13m, and the P1: Stiffness multiplier of bridge tower
middle span beam height is 6m. The maximum p2: Middle fulcrum bending moment under
compressive stress of the upper margin of the side working condition of main force
span and the middle span is 15MPa and 17.4MPa, p3: Midspan bending moment under working
respectively. When 13m is applied to middle pivot condition of main force
beam height, try to reduce the height of the mid p4: Middle fulcrum bending moment under
span beam to 5.5m, the compressive stress on the working condition of main force and additional
force
upper margin of the mid span concrete can reach
19.7MPa, and the maximum compressive stress p5: Midspan bending moment under working
condition of main force and additional force
515
Under the working condition of main force, the moment of control cross section is shown in Table
maximum bending moment of the middle fulcrum 4.
decreases with the increase of the stiffness
Table 4. Comparison of bending moment of control
multiplier. The midspan bending moment
cross section under working condition of main
decreases first and then increases with the
force
increases of stiffness multiplier and it will get the
minimum when the stiffness multiplier is 1. Under P2 P3 P4 P5
P1
the working condition of main force and [kN.m] [kN.m] [kN.m] [kN.m]
additional force, the bending moment of the
middle fulcrum decreases with the increase of the 35 -4.10E+6 5.80E+5 -4.19E+6 6.59E+5
stiffness multiplier, the bending moment reduced 40 -3.66E+6 5.03E+5 -3.77E+6 5.84E+5
by 7% when the stiffness multiplier decreases
from 10 to 1. 45 -3.29E+6 4.35E+5 -3.40E+6 5.17E+5
It can be seen from table 3 that the stiffness of the 50 -2.96E+6 3.73E+5 -3.08E+6 4.56E+5
structure only increases 1.2% when the stiffness 57 -2.53E+6 2.99E+5 -2.66E+6 3.90E+5
of the bridge tower is increased by 10 times.
Table 3. The stiffness of the bridge tower P1: Tower height
corresponding to the overall stiffness of the p2: Middle fulcrum bending moment under
structure working condition of main force
p3: Midspan bending moment under working
P2 P3 P4 P5 condition of main force
P1
[mm] [mm] [%]
p4: Middle fulcrum bending moment under
0.1 62.33 -244.5 1/1014 0.973
working condition of main force and additional
force
0.5 59.95 -238.9 1/1038 0.996
p5: Midspan bending moment under working
1 59.60 -237.9 1/1042 1.000 condition of main force and additional force
5 56.24 -235.7 1/1052 1.010 Under the working condition of the main force,
the middle fulcrum bending moment of the main
0.1 62.33 -244.5 1/1014 0.973
beam decreases with the increase of the bridge
P1: Stiffness multiplier of bridge tower tower height, the bending moment of the 57m
tower is 63% of the 35m tower. The midspan
p2: maximum displacement bending moment decreases significantly with the
p3: Minimum displacement increases of the bridge tower height and the
p4: Stiffness bending moment of the 57m tower is 63% of the
35m tower. Under the working condition of main
p5: Proportion force and additional force, a similar conclusion can
From the above analysis, the stiffness of bridge be obtained. The middle fulcrum bending moment
tower of partially cable-stayed bridge in heavy of the 57m tower is 64.7% of the 35m tower; the
midspan bending moment of the 57m tower is
hual railway has less influence on the overall force
58.1% of the 35m tower.
and structural stiffness. It can reduce the bridge
tower size as much as possible when meet the Table 5. Corresponding structural stiffness values
saddle layout structure and tower stress for different tower height
requirements.
P2 P3 P4 P5
P1
4.4 Influence analysis of the bridge tower [mm] [mm] [%]
height
35 66.72 -286.9 1/864 0.829
The height of bridge tower is set to 35m, 40m,
40 64.17 -273.6 1/906 0.869
45m, 50m and 57m, respectively. The bending
516
45 62.50 -261.5 1/948 0.910 tower has little influence on the main beam
stiffness, and when the tower height is reduced
50 60.97 -250.8 1/989 0.949
by 38.6% and the main beam stiffness decreases
57 59.60 -237.9 1/1042 1.000 17.1%, the stiffness is 1/864, on this basis, the
cable section stiffness is reduced by 38.6%, so the
P1: Tower height
stiffness of main beam is 1/827, the structure
p2: maximum displacement stiffness decreased by only 4.3%. From the results
p3: Minimum displacement of changing the tower stiffness, the bridge tower
p4: Stiffness height and cable section stiffness with the same
p5: Proportion ratio, the influence of the bridge tower height on
the structural stiffness is greater.
According to table 5, the bridge tower height has a
certain degree of influence on the stiffness of the
main beam. When the height of the bridge tower
5 Economic comparison
is reduced by 38.6%, the stiffness of the main At present, the amount of concrete per meter and
beam is reduced by 17.1%. per square meter for Chinese double line large
span railway concrete partial cable-stayed bridge
In summary, tower height is an important
parameter of the heavy haul railway cable-stayed [4][5]are shown in table 6.
bridge, it has a great influence on the bending Table 6. Economic index table of the double line
moment of the main beam fulcrum cross-section large span railway concrete Partial Cable-stayed
and the midspan, it also affects the beam stiffness Bridge in China
to a certain extent.
Per square
main span Beam per meter
bridge concrete
4.5 Analysis of cable-tower-beam stiffness Bridge L concrete dosage
dosage
name
matching [m] [m3/m]
[m3/m2]
For the prestressed concrete continuous beam,
P1 178 32.5 2.34
when the span is determined, the beam height is
the control factor for the stiffness of the bridge P2 180 30.3 2.23
structure. For the prestressed concrete partially
P3 186 31.1 2.31
cable-stayed bridge, except for the beam height,
the bridge tower and the cable-stayed cable also P4 208 32.0 2.44
have great influence on the structural stiffness.
P5 220 38.1 2.74
Comparison and analysis according to the beam
height, when the section stress and strength of P6 240 33.8 2.68
the main beam meet the specifications, the height
of the pivot beam and the middle beam should P7 248 36.3 2.86
select 13m and 6m, respectively. When not P8 288 37.0 2.76
considering the establishment of bridge tower and
cable, under the action of the static live load, the P1: Jing Shen guest college Chao Bai He Bridge
maximum displacement of the main beam is P2: Yuanjiang super bridge of Huai Shao Heng
355mm and the stiffness of the main beam is Railway
1/698. When take the bridge tower and stay P3:Large high Tiezhi Jiabao Yuhe Bridge
cables into consideration, the structural stiffness P4: The Chengdu Kunming Railway of Panzhihua
is 1/1042. The contribution of the main beam to Jinsha River Bridge
the overall stiffness is 67%, the contribution of the P5: Yingshang Hangzhou railway bridge
bridge tower and the stay cable to the overall P6: Apon Jean Te bridge of Guizhou Chang Chang
stiffness is 33%. Railway
The bridge tower and cable are related P7: The Han Jiang River Bridge of the three Jing
section of the Mongolian China Railway
components, the stiffness change of the bridge
517
P8: Fuping railway wulongjiang Bridge (4) According to the characteristics of heavy haul
The amount of concrete per meter and per square railway, the value of the height-span ratio is
meter basically increases linearly with the determined to be 1/4.35 and the tower is 57m.
increases of span except for the cable-stayed The value of the height-span ratio in the ordinary
bridge of the Beijing Shenyang and Hangzhou. The railway partial cable-stayed bridge is generally
amount of concrete per meter increased from within the range of 1/7.0 ~ 1/7. The increase of
30.3m3/m to 37.0m3/m when the main span the height-span ratio can effectively improve the
change from 180m to 288m, Mongolia and China stress of main beam of partial cable-stayed bridge
Railway is Heavy Haul Railway, the index above in heavy haul railway, and ensure that the
the trend line. structure has enough strength and stiffness under
heavy load railway load.
6 Conclusion (5) The structural stiffness of the partial cable-
The structure is a partial cable stayed bridge with stayed bridge in heavy haul railway is mainly
stiffened cables, which is the first time used in provided by the main beam which accounts for
heavy haul railway projects. The operation time of about 67%, and the contribution of the main
this bridge is about December 2018. Through the tower and the cable is 33%. The stiffness of the
comparison and analysis of the bridge design main tower has little effect on the overall stiffness
parameters of the bridge, the main conclusions of the structure, while the height of the bridge
are as follows: tower has a significant influence on the structural
stiffness.
(1) By comparing and analyzing the tower pier
beam consolidation system, the tower beam 7 References
consolidation and the pier beam separation
system, the pier beam separation system is better [1] JIN Fu-hai., WEN Wang-qing and XU San-
than the two limb thin-walled pier system based ping.Preliminary Study for Selection of
on the rationality of the structural stress. Design Live Load of Coal Transportation
Railway Line from Western Inner Mongolia
(2) When the height of the middle fulcrum beam to Central China.Railway Standard
and the middle beam is 13m and 6m, respectively, Desing.2013(03):48-53.
in a certain range, whether it is increasing the
height of the fulcrum beam or the middle beam, [2] Li Guilin., Research on super-long span
the influence for the main beam stress railway bridge of loading length. Railway
improvement is small. When the height of the Standard Desing.2015(03):64-68.
middle beam is reduced to 5.5m, the compressive [3] YAN Ding-guo., Scheme Design of Hanjiang
stress on the upper margin of the main beam River Bridge on Railway Coal Corridor from
reach up to 19.7MPa, while the minimum Western Inner Mongolia to Central China.
compressive stress on the upper margin is only Railway Standard Desing.2016(07):99-103.
0.12MPa, the beam height should be reduced
anymore. It is a reasonable choice to use 13m-6m [4] ZHANG Lei. Design of an Extrandosed Bridge
combination for middle fulcrum - middle beam on Tianjin-Shanghai Link Line of Beijing-
height. Shanghai High-Speed Railway. Bridge
Construction. 2012; 42(4): 69-74.
(3) The bridge tower stiffness of the partial cable-
stayed bridge in heavy haul railway has less [5] SONG Ziwei., LI Xiping., LIU Zhichun. Low
influence on the overall force and structural Tower on Huaihua-Shaoyang-Hengyang
stiffness. It can reduce the bridge tower size as Railway. Railway Engineering.2016(09):6-9.
much as possible for reducing the amount of
concrete when meet the saddle layout structure
and tower stress requirements.
518
Design of Sea-Crossing High-Speed Railway Steel-Concrete Composite

Box Girder Cable-Stayed Bridge
Jiahua Zeng, Wangqing Wen, Aiguo Yan
China Railway Siyuan Survey and Design Group Co.,Ltd, Wuhan, Hubei, China
Abstract
Quanzhou Bay Railway Bridge is the key component of the Fuzhou-Xiamen High-Speed Railway
with the design speed of 350 km/h. The total length of 20.3 km is the greatest among the sea-
crossing high-speed railway bridges in the world. The main structure over the main navigation
channel is a steel-concrete composite cable-stayed bridge with the span arrangement of（
70+130+400+130+70）m. The main girder adopts a closed and streamlined box section.
In the past decades, the sea-crossing railway cable-stayed bridges mostly adopted steel truss
girder. Quanzhou Bay Railway Bridge is the first railway bridge adopting the steel-concrete
composite box girder cable-stayed bridge type in china and the longest-span sea-crossing high-
speed railway bridge in the world. In this paper, the structural design and construction method for
this bridge are presented.
Keywords: steel-concrete composite box girder; cable-stayed bridge; high-speed railway; sea-
crossing; innovative design; construction method.
The water depth at the centre of Quanzhou Bay is

1 Introduction about 8-12 m. Construction of the bridge is
Quanzhou Bay Railway Bridge, located in impacted by unfavourable meteorological and
Southeast China, is the key component of the hydrological condition around 95 days per year.
Fuzhou-Xiamen High-Speed Railway with the The steel-concrete composite girder cable-stayed
design speed of 350 km/h. The plane curve of the bridge structure is firstly adopted in China’s
bridge appears curvilinear with the total length of railways after comprehensive comparison and
20.3 km and over-sea length of 9.0 km to ensure selection[1]. It not only solves the problems of
that the bridge structure is perpendicular to the tight construction schedule and unfavourable
direction of spring and neap tidal currents, construction condition, satisfies the high
decreasing their impact on the bridge. performance, structural stiffness for high-speed
The main bridge crosses over the main navigation train travelling and durability requirements, and
channel in the form of double pylon cable-stayed also provides new alternatives and practical
bridge with the main span of 400m and carries the experience for major sea-crossing railway bridge.
double-track high-speed railway by streamlined
closed box girder.
519
Figure 1. Perspective view of Quanzhou Bay Railway Bridge

and streamlined box section with the depth of
2 Bridge Design 4.25 m, and thus is in perfect harmony with the
box-section girder of the adjacent highway bridge.
2.1 Design Ideas of the Structural System The two bridges have little aerodynamic
Generally speaking, the railway cable-stayed interference to each other, realizing the
bridge mostly adopted steel truss main girder. In favourable landscape coordination, and will
the case of needing double deck to carry traffic, become the landmark and a unique scene over
the truss girder cable-stayed bridge owns the bay in Quanzhou City. Furthermore, the bridge
outstanding suitability and superiority. The truss adopting steel-concrete composite girder is
girder cable-stayed bridge has great spanning applicable to the deepwater area such as
capability and good stiffness for train Quanzhou Bay.
travelling[1,2]. By using concrete deck slab to replace the
The main bridge carries double-track high-speed orthotropic steel deck, a large amount of steel can
railway and is aligned to nearby highway cable- be saved[3], the ratio of dead load to live load is
stayed bridge adopting 3.5m-high box girder. For significantly increased, the fatigue problem of the
Quanzhou Bay Railway Bridge, the truss girder steel deck can be avoided, and great structural
cable-stayed bridge type is uneconomic, and the stiffness can be provided for high-speed train
problem of unfavourable landscape coordination travelling. Compared with the steel truss girder
and adverse aerodynamic interference will be cable-stayed bridge, it can save steel by 7,965 t
induced, for the reason that its girder depth is 4 and can save engineering investment by USD 6.62
times of the adjacent highway bridge. million.
According to the characteristics of the main The main bridge is a twin-pylon double-cable-
bridge, the steel-concrete composite girder cable- plane cable-stayed bridge with the span
stayed bridge structure is firstly applied to China’s arrangement of （70+130+400+130+70）m. The
railway bridges. The main girder adopts a closed layout of the bridge is shown in Figure .
520
Figure 2. The layout of the main bridge (Unit: m)

To avoid the negative reactions on top of the side
2.2 Structural Design
piers and auxiliary piers, counterweights was
placed inside the box of corresponding segments
2.2.1 Supporting System
of the girder in the bridge completion state.
The bridge adopts a semi-floating system.
Between the girder and piers, there are set 2.2.2 Main Girder
longitudinal sliding supports which restrain the
The main girder is a steel-concrete composite
transverse relative displacements. Between the
structure of a single box section with five cells
girder and pylons, there are set vertical supports,
(Figure ), and the two side cells perform a function
transverse bracings and longitudinal viscous
of wind fairing. The girder is 4.25 m in depth and
dampers. The dampers are used to reduce the size
21 m in width. The standard length of segment is
of expansion joints at the girder ends and improve
10.5 m and the length of closure segment is 10 m.
the seismic performance of the structure.
The concrete parts adopt Grade C60 concrete and
One auxiliary pier is set in the both side span to the steel structure is made of Grade Q370qE sea-
improve the stiffness of the bridge and reduce atmosphere-corrosion-resistant high-
stress applied to the girder and pylons. performance steel.
Figure 3. Cross section of main girder (Unit: m)

The concrete deck slab is 17.03 m in width and 0.3 girder, 16 units of 5-φ15.2mm stands will be set
m in thickness, which is thickened to 0.5 m at the longitudinally for the concrete deck of all
part near the webs and diaphragms. Furthermore, cantilever–erected girder segments.
the concrete deck slab is thickened to 0.5 m in the
The steel box girder consists of bottom plate,
end-77.9m range of the each side span to reduce
vertical webs, transverse diaphragms and wind
the side-span counterweights. The longitudinal
fairings. To meet the load-bearing needs, the
tendons arranged in the concrete deck slab of the
thickness of bottom plate varies from 14 mm to
main and side spans are 15 units of 15-φ15.2mm
32 mm. the side vertical webs are 30 mm thick
stands. During the cantilever erection of the
and are thickened to 40 mm in the anchorage
521
zone. The mid vertical webs are 24 mm in concrete pylon due to their smaller horizontal
thickness. component force.
The bridge adopts three types of diaphragms set
in 3.5 m spacing. The ones at fulcrums are solid-
web diaphragms with the thickness of 30 mm. The
diaphragms at the anchor points of stay cables are
18 mm thick, and the webs in the mid cells and
side cells are hollow and solid, respectively. The
rest 16mm-thick diaphragms are hollow-web
structure and not connected to the concrete deck.
The bottom plate and vertical webs are all
stiffened by flat stiffeners. The top flanges of the
vertical webs and diaphragms are 20 mm thick,
and are thicken to 36 mm in the zone connected
to the concrete deck. The shear studs with 22 mm
diameter and 250 mm length are adopted to
connect the concrete deck to steel structure.
The stay cables are anchored to the main girder
through a new type of anchor socket plate
structure (Figure ). Two supporting plates
connecting the steel anchor sleeve to the anchor
plates are added to the traditional structure type.
Figure 5. Pylon (Unit: m)
2.2.4 Stay Cables

Prefabricated parallel epoxy-coated steel wire
stays cable with tensile strength of 1770 MPa is
adopted for the reason that it can be
manufactured in-factory, floated by ship and hung
integrally on site. There are totally 144 stay cables
in the bridge which are arranged in spatial double
planes and fan shape. The cable spacing is 10.5 m
on the girder. The longest cables consisting of 337
Figure 4. Anchor socket plate structure steel wires are 218.2 m in length and about 24.8 t
in weight.
2.2.3 Pylons
The two pylons are both concrete towers designed 2.2.5 Substructure
in curve H-shaped with total height of 160.2 m The two pylons are founded on 24 bored piles of 3
and over-deck height of 109.6 m. The dimension m diameter. The pile caps are 26.5 m wide, 40.5 m
of single-cell pylon columns varies from 7.0 m× long and 6 m thick.
3.5 m at the top to 12.0 m×5.3 m at the bottom.
The side piers and auxiliary piers are all 50m high
The upper ends of stay cables numbered S/M4-18
and founded on 10 bored piles with the diameter
are anchored to the upper pylon through a
of 2 m. The 10m-high bottom part of piers is
composite structure consisting of steel anchor
designed as round-end solid section to reduce
beam and two steel corbels, and the stay cables
wave impact and ship impact forces, and the rest
numbered S/M1-3 are anchored directly to
part of piers is of rectangular hollow section with
round chamfering.
522
The three segments around each pylon are floated

and hung by floating crane. The rest segments are
hung and installed by deck cranes. The 0.8m-long
concrete deck slabs between conterminous
segments are casted on-site. The steel parts of the
segments are fitted with high-tensile bolts except
the bottom plate and its stiffeners are connected
by welding to reduce site welding and ensure
favourable exterior.
4 Conclusion
The steel-concrete composite girder cable-stayed
bridge structure is firstly applied to China’s railway
Figure 6. Piers (Unit: m) bridges and favourably meets the specific
condition of Quanzhou Bay Railway Bridge. The
3 Construction of Main Girder bridge structure processes merits such as great
structural stiffness for high-speed train travelling,
The choice of construction method fully
favourable static/dynamic performance, efficient
considered the site condition of the deepwater
construction and excellent structural durability.
area, strong wind and hydrological factor. The
girder should be fabricated in-factory, erected The success achieved on Quanzhou Bay Bridge will
integrally to reduce site operation and ensure the enrich the structural type alternatives for long-
quality of construction as far as possible. span railway bridges and promote the widely
usage of the steel-concrete composite girder
3.1 Segments and Fabrication cable-stayed bridge in railway bridges. The project
was designed by China Railway Siyuan Survey and
The girder are divided into 77 segments, including
Design Group Co.,Ltd. The construction contract
72 typical segments, one 10m-long closure
was awarded to CCCC SHEC. The construction
segment, two 4.4m-long segments at the end of
began in September 2017 with completion
side spans and two 12m-long segments around
scheduled towards the end of 2020. The
pylons.
foundation works are in progress now.
The concrete deck slabs and the steel parts of the
segments are fabricated in-factory. The concrete 5 References
and steel parts are assembled into segments in-
factory except the ones among 77.9m-long girder [1] SHAO C. Prospect of cable-stayed bridge
at the end of each side span. Chinese railway development in New
Century. 14th National Bridge Academic
3.2 Erection of Girder Conference, China, 2000; 54-60.
The steel parts of the segments among 77.9m- [2] YAN G., Modern Cable-Stayed Bridges,
long girder at the end of each side span is Southwest Jiaotong University Press,
assembled into an 1180t-weigh steel structure Chengdu, China, 1996.
which is floated and hung integrally by huge [3] SHAO C., Application and Prospective of
floating crane, and the precast concrete deck slabs Cable-Stayed Spans of Steel-Concrete
are hung and connected to the steel structure on- Composite Box Girder for East China Sea
site in order from girder end to area around Bridge, Journal of Bridge Construction.2003;
auxiliary pier. The above schedule can greatly 3: 5-8.
reduce the tensile stress of the concrete deck
around auxiliary piers induced by the dead load.
523
Effects of high speed trains on bridges

Erica Calatozzo, Arnaud Lemaire, Serge Montens
Systra SA, Paris, France
Contact: ecalatozzo@systra.com
Abstract
Dynamic analysis is commonly conducted to design bridges for high speed railway lines. Classically,
two aspects are analyzed at design stage: the vertical acceleration and vertical deflection of the deck
which are limited in order to prevent the track instability and the passenger comfort. These aspects
were analyzed by Systra for the major international projects: Taipei – Kaohsiung line in Taiwan,
“Channel Tunnel Rail Link” in the UK (CTRL), “Contournement Nîmes Montpellier” in France (CNM
line), Tanger – Kenitra line in Morocco, Tianxingzhou Yangtze River Bridge in China and Dodam -
Yeongcheon line in Korea.
More recently, some high-speed railway line projects have been designed to match a 400 km/h
operation speed, such as Moscow-Saint Petersburg line project in Russia, and the European
Research Project “Capacity for Rail”.
Keywords: Dynamic, analysis, comfort, acceleration, high speed, track, irregularities
Furthermore, the maximum dynamic effects occur

1 Introduction at resonance peaks. At resonance, a multiple of the
The interest in dynamic behaviour has increased in load frequency coincide with a natural frequency of
recent years, due to the introduction of high speed the bridge structure, and the dynamic response of
trains. The railway bridges are subjected to the structure increases very rapidly. Resonance
significant dynamic loading due to passing trains. may lead to cracks and crumbles of concrete, high
The dynamic response depends on a large number ballast attrition due to the high accelerations, and
of factors involving the characteristics of the train, significant track irregularities.
the track, the bridge and the substructure. For Generally, for all railway bridges with train speeds
more than 100 years, dynamic effects have been over 200 km/h, dynamic analysis is required.
taken into account in design of bridges by factoring These analyses ensure a safe use both in terms of
the static response. ballasted track stability and comfort in coaches.
The dynamic aspects are of special interest and
have often shown to be the governing factor in the The purpose of this article is to explain the dynamic
structural design. In cases of ballasted track phenomena and analyze the aspects governing the
bridges, intense acceleration creates the risk of design of railways bridges in the major
destabilising of ballast. For track stability and international projects in which Systra has been
vehicle-bridge contact, it is important to ensure involved.
that the maximum accelerations of the bridge
remain below 3.5 m/s2 in case of ballasted tracks
and 5 m/s2 in case of ballastless track.
524
2 Phenomena studied The above mentioned serviceability criteria are

compared to the dynamic response from passing
For the design of railway bridges for high speed trains.
railways, a set of serviceability criteria regarding
traffic safety and comfort are to be fulfilled. These 3 International projects
criteria consist principally of limits for vertical deck
acceleration, vertical displacements, end rotations These aspects were analyzed by Systra for the
and deck twist. major international projects: Taipei – Kaohsiung
line in Taiwan, “Channel Tunnel Rail Link” in UK
2.1 Vertical deck acceleration (CTRL), “Contournement Nîmes Montpellier” in
France (CNM line), SEA (South Europe Atlantic) line
In most cases where the bridge is susceptible to
in France, Tanger – Kenitra line in Morocco,
dynamic excitation, the vertical bridge deck
Tianxingzhou Yangtze River Bridge in China, and
acceleration will be decisive. This criterion exists to
Dodam - Yeongcheon line in Korea.
assure sufficient track alignment and track stability,
both from a maintenance and safety perspective. More recently, some high-speed railway line
Experimental testing with test trains at resonance projects have been designed to match a 400 km/h
speed showed adverse effects of the ballasted operation speed, such as Moscow-Saint Petersburg
tracks at acceleration levels in the range 0.7 – 0.8g line project in Russia, and the European Research
in the bridge deck. Experimental shake table tests Project “Capacity for Rail”.
were later performed, showing similar results. The
effect owes to loss of ballast interlock and loss of 3.1 Taipei- Kaohsiung line in Taiwan
contact friction, sometimes described as “floating The bridges which were studied were:
ballast”. Due to uncertainties in the real behavior,
a safety factor 2 was proposed. As a consequence, - prestressed concrete box-girders with 30
the current design limit in EN 1990 is to 40 m spans,
3.5 m/s2 for ballasted tracks. For ballastless tracks, - composite truss decks with lateral girders,
a limit of 5.0 m/s2 exists, by adopting the safety with 94 m and 107.5 m spans.
factor 2 on the gravity acceleration g. This is
motivated by limiting the risk of loss of rail‐wheel The train used for the dynamic analysis was 366 m
contact and hence the risk of derailment. It is long, including 19 cars, with typical 175 kN axle
important to note that the acceleration is to be loads, and 190 kN axle loads for motor cars.
evaluated within a limited frequency range, which, Dynamic analysis had to be performed for all
in EN 1990, is stated as the greatest of 30 Hz, 1.5 bridges which did not satisfy the frequency range
times the fundamental vibration mode, and the requirement, and for special bridges. There was a
third vibration mode. Japanese type ballastless track.
2.2 Vertical deck displacement For the composite truss decks, the vertical
acceleration was quite high for the longitudinal
EN 1990 also stipulates limits for vertical bridge stringers which support the concrete slab.
deck displacement as an indirect measure to limit Furthermore, we analyzed the fatigue of these
the vertical vehicle acceleration and thereby the steel stringers under high speed train loading with
passenger riding comfort. For bridges on non‐high dynamic calculation.
speed lines, the limit is set to L/600 where L is the
span length. For higher speeds, the limit depends
on the span length, the speed, and number of
consecutive spans, and may range up to L/2600.
The Eurocode allows for specific vehicle/bridge
interaction analysis if a more refined value for the
vertical train acceleration is needed. Figure 1. Truss bridges on Taipei - Kaohsiung line
in Taiwan
525
3.2 Channel Tunnel Rail Link in UK (CTRL) Two special bridges which cross the rivers Lez and
Vidourle were studied by SYSTRA
Channel Tunnel Rail Line (CTRL) is the high speed
line between the Channel tunnel and London. It The Lez viaduct consists of a tied-arch. It shares its
includes many bridge types: reinforced concrete eastern abutment with the approach viaduct. The
slabs, prestressed precast beams, prestressed important skew of the line and the respect of the
concrete box-girders, composite steel-concrete river clearance has resulted in one 90 m long span.
twin-girders with 21 to 43 m spans, steel truss The steel arches are 17.50 m high, and consist of
bridges with 49 to 75 m spans, and 7 km of piled steel box girders with variable widths and depths.
slabs and elevated piled slabs. Arches are connected one to the other, on the top,
by bracings to limit the lateral buckling. Concrete
Dynamic studies were performed using the load of
slab is connected to four stringers, located below
the specific rolling stock Eurostar anticipated for
the rails.
this line: 392 m long train, including 20 cars, with
typical 170 kN axle loads. Dynamic analysis had to
be performed for all bridges, for various train
speeds up to 110 % of the maximum operating
speed. The damping coefficient to be used was 0.5
% for steel and composite decks, 2 % for
prestressed concrete decks, and 4 % for cracked
reinforced concrete decks.
Passenger vertical acceleration had to be limited to
0.5 m/s².
Figure 3. Lez bridge (ph. OC’VIA)

The viaduct Vidourle consists of three isostatic
structures whose spans are 31.50 m, 90 m and
31.50 m. The main bridge is a Warren steel truss
bridge. The height of beams reaches 11 m and the
deck width is 14.10 m. The deck is made up of
stringers and transversal beams spaced 4.5m and
connected to the concrete slab. The upper bracings
allow the stabilization of the upper chords of the
two steel trusses.
Figure 2. Elevated piled slab on CTRL
3.3 « Contournement Nîmes Montpellier »

in France
“Contournement Nîmes-Montpellier” (CNM) is a
new high-speed railway line in the south of France
between Manduel (near Nîmes) and Lattes (near
Montpellier). The total length of this link is 80 km,
which includes many types of bridges. Figure 4. Vidourle bridge (ph. OC’VIA)
The main particularity of this high-speed railway is The dynamic analysis of the bridges was performed
that it must support both high speed trains, and using the High-Speed Load Model (HSLM A1 to A10)
heavy freight trains. and real trains for speeds ranging from 140 km/h
to 360 km/h (1.2 x 300 km/h). For the “dynamic
526
Partial cable-stayed bridge in the application of heavy haul railway

LI Guilin, SHI di, ZHANG Xiaojiang
China Railway Siyuan Survey and Design Group Co. , Ltd. ,
Contact:liguilin@ @crfsdi.com
Abstract
Taking the partial cable-stayed bridge with main span of 248 meters which used on the railway
coal corridor from western Inner Mongolia to central China as an example. the adaptability and
particularity of partial cable-stayed bridge in the span range are analyzed based on structural
static analysis theory. Pylon and girder rigid fixity, pier and beam separation system is applied, H-
shaped bridge towers, the double cell concrete box girder and the monofilament epoxy coating
prestress strand is used in this bridge. The results indicate that stay-cables contribution to the
overall stiffness value of 33%. In order to improve the structure performance of the controlling
area such as cross section, bridge tower adopt the high tower type system, depth-span ratio is
determined to be 1/4.35, C60 high performance concrete is applied. The main pier bearing adopts
double 190000 kN large tonnage steel spherical bearings because of the heavy dead loads and the
heavy live loads, using the high-performance materials and Partial sealing technique to ensure the
bearing durability, stability and long service life. The structure of the bridge meets the
requirements of heavy haul railway according to the analysis.
Keywords: Partially cable-stayed bridge; Heavy haul railway; Restraint system; Large tonnage
support; Secondary internal forces；Stiffness of tower
advantages, such as saving engineering quantity,

1 Summary large structural stiffness and short construction
All kinds of bridge types have different application period. Therefore, it has been widely used in high-
scope for span. The prestressed concrete speed railway, intercity railway and highway
continuous beam has the characteristics of large engineering.
self weight. When applied to railway bridges, the As a pure freight railway form, heavy haul
main span is generally within the range of 128m railway[1] has characteristics of large design load,
As a kind of continuous beam cable stiffening heavy axle load[2] and frequent train load
structure, the partial cable-stayed bridge can compared with passenger dedicated lines, high-
extend its span, and the span range is from 140m speed railways, passenger and freight railway
to 280m. It has the advantages of providing lines. When the Mongolian China heavy haul
greater spanning capacity and effectively railway crosses the Hanjiang River, considering the
controlling late deformation compared with the boundary conditions of the 5x120m highway
continuous beam; while compared with the continuous beam bridge in the downstream and
conventional cable-stayed bridge, it also has many the economy, according to the comparison and
527
selection of multi plans, the main span 248m (2) Line number: double line with line spacing
4.0m
partial cable-stayed bridge scheme is adopted.
However, the typical partial cable-stayed bridge (3) Designed driving speed: 120km/h
form and the structural design parameters range (4) Designed load: medium live load (2005) ZH
are not suitable because the large proportion of standard (Z=1.2)
live load. In order to solve the problem of partial (5) The plane of this bridge is located on a straight
cable-stayed bridge applied to heavy haul railway line
bridge, the parameters of this bridge were
compared and analyzed, the reasonable structural 3 The main bridge scheme
parameters of partial cable-stayed bridge applied
to this bridge were determined and was applied to 3.1 Overall arrangement of the structure
heavy haul railway successfully for the first time. The bridge site is located at the upstream 40m of
Impression drawing of the partial cable-stayed the fourth bridge of Xiangyang Hanjiang River on
bridge and construction picture are shown in the Erguang Expressway. According to the
Figuer 1 and Figuer2. navigation demonstration, combined with the
bridge site crossing the channel and the pier
blocking the water, the main span 248m crossing
the channel with the four bridge navigation
channel of Hanjiang River is launched, and the
single port two-way navigation is carried out. The
main bridge adopts (72.5+116+248+116+72.5) m
railway concrete partial cable-stayed bridge
Figure 1. Impression drawing of the partial cable- scheme[3], the main bridge length is 626.8m, and
stayed bridge the main span 248m crosses the Hanjiang River.
The layout of the bridge is shown in Figure3.
3.2 Main beam

A single box and double chamber section is
selected for the main beam, the middle fulcrum
beam is high 13.0m, the midspan of the middle
span and the side fulcrum beam is high 6.0m, the
shape of the beam bottom is circular curve. The
box beam roof plate is 11.4m wide, and on the
both sides of the middle fulcrum bridge tower
widened by 2.8m. The sidewalk is arranged on the
Figure 2. Construction picture outside of the bridge tower and widened by 1.1m
in the cable position; the box beam floor plate is
2 Technical standards wide 10.2m. The main beam adopts C60 concrete
(1) Line grade: Grade I, ballast track and set up longitudinal, lateral and vertical
528
track safety” (vertical acceleration of the track and whose spans are 27.5m. The main bridge is a
deck twist) a time history analysis was employed by prestressed concrete box, whose spans are 35 - 60
using direct integration method with low pass - 35m between axes.
filter.
To evaluate the vertical acceleration of the deck, a
3D model including transverse composite beams
was required. The influence of the transverse
beams on the acceleration response of the deck
was quite important. The design of the deck for the
two bridges was identical, and longitudinal
stringers were added under each rail forming a grid
girder. This design limits the “local” vertical
acceleration ballast track which is more severe
than ballastless track.
Figure 6. Sebou Viaduct

Dynamic analysis was performed using the High-
Speed Load Model (HSLM A1 to A10) and TGV (16
coaches with two locomotives, with typical 170 kN
axle loads) for speeds ranging from 140 km/h to
420 km/h. The damping coefficient to be used was
1 % for prestressed concrete.
Passenger vertical acceleration had to be limited to
1 m/s².
Figure 5. Vertical acceleration due to the HSLM-A6
For HSR, the allowable horizontal and vertical deck
along the track (filtered response) for different
displacements are very limited, therefore the
critical speeds
stiffness of deck and piers must be important.
For the passenger comfort criteria, the vertical
It was a delicate balance between reducing the
acceleration in the coaches was limited to 1 m/s².
seismic forces in substructures and checking the
It was verified by the simplified procedure
“track safety”.
described in EN 1990-Annex A2.
The compromise was using special devices with a
Finally, dynamic fatigue was checked with
damping system.
cumulative damage method (Palmgren-Miner rule)
for a combination of high speed trains (TGV) and
heavy freight trains.
3.4 Tanger – Kenitra line in Morocco

The high-speed railway line between Casablanca
and Tangier via Rabat reduce the journey time by
almost 2/3. This new railway line (Kenitra – Tanger)
is 183 km long, bridges were designed according to
the Eurocodes.
The Sebou viaduct is one of the longest bridges of
the high-speed railway line. The viaduct has two Figure 7. Transverse damping system
access bridges. Each access bridge has two
prestressed concrete boxes simply supported,
529
3.5 Tianxingzhou Yangtze River Bridge in According to the transverse dynamic analysis, the
China maximal car transverse acceleration was 0.18 m/s2.
The Tianxingzhou bridge on the Yantze River in 3.6 Dodam Yeongcheon line in Korea
China is a combined railway-roadway bridge with a
world record cable-stayed span of 504 m, and a The Dodam-Yeongcheon railway line is 148 km
total length of 4657 m. Dynamic analyses were long.
performed using Chinese high speed train loads
and Chinese freight train loads. Very sophisticated
The Dodam bridge is 520m long with a spans 120-
analyses were performed in order to take into
80-120-80-120m over the Nan Han River. In
account:
addition to the construction of this new bridge, the
- the complete interaction between the line’s modernization project includes
rolling stock and the bridge, both vertically electrification, the replacement of the single track
and transversally (with a dynamic model of by a double track line and an increase of the
maximum speed capacity to 250 km/h.
the rolling stock, including springs and
dampers),
- the deflected shape of the deck due to
other live loads and wind load,
- the track imperfections, both vertically and
transversally (with different imperfections
levels for freight track and high-speed
track).
Figure 9. Dodam Bridge
The Dodam Bridge includes:
- Bowstring bridges with a 120m long span,
- Variable height trusses with an 80m long
span.
The train used for the dynamic analysis was the KTX
(Korea Train eXpress) including 6 coaches, with
typical 160 kN axles. Preliminary design and
detailed design phases, were performed including
dynamic analyses (vehicle bridge interaction) and
Figure 8. Tianxingzhou Bridge in China the study of the interaction between the railway
track and the bridge structure.
Maximal bridge acceleration 1.58 m/s2 occurs a
speed of 275 km/h.
3.7 Moscow-Saint Petersburg line project
The bridge fulfills the criteria of ballast limit
acceleration 1.58<3.5 m/s2 (Eurocode). in Russia
The extreme car acceleration Extreme was mainly A high speed line between St. Petersburg and
due to track imperfections. Moscow is planned by Russian Railways. The key
The maximal acceleration is 0.5 m/s2 <1.0 m/s2, design parameters of the high-speed Moscow - St
therefore the comfort criteria was checked Petersburg line were:
according to Eurocode. - Length: 660 km;
Maximal wheel dynamic vertical load due to
- Journey time: 2 hours 30 minutes;
vertical vibrations is P1=14.5 kN.
530
- Maximum speed: 400 km/h; to dynamic aspects. They often present excessive
- Predicted passenger volume: 14 million per acceleration levels compared to current standards.
year; Furthermore, current design regulations, e.g.
Eurocode EN‐1990, are only valid for speeds up to
Systra analyzed bridge deck acceleration levels for 350 km/h. Significantly higher speeds and/or future
design speed equal to 400 km/h and passenger trains may require an extensive revision of the
existing design codes. Future developments will
comfort under vertical acceleration of real train.
require the introduction of “very” high speed
Dynamic analysis was performed using the High- tracks, as the maximum speeds in commercial
Speed Load Model (HSLM A1 to A10) and the TGV operation are currently in the range from 300 km/h
(16 coaches with two locomotives, with typical 170 to 350 km/h. Thus, a study of the influence of very
kN axle loads) for speeds ranging from 144 km/h to high speeds (up to 480 km/h) on bridges was
480 km/h. carried out.
Parametric studies on common types of beam and
Comfort analysis with coupling was performed frame bridges were performed for speeds up to
using real French TGV train (2D model): 480 km/h.
The objectives were:
- Investigate bridge deck acceleration levels
for speeds up to 480 km/h,
- Investigate the effect of track irregularities
and how it compares to the Eurocode
factor,
- Investigate the effect of soil‐structure
interaction and load distribution on the
Figure 10. TGV train model
dynamic response of bridges,
Passenger vertical acceleration had to be limited to - Investigate the efficiency of damping
1 m/s². devices on reducing the level of
To check the vertical acceleration, the Eurocode acceleration on bridges.
EN‐1990 allows checking the maximum permissible
vertical deflection. This method could be used for The dynamical behavior of 4 typical short span
bridges was studied by the analyses below:
speeds up to 350 km/h.
- Rolling stock analyses according to
Therefore, to check comfort criteria, a dynamic Eurocode EN 1991‐2 art. 6.4.6 and
analysis with direct integration was carried out Eurocode 0 Annex A2 (high speed line train
using a 2D train model (coupled system) for corresponding to 480 km/h maximum
different bridge types. The analysis was done using calculation speed),
direct integration method (Wilson‐theta). - Deck acceleration and passenger comfort,
under vertical acceleration for French TGV
3.8 European Research Project “Capacity and German ICE2 (2D model train),
for Rail” - Passenger comfort, under horizontal
The European Research Project “Capacity for Rail” acceleration for French TGV (3D model
(C4R) consists of investigating the dynamic train),
behavior and requirements for short span bridges - Passenger comfort, under vertical and
intended for very high speed trains (design speed horizontal acceleration for French TGV (3D
equal to 400 km/h) [1] . Short and medium span model train) with track irregularities in
bridges and bridge components are very sensitive vertical and transversal directions,
531
- The derailment coefficient and wheel track are connected by vertical springs. The
unloading coefficient were calculated for analysis is conducted using direct integration
French TGV. method (Wilson‐theta).
The analysis developed included both vertical and The comfort analyses were carried out using 2D
transverse vibrations of the bridge under train train‐bridge without track model (Figure 12).
loads, although transverse vibrations are not The train load is modelled by beam and discrete
prescribed in Eurocodes. masses connected by vertical springs and dampers
(Figure 13).
3.8.1 Modelling aspects
There are two types of calculations and then two
types of modelling:
- Dynamic behavior of bridge,
- Comfort analysis.
The dynamic behavior of bridges, according to

Eurocode EN 1991‐2 art. 6.4.6 and Eurocode 0
Annex A2 (High speed line train), were carried out
using 2D train‐bridge with and without track model
(Figure 11).
Figure 13. Car model ‐ 2D train coupled system
It is a coupled system (interaction between train

and bridge). The analysis is done using direct
integration method (Wilson‐theta).
The effects of track irregularities in vertical and in
horizontal direction are taken into account in
dynamic and comfort analysis.
The track irregularities are generated through the
Figure 11. Bridge model ‐ no coupled system power spectra density (PSD). Track irregularity for
TGV line is issued from measures on TGV French
North line.
3.8.2 Bridges dynamic analysis results

The results of bridges dynamic analysis show that:
- For open frame and closed frame bridges,
the lower the span length is, the higher the
resonance risk is for high speed. The
vertical acceleration at mid span for 5 m
closed frame bridge is higher than
acceleration for 10 m closed frame bridge.
- The accelerations of studied bridges are
higher than limit of 3.5 m/s2 for ballasted
Figure 12. Bridge model ‐ 2D train coupled system
track or 5 m/s2 for track without ballast. To
The bridge is modelled by shell elements, the track, respect these limitations for speed up to
when it is modelled, by beam elements. Bridge and
532
480 km/h an increase of deck thickness is using the dynamic interaction between the rolling
considered. stock and the bridge structure, and the track
imperfections.
3.8.3 Comfort analyses results
The maximum vertical acceleration at barycenter
5 References
of various cars of the TGV and ICE2 trains are [1] C4R Project SCP3‐GA‐2013‐60560:
calculated for various speeds. Innovative Design and methods of structures
on very high speed lines.
We noted that:
- The power cars of French TGV and ICE2

have the most important accelerations.
- For French TGV the passenger acceleration
generally decreases when speed of train
increases. This phenomena is not shown
for the ICE2.
- The passenger acceleration decreases if
the span length decreases, because the
deck deflection decreases.
- The passenger vertical acceleration is
much lower than 1 m/s2 (good comfort
following Eurocode 0 Annex A2).
- The passenger vertical acceleration due to
track irregularities is governing.
Figure 14. Comparison vertical acceleration in

passenger car for French TGV and ICE2, 2D model
4 Conclusions
The dynamic response of railway bridges on high‐
speed lines is limited by a set of safety and
serviceability criteria, with some differences
between ballasted tracks and ballastless tracks.
These aspects are of special interest and have often

shown to be the governing factor for the structural
design, specifically the vertical and torsional deck
stiffness. They were analyzed by Systra for major
international projects, using sophisticated time-
history dynamic analysis, either for ballasted tracks
or ballastless tracks, for various high-speed trains
(European, Japanese, Chinese, Korean).
Sometimes, comfort was checked specifically,
533
Innovation design of a ballastless cable-stayed bridge with main span

of 300m in high-speed railway
Li Di-ping
China Railway Siyuan Survey and Design Group Co. LTD
Contact:99142272@qq.com
Abstract
Right now, for bridges paved with ballastless track on high-speed railway with operating speed of
350km per hour in the world, the maximum span is 185m, and larger span bridges are all paved
with ballasted track. The speed of the train passing through the large span bridge has to be limited
to be not more than 250km per hour, which becomes a neck for high-speed trains running on the
whole line. Laying ballastless track on large span bridges has become a technical problem to
expand application range of ballastless track. This paper is based on a cable-stayed bridge with
main span of 300m. For this bridge, prestressed concrete box girders are used for edge span and
box steel-concrete composite beam is used for mid-span. Cable-stayed bridge is a flexible
structure, and the stiffness must be the problem to be solved first for high-speed railway. The
hybrid girder and the composite beam for the middle span can increase the deadweight stiffness.
Relative to the steel bridge deck, concrete deck has larger stiffness and smaller local deformation,
which makes it more conducive to high-speed traffic. The technology of laying ballastless track in
the concrete slabis mature. This bridge is the first cable-stayed bridge paved with ballastless track
on high-speed railway with design speed of 350km per hour in our country. This paper focuses on
the conception, structure design and innovation points of the bridge. And the adaptability of
high-speed railway ballastless track to the bridge is also analyzed.
Keywords: Cable-stayed bridge; High-speed railway; Hybrid girder; Composite beam;
ballastlesstrack
1 General engineering situation

across the Gan River is located in Ganzhou City. It
Nanchang-Ganzhou Passenger Dedicated Line is
is a dominant engineering for the whole line of
located in the south-central part of Jiangxi
the railway. It is a hybrid girder cable-stayed
Province. With northern end in Nanchang City
bridge with double pylon towers and double
and southern end in Ganzhou City, the
cable planes, whose span combination is
Nanchang-Ganzhou passenger railway line is an
(35+40+60+300+60+40+35) m. The renderings of
important part of the Beijing-Kowloon passenger
bridge is shown in Fig.1.
railway line. The main bridge of Ganjiang Bridge
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Fig.1 Bridge renderings

Technology standards are as follows:
(1) Standards for Line 2 Structure system
Classification of railway: Passenger Dedicated
Line The main bridge is semi-floating system. The
The number of tracks in district: double-track, vertical support and horizontal wind resistance
track distance D=5.0m support are set up between the pylon tower and
The design live load: ZK live load the main beam. The longitudinal viscous dampers
Running speed: design speed is 250km/h,the are set up within the vertical support to be
reserved speed condition for infrastructure is integratedly designed with the support. Each
350km/h. support is assembled by two dampers. With
The type of track: I-type double-block maximum rated stroke of ± 175mm and damping
ballastless track force of 710kN, the dampers have the role of
(2) Standards for Navigation damping energy consumption for dynamic loads
The navigable clear height is not less than caused by the pulsating wind, brake and
10m;the navigable clear width is not less than earthquake, but they don’t limit the displacement
282m. caused by the temperature and creep[1].
(3) Meteorological conditions The longitudinal sliding support is set up between
The annual average temperature is 19.1℃. the main beam and the junction pier or auxiliary
The extreme maximum temperature is 41.0℃ pier to limit the lateral relative movement.
. The extreme minimum temperature is -7.9
℃. The annual average wind speed is 1.8m/s. 3 Design of the main beam
The maximum wind speed is 14m/s.
The main beam consists of concrete box girder,
(4) Hydrological conditions
steel-concrete box-shaped composite beam and
The design water level is +105.46m;the
steel-concrete composite section. Located at mid
maximum navigable water level is +101.18m.
span, the steel-concrete composite section is
(5) Ground Motion Parameters
20m from the center of the cable bent tower of
The seismic peak ground acceleration is
the main beam. The length of one side of
0.05g. The response spectra’s characteristic
concrete box girder is 155.7m.The length of
periods under ground motions are all 0.35g.
steel-concrete box-shaped composite beam is
(6) Curve elements
260m.And the length of steel-concrete section is
The main bridge is on a straight line for plane
10m.
layout and it is on a gentle slope for elevation
layout.
535
3.1 Concrete Box Girder A transverse diaphragm with height of 2m and

thickness of 50cm is arranged every 10.5m,
Constant-height cross section with single-box and
corresponding to the position of the stay-cable.
three-chambers is adopted at concrete box girder
There are 26 transverse diaphragms for
of the edge span. The top width of the girder is
stay-cables. And one of them overlaps with
16.5m. The height at the center of girder is4.5m.
transverse diaphragm at the top of pier).
The standard cross section is shown in Fig.2.
In order to reduce the amount of concrete
The thickness of top and bottom flange is
pouring at a time, one side of the concrete box
40cm.The thickness of mid-web is 50cm. And the
girder is divided into four sections. And to save
thickness of side-web is 170cm. For transverse
time, concrete is poured from the edge span to
girder at fulcrum, top and bottom flange are
the mid-span section by section, so that, cable
thickened to 70cm,mid-websare thickened to
bent tower and concrete box girder can be
110cm, and side-webs are thickened to 200cm.
simultaneously constructed.
1650/2 1650/2
170 405 250 250 405 170
2% 2%
40
Center Line
263.4
50 50
450
170.1
40
40
582 28 500 28 582

1720/2 1720/2
Fig.2 cross section of concrete box girder (cm)

edge span, cross section with single-box and
3.2 Steel - concrete box-shaped composite three-chambers is adopted at the composite
beam beam. The steel beam section is slotted. The
concrete bridge deck is 16.3m wide and the
Steel-concrete box-shaped composite beam is
centerline of the beam is 4.5m high. On the
adopted at mid-span, which is mainly used to
composite beam, the Q345qD steel and C55
meet the rigidity of high-speed driving. And the
concrete are used. The main beam sections are
combination of ballastless track structure and
shown in Fig.3 and Fig.4.
concrete bridge deck is more reliable.
Corresponding to the concrete box girder at the
16300/2 16300/2
940 4360 700 2150 2150 700 4360 940
2% 2%
prefabricated wet seam
concrete plate
Center Line
4475
5253 Steel beam

5253
5552/2 5552/2
Fig.3 general section of composite beam (mm)
536
16300/2 16300/2
5650 2500 2500 5650
2% 2%
concrete plate
Center Line
4500
5253
52 53
5552/2 5552/2
Fig. 4 semi-section at cross diaphragm(mm)semi-section at transverse rib (mm)

In order to reduce the effects of concrete
Each segment of the main beam is12m long.
shrinkage and creep on the structure, it is
Construction method for the segment is applied
required to ensure the storage time for more
by firstly setting up steel beam, then hoisting
than six months before assembling each
prefabricated concrete bridge plate, then
prefabricated plate, and that both longitudinal
casting-in-site wet seam.
wet seam and horizontal wet seam are adopted
For general section of the steel structure of the shrinkage compensating concrete [2].
composite beam, thickness of the bottom plate,
According to the force requirements of the
web and upper wing panel is 16mm, 20mm, and
structure, the longitudinal prestressing tendons
36mmrespectively. The web is locally thickened
are applied in the bridge plate. There are two
at the main tower.
types of longitudinal prestressing tendons. One
With a big hole in the middle, the section of the type of them is tensioned in the process of
cross diaphragm is shown as Fig.4,which can suspended splicing for segment, using 15-5 steel
satisfy not only the structural design, but also the strand. The other type of them is tensioned after
construction cost and contingency. The spacing of the mid-span closure, using 15-15 steel strand.
cross diaphragm is 6m. A transverse rib is set
The shear force for the interface is transmitted by
between two cross diaphragms to make sure that
installing the shear nails between the steel
the main beam has sufficient lateral and torsional
structure part of the main beam and the concrete
stiffness. The thickness of the cross diaphragm at
plate. Six columns of φ22 × 250welding studs are
stay cable is 18mm, which is 16mm at other
assembled at the top flange of the edge web. The
places. The transverse ribs are T-shaped and have
spacing of them in lateral direction is 14cm,
a thickness of 16 mm.
15cm, 19cm respectively, and which is 20cm in
The concrete bridge plate of the main beam is longitudinal direction. Seven columns of φ22 ×
generally 30cm thick, and is thickened to 50cm 250welding studs are assembled at the top flange
near the upper flange of steel beam. The bridge of middle web. The spacing of them is 12.5cmin
plate is divided into three parts: the lateral direction, and which is 20cm in
prefabricated plate, the longitudinal wet seam longitudinal direction. Five columns of φ22 × 250
and the horizontal wet seam. Each beam segment welding studs are assembled at the top flange of
is laid three prefabricated plates horizontally. The cross diaphragm. The spacing of them is 12.5cm
lengths of the three plates are all 11.4m, and the in lateral direction, and which is 13cm in
widths of which are 4.39m, 4.26m, longitudinal direction. The shear nails are all
4.39mrespectively. The widths of longitudinal wet welded at the factory.
seams are 0.89m, 0.74m, 0.74m and
0.89mrespectively, and the width of horizontal
wet seams is 0.6m.
537
3.3 Steel-concrete composite section plate is connected with the side web of main
beam by double-sided weld penetration.
The concrete box girder and the steel-concrete
box-shaped composite beam are transitioned by
steel – concrete composite section. The joint of
steel and concrete box girder is in the form of
embedded web and tapered top and bottom
flange. The whole composite section is 10m long,
including 2m of steel beam buried section, 3m of
top and bottom flange gradient section, and 5m
of stiffness transition section.
Web of steel beam is embedded into concrete
main beam by 2m.The 3m of gradient section is
formed by thickening the concrete top flange and
setting up longitudinal partition filled with
concrete on the bottom flange, which makes the
concrete girder transit to the composite beam.
The 5m of stiffness transition section is formed by
adding board rib and inverted-T-rib of variable
depth on the upper wing panel and bottom
flange of the steel beam[3]. Fig.5 Structure diagram of tensile anchor plate
In order to ensure the reliable connection of the
steel beam with concrete, shear nails are
4 Design of main tower
arranged at the top of the upper wing panel, the
4.1 tower body
both sides of the web and the upper side of the
bottom flange of the steel beam. And, in order to The bridge tower is curved herringbone concrete
ensure reliable transmission of force, the structure. The whole height of the 35# and
stiffening plate is set under the upper wing panel 36#cable tower above the bottom of it is 120.6m,
of the steel beam, the longitudinal partition plate and the tower height above the bridge deck is
is set above the bottom flange of steel beam, and 88m, which is 1/3.409of main span. The
PBL shear connectors are set on stiffening plate longitudinal width of the tower is widened from
and partition plate. 6m at the top of tower to 8m at the beam of
tower and then widened to 9.57m at the bottom
3.4 The anchor point of the main beam of tower.
The stay cables are anchored on the concrete box The tower is composed of four parts: the lower,
girder by embedded casing. the middle, the upper tower column and the
crossbeam. In lateral direction, discrete
The stay cables are anchored on steel-concrete
single-box single-chamber section is adopted for
box-shaped composite beam by tensile anchor
the tower column. The lower tower column is a
plate. The tensile anchor plate is mainly
sloping line, and the middle and upper tower
composed of anchor pipe, anchor padding plate,
column are curves with inside and outside curve
pull plate and anchor pipe stiffening[4].The anchor
pipe and the pull plate are connected by radius of 500m and 504m. The upper column is
penetration weld. Anchor padding plate is welded micro-connected at the top by curved plate in the
atone end of anchor pipe with the role of middle[5]. For each single-box single-chamber
cross-section, the width in lateral direction is 4m,
pressure-bearing and distributing cable force. At
the wall thickness in longitudinal direction is
the other end, the anchor pipe is welded to the
0.8m, the wall thickness in lateral direction is
upper plate of the tensile anchor plate. The pull
0.8m, and the thickness of the curved plate is
0.4m. The anchorage zone of the pylon is
538
equipped with longitudinal and transverse 12 bored piles with diameter of 2.2m for each
high-strength finish rolled steel bars which are cap.
arranged in # shape.
For each middle column, the width in lateral
direction is 4.0m, the wall thickness in
longitudinal direction is 1.0m, and the wall
thickness in lateral direction is 1.0m.
The slope of the center line of the lower column
is 1: 6.098. For each lower column, the width in
lateral direction gradually increases from 4.49m
to 5.586m, and the wall thickness is 1.3m in both
longitudinal and lateral direction. The height of
solid segment at bottom of the tower is 3m.
The lower crossbeam is arranged at the junction
of the middle and the lower tower column.
Section of constant width and variable height is
adopted at the lower crossbeam. The width of
the section is 7m, and the height of the section
varies from 5m to 7m. The wall thickness of the
top and bottom plates is 1.0m, and the wall
thickness of the web is 1.2m. There is a cross
diaphragm at the support. The crossbeam is
designed as prestressed concrete structure.
There are 52 beams of 19φs15.2 prestressed
steel tendon in each tower, which are anchored
on the outer wall of the pylon.
In order to reduce the difficulty of the
construction of prestressed tension and
anchoring at high altitude, to ensure the
reliability of the load-bearing capacity for stay
cable and anchorage zone of the pylon, and
toensure durability and safety of the structure
during operation period, built-in steel anchor box
structure is used in the cable-tower anchorage
zone[6]. Fig.6 structure diagram of pylon tower (cm)
4.2 Pedestal, cap and foundation
5 Design of stay cable
The bottom of the bridge tower is equipped with
Galvanized parallel steel wires with a standard
tower base, pile cap and bored pile foundation.
tensile strength of 1670MPa are used for stay
The tower base has plane dimension of 19.8 m x
cable. There are totally 48 pairs of cable in
17.0 m and height of 5.0 m. A single cap has
fan-shaped arrangement for the bridge with
plane size of 20.7m × 15.0m and height of
double cable planes. Spaces between stay cables
4.5m.To balance the horizontal force transmitted
for concrete box girder and steel-concrete
from the tower to foundation, of the shape of the
box-shaped composite beam are 10.5m and 12m
bridge to the base of, box-shaped tie beam is set
respectively. Vertical space between anchorage
between the caps, with prestressed steel beams
points of stay cable at tower varies from 1.8mto
anchored to the outside of the cap[7]. There are
3.0m.
539
Stay cables are anchored at tower with built-in unbalanced vertical centrifugal acceleration is
steel anchor box of the way. The tensioning end 0.19m/s2 [8].
is set in the tower. To mitigate wind-rain induced
Considering shrinkage and creep, EMU live load,
vibration, external dampers are set for the stay
temperature effect, etc., the largest vertical
cables at the beam end, and the stay cables are
deformation of the main span is 211.6mm; and
wrapped with stainless steel pipe at their lower
the corresponding radius of curvature is 53166m,
part for 2.5m.
which is greater than 49000m.
6 The adaptability with high-speed (4) The following performance of track plate
ballstless track By numerical analysis of vertical relative
displacement of track plate and base plate, we
To determine whether the bridge can be laid by
find that there is no gap between them.
ballastless track and operated at speed of 350km,
the following technical conditions should be (5) Other requirements of Regulates
considered：
(1) Structural stiffness condition
7 Innovation
It is the first time that hybrid girder and
The vertical stiffness of the bridge is 1/880; the
steel-concrete box-shaped composite beam are
angle of rotation at the end of beam is 0.129%.
applied to the cable-stayed bridge on high-speed
Stiffness condition is superior.
railway .This type of beam has been widely used
(2) The coupling dynamic response of in highway bridge, but it is the first time to be
vehicle-bridge used for cable-stayed bridge on high-speed
By the coupling dynamic analysis of railway.
vehicle-bridge, we find that the dynamic It is the first time to lay ballastless track for
performance of the bridge can meet the cable-stayed bridge on high-speed railway.
requirements. The vehicle operating safety can Compared with ordinary steel trussed
meet the requirement when the single train cable-stayed bridge, this type of beam can
passing the bridge at the speed of improve the stiffness of structural system more
200~420km/h.And the vehicle operating safety effectively, which can provide support for laying
can meet the requirement when two trains ballastless track. In addition, the technology of
passing the bridge at the speed of 200~380km/h. connection between ballastless track plates with
The stabilization is good. concrete slabs is mature and reliable.
(3) Deformation curvature of Vertical curve of
bridge 8 Conclusion
The curvature of vertical curve is controlled by As the first cable-stayed bridge laying ballastless
the passenger comfort requirement, that is, the track on high-speed railway, construction of main
curvature is limited by the vertical centrifugal bridge of Ganjiang Bridge has been started in
acceleration caused by the running of train on the November 2015. And everything is going
vertical curve. This can be showed by the formula smoothly so far. The design and practice of the
as R≥V2/ (3.62a). For design of vertical curve on steel-concrete box-shaped composite beam on
new line, the vertical centrifugal acceleration can the bridge and the laying of the ballastless track
be equal to 0.4m/s2generally and 0.5 under will accumulate experience for the wider
difficult conditions. For vertical deformation on application of the beam to cable-stayed bridge on
existing line, the limitation for curvature of high-speed railway.
vertical curve can be showed by the formula as R
≥0.4V2.When the driving speed is 350km/h and
vertical curve radius is 49000m equal to the
product of 0.4 and square of driving speed, the
540
9 Reference [5] Li Cuixia, Shi Jianhua. Pylon Design of

Wuhan Erqi Yangtze River Bridge[J]. Urban
[1] Zhang Xi-gang. Overall design of Sutong Roads Bridges & Flood
Bridge[J].Highway,2004(7):1-11. Control,2014(9):129-133.
[2] Du Ping. Design of Steel Main Girder of Erqi [6] Zhang Xi-gang, Liu Yu-qing. Cable-Tower
Yangtze River Bridge[J]. Transportation Composite Anchorage[M].Beijing:China
Science & Technology, 2014(2):4-7. Communications Press,2010.
[3] XuGuo-ping, Zhang Xi-gang. Hybrid Girder [7] CAO Zheng-zhou,SHEN Feng-jun.Structural
Cable-Stayed Bridge[M].Beijing: China Design of Main Bridge of Fenfangwan
Communications Press,2013. Changjiang River Bridge[J]. BRIDGE
[4] Hou Wen-qi,Ye Mei-xin. Study of Tensile CONSTRUCTION,2012(10):17-22.
Anchor Plate Structure of Composite [8] TB 10621-2014,Code for Design of High
Cable-Stayed Bridge[J]. Steel Speed Railway[S].Beijing:CHINA RAILWAY
Construction,2002(2):23-27. PUBLISHING HOUSE,2015.
541
Key Techniques Introduction to Maputo Bridge Steel Box Girders

Construction
Guo Changrui, Zhao Congming, Qiang Yaofeng

China Communications Construction Co. Ltd., East Coast Rail Link Project, Malaysia
Contact: yfqiang.s1@cccecrl.com
Abstract
Maputo Bridge in Mozambique is the largest suspension bridge under construction in Africa, which
adopts a double-pylon single-span steel box girder structure with a main span of 680m.
The superstructure steel box girder construction faces a series of obstacles. By researching and
applying the key construction techniques, such as whole-section factory manufacturing, all girders
one-time ocean shipping, complex environment wharfing and lifting, new rotating cable crane
erection and site connection, and etc., the project achieved the purpose of period guarantee, quality
control, environmental impact reduction and suspension bridge construction technology
promotion. Furthermore, it is expected to provide a reference and engineering example for similar
large-scale bridge projects in the future.
Keywords: Underdeveloped region; Suspension bridge; Steel box girder manufacture; Ocean
shipping; Cable crane rotary erection.
wrecks, the site conditions inadequate for

1 Foreword berthing.
Maputo Bridge is located on the outskirts of In order to solve the above problems, this paper
Maputo city, the capital of Mozambique, where the focuses on the key construction technology and
industrial foundation was weak and the organization of the steel box girder superstructure
manufacturing conditions for steel box girders of Maputo bridge, via whole-section factory
were inadequate. The site is also affected by the manufacturing, all girders one-time ocean
marine environment and high humidity, leading to shipping, complex environment wharfing and
poor controllability of the welding quality. lifting, new rotating cable crane erection and site
Furthermore, the bridge across the Maputo port connection and etc.
and the waterway, the axis of the bridge and the
port shoreline has an angle of 72.46 degree. The 2 Project Profile
navigation channel just in front of Maputo pylon is
narrow and has a busy shipping traffic, which do
2.1 General Introduction to Maputo Bridge
not allow a long-time occupation or interruption. In
KaTembe bank, there is a 100m shoal area in front Maputo Bridge is the largest span suspension
of KaTembe pylon and a large number of wartime bridge under construction in Africa at present and
542
is the first sea-crossing bridge spanning across span of 680m, which connects the capital Maputo
Maputo Bay in the capital of Mozambique, Maputo and satellite KaTembe city. It will be the landmark
city. The bridge adopts a twin-pylon single-span of Mozambique upon completion.
double hinge steel box girder structure with a main
Figure 1. Bridge elevation view (unit: cm)

The whole stiffening girder consists of 57
2.2 Introduction to Steel Box Girder
segments: 52 standard segments with unit length
The stiffening girder of main span is made of flat of 12m and unit weight of 124.8 tons; 1 middle
streamline-form closed steel box girder, and an segment with a length of 13m and unit weight of
orthotropic plate structure are used for both bridge 137.1 tons; 2 closure segments with unit length of
deck slab and bridge bottom slab. The girder centre 12m and unit weight of 126.2 tons; and 2 end
has a height of 3m, and the girder is with a full segments with unit length of 8.65m and unit weight
width (including wind fairing) of 25.6m and a of 127.5 tons. The maximum weight of segment is
double transverse slope of 2.5%. The total weight 137.1 tons in the middle. A 250 ton cable crane and
of the girders is 8038 tons. rotary spreader were adopted in the steel box
girders erection.
Figure 2. Cross section view of standard segment of steel box girder (unit: mm)
unpainted. Nevertheless, an inorganic zinc silicate
3 Segment Manufacturing workshop primer painting is required for the
The unit components of steel box girders are welding area using roller brushing, and taping is
produced in a professional steel structure factory required for the surface to prevent against mild
in China, and every 11 segments are pre-assembled corrosion during storage and shipping.
in accordance with the bridge profile. After the According to the characteristics of each unit plate,
assembling, the sand blasting and anticorrosion the top plate unit, bottom plate unit and the
coating work were carried out. The primer painting, diaphragm plate unit were all manufactured on a
epoxy sealing painting, epoxy thick painting and special tooling pedestal. Follow the procedure of
weathered paint finishing works are completed in "steel plate levelling and pre-treatment → NC
the factory, leaving only the site welding area precise cutting → parts processing (including U rib
543
manufacturing) → pedestal assembly → anti- design draft of 8.5m, a deck area of 167m x 40m,
deformation welding → local modification". and a design speed of 12 knots.
Forward assembling method was adopted, namely, The girders were loaded in two rows in horizontal
the pedestal as outer frame, and the diaphragm and three layers in height, hanging 6m overboard.
plate as internal support, according to the The total sea voyage was 7200 miles, traversed
sequence of "bottom unit plate (including U ribs) from the manufacturer's base through Taiwan
→ ramp unit plate (including U ribs) → middle Strait and Malacca Strait, then reaching Maputo
diaphragm plate → side diaphragm plate→ anchor port. The actual voyage was 28 days.
box unit → middle top plate → wind fairing top
plate", to achieve three-dimensional step-by-step,
layer by layer, segment by segment assembly and
welding.
Figure 4. Sketch drawing of steel box girder

loading (cross section) (unit: mm)
Figure 3. Factory whole segments pre-assembly
4 Ocean Shipping and Site Berthing Figure 5. Shipping route

4.1 Shipping Scheme
4.2 Shipping Analysis
All segments one-time shipping was adopted.
Considering the special structure loading and
“ZHENHUA 24” (owned by steel girder
shipping, and the complicated conditions ocean
manufacturer) self-propelled ocean-going vessel
voyaging, a comprehensive analysis should be done
was selected. It has an overall length of 243.83m, a
for the strength and stability of the vessel and
perpendicular length of 238.3m, a moulded
girders, and also for the design and calculation of
breadth of 40m, a moulded depth of 13.5m, a
the shipping binding [1].
Table 1. Overview of shipping analysis
Items Analysis Description Analysis Basis

1. Analyze the vessel floating state and the initial stability, to
Navigation International Maritime
obtain the recovery force arm curve.
stability Organization (IMO)
2. In terms of overall stability, verify if the restoring force arm
A749 Regulations
curve, the height initial stability and maximum recovery force
arm to the transverse angle meets the required specifications.
3. In the aspect of meteorological crossing stability, verify
whether the transverse angle and anti- bulking coefficient meet
the standard under the action of stable wind.
544
Overall According to the distribution of additional load after loading, verify Specification For Entry
longitudinal whether the bending moment and shear force of each diagram of Level Of Steel Marine
strength the vessel meet the standard. Ship
Marine Analyze the vessel’s calculated wave height and design wind speed Global Wave Statistics
Environment on sea. Online
Analysis
Motion Through the Octopus-office software developed by Amarcon BV, International Maritime
Response calculate the roll and pitch angles of the vessel under the waves, Organization, China
Calculation and the distance from the vessel mid-ship farthest point in Classification Society
180/90/135 wave in transverse, longitudinal and vertical Rules, Norway
acceleration linear equation. Provide an important basis for the Classification Society
effectiveness of on board binding. Rules and Traditional
Calculation Method
Wind Load According to the design wind speed, calculate the horizontal wind Design Wind Speed and
load and longitudinal wind load of each segment according to the Wind Load Calculation
maximum wind load action area. Formula
Structural Establish the finite element model of the standard girder, and Establish a finite
Strength determine the boundary conditions according to the temporary element model to
Checking support and connection design, to verify whether the maximum calculate the local
Calculation of stress of the steel box girder in the load action area meets the strength segment
Girder Segment requirements.
On Board Design the transverse and longitudinal restraint systems and the Specification for Entry
Binding System binding box according to the calculated on board binding force, and Level of Steel Marine
and Deck the finite element model is established to calculate whether the Ship
Strength structural strength of on board binding structures and transport
Checking deck meets the requirements.
with a weatherproof fabric, together with the rope

4.3 Steel Box Girder Loading On Board
and U-clevis fixed. Electrical appliances or electrical
According to the on-site girder storage plan, wooden boxes need to be wrapped by waterproof
hoisting order and berth requirements, the loading oilcloth and need to be placed into the cabin or in
position of each segment shall be determined in the middle of the ship.
advance by the principle of reducing the number of
3) Other small parts shall be placed before girder
vessel shifting and turning round, and all girders
section hoisting.
lifted segment by segment via 600 ton floating
crane. The vessel encountered two typhoons during the
voyage, and took effective measures to anchor and
4.4 On Board Binding avoid the typhoon for 3 days. The entire voyage
took 28 days to reach the bridge site.
1) Due to the extra wide segment, in order to
ensure that the girder segment did not collide with
4.5 Site Berth
the wharf during loading, the barge was needed
between the vessel and the wharf. Because KaTembe side is a shore shallow shoal
wreck area, anchoring and berthing here shall lead
2) During shipping, the green water on deck will
to high cost and risk.
occur, so the end of all segments should be covered
545
Therefore, the front of Maputo shore was chosen tower frame located on the upper beam of main
for berthing the ship and the anchor piles pylon.
embedded on the port loading area were used for
The vertical lifting of any girder segments on the
fixing and shifting.
vessel can be realized by using the rotating
spreader, which solved the problem that the axis of
5 Hoisting and Rotary Erection the bridge is not perpendicular to the port line. At
the same time, the plane rotation of the steel box
5.1 Cable Crane Design girder segment was carried out by rotating the
The cable crane system is composed of load- spreader, to achieve longitudinally transporting
bearing rope anchoring system, tower top frame, from the top surface of the girder segment to the
cable saddle, load-bearing rope, lifting rope, designed installation position. Subsequently, the
hauling rope, traveling crane, rotating spreader, rotary spreader was started, the steel box girder
hoisting and hauling winch, PLC automation control segment was rotated for 90 degrees and then
device and so on. temporarily connected to the erected segment.
The cable crane system of this project adopted the Rotary spreader is mainly composed of driving
twin-tower and three-span design. The span winch, rotating shaft and bearing, transmission
combination (from Maputo shore to KaTembe rod, main box girder, distribution box girder,
shore) was 283m + 680m + 311m. Two sets of universal hinges, hooks and other devices. The
bearing rope were adopted. The centre distance working principle is to achieve rotating shaft
between the two bearing rope was 10m (the bridge rotation by driving the transmission rod through
main cable centre distance is 21.88m), cable crane the winch on the main box girder.
Figure 6. Cable Crane Layout (unit: m)

used to level and strengthen the loading and
5.2 End Segment Store on The Ground
unloading area so as to increase the bearing
Taking into account the reduction of the capacity and disperse stress; for KaTembe bank K25
occupation of the waterway, the reduction of the -K28 segments (K represents KaTembe bank), the
vessel demurrage, the reduction of the number of steel storage platform must be finished before the
vessel turning round, convenience of the closure vessel arrival, and the supporting point of girder
and end segment erection, retesting of the segments must coincide with the position of the
reliability of the cable crane system and the rotary steel pipe pile.
spreader, the four cross-strait end girder segments
The cable crane was adopted to hoist the end
shall be stored in front of the tower by two layers.
segments to specified position.
Among them, Maputo bank M25-M28 segments
(M represents Maputo bank) were stored in the
port loading area. Before the girder is stored, the
reinforced concrete strip foundation should be
546
5.3 Steel Box Girder Hoisting moment, all the girders on vessel were completely
hoisted, and the vessel can set off. Then, K25, K26,
5.3.1 The Order and Principle of Hoisting M25 and M26 were hoisted symmetrically, and the
two end segments (M28 and K28) were stored on
The steel box girder was rotated and hoisted
the lower beam supporting frame, and in order to
segment by segment using cable crane. Firstly, the
facilitate the lifting of the closure segment, the end
central segment (K1, H0, M1) was hoisted, and then
segments need to be moved to side span direction
the K2-K24 and M2-M22 segments were
for 50cm. And then M27 and K27 closure segments
symmetrically hoisted according to the principle of
were hoisted respectively. Finally, according to the
“no more than two unsymmetrical lifting segments
monitoring datum, the end girder segments were
on both sides”; then M24 segment was spun and
moved back and temporarily connected with M27
stored on the edge of the vessel near the Maputo
and K27 in both sides, and the bridge was closed.
pylon, and erected after M23 segment. At this
Figure 7. Steel box girder lifting order

The method of standard girder segment lifting on
5.3.2 The Middle Girder Segment Erection
berth side is the same as that of the middle
Since there was only one pair of hanger for the first segment but without temporary hangers.
segment, in order to stable the first steel box girder
Firstly the steel box girder is transported to the
after erection, it is necessary to use four temporary
designed position, the lifting lugs with the installed
hangers to connect the temporary lifting lugs
segments are used as the holding force point to
respectively (the temporary lifting lugs are only
install two 5-ton chain block, and through the
suitable for segment where temporary hanger is
adjustment of the chain block to approach and
installed). In addition, through the adjustment of 4
stable the installed segment and the hosting
temporary hangers, the longitudinal slope and
segment, then connect with the permanent
installation accuracy can satisfy the design
hanger, and at last, install the temporary match.
requirements.
2) Standard Segment Installation on Non-Berth
After the middle segment is hoisted in place, the
Side
four temporary hangers should be installed from
the lower side, subsequently the permanent Non-berthing side segments must be moved
hanger should be installed and then the hoisting longitudinally from the top of the installed girders
ropes should be released by the lifting system to to the design position. Therefore, during the
make the main hanger stressed. Then the length of installation of non-berth side segments, after the
the temporary hanger should be adjusted to segment was lifted vertically from the vessel for a
balance the segments and meet the design certain height, it was stopped from lifting and was
requirement. rotated by 90 degree with cable hoist rotary
spreader, so that it was perpendicular to the
5.3.3 Standard Segment Erection installation position. Then it is perpendicularly
1) Standard Girder Installation on Berth Side lifted and exerted with longitudinal traction until
547
the bottom of the bean segment was completely span by 50cm, the cable crane lifting system shall
higher than the top surface of the installed bean be started to place the end segments on top of the
segment. Next, the cable hoisting system is steel supporting frame on lower beam of main
stopped and the traction is continued to achieve pylon.
“segment moving on installed segment”. After the
girder segment has being raised completely 5.3.5 Hoisting of Closure Segment
beyond the installed girder in longitudinal, the As the closure segment was placed in advance at
traction was stopped. Subsequently the lifting the projection area of designed position ahead of
system was started, and the whole steel box girder the pylons, the installation of the closure segment
was placed down to the design height, and the steel did not need longitudinal traction, direct vertical
box girder was rotated again through the rotary lifting was sufficient. During lifting, when the
spreader to make it parallel to the designed closure section near the final position, it should be
position. Then, the connection between the hanger checked whether it can smoothly "cross" through
and the steel box girder anchorage plate could be the closure, whether it will collide with the installed
carried out according to the same method with the segment once continue lifting. If the latter is true,
berth side. longitude adjustment should be carried out using
the cable crane hauling system to ensure that the
closure segment will not conflict with other
components during the ascending process. After
confirming that the abovementioned problems
were cleared, the closure segment was continued
lifting until its top surface exceeded the installed
M26 and K26 segments, for permanent hanger
connection and temporary matching.
5.3.6 End Segment Installation

Figure 8. Girder segment moving on installed The system conversion of the end segment shall be
segment conducted according to the monitoring datum. The
docking operation with the closure segment was as
5.3.4 End Segment Store on Lower Beam of follows: firstly, the end girder was moved to the
Main Pylon mid-span side by using a shifter, when it moved
Because the area of end segment was out of the close to the closure segment, the longitudinal
cable crane’s reach, which means the end gradient on the steel support frame was adjusted
segments could not be vertically placed to the using 100 tons jacks until the end girder can match
designed position when the cable crane move to with the closure segment for smooth docking.
the limit position with segment loading. Therefore,
5.3.7 Bottom Maintenance Trolley Installation
the "swing method" should be used to store the
end segments [2]. The anti-pull point was set on the Bottom maintenance trolley was synchronously
main cable in side span and the anti-pull system installed with the closure segments. After the cable
was formed by composing with the 10-ton winch crane lifted the closure segment from ground to a
on the steel-framed pylon top. When the end certain height, the maintenance trolley was
segments was lifted vertically to the installation assembled on the bottom of closure segment using
height and the cable crane was tracked to the the mobile crane together with manpower. After
extreme position, the anti-pull system shall be assembling, the pulley was locked. Until all the
connected with the cable crane spreader, the girders have been hoisted, the maintenance trolley
winch on pylon top shall be started, and the end could be used as the working platform to complete
segments shall be swung to the side span direction, the rail welding of the trolley and to assist the
when the end segments were offset to the side welding connection of the steel box girder.
548
6 Site Connections 7 Conclusions

Steel box girder site connections mainly include the Maputo Bridge steel box girder construction,
temporary matching of top plate, bottom plate and combined with the actual engineering conditions,
wind fairing of the steel box girder, girth welding by using the techniques of whole-section factory
and high-strength bolts fastening. Before girth manufacturing, all girders one-time ocean shipping
welding, the steel box girder linear needed to be and site assembling, new rotating cable crane
adjusted and the gap width between girder erection and site connection, not only ensured the
segments needed to be controlled, and the whole construction quality, but also greatly simplified the
length of all segments needed to be monitored in site operation. On the basis of the traditional cable
real time after the welding is completed. Based on crane, the realization of rotating spreader design
the hanger distance given by the monitoring for steel box girder erection made on-site
datum, and in conjunction with the measured construction convenient and flexible, and solved
hanger distance, the width of the girth gap needed the problem of non-perpendicularity between the
to be adjusted to make timely correction. The site bridge axis and the coastline.
connection and operation key points were as
The techniques in this paper has been successfully
follows:
achieved in the Maputo Bridge project, using only
1) After the steel box girder has been closed, all 25 days to complete the erection of all steel box
temporary matching connections at the bottom girders, the construction experience can be used as
and on the wind fairing should be completed. a reference and provide some guidance for similar
projects.
2) Before girth welding, the temporary bolt
matching pieces on the top and bottom plate of
girder segments should be released, by adjusting 8 References
the big screw at the top and bottom plate to [1] Liu Peng, He Shuanhai, Zhao Yingce.
control the gap between two adjacent segments. Research on key technology of maritime
3) After the adjustment of the girth width had been transport of large segments of steel box
completed, the temporary match between the girder in Hong Kong-Zhuhai-Macao Bridge.
segments should be loosened. If the top and Journal of Hefei University of Technology.
bottom side misalignment exceeded 2mm, then 2015, 38(1): 85-90.
the inverted "L" shaped horse plate should be [2] Niu Yazhou, Hao Shengli. Technical research
welded and partially adjusted by jack [3]. Finally, the on stiffen girder installation of large span
horse plates on the top and bottom plates were suspension bridge, Highway, 2015, 5:83-89.
welded to fix the relative position of the steel box
girders, the temporary connecting plate were cut [3] Xia Kejian. Deviation control of steel box
off with a carbon arc gouging and the large tension girder site connection in Yichang Yangtze
rods on top and bottom plates were loosen. River Highway Bridge. Ship & Ocean
Engineering. 2002, 1: 30-34.
4) Before the girth welding, all the roof U rib and I
rib joints should be temporarily connected with
temporary bolts and pin.
5) After (4), the girth weld was conducted, with the
U ribs and I ribs connecting plate welding on the
bottom plate.
6) After (5), all the temporary bolts and pins of all
the U ribs and I ribs in the top plate shall be pulled
out, the high-strength bolts on top plate can be
screwed.
549
Study on correction of linear and internal force of steel box girder

bridge based on Zero moment method
TIAN Wei , WENG Fangwen, HUANG Can
The Second Harbor Engineering Company, Hubei , China
Contact: wengfangwen@163.com
Abstract
In actual engineering, the assembly error of the beam in the construction process may cause the
system linearity not to meet the design requirements. In this paper, the zero-moment method is
proposed to study the construction of continuous large span steel box girder bridge. Firstly, find
the position of the zero moment of the girder beam, secondly, cut the girder beam at the position
of zero moment to make the beam become three-span simply supported structure, then re-weld
the girder beam after the linear adjusted. The results demonstrate that the design requirements of
system linearity and internal force of the beam can be meet by using the Zero moment method.
Keywords: Zero moment method; incremental launching; correction of linear and internal force.
The accumulation of errors in the assembly

1 Project introduction process may cause the internal force and the
As shown in figure 1, a curved continuous linings of steel girders not to meet the design
steel box girder bridge across the highway is used requirements, which will lead the structure be
as the background. The span of the bridge is changed from the continuous beam bridge to the
161.28 (45.64+70+45.64) m. The cross section of cantilever beam. Figure 4 shows the linear error.
the bridge is in the form of three Chambers and Figure 5 and 6 show the internal force of the
the height is 3000mm. During construction, bridge.It can be seen from the figure that the
incremental launching construction method is structure of the main beam has been deviated
used. Figure 2 shows the general layout of from the design to double cantilever beam instead
temporary pier. Figure 3 shows the overall of continuous beam structure.
construction plan[1][2]:
1) Install mounting bracket and 1#-3# temporary
pier；
2) Install the pushing equipment and steel guide
beam ；
3) Assemble the steel box girder by design on
the2# ~ 3# pier , adjust the line shape and weld it,
and then push it to the right place after the
inspection and acceptance. Figure 1. The diagram of bridge construction
4) Remove the steel guide beams as needed；
5) lift the other remaining steel girder to achieve
closure and demolition temporary pier.
550
161280
Construction direction
45640 70000 45640

Beam section number
1# 2# 3# 4# 5# 6# 7# 8# 9# 10# 11# 12# 13# 14# 15# 16# 17# 18# 19# 20# 21# 22# 23# 24# 25# 26# 27# 28# 29# 30# 31# 32# 33# 34# 35# 36# 37#
3# 2# 1#
Temporary pier Temporary pier Temporary pier frame
5000 5000 5000 13000 5000 5000 5000 5000 2560
35500 58500 31500 20060

0 1 2 3
Figure 2. This is a figure（Units: mm）
3# 2# 1#
Temporary pier Temporary pier Temporary pier frame
guide beam
Pushing device Pushing device Pushing device Pushing device
3# 2# 1#
Temporary pier Temporary pier Temporary pier
左0#
左2# 左3#
左1#
Figure 3. General construction process diagram
551
2 Zero moment method

In actual engineering, to make the
1#pier system linearity and internal force of the
2#pier beam meet the design requirements, cut the
steel beam into three span simple beam, and then
weld it into continuous beam. Only the stent near
the pier top can be used as a cutting platform, but
Figure 4. The diagram of linear error
the bending moment of the beam in the pier top
position is biggest, which may cause the change of
the structure internal force. This will lead to the
rotation of the beam body, a huge security risk.
The torque is adjust to zero by using the zero
Figure 5. The stress of the roof (Units: MPa) moment method, which can ensure the safety of
cutting. Figure 7 shows the concrete steps of the
zero moment method.
Figure 6. The stress of the floor (Units: MPa)
552
Figure 7. The steps of the zero moment method
2.1 Calculation and analysis

In design phase, analyze the main girder
structure using the finite element analysis
software to determine the size of the amount of Figure 10. Structural stress of the roof after
vertical jack-up which can adjust the bending welding (Units: MPa)
moment of the main girder of cutting place to
zero. And then analyze the internal force of main
girder structure of the stress state in the process
of construction. Finally, propose the construction
plan to ensure the safety of the stress state of the
whole construction. Figure 11. Structural stress of the roof after falling
the beam above peir1# and 2# (Units: MPa)
Through calculation and analysis, in order to
make the structural stress safe during the whole
construction. the top lift of the main beam needs
to be 56cm, and the internal force adjustment
needs to be 14cm. Figure 8 to 11 show the
internal force of the main beam in the
construction process. Figure 12 shows the
transverse deformation of steel beam notch. It is
observed that the deformation is very small,
which can ensure cutting safety.
Zero moment position Figure 12. Transverse deformation of steel beam

notch (Units: mm)
2.2 Process control

Figure 8. Structural moment after lift
In order to ensure construction safety and
reach the expected requirement of the girder
internal force and linear, evaluate the linear and
internal force of structure during each step in the
Figure 9. Structural stress of the roof after cutting construction, then adjust the construction scheme
(Units: MPa) of the next according to the evaluation results
until the construction completion. The stress
553
sensor is arranged on the main beam to monitor

the structural stress. Figure 13 shows the layout of
the stress sensor. Figure 14 and 15 show the
theoretical and practical linear errors of the key
conditions. It is observed that the linear error of
the main beam is within 2cm after construction
finished, meeting the design requirements.
The stress sensor section
A-A B-B C-C D-D E-E
Figure 14. The difference of linear after cutting
The stress sensor
Figure 13. layout of the stress sensor
Figure 15. The difference of linear after

construction finished
3 Conclusions
The structure of steel structure continuous
girder bridge with top thrust is needed to cut the
main beam due to its internal force and linear
defects. The zero bending moment method is to
select the zero point position of the bending
moment as the main beam cutting position. The
method can ensure the cutting bending moment
invariant before and after cutting position, so as
to ensure the safety of construction of cutting,
and then to be able to get a good pusher
construction internal force of continuous beam
structure and linear defects.
4 References
[1] QIN Shun-quan. Unstressed State Control
Method for Bridges Constructed in Stages[J].
Bridge Construction,2008,(1):8-14.
[2] SU Kui. The research of key problems in
incremental launching of cable-stayed
bridge with steel box girder[D].Shanghai:
Tongji University,2006.
554
Thermal Simulation on the Flat Steel Box Girder of the Maputo Bridge
under Solar Radiation
Cheng Liu, LiangDong Zhuang, JinYang Gao, JianSheng Fan
Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
Contact: liucheng1991@gmail.com
Abstract
Bridges may undergo significant temperature variation under the combined influence of solar
radiation and daily ambient temperature. In some circumstances, thermal stresses due to
temperature gradient or external constraint can be significant in comparison to dead or live load
stresses. This paper investigates the solar temperature distribution and effect on the Maputo
Bridge, a super-long suspension bridge in Mozambique. Thermal finite element model is established
considering the local seasonal and daily variation of solar radiation and ambient temperature. Then
the temperature distribution of the outer plates of the girder is extracted to quantify the
temperature effect. Parametric analysis is also carried out to identify the key parameters. It is found
that the modelling details have minor influences, whereas a smaller film coefficient and thinner
asphalt pavement tend to enlarge the temperature gradient. By comparing the simulated
temperature distribution with the thermal gradient load in the codes, it’s found that the
temperature distribution in the studied flat steel box girder doesn’t follow any thermal gradient load
in the current bridge codes and therefore a novel thermal gradient load is suggested.
Keywords: Maputo Bridge; thermal simulation; solar radiation; flat steel box girder; temperature
effect
Thermal behaviour caused by environmental

1 Introduction parameters such as solar radiation, air
Bridges are continuously exposed to varying temperature, and wind speed depends highly on
ambient temperature and solar radiation. The heat the bridge’s shape and local meteorology; hence
transfer from surrounding environment induces using the thermal load in bridge codes without
not only temperature variation but also structural careful examination may lead to unsafety. Since
deformation and thermal stresses. It has been temperature field measurements are unavailable
observed that bridge movement is dominated by for bridges in general, numerical simulation is
daily and seasonal temperature variation [1]. For necessary to get a quantitative understanding of a
steel bridges, temperature variation can induce bridge’s transient temperature field. Among the
significant thermal stresses that are comparable to thermal simulation works [3-7], the heat transfer
the stresses induced by dead and live loads [2]. finite element (FE) method is most preferred for
accurately modelling the changing direction of
solar radiation and shading effect.
555
This paper investigates the temperature a 50-mm asphalt pavement. The orthotropic deck
distribution and effect on the Maputo Bridge, a system is stiffened by longitudinal U-ribs spacing at
super-long suspension bridge in Mozambique. 600 mm and transverse diaphragms spacing at
Firstly, a 3D segmental thermal FEM model of the 3000 mm, as illustrated in Figure 2.
bridge girder is established where the solar load
and convective condition are determined by the
local meteorology. After the simulation, the
temperature distribution of the girder is extracted
to study the temperature effect. Parametric MAPUTO
analysis on modelling details, film coefficient and
thickness of asphalt pavement is also carried out.
The simulated temperature distribution is found to
differ from the thermal load specified in the
Eurocode [8] and AASHATO code [9]; therefore a
novel temperature gradient load is proposed to
better characterize the temperature distribution of
a flat steel box girder.
2 The Maputo Bridge

The Maputo cross-sea bridge, located in Figure 1. Location of the Maputo Bridge
Mozambique, is a 4434 meter bridge connecting
the Maputo city and the Katembe region (Figure 1). Unit: mm symmetric line
25600/2
The main bridge, also called the Maputo Bridge, is 2500 20600/2
a single-span suspension bridge with a 680-meter 1300 1700 500 1500 3500 3500 500
main span, as illustrated in Figure 3.

2.5%
The RC pylon of the bridge has a portal frame shape
and is about 134 meters tall from foundation. The
3000
two main cables have a sag-to-span ratio of 1/10 in
shape; each composes of 91 parallel high-strength
strands. Two gravity anchorages located 1229 1700
6300 13000/2
meters apart anchor the main cables to the ground.
Fifty-five pairs of vertical hanger connect the main Figure 2. Cross section of the flat steel girder
cable and the stiffening girder.
The flat steel stiffening girder has a width of 25.6
meters and a height of 3 meters and are covered by
122900
26000 68000(1600+54×1200+1600) 28900
+140.127m +140.127m
MAPUTO
KATEMBE
6800
North
South
13400
6000
25017.2
Unit: cm
Figure 3. Elevation view of the Maputo Suspension Bridge
556
coefficient (W/m2/K) that is determined by surface

3 Thermal Simulation under Solar roughness and wind speed in general [10].
Radiation
3.3 Solar radiation
3.1 Segmental FE model
The total solar radiation on an inclined plane can be
Considering the computational cost of full bridge precisely estimated given the latitude of the
modelling, only the girder segment between two location (-90~90), the date (1~365), the time in
adjacent diaphragms is studied as shown in Figure hour (0~24), the inclined and azimuth angle of the
4. The thermal FE model is established through the plane, and the turbidity factor of the atmosphere.
commercial FEM software ABAQUS, where the This paper adopts the computational method
steel girder and asphalt pavement are modelled by suggested by [11] in three steps.
shell element DS4 and solid element DC3D8,
Step 1: Compute the incidence angle 
respectively.
east surface cos   sin  sin  cos   sin  cos  sin  cos 
top surface  cos  cos  cos  cos   cos  sin  sin  sin  (3)
 cos  sin  sin  cos  cos 
west surface
  (hour-12) 15 (4)

bottom surface
 284  n 
Figure 4. Illustration of segmental FEM model   23.45sin  360  (5)
 365 
The thermal properties of steel and asphalt used in
this paper are listed in Table 1. where  is the angle of incidence;  is the angle
Table 1. Material thermal properties [10] between the inclined and horizontal planes;z is
the zenith angle;  is the latitude (-25.97o for
specific
density
heat
conductivity
absorptivity Maputo);  is the surface azimuth angle;  is the
[kg/m3]
[J/kg/K]
[W/m/K] hour angle given by (4);  is the declination given
by (5). The definition of above-mentioned angles
asphalt 2115 920 0.75 0.88
are illustrated in Figure 5.
steel 7833 465 54 0.9
sun
3.2 Thermal boundary Normal to horizontal plane

Two types of thermal boundaries are applied to the
z inclined plane
outer surfaces of the girder, i.e., the solar radiation

condition (1) and the convective boundary W N
condition (2). s
horizontal plane
q  k T |b.c.   I t (Type I) (1) s

E
S
where q is the surface heat flux; It is the total solar
radiation on the surface;  is the absorptivity of the
surface material as shown in Table 1.
q  k T |b.c.  hc (T  Ta ) (Type II) (2) Figure 5. Relative position between the sun,
horizontal plane and inclined plane
where T and Ta are the boundary temperature and Step 2: Compute the beam radiation Ib0 and diffuse
ambient temperature, respectively; hc is the film radiation Id0 on a horizontal plane
557
Figure 6. Computed solar radiation for the top,

 360n 
I b0  ktbGsc 1  0.033cos  cos  z (6) east, west, and bottom surfaces (Dec. 15)
 365 
3.4 Convective boundary condition
 360n 
Id 0  ktd Gsc 1  0.033cos  cos z (7) The bridge exchanges heat energy with the
 365 
environments through the thermal convection, as
where ktb and ktd are determined by the formulated in (2). Determining film coefficient hc
transparency of the atmosphere by: can be tricky; here a value of 20 (W/m2/K) is simply
taken as suggested by [13] for free convection. The
t /sin  s 5 influence of film coefficient hc will be discussed
ktb  0.9 u (8)
later in the parametric analysis.
ktd  0.271  0.294ktb (9) This paper proposes a simple model for the daily
variation of the ambient temperature Ta, as shown
The Linke turbidity factor tu (usually ranges 2~8) in Figure 7. Ta follows a sinusoidal curve in the
characterizes the transparency of atmosphere and daytime and a straight descending line at night. In
is taken as 3.5 for the clear sky in Maputo according the proposed model, only the sunrise time, daily
to [12]. maximum temperature Tmax and daily minimum
temperature Tmin are needed, which can be readily
Step 3: Compute the total solar radiation It on an
determined from meteorological statistics.
inclined plane
Temperature
I t  I b  I d  I r ( I d  I r for the shaded plane) (10) Tmax
cos  (Tmax+Tmin)/2
I b  I b0
cos  z daytime night
Tmin
 1  cos  
Id  Id 0   (11) Time
 2  Sunrise Sunset Sunrise
 1  cos  
I r  ( I b0  I d 0 )    Figure 7. Variation of the ambient temperature
 2 
3.5 Initial Condition
where.  is the reflectance of the earth and is
mostly taken as 0.2. It’s better to start the daily thermal FE simulation
when the girder has a nearly uniform temperature
The solar radiations in a typical summer day for the distribution. Hence, all simulations in this paper
top, east, west and bottom surfaces (see Figure 4) start right at the sunrise time and the girder has an
of the girder are shown in Figure 6. initial uniform temperature Tmin.
1200
1000 west
top
east 4 Results and Discussion
bottom
Radiation/(W/m2)
800 4.1 Simulation Results

top
600 west The daily thermal FE simulation of the Maputo
east Bridge is performed on typical days in spring (Sept.
400 bottom
15th), summer (Dec. 15th), autumn (Mar. 15th) and
200 winter (Jun. 15th). The transient thermal field of the
steel girder in summer is illustrated in Figure 8 for
0
03:00 06:00 09:00 12:00 15:00 18:00 21:00 00:00 03:00 06:00 instance. Corresponding temperature histories at
Time/hour selecting points are illustrated in Figure 9.
558
During the day, the surfaces exposed to the whereas the interior diaphragm keep a higher
sunlight are rapidly heated while surfaces in the temperature than the ambient air.
shade are close to the ambient temperature; after
the sunset, the outer surfaces of the girder cool
down soon and approach the ambient temperature,
10:00 12:00
14:00 16:00
18:00 20:00
Figure 8. Transient thermal field of the steel girder in a typical summer day (Dec. 15)
T ( x)  0.5 T1 ( x)  T2 ( x) 
70 D A B E
A (12)
B C
60 A: top of asphalt pavement
C B: top of steel girder
where T1(x) and T2(x) denote the temperature
Temperature/oC
D C: bottom of steel girder

D: top-west surface
50 E E: top-east surface distribution along path 1 and path 2 defined in
Ta Ta: ambient temperature
Figure 10.
40
30
path 1 top surface path 2
path 3
20
03:00 06:00 09:00 12:00 15:00 18:00 21:00 00:00 03:00 06:00 bottom surface
Time/hour
Figure 10. Definition of temperature paths
Figure 9. Temperature history at selecting points
The rationality of choosing path 1 and 2 instead of
path 3 (see Figure 10) is, for a flat steel box girder,
4.2 Temperature Effects
the overall deformation and longitudinal stresses
Temperature variation can induce thermal depend on the thermal expansion/contraction of
deformation and stresses. The temperature the outer plates, instead of the interior diaphragm.
distribution along the outer surfaces of the girder
The transient temperature distribution in (12) in
is extracted as:
summer is illustrated in Figure 11. It’s found that: 1)
the top and bottom surfaces have nearly uniform
559
temperature, whereas large temperature gradients top west/east bottom

exit near the top-west/east intersection and 70
west/east-bottom intersection; 2) the 50-mm solid line:

60 14:00
asphalt layer shows an isolation effect that keeps
Temperature/oC
the top surface cooler than the west/east surface 50 dash line:
in the day but warmer at night. 20:00
40 10:00
top west/east bottom
70 30
08:00
60 12:00 20
Temperature/oC
14:00 0 5 10 15 20 25
50 16:00 Distance/m
20:00
40 (a) Influence of the FE modelling details
30 top west/east bottom

100
20 q=-hc(T-Ta)
0 5 10 15 20 25
Distance/m
Temperature/oC
80
hc=10
Figure 11. Temperature distribution of the outer 60 hc=20

surfaces (Dec. 15) hc=30
The temperature distributions of the girder in 40 hc=40

different seasons are illustrated in Figure 12. As
expected, the temperature gradient maximizes in 20
0 5 10 15 20 25
summer when the solar radiation is strongest. Distance/m
top west/east bottom (b) Influence of the film coefficient

70
top west/east bottom

60
summer 80
Temperature/oC
t=0
50 70
autumn
Temperature/oC
60 t=50
40 spring
winter 50 t=75
30
40
t=100
20
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Distance/m
20
0 5 10 15 20 25
Figure 12. Temperature distribution of the outer Distance/m
surfaces in different seasons (at 14:00)
(c) Influence of the pavement thickness
4.3 Parametric Analysis Figure 13. Results of parametric analysis,
Parametric analysis is carried out to further identify temperature distributions (14:00 on Dec 15)
the key parameters that influence the temperature
It’s concluded from the parametric analysis (Figure
distribution of the girder. Three parameters are
13) that:
considered: 1) the modelling details; 2) the film
coefficient hc (see (2)); 3) the thickness of the 1) A simplified FE model without stiffeners and
asphalt pavement. Their influences are shown in holes yields similar temperature distributions to
Figure 13.
560
the detailed model (see Figure 4) but requires less and temperature gradient load (TG). The former
computational costs. results from the seasonal temperature change and
is determined by the local average
2) A smaller film coefficient tends to enlarge the
maximum/minimum temperature; the latter is
temperature effects.
induced by the solar radiation. For a normal steel
3) Asphalt pavement behaves like an isolation layer girder with nearly-vertical webs (see Figure 14), the
that a thinner pavement leads to a larger TG load in bridges codes [8, 9] is derived from a 1D
temperature gradient. heat transfer scheme, i.e., the heat flows from the
top deck through the web plates to the bottom
5 Design Aspects plates. However, this heat transfer scheme doesn’t
apply for the flat steel box girder which has rather
The design thermal load for a bridge can be divided
wide top and bottom plates but no explicit web
into two parts, the uniform temperature load (TU)
plates (see Figure 15).
solar radiation
h1
T1
T1
100
Depth of super-structure
T2 T2
t
h2
T3
A
h3
convection
steel girder
convection
T4 only
100
T3
EuroCode AASHTO
convection
Figure 14. Temperature gradient load for a normal steel girder
solar radiation
T2 T1 T1 T2
convection
Figure 15. Proposed temperature gradient load for the flat steel box girder
Therefore, a novel and simple TG load model for meteorology, the shape and direction of the girder
the flat steel box girder is proposed as shown in and the thickness of the asphalt pavement, etc.
Figure 15, where only the plates exposed to
sunlight are subjected to temperature differences. 6 Conclusions
For the Maputo Bridge with a 50-mm asphalt layer,
the recommended T1 and T2 in Figure 15 are 26oC In this paper, the temperature distribution and
and 32oC, according to the thermal FE simulation effect on the Maputo Bridge is investigated by
for the worst scenario (clear sky in summer). For a thermal FE simulation and parametric analysis. The
flat steel box girder in general, the values for T1 and results are concluded as follows:
T2 should be calibrated according to the local
561
1) The transient temperature field of the bridge solutions for thermal stresses in steel-concrete composite
girder is solved by FE simulation and applied for the bridges. Experimental Mechanics. 1976; 16(5): 168-175.
[8]. CEN. EN-1991-1-5:2003 - Eurocode 1: Actions
bridge design.
on structures - Part 1-5: General actions-Thermal
2) The modelling details are found to have minor actions: European Committee for Standardization; 2003.
influences on the simulation results, whereas a [9]. AASHTO. AASHTO LRFD bridge design
specifications: Washington DC: American Association
smaller film coefficient and thinner asphalt
of State Highway Transportation Officials; 2004.
pavement tend to enlarge the temperature [10]. Bergman T.L. and Incropera F.P. Fundamentals
gradient. of heat and mass transfer. 3rd ed: John Wiley & Sons;
2011.
3) The temperature gradient of the outer plates of
[11]. Duffie J.A. and Beckman W.A. Solar
the flat steel box girder cannot be described by the engineering of thermal processes: John Wiley & Sons;
thermal gradient load in the bridge codes. 2013.
Therefore, a new temperature gradient load is [12]. Diabate L., Remund J., and Wald L. Linke
proposed for the design of the Maputo Bridge turbidity factors for several sites in Africa. Solar Energy.
based on the FE simulation results. 2003; 75(2): 111-119.
[13]. ASHRAE. ASHRAE Handbook —
4) The proposed temperature gradient load can Fundamentals, Chapter 4: Atlanta; 2013.
apply to a general flat steel box girder, as long as
the temperature difference value be calibrated
according to the design factors like the local
meteorology, thickness of the asphalt pavement,
etc.
7 Acknowledgement
The authors appreciate the financial support of the
National Natural Science Foundation of China (No.
51478245)
8 References
[1]. Branco F.A., Mendes P., and Mirambell E. Heat
of hydration effects in concrete structures. Materials
Journal. 1992; 89(2): 139-145.
[2]. Tong M., Tham L.G., Au F.T.K., and Lee
P.K.K. Numerical modelling for temperature distribution
in steel bridges. Computers & Structures. 2001; 79(6):
583-593.
[3]. Mirza O., Kaewunruen S., Dinh C., and
Pervanic E. Numerical investigation into thermal load
responses of railway transom bridge. Engineering
Failure Analysis. 2016; 60(Supplement C): 280-295.
[4]. Kim S., Park S., Wu J., and Won J. Temperature
variation in steel box girders of cable-stayed bridges
during construction. Journal of Constructional Steel
Research. 2015; 112(Supplement C): 80-92.
[5]. Kim S.H., Cho K.I., Won J.H., and Kim J.H. A
study on thermal behaviour of curved steel box girder
bridges considering solar radiation. Archives of Civil and
Mechanical Engineering. 2009; 9(3): 59-76.
[6]. Fu H.C., Ng S.F., and Cheung M.S. Thermal
Behavior of Composite Bridges. Journal of Structural
Engineering. 1990; 116(12): 3302-3323.
[7]. Berwanger C. and Symko Y. Finite-element
562
Construction and Engineering of the Iconic West Kowloon Station

Roof in Hong Kong
Dr Alecs K. T. Chong Mike Tapley
Project Technical Lead Technical Director
Aurecon, Hong Kong Aurecon, Hong Kong
Mathieu Bessodes C.C. Hau
Engineering Manager Principal Project Director
Leighton-Gammon Joint-Venture, Hong Kong Leighton-Gammon Joint-Venture, Hong Kong
Contacts: Alecs.Chong@aurecongroup.com, Mathieu.Bessodes@gammonconstruction.com
Abstract
The West Kowloon Station North is the largest civil contract awarded for the Hong Kong Section of
the Guangzhou-Shenzhen-Hong Kong Express Rail Link. Located in the heart of Kowloon, the Station
will serve as Hong Kong’s international gateway to China. This paper focuses on the iconic station
entrance building roof structure construction and the solutions adopted to tackle the complex
construction and engineering challenges, to achieve timely construction programme and to deliver
successfully the architect vision of this new landmark infrastructure.
Keywords: erection phase analysis; long span roof; steel construction; temporary works; nonlinear
staged analysis; high speed rail; West Kowloon Station; underground railway station.
1 Introduction landscape and a vast surface of glass allowing

daylight to penetrate into the basement levels.
The construction of the West Kowloon Station is a MTR Corporation appointed Aecom Aedas Joint
mega infrastructure project located in the heart of Venture (AAJV) as the lead architect and engineer,
Kowloon, Hong Kong. The complexity and size of and Leighton-Gammon Joint Venture (LGJV) as the
the project are comparable to building a world main contractor. AAJV appointed Buro Happold to
class international airport four-levels underground, design the permanent roof. LGJV employed
around 30m deep within a dense urban area. The steelwork specialist, Alfasi, with the support from
Station site covers 11-hectares of land and includes Aurecon, the temporary tower designer and
15 arrival and departure track to serve both short erection engineer for the roof construction. All
and long-haul trips to Mainland Chinese cities. The parties collaborated closely in tackling every
Station is a modern day icon with its unique Station challenge that arose during the creation of this
Entrance Building covered by public space, landmark infrastructure.
Figure 1. West Kowloon Station – Station Entrance Building
563
2 The Roof Structure

A key element of the project is the dramatic roof
structure above the station entrance building with
its irregular and three-dimensional curved
geometry. The roof is made of up to 8,000 tonnes
of structural steel providing an area for public use
and green landscaping. The design is a steel-
concrete composite structure consisting of multi-
span steel trusses, 175m long, covered by concrete
deck and supported by tall, slender and inclined
mega-columns. An artist’s impression of the
Station entrance hall is shown in Figure 2.
Figure 3. Key load bearing structures

Spanning between the three V-trusses (designated
Figure 2. Artist’s impression of the Station interior P2, P3 and P4) are the articulated steel secondary
members to support the tertiary fins steelwork,
The roof mega-columns are mainly inclined which are covered with aluminium cladding and
towards the south direction and this particular glazing, forming the final wavy shape and finish of
aspect introduced engineering challenges in the the Station roof.
form of stability and horizontal movements during
the roof construction. The mega-columns, up to At the north end, the V-trusses are supported by
45m high, are founded on the stepping basement the concrete superstructure and connected by a
substructure at B3, B2, B1 and G/F levels to support series of planar composite steel trusses. Concrete
three number of 12m wide and 6m deep steel V- slabs are cast on top of the V-trusses and north
shape trusses running from north to south planar trusses with composite action achieved via
following the smooth curve of the roof. The V- embedded shear studs. The concrete decks are
trusses are the primary element of the roof covered with landscape and walkways forming part
structure, made of hot-rolled circular hollow of the green public space.
section members, with two top chords and one
bottom chord. 3 Planning & Engineering
There are two stability systems linking the three The project scale, complex design, interfaces, and
primary V-trusses i.e. the Central Stability System tight construction programme posed many
(CSS) and the South Stability System (SSS). The CSS challenges which have all been successfully
is a rigid frame structure which coupled with the overcome by the team with meticulous planning,
adjacent concrete structures (P1 and Eastern Arch) comprehensive studies, analysis and peer reviews
provides overall lateral stability to the roof to provide effective solutions but above all ensure
structure. The SSS provides lateral stability in the structural safety at every step of the construction.
east-west direction only.
564
Figure 4. Bird-eye view of the West Kowloon Station construction site

3.1 Concurrent Construction of Roof and 3.2 Typhoon Affected Zone
Basement Structures Hong Kong is located in the Asia Pacific typhoon
One of the major project challenges was to plan zone. Gust wind speeds of the highest category of
and implement a construction sequence and typhoon can reach over 250km/h. It is a common
method that enables concurrent construction of practice to design a structure in its permanent state
the superstructure and the basement substructure. to resist the extreme typhoon wind load. However,
This led to an earlier start of the roof construction temporary construction stages of long span and
for achieving the programme completion dates. slender structures are often sensitive to strong
Extensive temporary works comprising lateral typhoon wind loading. The erection phase analysis
supports for the basement excavation, stanchions revealed that wind loads were critical at some
for top-down construction, temporary towers and particular construction stages. The high wind loads
working platforms were required to achieve this were taken into account by adopting the following
objective. The erection of the roof structure measures:
successfully commenced prior to the completion of a) A wind management plan consisting of
the excavation and construction of the basement. monitoring forecast of wind speeds, typhoon
For this reason, the overall construction scheme signals, and the subsequent implementation of
innovatively deviates from traditional practice erection procedures. Based on continual
usually completing the substructure prior to monitoring and assessment of possibility of
commencement of the superstructure works. occurrence, reduced working wind speeds were
adopted for wind sensitive construction stages that
last only for a short duration. This helps to
effectively reduce the design forces resulting from
these critical transient load cases and to reduce the
amount of temporary works.
b) A site-specific wind pressure considering the
construction site location and the effects from its
surrounding environment was calculated based on
a 5-year return period and the 33m altitude
corresponding to the roof height. This wind
pressure of 1.03kPa is almost 40% lower than the
Figure 5. Cross-section of the station wind pressure given from the Hong Kong wind code
565
of practice after applying a 0.7 reduction factor for reduction of the roof loads assumed for the design
temporary structures. of the temporary supports, hence reducing the
Appropriate drag factors were adopted and further amount of required temporary steelwork. The
wind studies were also carried out to identify the challenges associated with this scheme include the
susceptible adverse wind conditions for the accurate quantification of the load transferred
partially clad roof structure and temporary from the temporary support to the permanent
openings. structures, estimation of the roof structural
movements, computation of locked-in stresses in
3.3 Irregular Roof Geometry and Inclined
structural members and connections to prevent
Mega-Columns overstressing and the need of strengthening, last
The irregular three dimensionally curved geometry but not least, ensuring that the temporary supports
of the roof and the significant inclination of the could be removed safely.
mega-columns introduced relatively large
horizontal movements to the roof and further 4 Engineering-Led Solutions
effort to ensure that all prefabricated steel
Given the complexity and the intricate nature of
components fit correctly when bolted or welded
the project, the planning and coordination of the
together on site. The difficulty arose from the
construction of the Station roof required
gradual movements progressively building up
collaborative effort and engineering-led solutions.
during construction as the roof gravity loads
Advanced computational methods including
supported by the inclined mega-columns
erection phase analysis and state-of-the-art digital
progressively increased. Advanced staged analysis
technologies were employed throughout the
was required to estimate the roof structure
design and construction phase. The innovative use
movements and deflections at every step of the
of these advanced engineering and technology
construction. Three-dimensional pre-camber was
tools has contributed significantly to achieving the
adopted accordingly to ensure that the as-built
strict requirements of the roof complex geometry
roof geometry was achieved within the specified
whilst ensuring smooth and safe erection for every
tolerances to maintain the integrity of the design
construction stage, with adequate consideration
analysis and for the smooth installation of
for locked-in stresses associated with the
external/internal cladding and glazing systems
construction methods.
onto the roof structure.
Roof horizontal drift towards south 4.1 The Roof Erection Phase Analysis
The roof erection phase analysis (REPA) played an
important role in the planning and coordination of
the construction of the Station roof. Early stage
preliminary computational analysis indicated that
the roof would drift under gravity loads alone. With
the roof structure being geometrically irregular,
Second order moment from out of plumb of columns - Pδ transient internal forces induced during erection
Figure 6. Drift due to inclined columns could govern the final design over the permanent
loading conditions. The objective of REPA was to
3.4 Early De-propping of Permanent Works tackle these challenges through the use of
advanced staged analysis method. A number of
In order to minimise temporary works materials REPA iterations was carried out prior to the
and resources, primary stabilising structures e.g. finalisation of the most effective erection scheme.
mega-columns, CSS and SSS were prioritised and The advanced structural analysis program, Strand7,
partially de-propped at an interim stage of was used to perform REPA. Fully nonlinear
construction. The loads transferred from the geometric analysis was carried out to assess the
temporary supports to the partially completed but
effective permanent works enabled substantial
566
accumulative effects on the slender and irregular structure. The 3-second gust wind speeds at a
roof due to the selected erection sequence. height of 33m above ground were derived for a
nominated number of return periods considering
the short-lived construction phase.
The roof in its temporary condition is an exposed
steel structure. For the 175m long roof with rigidly
connected components, temperature variation
could give rise to significant internal forces in the
steel members. The thermal effect was covered in
the sequential analysis of each erection stage.
Imposed ground movements induced at various
Figure 7. Nonlinear REPA model of the roof stages of basement excavation were derived using
Sensitivity studies were also performed with PLAXIS ground excavation analyses. These
various parameters at different stages of movements were combined with varying roof
construction to analyse the interactions between support stiffness as construction progressed and
the sub- and super-structures. These sensitivity included in the REPA studies. Several REPA
REPA studies successfully helped to develop the sensitivity studies, together with meticulous
effective erection schemes and ascertain the planning, enabled the construction engineering
design parameters and modelling methods team to validate the appropriate design
simulating most accurately the boundary parameters and measure the effects from various
conditions, properties, erection sequence and inputs to the roof transient forces and reactions,
construction methods. movements and locked-in stresses. It has enabled
the team to successfully reduce the amount of
strengthening, determine accurate pre-camber
values and confirm the feasibility of the selected
scheme of erection.
4.2 Solutions through Effective Sequencing

The Station roof was erected by means of
incremental joining of the pre-fabricated steelwork
segments on site. The length of the V-trusses
extended incrementally on assembly platforms as
new segments were added. The completion of the
Figure 8. Permanent and temporary structures V-truss spans assembly was followed by the
installation of the north truss zone and secondary
The locked-in stresses computed from REPA were members. The top concrete deck slabs of the
mapped and superimposed onto the permanent composite trusses were then cast in-situ onto a
roof analysis model and checked by the permanent metal decking. The construction engineering team
roof design engineer to ensure that cumulative undertook a number of studies to refine the
locked-in effect would not impact the in-service erection sequence in order to shorten construction
performance of the roof structure. time and develop an economical solution. The
erection sequence was devised to effectively utilise
4.1.1 Typhoon, temperature and ground parts of the permanent works as soon as they
movements become stable and effective. The stiffness of the
To adequately assess the typhoon wind load while CSS stability system, which was erected at an early
taking account of the probable occurrence for the stage provided lateral load resisting system for the
period of construction, a wind loading study was incrementally erected V-trusses. The biggest
carried out specifically for the site location and roof advantage of this sequencing is that all transient
567
wind loading would be transferred from the props from the temporary works were completely
partially erected V-trusses directly into CSS and removed.
then to the foundation. Figure 9 illustrates the
The temporary towers were designed to be
concept of erection sequence of the V-trusses.
sufficiently stiff to provide lateral support to the
permanent structure. During construction, the
temporary towers behaved compositely with the
partially completed roof in load sharing. A change
CSS CSS in the erection sequence would change the load
path and the subsequent load transfer into the
temporary towers. Consequently, the planning of
the erection scheme had to be undertaken
CSS CSS collaboratively with the design of the temporary
towers in order to achieve an effective and
economical solution.
CSS CSS
Figure 9. Erection sequence of the roof

REPA successfully demonstrated that, under such
erection sequence, the partially erected roof
structure were able to resist the transient typhoon
wind loading and avoided further strengthening or
extra temporary supporting structures. It was also
demonstrated that a number of props of the
temporary supporting towers could be removed
Figure 11. One of the temporary towers on site
safely at early stages.
4.3 Temporary Works Design 5 Construction with Innovative

The overall south-inclining characteristic of the
Technology
mega-columns would induce out-of-balance lateral
5.1 3D Modelling & Detailed Design
actions during construction. Temporary supporting
towers were used to erect and support the mega- Full BIM had been implemented on the project as
columns. part of the contractual requirement. All structures,
facades, E&M and temporary works were modelled
in 3D and coordinated between several sub-
contractors and consultants via regular workshops.
Steel detailing and fabrication drawings were
prepared using Tekla software with collaboration
between several design offices around the globe.
The 3D modelling enabled the team to identify and
resolve numerous clashes, fabrication or
installation issues beforehand, ensuring smooth
operation and high productivity during the
Figure 10. Analysis models of temporary towers fabrication and installation of the steelwork.
When the permanent roof structural steel
elements, namely the V-trusses, stability systems
and secondary members, have been installed, the
mega-columns then became stable and the lateral
568
5.3 Steelwork Erection

Three tailor-made tower cranes of up to 60 tonnes
lifting capacity at 30m radius were used for the
erection. Oversized parts were transported at night
from a barging point to the site using multi-axles
trailers. Mega-column erection was completed
within tight 3mm tolerance of the welded joint fit-
up. Temporary supports systems with mechanical
Figure 12. Isometric views of column heads screw jacks provided adjustments for accurate
levelling. Special jacking stools were designed as
5.2 Steelwork Fabrication free sliding supports for levelling during erection,
The roof steelwork was fabricated in China and monitoring of the loads at various stage of
Thailand and delivered to Hong Kong by barge in construction and to control the incremental de-
modular components weighing up to 55 tonnes. propping of all V-truss spans simultaneously.
Extensive examination and testing of all raw steel
& bolt materials was carried out by independent
experts to control material quality and mechanical
properties. Hot-rolled sections and steel plates up
to 150mm thick of S355 Z50 grade have been used
with 8.8 and 10.9 grade bolts from UK and Japan.
Automatic and semi-automatic welding by CO2 (gas
shield) arc welding was employed.
Pre-assembly were completed to ensure smooth Figure 14. Temporary supports and jacking stools
installation on site and templates were used to Secondary members connected by pin joints
match-connect parts fabricated in different varying from 80 to 120mm diameter were bored on
factories. Bolted end-plate connections with site at one end to match actual distance between
nominal shims provided the necessary adjustment. V-trusses and meet the +/-3mm tolerance
Site preparation of bevel welds also provided requirements for installation.
adjustment at welded joints. The steel was grit
blasted to SA2.5 and painted with an organic epoxy
zinc rich primer, micaceous iron oxide (MIO) and
polyurethane top coat totalling 320μm minimum
dry film thickness. Intumescent paint and fireboard
protection were applied and installed onto the
completed steelwork assembly on site.
Figure 15. Roof steelwork after de-propping

Planar trusses were connected with splice plates
drilled on site to fit. Metal decking was installed as
permanent formwork for pouring of the in-situ
concrete deck of thickness varying between 250
and 350mm. As such, concrete could be poured
onto the composite V-trusses and north planar
Figure 13. Column head pre-assembly trusses without any temporary propping. In
addition, permanent steel formwork was used to
form the inclined cantilever parapets.
569
5.4 Geometry Control 6 Conclusions

Modern survey techniques have been employed in Creating the architect’s vision of the West Kowloon
particular for the roof structure construction. 3D Station has posed many engineering and
scanning of fabricated elements were construction challenges which have all been
implemented at the fabrication yard to achieve +/- successfully overcome after years of fastidious
3mm survey accuracy and complex dimensional efforts and intensive collaboration of individuals
checks of splice joints without gross error. Point from all over the world forming a highly effective
cloud and vertex were processed in comparison project team. Team spirit, strong expertise and
with the 3D design model. great focus brought the Station to life with the
target opening on track for the 3rd quarter of 2018.
More than twenty million man-hours of work have
been completed safely as a result of strong
leadership, commitment and constant emphasis on
safety. The West Kowloon Station will become an
iconic and long lasting legacy for Hong Kong.
Figure 16. V-truss 3D scan and geometry control

Oblique aerial photogrammetry using unmanned
aerial vehicle (UAV) was also employed for initial
reading of the roof movements monitoring during
construction. Aerial photos were captured for the
whole steel roof top surface, and close range
photos for the monitoring points. The data was
then processed to generate 3D mesh model. More Figure 18. South facade near completion
than 82 reference point coordinates were
extracted to compare deflections and movements 7 Acknowledgements
against design data.
Given the scale and complexity of the project,
many people contributed significantly on various
aspects, however, the list is far too long to be
mentioned here in full. Special thanks to Simon
Tang, Charles Lau and Calum Smith from the MTR
Corporation who permitted the publication of this
paper. Other key contributors, in alphabetical
order, include Adrian Clamp, Ben Coxon, Bill Leung,
Ciaran O’Boyle, Conrad Coombe, Dan Allison, Dean
Spaleta, John Campbell, Kourosh Kayvani, KW Lee,
Lee Smollett, Lewis Liu, Martin Ormerod, Martin
Webster, Michelle Wong, Nick Sero, Peter Skelly,
Peter WongSo, Ross Grayson, Russ McNeill, Scott
Figure 17. Entrance hall near completion Smith, Wes Jones, YP Tan.
570
5 Martin Place Sydney

John Webb
Aurecon, Hong Kong
Tony Lavorato
Aurecon, Sydney, Australia
Contact: John.Webb@aurecongroup.com
Abstract
The 5 Martin Place development transformed a 1916 heritage building in Sydney’s CBD into an iconic
20-level premium grade office building. Development constraints prohibited any modification of
heritage building, structure and any extra permanent loading on the heritage structures. This posed
what was considered to be an impossible challenge through being either ‘unbuildable’ or ‘un-
fundable’. An innovative architectural design and believed world-first structural solution unlocked
the site’s potential. To use all available development area, the proposal was to cantilever 10-levels
of tower 22 metres over the heritage building. The outcome exceeded expectations and created
benchmarks for design and construction methodology that could be adopted for much taller
buildings.
Keywords: Cantilever; composite construction; transfer structure; structural analysis; heritage
buildings; structural aesthetics; steel structure.
1 Introduction
Completed in 2015, 5 Martin Place is a 20 level
Premium Grade building comprising the
redevelopment of existing heritage buildings and
an extended new development. The development
repositions the existing property through a major
reconfiguration of the existing 'heritage'
component, the construction of an additional nine
levels of premium office accommodation and the
restoration of the historic Rowe Street laneway.
The building provides approximately 33,860sqm
of NLA. Floor plates from the ground level to level
10 provide approx. 2,400sqm, while new levels 11
to 20 each provide approx. 1,090sqm.
Figure 1. View of completed development
571
2 Heritage, Existing Buildings and 2.1 Architectural response to the project

Site Constraints brief
The original Money Box Building was constructed The architectural solution was to demolish the
in 1916, with an extension to the rear in 1933 and 1968 building and construct a new 20-level
a ‘modern’ addition to the east in 1968. building. To make use of all available area and
maintain project viability it was proposed to
The planning guidelines for the site was such that, cantilever nearly half of the building from Level 11
in theory, it was able to accommodate additional to Level 20, 22 meters over the 1916 and 1933
floor space. A redevelopment proposal was building, thus complying with the planning
drafted that needed to overcome many other constraints of not loading the existing heritage
planning and site restrictions. The main and most structure and at the same time allowing light to
challenging criteria was that the structure to the enter the recreated ‘original’ Banking Atrium
existing heritage buildings could not be altered space.
due to the high value of the heritage fabric of
some of the rooms within the 1916 and 1933
buildings. Therefore, the floor space ratio could
not be fully utilised due to the inability to
strengthen the existing structure.
Figure 3. New building allows light to enter the

recreated atrium
Figure 2. Original 1916 Commonwealth Bank 2.2. Engineering Challenges

Building
The main challenges of the project included:
572
 No demolition/modification of heritage building building is suspended from 2 tension nodes at the

sections L20 and transferred through diagonal composite
 No extra permanent loading on heritage concrete filled tubes to compression nodes at L11.
structures On the south face a compression node was cast
into the core at L14.
 Connection of a heritage building to a new
building which would allow for temporary The western face is supported by another V-
movement between the buildings yet still shaped truss. On the eastern face, there is a
provide final permanent connection further ‘V’ to assist with the torsional stiffness of
 Construction of a 10-level 22m cantilever over a the building. A smaller 3-storey ‘V’ picks up the
heritage building columns on the internal grid onto another
compression node at L11.
 No imposed loads on the Eastern Suburbs rail
tunnel under the site.
3 Engineering Design Response

Using advanced analytical techniques, Aurecon
demonstrated that a cantilever solution with a
simplified V-shaped bracing on four sides of the
tower would be the best engineering solution for
this project, delivering the aspirations of the
cantilever building. It had been shown that this
solution could not only enable the client to
achieve their goal of being able to construct a
tower that did not deflect beyond the industry-
accepted criteria but also did not compromise any
site constraints.
Figure 5. Tension Node L20
Figure 4. View cantilever structure with Heritage

building faded in front
4 Scheme Description
The most striking part of the structure is the two
V-shaped diagonals on the north and south faces
of the building which pick up the cantilevered west
edge of the structure. On the north side, there is a
pure V, but on the south side this is broken by the Figure 6. Compression Node L14
concrete service core. The western edge of the
573
Figure 7. (Left) Northeast and (Right) Northwest views of Structure

This design solution is a world-first that is directly removal of ‘surplus’ columns and braces.
responsive to a specific challenge. No benchmark Developing a unique structural design based
design was available to use as a comparison. on elegantly simple major V-shaped bracing
for the sides of the cantilever tower produced
The elegance of the design solution went well
a highly effective and efficient design:
beyond the contribution of the structure to
aesthetics. The choice of construction materials  The framing for the façade of the building
also responded to the constraints and the most was dramatically simplified with a
effective use of materials in this unusual significant reduction in the number of
application. pieces of steel that had to be erected.
In an earlier design for the building, there were 9  A saving of approximately 450 tonnes of
levels of bracing in the 6-bay wide structure, giving steel over the whole building.
a total of 54 bracing elements. Each brace was  A reduction of 10 weeks in the construction
made of a solid steel section and had around 70 programme through having less steel to
friction grip bolts at each end. This posed a erect and less bolts to tighten.
number of disadvantages:
Steel was the most obvious choice of framing for
 There were far too many sections to erect. this building. It is lightweight, and when well
 The relatively flat angle of the braces made the designed, avoids the need for formwork and
forces higher. falsework. On this project we were not able to
permanently support the full construction of the
 While offering many benefits, steel is not the
new area on the existing building below. It was
most cost-effective way to resist compression
possible to temporarily support the construction
forces.
of the light weight frame before the pouring of the
From an assessment of this design, it was concrete floors. This allowed the forming of the V-
apparent that significant benefits could be shaped cantilever with the tie at roof level prior to
realised by simplifying the framing through de-propping the structure.
574
Steel has a few limitations. It is much more This scheme is therefore an extremely economical
expensive than concrete to support the same load way of resisting these unusual loads. This scheme
in compression and it is expensive and time delivered on construction time, cost and overall
consuming to splice in tension on site. simplicity.
Compression splicing can also be problematic.
In this design, the compression elements are steel 5 Aesthetic sensitivity
tubes filled with concrete with splices only The Aurecon structural solution was integral to
occurring on every second floor. This construction the success of the project from an aesthetic
has all the quick erection advantages of steel with consideration.
the economy of concrete.
Richard Johnson – Director and Principal
The horizontal tension elements are post- Architect – Johnson Pilton Walker
tensioned concrete beams formed using steel
construction. The main tension connections are at “It’s probably the most complex building and most
the corner nodes. Very few connections are bolted diverse range of skills and knowledges of finishes
and these do not require large numbers of bolts, and services and structure that we’ve come across
minimising erection time. Post tensioning strand is and the beauty of it all is at the end of the day it
the cheapest way to resist tension forces. The seems seamless. It doesn’t look like it’s over
movement produced when the structure is post- engineered, it doesn’t look like it’s trying to be too
tensioned also pre-cambers the structure against smart - it’s just calmly, confidently excellent.
the movements that occur when it is fully loaded. “The way the steel members shafted through
The long lengths in the columns and inclined several floors on the diagonal so the whole
building itself became the structure not just
elements minimise the number of elements to be components, slabs and beams but the whole,
lifted, reducing crane time. everything was working together super-efficient
structure - very, very innovative.”
Figure 8: The compression nodes at L11 form an integral part of the aesthetics of the space
575
factors for the types of structures considered most

6 Building Movement appropriate for this project. This information was
then used to quantify the age-adjusted Young’s
modulus of various concrete structural elements
at chronological milestones of the project such as
de-propping, façade installation, lift installation,
handover, and movement joint lockup toward the
end of the building service life.
On 9 November 2014, the tower was successfully
de-propped. The global movement recorded at
the end of the de-propping operation was 34mm,
within 3% of the range predicted by the Aurecon
structural team.
7 Typical Floors
The steel framed floor design is shown in Figure
10. The design was fairly conventional but the long
spans meant that the dynamics of the floor
needed careful consideration.
A new analysis and design technique that was
developed concerned the assessment and
adjustment of the floor dynamics given the unique
nature of the cantilever structure.
Typical floors (L12-L19) of this structure consist of
secondary composite steel beams spanning 14m
supported on (generally) continuous primary
beams (twin beams), spanning up to 15 m. The
dynamic performance of the resultant 15 m x15 m
panel of floor structure was carefully analysed.
Analysis of the whole floor was undertaken using
the FE Program Strand7, to provide the best
estimate of the performance in two-dimension
Figure 9. The Building Movement (2D) not merely effects that would be calculated
using linear elements. The slab, beams and
columns were all included in the analysis.
The challenge was to predict long-term global
movement of the tower structure to an acceptable Although the results were close to the acceptable
level of accuracy of +/-20%. This crucial criteria for office floors, the client was concerned
information was then to be used in pre-setting the that in reality, the criteria might be exceeded
design of the tower steel framing so that once the given the unprecedented nature of the 15x15 m
tower was de-propped, it would deflect no more grid floor panel. The depth of the structure limited
than 25mm relative to the South core over 30 the opportunities for increasing stiffness but cross
years. beams were added in the mid-span of the main
panels to engage more mass and reduce the
By undertaking thorough research on available
dynamic acceleration response.
references on long-term movement performance
of reinforced concrete, pre-stressed concrete and A level of continuity was also provided to the
composite structures, the Aurecon team was able shorter end spans to stiffen the secondaries for
to develop a unique set of shrinkage and creep vibration purposes.
576
Figure 10. Typical Floor

propped by the existing structure utilizing the
8 Sustainability existing capacity with the load transferred by
The building features a high level of jacks, in a de-propping following the completion of
environmental credentials, targeting a minimum 5 the new structure and façade.
Star Green Star office design rating as well as a 5.0-
star NABERS Energy and Water ratings. Provisions 9.2. Harmonising New and Old
for tri-generation, rainwater harvesting, a high In this example of heritage-led urban renewal, the
environmental performance glazing system, and ground plane has been re-activated, and
tenant end-of-trip facilities (bicycle storage, significant heritage spaces and building fabric
shower and lockers) are also included. restored. The light well was reformed as an atrium
to provide natural illumination to the Banking
9 Conclusions Chamber and the middle of the large floor plates.
The design of this building has allowed significant A dated, unprofitable but valuable heritage asset
floor space to be added while leaving the base has been transformed into a viable tall building.
undisturbed. The building adds to Martin Place’s
long-standing cultural and commercial weight. 9.3. The Future of Aesthetic Design
The ‘smarts’ of 5 Martin Place’s structural solution This building is an excellent example of the
are largely hidden. However, what lies behind this presentation of an exposed structure. The
sympathetic addition to an existing building is a diagonal structure is exposed and can be seen
world-first structural solution. clearly from the street providing “structural
honesty” in the presentation of the building. The
9.1. Engineering Innovations exposure of the elegant nodes within the space is
The concept and the constraints demanded and seen as a special feature. Developing the details to
set the framework for innovative structural provide the aesthetic quality is a particular skill, all
solutions. During construction, the cantilever was too often ignored in the fast paced, low-cost
environment of many modern projects.
577
Figure 11. The east face of the building, showing the torsional bracing
10 References
[1] Terrey PJ., Bradford MA., Gilbert RI. Creep
and Shrinkage of Concrete in Concrete-
Filled Circular Steel Tubes. In: Grundy P.,
Holgate A., Wong B., editors. Tubular
structures VI: proceedings sixth
International Symposium on Tubular
Structures; 1994 Dec 14-16; Melbourne,
Australia. Rotterdam: A.A. Balkema, 1994.
Figure 12. 5 Martin Place at night
578
The new large space frame - TAMA-SUDARE

Tatsuya Yamada
Takenaka Corp. Osaka Head Office, Design Department.
Contact: yamada.tatsuya@takenaka.co.jp
Abstract
The frame that we propose consists only of thin bars (main members), tension rods and pin joints,
just like the sticks, threads and knots of Tama-Sudare, a tool used for traditional Japanese
performance. They complement one another and thus forms a huge space.
Flexible frames composed of small members vary subtly in shape and density according to the
surrounding environment.
Moreover, single fames made of repetitions of several types of members facilitate construction
and transportation.
The roof structure of this stadium is composed of what we call Tama-Sudare Frames.
A Tama-Sudare Frame is a system that can attain a flexible configuration by combining a flexural
member (main member), a tension member (tension rod) and a pin joint connecting them.
Keywords:
TAMA-SUDARE ; Lightweight Structures ; Deployable and Retractable Structures ;
Temporary Structures ;
Figure 1. Exterior perspective(1)
579
1 Introduction 2 Concept
We propose the new system which is composed of
As a proposition of a new space-structure, we
small members combined ingeniously as we can
show a new structural system inspired by "Tama-
see in traditional wooden buildings in Japan
sudare", the traditional performance in Japan
(Figure 3).The system we propose consists only of
(Figure 2). The system we propose can create
"sticks" (thin bars), "threads" (tension rods) and
structures of various scales. We applied this
"knots" (pin joints) just like "Tama-Sudare" (Figure
structural system to propose a new stadium never
4).Each member, even though which is not so
seen before (Figure 1).
tough, support mutually to keep stability in the
system, and then they can form the large
structure (Figure 5).Because of flexibility made by
the smallness of each member, the system can
create various shapes and density.Moreover,
thanks to the simplicity of the structure composed
by a few kinds of repeated members, it is easy to
transport these members and construct the
structure.From these viewpoints of traditional
wooden buildings, we design the new stadium
which has both strength an beauty.
Figure 2. Nankin-Tama-Sudare
Banboo →Main Member
String →Tension Rod
Knot →Pin Joint
Figure 4. TAMA-SUDARE SYSTEM
Overlap each other Individuals

Individuals Mutually
Mutuallysupporting
supporting
Figure 3. Japanese traditional architecture Figure 5. Supporting one another
580
Figure 6. Structure Model (interior)

2.1 STRUCTUALFEATURES
The roof structure of this stadium is composed of
what we call Tama-Sudare Frames. (Figure6)
A Tama-Sudare Frame is a system that can attain a
flexible configuration by combining a flexural
member (main member), a tension member
(tension rod) and a pin joint connecting them.
On the other hand, Tama-Sudare Frames have the
following advantages:
Tama-Sudare Frame Conventional Frame
(1) Smaller members connected with tension rods
eliminate the need for rigid joints. (Figure7) Figure 7. TAMA-SUDARE Frame
Flexible adjustments of angles and tension
Light Members Heavy Members
member lengths achieve shapes in harmony with
the surrounding environments. With this system,
a structure can be constructed by a combination Shift the Center of Gravity
of ready-made members, which means that a
large space can be created at low unit prices of Tension Ring
members. This system is also extremely excellent
in transportability. H
T1
G
(2) A cantilever structure has large stress at the □Eq uilib rium of Forces W
column bases, with a section increasing in Vertical W = RV T2
dimensions from the top to the base. On the other Horizontal T1 + T2 = RH V1
hand, a Tama-Sudare Frame system allows use of M om ent T1V1 + T2V2 = WH
V2
pin joints at the column bases placed inwards with T1 ,T：2 Tension Ring Effects
the center of gravity on the outside, provided with RH
tension rings for balance. This system reduces
deformation and stress and achieves smaller- RV
section members. (Figure8) Figure 8. Equilibrium of Forces
581
(3) Another advantage of the Tama-Sudare Frame 2.2 TAMA-SUDARE SYSTEM

system is the stability which can be secured by
A Tama-Sudare Frame is composed of members
crossing the frames with each other, letting them
ranging in size from a 1000 mm square to a 300
support each other and producing a stereoscopic
mm square which vary according to the stress
effect. (Figure9)
distributions against the dead, live, wind and snow
loads.
A Tama-Sudare Frame can repeat a stress status,
similar to that of a curved frame, only with
straight members having pin joints. The individual
main members show simple stress statuses similar
to those of a two-point supported, both-end
overhanging beam. (Figure10)
Tension rods always keep tensile stress even when
blow-up wind load is applied, thus keeping the
stability of the structure.
Two-tier tension-rings installed all along the
Tama-Sudare Frame Tension Ring outermost circumference keep the whole frame
Figure 9. Tama-Sudare-Frame from swelling in a horizontal direction,
consequently bringing out an effect of reducing
the whole stress and deformation. (Figure11)
Figure 10. Bending-Moment Figure 11. Structure Model (detail)
582
Figure 12. The effect of Lattice-Shaped-Frame
2.3 RECIPROCAL STRUCTURE within the area of the fork end for simplification
Rotating double-layer Tama-Sudare Frames by 15 of the joint.
degrees axisymmetrically causes the Tama-Sudare On the other hand, another gusset plate at the
Frames to overlap the adjacent ones, connection to the tension rod is installed on the
consequently forming a lattice plane of structure. inside of a steel tube of the upper main member
Such a lattice plane of structure has high rigidity so as to make the fork end less visible. (Figure13)
and load bearing capacity against in-plane loading While the angles of the joints are slightly different
because of the in-plane triangle-shaped truss from one another in a configuration which varies
mechanism. according to the response to the surrounding
If horizontal force such as seismic load and wind environment, all the joints can be composed of
load is applied, such load will be reallocated similar members.
throughout the frame by the action of the truss
mechanism of the lattice plane as described above
and the horizontal force transmitting function of
tension rings. (Figure12)
Thus a Tama-Sudare Frame has a mutually-
supporting system throughout it to withstand the
horizontal force in any direction.
2.4 DETAIL
A combination of a gusset plate and a cast steel
fork end is used at the joint between main
members, where they are pin-jointed to each Figure 13. Detail
other. A tension ring joint plate is also placed
583
Figure 14. Exterior perspective(2)
Figure 15. Layout and Elevation Figure 16. Section
2.5 FEATURES OF STADIUM

This framing system is flexible like a huge tree,
with a combination of members smaller than the wind. The roofing materials are applied in an
surrounding trees to alleviate a feeling of imbricate pattern on the inner frames, which
oppression from the surroundings. (Figure14)The allows the wind to pass through gaps while letting
entire system made of the frames varying in the rainwater fall down on the surface.
density, widely spaced in some areas and tightly (Figure15)The framing structure independent of
spaced in some others, has achieved a the spectators' seats will be available if the seats
configuration according to the surrounding are decreased in the future. (Figure16) The
environment, such as circulation patterns and stadium will be a primitive stadium like a leafy
lines of vision of people, and the flows of light and shade surrounded by numerous trees.
584
2.6 ELEMENTS
A Tama-Sudare Frame is a simple frame consisting
of only three types of members. (Figure17)
① Several types of square steel pipes of the
dimensions 1000mm by 1000mm by 50mm in
thickness each, or smaller, which are reasonably-
priced and easy for general manufacturers and
foundries to deal with, will be used for main
members.
The longest member will be 12 meters for easier
transportation.
② For tension rods, solid steel products will be
used, all of which have the same section with a
diameter of 150mm.
A flexible configuration can be achieved by varying Figure 17. Elements
their lengths.
③ Simple pin joints will be applied to all the joints.
Though cast steel will be used for pin joints, only
three types of profiles will be used, which can ④ Lift up
keep the unit prices low.
2.7 CONSTRUCTION ①
Pin Joint ②Slide
① Install simple pin joints on the ground. ③
Tension Rod
② Slide the field-assembled frame and crane it up
gradually. Safety Work
③ Install tension rods on the ground, and fasten
the frame gradually from the top.
④ While lifting the frame gradually, repeat
installation of pin joints and tension rods.
⑤ One plane of frame structure will be completed
per day. (Figure18)
2.8 VERSATILITY
A Tama-Sudare Frame system of this stadium is
available for a variety of scales by changing the
quantity and lengths of members, section and 1day Finish
material. (Figure19)For a scale of the New
National Stadium Japan, strong steel suitable for a Figure 18. Construction
large frame structure will be a good choice, and a
each member can be □-105×105. If you choose
section of dimensions equal to □-1000×1000 is
right material and section size, a flexible framing
applicable. For a small scale , light material of
structure made of commercial members is
higher specific strength, such as wood, is suitable
achievable on any scale.
for members, and the sectional dimensions of
585
2.9 FUTURE 3 Conclusions

A Tama-Sudare Frame system, independent of the We proposed the new structural system which is
inspired by the Japanese traditional performance
spectators' seats, will be available for use even if
"Tama-Sudare", and applied this sytem to propose
the seats are decreased in the future. The stadium
a new stadium. This system has advantages in
will be a primitive stadium like the leafy shade of structural simplicity and flexibility,which allows us
big trees. (Figure20) to construct the structure of this system easily and
to create structures of various scales, shapes and
density by the same system.
large small
Figure 19. Versatility
Figure 20. Future
586
Double Layer Space Frame for Setia SPICE Convention Center

Kok Keong CHOONG
School of Civil Engineering, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia
Hin Cheong, SAW; Sik Kwang, WONG

Arup Jururunding Sdn Bhd., Penang, Malaysia
Khai Seng, CHEW

Sediabena Sdn Bhd., Selangor, Malaysia
Song Teik, TANG

SP Setia Bhd., Penang, Malaysia
Contact: cekkc@usm.my
Abstract
Roof structure for Setia Subterranean Penang International Convention & Exhibition Center in
Penang, Malaysia, is described in this paper. Construction sequence of the double layer space
frame structural system adopted for the roof structural system is presented. Design
consideration and factors contributing to successful completion of the roof structure for the
largest subterranean convention & exhibition center in Malaysia is also pointed out.
Keywords: double layer space frame; welded connection; construction sequence; sliding tracks
green roof atop, a huge roof structure has been

1 Introduction conceptualized, designed and constructed. The
Setia Subterranean Penang International owner of Setia SPICE is SP Setia Sdn Bhd.
Convention & Exhibition Centre (SPICE) is a world Stakeholders involved in the design and
class integrated convention centre comprises construction of Setia SPICE are : BYG (architect),
pillarless ballroom of 4500 m2, grand foyer of Arup Jururunding Sdn Bhd (civil and structural
2000 m2 and function rooms of various sizes[1]. consultant), Syarikat Success Construction Sdn
Seated on top of this unique convention centre is Bhd (main contractor), Sediabena Sdn Bhd(
a roof garden which consists of green lawn for nominated steel sub-contractor) and Universiti
public use. Figure 1 shows the plan view of the Sains Malaysia(collaborator). This paper is
roof garden together with other main feature specifically about the roof structure of Setia SPICE.
which are parts of SPICE. In order to realize the
unique subterranean convention centre with
587
2 Technical Details and Design

Consideration of the Roof
Structures
The roof structure covers a plan size area of 71.4
m × 117.6 m with total height of 14.691 m. The
pillarless ballroom under the roof structure
measures 37.8 m × 117.6 m. This subterranean
convention & exhibition center is said to the
largest of its kind in Malaysia. Double layer space
frame system was adopted for the roof structural
system. Three 6.25m deep giant main truss beam Figure 2. The three 6.25 m deep main truss beams
at 29.4m c/c spacing with free span of 37.8 m are
located along the length direction (Figure 2). The
depth is primarily needed for operable wall of the The design loads for the roof structure are as
ballroom underneath. The roof garden sits on top follows: a) self-weight of the main roof, b) live
of a double layer space frame of 3.25 m deep in load of 7.5 kPa and c) load corresponding to soil
square grid of 4.2 × 4.2 m which are supported by depth of 200mm of 3.6 kPa ( = 0.2 x 18 kN/m).
the three main truss beam together with circular One of the main consideration for the design of
RC columns located along the perimeter of the the roof structure is avoidance of vibration caused
roof structure (Figure 3). by people walking on the roof garden. To achieve
this, double layer space frame was adopted as the
structural system for the roof and the maximum
deflection was limited to be less than 40mm in
order to control the vibration induced into the
roof structure. Furthermore, due consideration
was given to joint design to achieve integration of
the space frame with the supporting RC column in
order to increase its stiffness and hence to control
deflection to 40mm. For steel work construction,
careful consideration of the design of connection
is of utmost importance for ensuring
constructability and cost effectiveness.
CHS of various sizes were used for top, diagonal
and bottom chords of the double layer space
frame and also the three giant main truss beams.
Consideration of full stiffness design for the roof
structure led to decision of using welded
Figure 1. The roof top garden (parts marked as C) connection instead of bolted connection.
588
level before hoisted up to the desired height level

for erection purpose (Figure 6).
Figure 3. The 3.25 m deep space frame for the roof

Figure 5. Joints and members at site
3 Construction Sequence
The roof structure was divided into four different
zones in length direction according to the three
main truss beams. In line with the erection
zoning, erection sequence by the use of sliding
working platform was adopted. Sliding working
platform supported by scaffoldings was seated on
sliding tracks mounted on RC floors (Figure 4).
Figure 6. Hoisting of pre-joined parts for erection

For ease of erection purpose, steel plate was
welded to the end of CHS member so temporary
connection with the joint can be made via bolted
connection (Figure 7). Welding was later carried
out in order to achieve the desired rigidity of the
structure.
Figure 4. Working platform seated on sliding

tracks
Figure 7. Temporary bolted connection for joining

Joints and members were fabricated at steel yard members to joints before welding was carried out
elsewhere and transported to site(Figure 5). The
joints and members were first joined on ground
589
It should be pointed out that fin plate (as shown in

Figure 7) rather than cast ball joint was adopted
for the connection design as the former is a cost
effective engineering solution. Although it is a
labour intensive option, such fin plate design is
very suitable in developing world which has
massive labour to utilize but lack of funding.
The construction of the space frame started after
the completion of the supporting RC columns.
Tracks for sliding working platform was first laid
(Figure 8). Giant steel collar joint(Figure 9) was
mounted on RC column head for connection to
members of the space frame (Figure 10).
Figure 10. Steel collar joint mounted on RC column

top
As mentioned earlier, the solution of using the
giant steel collar joint (Figure 10) is for integration
of the space frame with the supporting RC column
in order to increase its stiffness and hence to
control deflection to 40mm. Originally, the space
frame was designed to be pinned sitting on top of
a roof ring beam supported by the supporting
Figure 8. Completed RC columns and laying of columns which resulted in deflection of 80mm.
tracks for sliding working platform Hence, the solution using the giant steel collar
joint was adopted.
The erection of the space frame was proceeded
following the sequence as shown in Figure 11.
Figure 9. Giant steel collar joint
Figure 11. Sequence of erection using the sliding

working platform
Figure 12(a) and (b) show two different stages of
the erection of the roof space frame from one end
to the other. A close-up view of the process of
connecting a diagonal member is shown in Figure
13. Figure 14 shows the view from the ground
590
level portion of space frame structure which was

erected.
Figure 14. View of the part of the space frame roof

which was erected
Once works on all member-to-joint welded

connection of the space frame structures were
(a)
completed, Bondeks for the green roof slab were
then laid. This was then followed by casting of
the roof slab (Figure 15).
(b)
Figure 12. Different stages of erection of the roof
space frame
Figure 15. Casting of roof slab after laying of
Bondeks
Figure 16 shows the completed roof garden (16a)

and the pillarless convention hall (16b) under the
roof garden. View of the internal space of space
frame structures supporting the roof is shown in
Figure 17.
Figure 13. Connecting a diagonal member to the

grid
591
construction period of the roof structure was from

June 2016 to October 2016. Through :
(a) due consideration given to connection
design for ensuring necessary stiffness to
avoid vibration caused by people walking
on roof garden
(b) use of cost effective fin plate for the joint
design
(c) careful planning of the sliding working
(a)
platform in tandem with the work
progress of different zones and
overcoming site constraint for working
platform
(d) adoption of temporary member-to-joint
bolted connection to shorten crane usage
time during erection
(b)
the roof structure for the largest subterranean
Figure 16. (a) The completed roof garden and (b) convention & exhibition center in Malaysia was
the pillarless convention hall under the roof able to be completed successfully. The
garden engineering solution adopted for roof structure of
Setia SPICE roof can serve as useful reference for
developing world.
5 References
[1] http://www.setiaspice.com/convention-
centre.aspx
[2] Wardenier J., Kurobane Y., Packer J.A., van
de Gerte G.J. and Zhao X.L. Design Guide for
Circular Hollow Section (CHS) Joints under
Predominantly Static Loading. Second
Edition. LSS Verlag; 2008.
Figure 17. The internal space of the space frame

supporting the roof garden
4 Concluding Remarks
Construction of the double layer space frame
structure roof structure for Setia SPICE
Convention Center has been described. The
592
Structural robustness of long-span cable-supported bridges

segmented by zipper-stoppers to prevent progressive collapse
Mohammad Shoghijavan, Uwe Starossek
Hamburg University of Technology, Structural Analysis and Steel Structures Institute, Hamburg,
Germany
Contact: mohammad.shoghijavan@tuhh.de
Abstract
This paper investigates the structural behaviour of a long-span cable-supported bridge segmented
by zipper-stoppers after the sudden rupture of some of its cables. Increasing the robustness of the
structural system through segmentation is a possible approach to prevent progressive collapse in
bridges due to cable failure. In this concept, zipper-stoppers, at the segment borders, are strong
components with the multiple of the load bearing capacity of usual members and are designed to
arrest a zipper-like collapse in the segment where the initial damage occurred. For finding the
“stress increase ratio” of the zipper-stopper, an analytical approach based on differential
equations of the system will be used. Then, an approximation function for a simplified bridge
model in a cable-loss scenario will be derived. The proposed approximation function has been
checked by numerical models, and its good accuracy has been proven.
Keywords: Conceptual design; zipper-stopper; long-span cable-supported bridge; progressive
collapse; analytical approach; cable-loss scenario; least squares method.
Institute [5], the sudden loss of any one cable

1 Introduction must not lead to the rupture of the entire
Progressive collapse is defined as the spread of an structure. However, in modern bridges, the
initial local failure from element to element, distance between two adjacent cables is much
eventually resulting in the collapse of an entire shorter than in older bridges. Therefore, in the
structure or a disproportionately large part of it case of car accidents or explosions on new
[1]. The two most important guidelines that bridges, the rupture of more than one cable is
address progressive collapse, the General Services more likely to happen. Accordingly, it is suggested
Administration guideline (GSA [2]) and the Unified that the rupture of all cables within a 10 m range
Facilities Criteria (UFC [3]), are exclusively must be considered in the design of bridges [6].
designed for buildings. Standards addressing Recently, the issues of progressive collapse and
progressive collapse and cable-loss scenarios in cable failure in bridges have been studied in some
bridges are few and far between. However, research experiments [7-14]. In [9, 11], the
bridges are more vulnerable to the progressive collapse behavior of a cable-stayed bridge in a
collapse because of their unusual utilization, low cable-loss scenario has been investigated. In [12,
redundancy of elements, and placing in rough 13], a parametric study has been conducted on
conditions [4]. According to Post-Tensioning
593
the dynamic response of cable-stayed bridges to cables should be determined with consideration
the sudden failure of a cable. of the entire structural system of the actual
bridges. In the simplified model, the distance
Zipper-type collapse occurs in structural systems
between two adjacent cables is L, the axial
with parallel load bearing elements and starts by
stiffness of the cables is K, the axial stiffness of
the initial failure of one or a few load bearing
the zipper-stopper is K1, and the bending stiffness
members. The different types of collapse and their
of the girder is Kb=12EI/L3. The failed cables are
specifications are explained comprehensively in
in the center and the whole system is
[15]. Increasing the robustness of the structural
symmetrical. The load which was carried by the
system through segmentation is a possible
failed cables is F, and the absorbed load in other
approach to prevent such a progressive collapse.
cables due to the cable rupture is F1 to Fn
By segmentation, the structure is divided into
(corresponding to K1 to Kn).
segments by dedicated segment borders. In this
concept, zipper-stoppers, as the segment borders,
are strong elements, with a multiple of the load
bearing capacity of usual elements, and must be
designed so that they can tolerate the
redistributed load of the half of the segment.
In this study, a simplified bridge model segmented
by zipper-stoppers is considered. It is assumed
that all cables within one segment are failed.
Then, an analytical approach based on differential
equations of the system is used, and an
approximation function for a long-span cable-
supported bridge is derived. It is shown that the
proposed approximation function and the results Segment with
of numerical models are in a good agreement. arbitrary number Rigid Support
of elements (m)
2 Simplified bridge model

To use the analytical approach, a simplified bridge K4 K3 K2 K1 K1 K2 K3 K4 Girder
model is considered. In Fig. 1, the simplification
procedure is depicted. The simplified model
Zipper-Stopper
consists of a beam suspended from tension K2=K3....=Kn= K F F F F K1=δ1K
elements. The main target of this study is to
develop an analytical method for the analysis of a Figure 1. From bridge to model, based [16]
long-span cable-supported bridge suffering from
cable failure. For this purpose, a conceptual 3 Analytical approach for the
approach is applied. Hence, some differences determination of the “stress
between an accurate bridge model and the
simplified model used here are unavoidable. For
increase ratio” of the zipper-
instance, assuming rigid upper cable supports stopper due to the cable loss
does not exactly correspond to the actual The simplified system in Fig. 1 is a symmetrical
structures. In this study, only a part of bridge is system and could be solved by the superposition
considered, and for a selected part of the bridge principle and boundary conditions taking into
the stiffnesses of cables are close to each other. account the symmetry of the system. The elastic
Therefore, assuming the same cable stiffness behavior of the girder is expressed as follows:
could be reasonable.
𝑑2 𝑣
It is assumed that the stiffness of the girder is the 𝑀(𝑥) = 𝐸𝐼 𝑑𝑥 2 (1)
same in all cross sections. The axial stiffness of the
594
where 𝐸𝐼 is the flexural stiffness of the girder, I is calculated. The results show that the general form
moment of inertia of the girder, 𝑣 is the vertical of equation is as follows:
displacement and 𝑥 is the distance of the section
𝐹1 𝑎′ + 𝑏′𝛽 + 𝑐′𝛽 2 + 𝑑′𝛽 3 + ⋯
from the left end of the beam. The bending = (7)
moment, 𝑀(𝑥), is a function of 𝑥 and could be 𝐹 𝑎′′ + 𝑏′′𝛽 + 𝑐′′𝛽 2 + 𝑑′′𝛽 3 + ⋯
easily found. By taking the integral of Equation 1 For instance, the results of the calculations of 4
for different sections, a system of linear equations and 6-cable systems are found below:
will be found. For example for 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝐿:
4-cable system
𝑥2 𝑑𝑣 𝐹1 11 + 6𝛽
∫ 𝑀(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝐹𝑛 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹𝑛 + 𝐶1 = 𝐸𝐼 (2) = (8)
2 𝑑𝑥 𝐹 16 + 12𝛽(1 + 1 )
where C1 is integration constant and is found by 𝛿1
the boundary conditions of the system. 6-cable system
3
𝐹𝐿 𝐹1 23 + 171𝛽 + 18𝛽 2
𝐸𝐼𝑣𝑛 − 𝐸𝐼𝑣𝑛−1 − 𝑛6 = (9)
𝐶1 = , 𝑖 = 1 𝑡𝑜 𝑛 (3) 𝐹 31 + 𝛽(288 + 84) + 𝛽 2 (36 + 72)
𝐿 𝛿1 𝛿1
A similar approach is performed for 𝐿 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2𝐿 as
where β=EI/KL3 and δ1 is the stiffness ratio of
follows:
the zipper-stopper to the reference
𝑥2 𝑥2 stiffness (δ1=K1 /K). This form of equation is not
∫ 𝑀(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹𝑛 + 𝐹𝑛−1 − 𝐹𝑛−1 𝑥𝐿 + 𝐷1
2 2 appropriate for our purpose to find an equation
𝑑𝑣 for a general system. This is because for a system
= 𝐸𝐼 (4)
𝑑𝑥 with 2n cables, 2n coefficients must be found. In
where D1 is the integration constant and is found order to overcome this problem, an equation
as follows: based on the mathematical characteristics of
Equation 7 is formulated. The main idea is to
7𝐹𝑛 𝐿3 𝐹𝑛−1 𝐿3 approximate Equation 7 with a function having as
𝐸𝐼𝑣𝑛−1 − 𝐸𝐼𝑣𝑛−2 − 6 + 3
𝐷1 = (5) few unknown coefficients as possible. For this
𝐿
purpose, the following equation is chosen:
Because the system is continuous, the slope of the
girder is the same at x=L. Therefore, Equation 2 𝐹1 𝑏−𝑎
=𝑎+ (10)
𝐹 𝛽
and Equation 4 have the same values at x=L. 1 + ( 𝑐 )𝑑
𝑥2 𝑥2 In other words, Equation 10 can express the stress
(𝐹𝑛 + 𝐶1 )𝑥=𝐿 = (𝐹𝑛
2 2 increase ratio of the zipper-stopper due to the
𝑥2
+ 𝐹𝑛−1 − 𝐹𝑛−1 𝑥𝐿 + 𝐷1 )𝑥=𝐿 (6) cable loss if appropriate parameters (a, b, c and d)
2 can be found. By this method, the number of
The same procedure is repeated for other unknown coefficients has been reduced to four. In
sections. This process gives us a system of linear Equation 10, parameter a stands for the minimum
equations. By solving the aforementioned system stress increase ratio which occurs when 𝛽 = ∞. A
of equations, the force in each cable can be β-value equal to infinity means that the girder is
calculated. rigid and all cables have the same displacement.
For finding the stress increase ratio of the zipper- Therefore, for a system including 2n cables,
stopper, a step by step method is applied. In the parameter a is equal to 1/2𝑛. Parameter b stands
first step, it is assumed that only one cable is for the maximum stress increase ratio that occurs
failed and the stiffness of the zipper-stopper is the when 𝛽 = 0. After calculating the stress increase
same as the stiffness of other cables (𝐾1 = 𝐾2 = ratio for several systems, the maximum stress
⋯ = 𝐾𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝛿1 = 1). Then, the system of linear increase ratio is found to be close to 0.75 for all
equations is solved for different systems, and the systems when 2n≥6. Therefore, the general form
stress increase ratio of the zipper-stopper (F1/F) is of the equation will be as follows (𝛿1 = 1):
595
3 1 𝑥
𝐹1 1 −
= + 4 2𝑛 (11) 𝑇 = ∑ ∆2𝑖 (17)
𝐹 2𝑛 1 + (𝛽 )𝑑 𝑖=1
𝑐
𝜕𝑇
For finding the other two parameters, the least =0 (18)
𝜕𝑑
squares method (LSM) is applied. The LSM
method defines the estimate of unknown 𝜕𝑇
=0 (19)
parameters (here parameter c and parameter d) 𝜕𝑐
as the values which minimize the sum of the where 𝑦𝑖 and 𝑓𝑖 are the exact and approximate
squares between the exact and the approximation stress increase ratio values for different β-values,
values (here, function T) [17]. For this purpose, respectively. In the first step, Equation 18 is solved
the derivative of T with respect to parameter c for different values of parameter c, and
and parameter d is set to zero (Equations 18 and corresponding values of parameter d are
19). The procedure of calculations used for a data calculated. In the next step, the calculated values
set consisting of x matching points (𝑦𝑖 and 𝑓𝑖 ) is of parameter d are used in Equation 19 and
presented in the following equations: corresponding values of parameter c are
𝑏−𝑎 calculated. There is only one pair of parameter c
𝑓𝑖 = 𝑎 + (12) and parameter d that satisfy both equations. In
𝛽
1 + ( 𝑐 )𝑑 Fig. 2, parameters c and d for different systems
are shown.
𝑏−𝑎
∆𝑖 = 𝑦𝑖 − 𝑓𝑖 = 𝑦𝑖 − (𝑎 + ) (13)
𝛽 1
1 + ( 𝑐 )𝑑
(𝑏 − 𝑎)2
∆2𝑖 = (𝑦𝑖 − 𝑎)2 +
𝛽 𝛽 0.8
1 + ( 𝑐 )2𝑑 + 2( 𝑐 )𝑑
Parameter d
2(𝑏 − 𝑎)(𝑦𝑖 − 𝑎)
− (14)
𝛽
1 + ( )𝑑
𝑐 0.6
𝜕(∆2𝑖 )
𝜕𝑑
𝛽 𝛽 𝛽 𝛽 0.4
−(𝑏 − 𝑎)2 (2( 𝑐 )2𝑑 𝐿𝑛( 𝑐 ) + 2( 𝑐 )𝑑 𝐿𝑛( 𝑐 )) 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
=
𝛽 𝛽 Numeber of cables (2n)
(1 + ( 𝑐 )2𝑑 + 2( 𝑐 )𝑑 )2
𝛽 𝛽
−2(𝑏 − 𝑎)(𝑦𝑖 − 𝑎)( 𝑐 )𝑑 𝐿𝑛( 𝑐 ) 1
− (15)
𝛽
(1 + ( )𝑑 )2
𝑐 0.9
𝜕(∆2𝑖 )
=
𝜕𝑐
Parameter c
(𝑏 − 𝑎)2 (2𝑑𝛽 2𝑑 𝑐 −2𝑑−1 + 2𝑑𝛽 𝑑 𝑐 −𝑑−1 )

0.8
=
𝛽 𝛽
(1 + ( 𝑐 )2𝑑 + 2( 𝑐 )𝑑 )2
0.7
2(𝑏 − 𝑎)(𝑦𝑖 − 𝑎)𝑑𝛽 𝑑 𝑐 −𝑑−1
− (16)
𝛽
(1 + ( )𝑑 )2
𝑐 0.6
6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Numeber of cables (2n)
Figure 2. Parameters c and d for different systems
596
δ1=1
Figure 3. Calculation of parameters c and d for 20-cable system

In Fig. 3, the calculation of Parameters c and d for the exact values of the stress increase ratio with
20-cable system is shown. As it can be seen in Fig. good accuracy. Except for small β-values, the error
2, parameter c has an upward limit of one, which of approximation is less than 5%.
is the same as the δ1-value (it will be checked in
As shown in Fig. 4, parameter R-squared (R2), also
following section). For finding an equation for
known as the coefficient of determination, is used
parameter d, the LSM method is used once again.
to control the accuracy of the approximation
The procedure of calculation is similar to Equation
function. R-squared is the ratio of variation that is
12 through Equation 19. Number of cables (2n)
explained by the approximation function to the
and δ1-value are considered as the influential
total variation in the model. R -squared is equal to
factors on parameter d. In order to reduce the
one for a perfect fit and tends towards zero for a
complexity of the equations and increase their
bad fit [17].
accuracy for larger systems, only systems with
more than 12 cables are considered. Parameter d In the next step, the stiffness of the zipper-
can be expressed by the following equation: stopper has been changed. Therefore, in this step,
all cables have the same stiffness except for the
0.65
𝑑 = 0.35 + 2𝑛 ≥ 12 (20) zipper-stopper. As mentioned before, parameter a
2𝑛
2𝛿1 + stands for the minimum stress increase ratio
6
which occurs when 𝛽 = ∞. This means that the
By calculating parameter c and parameter d, all girder is rigid, and all parallel elements have the
unknown parameters of the approximation same displacements. Therefore, parameter a
function in the first step are found. Therefore, we could be easily calculated as follows:
can derive the approximation function for
different systems in the first step. Considering the 𝐾1 𝛿1
𝑎= 𝑛 = (22)
previously mentioned facts, the approximation 2 ∑𝑖=1 𝐾𝑖 2𝛿1 + 2(𝑛 − 1)
function could be rewritten for a general system Parameter b is the maximum stress increase ratio
as follows: which occurs when 𝛽 is equal to zero. Hence, δ1-
3 1 value has no effect on parameter b. The effect of
𝐹1 1 −
= + 4 2𝑛 , 𝛿1 = 1 (21) δ1-value on parameter d is already considered in
𝐹 2𝑛 1 + (𝛽 )𝑑 Equation 20. For evaluating parameter c for the
𝑐 current configuration, different systems are
where parameter d should be calculated by investigated and appropriate approximation
Equation 20. In Fig. 4, the exact and approximate functions are calculated. The results prove the
values of the stress increase ratio for 14 and 20- previous conclusion and show that parameter c
cable systems are shown. It is seen that the curves has an upward value equal to δ1.
depicted from the approximation function express
597
0.8 20-cable system

0.8 14-cable system 6
4
0.7
0.7 4
Relative Force Increase (F1/F)

0.6 2
0.6 Exact Value

2 Exact Value
0.5 0
0.5
Error(%)
Error(%)
Approximatio 0
0.4 Approximati
0.4 n Function -2
-2 on Function
0.3
0.3
Error -4
-4 0.2 Error(%) 2
0.2 2 R =0,996
R =0,997
-6
-6 0.1
0.1
0 -8
0 -8
0 50 100 150 200
0 50 100 150 200
β
β
Figure 4. The exact and approximate values of the stress increase ratio for 14 and 20-cable systems
In the last step, the number of failed cables will be where parameter d and parameter a should be
increased. Investigation of different systems calculated by Equation 20 and Equation 23,
shows that parameter c and parameter d are the respectively.
same as the previous case. The calculation of
parameter a is very straightforward as follows: 9
𝑚𝐾1 𝑚𝛿1 8
𝑎= 𝑛 = (23)
2 ∑𝑖=1 𝐾𝑖 2𝛿1 + 2(𝑛 − 1) 7
b= 0.105m2+0.645m
where m is the number of failed cables within one 6

segment. Parameter b, which stands for the
Parameter b
5
maximum stress increase ratio, is the only
4
unknown parameter for a general equation. The
maximum stress increase ratio occurs when β=0. 3
Therefore, the number of failed cables is the only 2

influential factor on parameter b. In the 1
following, the maximum stress increase ratio in
0
different systems and different number of failed 0 2 4 6 8
cables are calculated. In Fig. 5, the relation Number of failed cables(m)
between parameter b and the number of failed
cables are demonstrated. Figure 5. The calculation of parameter b
As it can be seen, parameter b can be expressed In order to verify the final approximation function,
by the following equation: the result of exact stress increase ratio of the
zipper-stopper and the one calculated from the
𝑏 = 0.105𝑚2 + 0.645𝑚 (24)
approximation function for the elimination of two
Therefore, the final approximation function for and three cables for different systems are
the stress increase ratio of zipper-stopper could compared (see Fig. 6). The results show a good
be derived as follows: agreement between the exact and approximate
values. Except for small β-values, the error of the
𝐹1 (0.105𝑚2 + 0.645𝑚) − 𝑎
=𝑎+ (25) proposed approximation function is less than 5%
𝐹 𝛽
1 + ( 𝑐 )𝑑 in the investigated systems.
598
1.8 20-cable system(δ1=6, m=2) 6

1.8 10-cable system(δ1=4, m=2) 4
1.6 Exact Value 4 Exact Value
1.6 2
2
1.4

1.4
0 0
1.2 Approximation Approximation
1.2 Function
Function -2
Error(%)
-2
Error(%)
1
2
-4 1
R =0,988 2
R =0,973
0.8 Error(%) Error(%) -4
-6 0.8
0.6 -6
-8 0.6
0.4 -10 -8
0.4
0.2 -12 -10
0.2
0 -14
0 -12
0 50 100 150 200
0 50 100 150 200
β
β
3.5 20-cable system(δ1=6, m=3) 6 10-cable system(δ1=6, m=3)

Exact Value 3.5 2
4 Exact Value
3 3 0
2
Approximation -2
2.5 0 2.5 Approximation
Function
Function
-2 -4
Error(%)
Error(%)
2 2
Error(%)
-4 2
Error(%) -6
1.5 2
R =0,991 R =0,957
-6 1.5
-8
1 -8
1
-10
-10
0.5 0.5
-12 -12
0 -14 0 -14
0 50 100 150 200 0 50 100 150 200
β β
Figure 6. The exact and approximate values of the stress increase ratio for different systems
collapse. In this concept, zipper-stoppers, at the

4 CONCLUSION segment borders, are strong components with the
In this study, a conceptual approach is applied to multiple of the load bearing capacity of usual
develop an analytical method for the analysis of a members and are designed to arrest a zipper-like
long-span cable-supported bridge segmented by collapse in the segment where the initial damage
zipper-stoppers during a cable-loss scenario. occurred. It is assumed that all cables within a
Hence, a parallel load bearing system, bridge segment have failed. For finding the “stress
representative of a long-span cable-supported increase ratio” of the zipper-stopper, as a function
bridge, is considered. The load carried by the of the internal stiffness ratio (β), an analytical
failed members must be redistributed to the approach based on differential equations of the
remaining structure. If these members cannot system is used. The stiffness ratio β is the ratio of
tolerate the redistributed load the collapse will the bending stiffness of the girder to the axial
progress to the next members and possibly the stiffness of the cables. Then, an approximation
whole structure. Increasing the robustness of the function for the stress increase ratio as a function
structural system through segmentation is a of β is derived. The use of the least squares
possible approach to prevent such a progressive method is applied to minimize the error of the
599
approximation function. The proposed IABMAS Conference on Bridge Maintenance,

approximation function has been checked by Safety, Management, Life-Cycle Performance and
numerical models, and its good accuracy has been Cost; 2006.
proven. Except for small β-values, the error of the
[9] Wolff M, Starossek U. Cable loss and
proposed approximation function is less than 5%
progressive collapse in cable-stayed bridges.
in the investigated systems. The results show that
Bridge Structures. 2009;5(1):17-28.
by increasing the β-value, the stress increase ratio
in zipper-stopper decreases. [10] Starossek U. Avoiding disproportionate
collapse of Major Bridges. Structural Engineering
5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS International. 2009;19(3):289-297.
This study is funded by the German Academic [11] Wolf M, Starossek U. Cable loss analyses and
Exchange Service (DAAD), which is gratefully collapse behavior of cable-stayed bridges. In:
acknowledged. Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference
on Bridge Maintenance, Safety and Management;
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[12] Mozos CM, Aparicio AC. Parametric study on
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the dynamic response of cable-stayed bridges to
design loads for buildings and other structures
the sudden failure of a stay, part I: Bending
(ASCE standard series). 2nd ed. Reston, VA; 2002.
moment acting on the deck. Engineering
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Progressive collapse analysis and design guidelines
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for new federal office buildings and major
the dynamic response of cable-stayed bridges to
modernization projects. 1st ed. Washington, D.C;
the sudden failure of a stay, part II: Bending
2003.
moment acting on the pylons and stress on the
[3] U. S. Department of Defense. Design of stays. Engineering Structures. 2010;32(10):3301-
Buildings to Resist Progressive Collapse (UFC 4- 3312.
023-03). Washington, D.C; 2013.
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[5] Post-Tensioning Institute(PTI). Recommenda- structures. London: Telford, Thomas; 2009.
tions for stay-cable design, testing and
[16] Haberland M, Haß S, Starossek U. Robustness
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and Construction of Taney Bridge, Dundrum. Tom 2012.
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600
Fast Tracking the Pulau Poh Cable-stayed Bridge

Chet Chie, Voon; Hiang Miang, Goh
BBR Construction Systems (M) Sdn. Bhd., Selangor, Malaysia
Chuan Seng, Koo; Tak Chee, Looi

SCE Consultants Sdn. Bhd., Selangor, Malaysia
Contact: jackie@bbr.com.my
Abstract
The construction of the Pulau Poh cable-stayed bridge has been challenging both technically and
environmentally. The curved pylon shape in two planes, with changing cross section and heavily
congested reinforcement pose constructability concerns. Accurate geometry control and
positioning of stay cable anchorages within the pylon is crucial to ensure the bridge meets its
intended design life. Located in an area with high rainfall intensity presents additional
environmental challenges, where working areas are constantly submerged. To address the
challenges and meet the project deadline, innovative construction methodologies are being
adopted. The bridge design was also revisited, taking into consideration the construction approach.
This paper aims to explain the challenges faced and methods used to fast track the construction of
the Pulau Poh cable-stayed bridge.
Keywords: stay cable, cable-stayed bridge, composite, construction engineering, aesthetics, risk
management, BIM, laser scanning
characteristic of modern cable-stayed bridges. The

1 Introduction amalgamation of these elements thus creates a
Spanning across Lake Kenyir, the largest man-made strong impressionable image representing the
lake in Southeast Asia; the Pulau Poh cable-stayed cultural but modern State of Terengganu.
bridge is envisaged to be an iconic structure,
further enhancing Lake Kenyir’s reputation as an
eco-tourism hot spot in Terengganu. Once
completed, the bridge will link Pengkalan Gawi on
the mainland to one of the islands called Pulau Poh.
Drawing inspiration from artistic ‘bangau’ motives
(see Figure 1) found on traditional fishing boats,
the bridge also adopts a distinctive pylon shape;
curving in two planes. The bridge deck has a
slender steel-concrete composite section Figure 1. ‘Bangau’ motive on traditional fishing
supported by closely spaced stay cables; a typical boats.
601
Pylon
(61.5m)
Back stay cables
(7 pairs)
Front stay cables
(20 pairs)
Back stay
structure
Steel-concrete bridge deck

(133m span)
Figure 2. Bridge elevation and general arrangement
1.1 Structural Features

The back stay counterweight structure is located
The 133m long, single span Pulau Poh cable-stayed
approximately 42m away from Abutment A and
bridge is supported by a 61.5m tall A-shaped pylon,
provides the necessary uplift resistance to
inclined at approximately 30 degrees from vertical
counteract the upward force induced by the back
and leaning towards the main span. Apart from the
stay cables. Two tiers of ground beams connecting
inclination, the pylon also adopts a curved profile
the back stay structure to the deck and pylon base
in two planes, creating an aesthetically pleasant
counteract the horizontal force component from
look. (see Figure 2)
front stays, thus ensuring lateral loads induced on
Supporting the bridge deck are 20 pairs of front the foundation are kept to a minimum. (see Figure
stays spaced 6m apart and arranged in a semi-fan 4)
like manner. The length of the front stay cables
varies from 22m to 118m and consisting of 24nos.
to 37nos. of individually galvanized, waxed and
HDPE sheathed strands. 7 pairs of back stays
anchored into the back-stay counterweight
structure provide a counter balance to the bridge.
Each back stay cable is made up of 109nos. of Back stay
strand and varies between 64m to 88m in length. structure
(see Figure 3)
Ground Beam Ground Beam

(Lower) (Upper)
Figure 4. Bridge isometric view showing upper and

Figure 3. Stay cable details lower ground beams
602
2 The Beginning (e)

The planning of the Pulau Poh cable-stayed bridge
started in early 2014. Like most modern cable-
stayed bridges, the concept for the bridge revolved
around having a reinforced concrete (RC) pylon, a
semi-fan stay cable arrangement and a steel
composite deck. The bridge was to be constructed
in a staged cantilever manner, where the RC pylon
construction, bridge deck installation and stay
cable installation sequence are inter-dependent.
(a)
(f)
(b)
(c)
(g)
(d) Figure 5. (a) Construct pylon base; (b) Construct RC

pylon up to pre-determined level and install
temporary cables; (c) Continue construct RC pylon
and install back stay cables partially; (d) Install
temporary props to support first deck module; (e)
Install front stay cables and remove temporary
cables; (f) install deck crane; (g) Continue to install
deck and stay cables according to engineering
sequence.
603
3 Initial Challenges and Efforts between November to March, during which heavy
rainfall (1) will result in unproductive construction
As the project progressed on from the preliminary works. Theoretically, this leaves approximately 7
design stages, additional information became months of ‘good’ weather for construction works
available. Some of these, if not addressed at this to be done i.e. between the months of April to
stage of the project, would threaten the overall October.
completion of the bridge.
Additionally, water level at Lake Kenyir is expected
3.1 Short Construction Window due to to rise during this period due to the inflow of water
Monsoon and High Water Level from the large catchment area with heavy rainfall.
Further evaluation of Lake Kenyir’s historical water
Located along the east coast of Peninsular level also revealed a similar trend during the
Malaysia, the State of Terengganu historically monsoon period (see Figure 6).
experiences the yearly Northeast monsoon
Pylon base
Pile cap
Bored pile
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JULY AUG SEPT OCT NOV DEC
Figure 6. Lake Kenyir Water Level (Year 1985-2014) in comparison to levels of bridge structure (bored pile,
pile cap, pylon base)
With 7 months of clear weather window to Kenyir (see Figure 6), there was actually lesser
construct, the progress of the Pulau Poh cable- than 7 months available for the construction of the
stayed bridge was at stake. To make the bridge’s substructure, hence further risking the
construction process more challenging, some overall completion of the bridge.
parts of the bridge structure were to be
constructed in lower lying levels (e.g. pile cut-off
level at 138m, top of pile cap at 141.5m, pylon
base from 141.5m to 149m). Comparing these
levels against the historical water levels of Lake
604
3.2 Decoupling Bridge Pylon, Deck and In order to reduce the number of temporary
Stay Cable Work Sequence supports for the bridge deck, the 6m length edge
girders were combined into longer 12m modules,
With the end date of the project remained thus reducing the number of field joints by half
unchanged, adopting the staged cantilever work and subsequently shortening installation time for
sequence will put the project at risk of further the temporary supports and steel girders.
delay. Hence, the idea of decoupling the RC pylon,
bridge deck and stay cable installation sequence
4 More Obstacles and Enhancement
was explored. By adopting this strategy, the RC
pylon, bridge deck and stay cable installation through Technology
works could progress independently (see Figure With these enhancements, the Pulau Poh cable-
7). Other advantages of adopting this construction stayed bridge progress and completion seemed
method would be reduced idling time between secured. Bored piling works commenced and
each work trade and better resource utilization, completed in May 2016, allowing a window
hence lesser contractual risk. between June 2016 to December 2016 for earth
works, followed by construction of the pile caps,
(a) pylon base and abutments. While work was still
on-going, the Northeast monsoon started and
RC pylon
unexpectedly prolonged beyond the anticipated
duration. In April 2017, the water level at Lake
Deck installation
Kenyir was still approximately 144m; inundating
working areas (see Figure 8).
Stay cable
installation
(b)
RC pylon
Deck installation
Stay cable
installation
Figure 7. (a) staged cantilever sequence; (b) Figure 8. Aerial view of Abutment A, showing
decoupled work sequence flooded working area with on-going deck
installation works in the background (April 2017).
Several options were explored, including the
3.3 Optimizing Steel Girder Length installation of a steel sheet pile cofferdam and
embankment to allow for works to progress with
With the decoupled work sequence, the bridge the high water level. Nonetheless, these options
deck now needs to be constructed on temporary were unfeasible due to challenging geological
supports. The original design of the bridge’s condition i.e. shallow hard granite layer and steep
composite deck comprised of 44nos. of edge slope; and risk of water seepage.
girders (EG) which are to be connected together at
site by bolted splice. The breakdown of EGs are as Deck construction works however continued to
below:- progress despite the unfavourable weather
conditions; proof that the changed construction
· 2nos. x 8.6m length EG sequence had some advantages (see Figure 8).
· 40nos. x 6m length EG Nonetheless, the overall bridge completion was
· 2nos. x 2.25m length EG now in further jeopardy.
605
4.1 Revisiting the Pylon Design changing the upper 50m of the pylon into a steel
composite structure, while the pylon base
By April 2017, with the water level at Lake Kenyir
remained as per the original RC design (see Figure
showing no signs of receding and project deadline
10).
approaching, something had to be done to
expedite the bridge completion. Hence, the pylon
EL +203m
design was revisited while taking into account the
challenges and issues that would arise if the pylon
was to be constructed by conventional method
using climbing formwork (see Figure 9).
Steel composite pylon

EL +153m
Figure 9. Climbing formwork schematic drawing.
RC pylon base
Below were some major issues that were

identified:-
Figure 10. Demarcation of the revised pylon design
· Accurate control of pylon geometry
before, during and after concreting works.
· Accurate positioning of cast-in stay cable The conversion of the upper pylon into a steel
components within the RC pylon during composite section had the following advantages:-
the pylon construction process.
· Vertical access to pylon for post- · Off-site fabrication of the upper pylon
construction activities as the pylon level without being affected by the weather
increases i.e. stay cable installation, conditions and progressing parallelly with
touch-up, painting, survey, etc. the pylon base.
· Actual commencement date of pylon · Better construction tolerances by
construction dependent on pylon base adopting steel fabrication, hence lesser
completion. geometry control uncertainties.
· Reduction in overall reinforcement as
With these issues in mind, it became apparent that outer pylon plates are considered as part
the progress of the pylon construction would of the structural design.
potentially be further affected if the current RC
· Integration of the working platform at
pylon design and construction method was pre-determined positions along the pylon
adopted. Therefore, the idea of steel composite height which also formed the vertical
pylon was taken into consideration. This involved access.
606
4.2 Building Information Modelling (BIM) Part of the advance planning work that could also
for Advance Planning be done was to design the temporary working
platform at pre-determined locations, which was
The conversion of the upper pylon into a steel necessary to avoid clashes, but yet facilitate the
composite section necessitated the modelling of overall pylon construction activities i.e. welding,
the steel structure in 3D. This allowed for the painting, survey, and stay cable installation (see
better visualization, planning, clash checking, Figure 12).
optimization of materials and sequencing of the
pylon construction activities; further minimizing
uncertainties (see Figure 11) (2)
(a)
(b)
Figure 12. Incorporation of working platform along
pylon height in 3D.
4.3 Integration Between RC Pylon Base and

Steel Composite Pylon
With the uncertainties of the pylon construction
under control, it became critical to ensure that the
RC pylon base and steel composite pylon will be
able to match once brought on site. In order to
(c)
achieve this, the as-built data of RC pylon base was
needed to identify any potential out-of-
tolerances.
Laser-scanning technology was employed to
determine the site as-built condition with higher
accuracy and within a shorter time. This
technology has been successfully used in the oil
and gas industry to develop platform as-builts and
perform 3D clash checks. The results of the laser
scanning survey revealed significant deviation for
Figure 11. (a) 3D model showing steel composite both the constructed RC pylon bases (see Figure
pylon connection with pylon base; (b) and (c) 3D 13 and Figure 14). With this information, it
model showing front and back stay-cable guide allowed for intervention and remedial measures
pipes integrated into the steel composite pylon for to be taken to prevent further deviation of the RC
clash-checking. pylon base.
607
5 Discussion
Moving from design stage to construction stage,
the Pulau Poh cable-stayed bridge faced multiple
challenges; starting with unfavourable weather
and site conditions. With the unchanged
completion date, the bridge design and
construction sequence needed to be revisited in
order to expedite the overall completion of the
bridge structure and also to reduce down time
caused by the uncertain seasonal monsoon
weather. New technologies which were adopted
i.e. laser scanning survey and BIM have helped
identify out-of-tolerances and enabled advance
planning for the pylon construction works, hence
further minimizing risk of delays.
6 Conclusion
Conceptualized with aesthetics and tradition in
mind, the construction of the Pulau Poh cable-
stayed bridge has proven to be very challenging
technically and environmentally. Nonetheless,
Figure 13. South pylon base out-of-tolerance by
with the advancement of technology and
120mm from the design coordinates.
innovative construction approaches, this future
icon is slowly taking shape and slated for
completion by the end of 2018.
7 Acknowledgements
The authors are thankful for guidance, knowledge
and opportunity provided by Mr. Voon Yok Lin and
Mr. Chang Chee Cheong of BBR Construction
Systems (M) Sdn. Bhd. Appreciation is also
extended to Mr. Ng Yun Vui of SCE Consultants
who was a member of the design team.
8 References
[1] Abdullahi M.G. and Garba I. Effect of
Rainfall on Groundwater Level Fluctuation
in Terengganu, Malaysia. J Remote Sensing
& GIS 4:142. 2015.
[2] Volk R., Stengel J. and Schultmann F.
Building Information Modeling (BIM) for
existing buildings-Literature review and
future needs. Automation in construction
(38)109-127. 2014.
Figure 14. North pylon base out-of-tolerance by
101mm from the design coordinates.
608
Temburong Link – design of cable stayed bridges against extreme

loading conditions
Sammy Yip, Steve Kite, William Leung
Ove Arup & Partners, Hong Kong
Alberto Carlucci, Catherine Gainey, Martin Hooton

Arup, London, UK
Contact: sammy.yip@arup.com
Abstract
Brunei Temburong Link is one of the largest infrastructure projects currently being constructed in
South-East Asia. It is a 30km dual 2-lane road link which will connect the main Brunei districts of
Muara, Tutong and Belait with the isolated district of Temburong which is separated by the
Malaysian state of Sarawak. The project is procured under different construction contracts and
involves construction of two cable stayed bridges over navigation channels within Brunei Bay.
The paper will describe the design of the two cable stayed bridges with particular focus on the design
against extreme loading conditions, namely vessel collision, seismic and fire conditions. The design
was carried out to Eurocodes.
Keywords: Cable-stay bridges, extreme loading, fire protection, Eurocodes.
also extreme conditions. The bridges were

1 Introduction designed to Eurocodes.
Following completion of the Feasibility Study [1] for
the 30 km long Brunei Temburong Link (Figure 1),
the project was divided up into several
construction packages [2]. Contract CC3 includes
the most prominent structures on the route - the 2
cable stayed bridges which cross navigation
channels in Brunei Bay. The Brunei Channel is a
domestic waterway serving Brunei which allows
vessels to enter the estuary of Sungai Brunei
leading to the capital Bandar Seri Begawan. Eastern
Channel is an International waterway allowing
bigger vessels to navigate further southwards
towards Bangar and Limbang in Malaysia.
Considerable effort was spent selecting the shape
of the towers and designing the two cable stayed Figure 1: Site Plan of Temburong Bridge
bridges against normal in-service conditions and
609
2 General Arrangements
2.1 Brunei Channel Bridge 2.2 Eastern Channel Bridge
The Brunei Channel Bridge (BCB) is a single tower The Eastern Channel Bridge (ECB) has a main span
cable stayed bridge with a 145m navigation span of 260m over the navigation channel, with 130m
and a symmetrical 145m side span. The general side spans. The all-concrete ladder beam deck is
arrangement is illustrated in Figure 2. 30.2m wide to carry the dual 2-lane carriageway.
The general arrangement is illustrated in Figure 3.
The all-concrete ladder beam deck is 37.2m wide to
carry the roadway which is dual 3-lane carriageway Despite the differences in general arrangement,
at this point to accommodate slip roads. The deck span lengths and deck width, ECB is conceptually
is formed from longitudinal edge girders with the same as BCB in terms of the overall shape of
transverse cross beams at 4.15m spacing. The 32 the towers, the form of the deck, and the
pairs of stay cables are arranged to align in- arrangement of the stay cables.
between every other cross beam pair, and are The towers are slightly narrower than the BCB one,
anchored through the edge girders. The edge to suit the deck width, and a little taller at 110.5m.
girders and the cross beams are post-tensioned They are each supported on a group of 27 no. 2.2m
using internal tendons. diameter bored piles. Since the deck does not span
The main tower is a sculpted A-shape, 107m tall, as far transversely, the cross beams are spaced at
supported on a group of 30 no. 2.2m diameter 4.9m with a stay cable spacing of 9.8m, resulting in
bored piles. Stay cable saddles are adopted in the 48 pairs of cables in total. The arrangement of stay
towers so the cables are continuous from deck cable saddles is very similar to those on BCB. The
anchorage to deck anchorage. The deck is deck is monolithic with both towers, and high
monolithic with the tower and is supported on high damping rubber bearings are used at the end piers.
damping rubber bearings at the end piers which
also support the adjoining marine viaducts.
82m
25m
145m 145m
Figure 2. Brunei Channel Bridge General Arrangement
130m 260m 130m
Figure 3. Eastern Channel Bridge General Arrangement
610
3 Design of the Tower The recessed upper tower infill is composed by two
separate walls and it provides the necessary
3.1 Development of the Islamic Arch shape stability to the system. The cavity between the
walls, in addition to making the structure lighter,
A number of options were investigated and provides also an inspection route from the hollow
discussed in a previous paper [3]. The final tower legs at deck level to the top of the tower where
shapes for the single tower Brunei Channel Bridge operational equipment is mounted.
and the two-tower Eastern Channel Bridge are
shown in Figures 4 and 5.
Figure 4. Brunei Channel Bridge tower
Figure 6. Brunei Channel Bridge tower sections

Despite the slight differences in width and height,
the same structural solutions have been adopted
for the towers of the two bridges. The geometry of
the curvilinear shape of the tower legs has been
described for both bridges by similar curves (Figure
7). The curves have the same equation for both
types of tower and they only differ by a few
distinctive parameters to accommodate the
differences in width and height.
Figure 5. Eastern Channel Bridge tower
3.2 Structural Design

The apparent complex geometry of the tower was
resolved structurally with relatively simple
solutions (Figure 6). The side legs are the primary
structural elements of the tower, supporting the
stay cables. They have a hollow section with
constant wall thickness all round from foundation
level to the deck diaphragm, and then again up to
the first stay cable saddle. Then the legs become
solid so as to guarantee adequate material to resist Figure 7. Parametric definition of the tower
the increasing localized compression stresses at geometry for BCB (left) and ECB (right)
the saddle locations.
611
Common structural analysis model generation was

also tied with similar verification tools adopted for
both structures and this helped to improve the
efficiency of the design process and reduce the
total time spent on the design of both bridges.
The design process has considered the in-service
condition, the loading scenario during execution
and also extreme events that may happen in the
design life. The design against extreme events is
discussed further in Section 5.
Figure 8. Tendons curtailment in BCB
4 Design of Decks
4.1 General
Both Eastern Channel Bridge and Brunei Channel
Bridge have a ladder beam deck that is cast in-situ
in sequential deck segments, using grade C45/55
concrete.
Crossbeams span between the edge girders at a
regular spacing which was chosen so that the same
structural solution could be adopted for both
bridges. This explains why the bridge with the
wider deck (Brunei Channel Bridge) has the smaller Figure 9. Edge girder tendons
spacing of crossbeams and vice-versa. The
crossbeams are shaped with a T-section and they As a result, the tendons are positioned closer to the
are post tensioned along their axis by typically two centroid of the girder than to the bottom surface
draped tendons per beam which are anchored at but this, rather than inconvenient, was a clear
the deck edges. actuation of the Eurocode design strategy.
Also the edge girders, whose size is the same for In Eurocode 1992-2 [4], for post tensioned
both bridges, 2m wide by 2.6m deep, are concrete structures exposed to a marine
longitudinally post tensioned. The same number environment, the decompression check requires
and size of tendons (12 x 31 strand tendons) are that all tendons under the Serviceability Limit State
defined for the mid-span regions of the Eastern (SLS) frequent combination shall remain within the
Channel Bridge and the Brunei Channel Bridge compression zone with a margin equal to at least
spans. The tendons are curtailed to follow the cmin,dur to the neutral axis. For this specific case, it
shape of the bending moment envelope (Figure 8), was found that, in conjunction with the tuning of
but they are not extended in the regions close to the stay cables, positioning the tendons close to
the tower where the axial force induced by the stay the centroid of the section improved their
cables provides sufficient resistance. efficiency if, within the same combinations, the
maximum tensile stress at the surfaces of the beam
The area available to place the longitudinal was kept below the mean tensile strength of the
tendons is circumscribed by the stay anchorages on concrete, fctm. In this case, the code allows the
one side, the crossbeam tendon anchorages at the designer to consider the section uncracked, which
top and at the bottom and from a required implies that the entire section is effective and the
minimum concrete cover on the other side to allow neutral axis is kept closer to the surface. See Figure
a smooth bend out at the anchorage location. See 10.
Figure 9.
612
Compression
(<0.6 x f ck @SLS characteristic)
conservatively taken as 26m/s at 10m above
mean sea level.
4. Thermal action – A statistical analysis of
historical data was carried out and the
maximum and minimum air shade
N.A.
temperatures are 40°C and 15°C respectively.
>cmin,dur
@SLS fr 5. Sudden rupture of stay cables – The accidental
Tension
<f ctm @SLS frequent
stay-out case of sudden loss of one stay was
considered.
Figure 10. Eurocode 1992-2 SLS design checks 6. Ship impact – This is discussed further in Section
In addition, as the section is uncracked, the 5.1.
required crack width check is automatically 7. Seismic action – A site specific probabilistic
satisfied and the demand of additional passive seismic hazard assessment was carried out for
reinforcement at the surfaces is mainly governed Brunei to establish the bedrock seismic
by the Ultimate Limit State (ULS) and in particular response spectra. Seismic analysis and design
by the Stay-Out Accidental Limit States checks are discussed further in section 5.2.
8. Fire – The bridges are designed for 50MW
which is discussed further in Section 5.
gasoline spill fire on bridge carriageway and
discussed further in Section 5.3.
5 Design against Extreme Events
In Brunei, bridges used to be designed to British 5.1 Ship Impact
Standards. In this project, it was decided that Apart from the two navigation channels, the rest of
Eurocodes, with UK National Annex where Brunei Bay is very shallow. Vessel movements are
relevant, would be adopted. A project-wide Master currently very scarce in the Bay, with the largest
Design Criteria has been established to clarify how
vessel recorded being 36m long. Despite there
the Eurocode rules shall be applied in the design, being no known plan for future port development,
and supplemented with additional project specific
a larger 80m long rivertrade vessel was selected as
criteria where necessary to cover issues such as
the design vessel to safeguard future development
seismic action, wind climate and ship impact, which opportunities.
are location specific and need to be project specific.
The bridges are designed for ship impact in
The main loading considered for the permanent in- accordance with BS EN1991-1-7 [5]. As there is
service condition are briefly described below: generally no specific rule on the probability based
1. General actions – Dead loads and superimposed analysis in this standard, the methodology in the
dead loads are implemented in accordance with AASHTO Guide Specification [6] was adopted to
the relevant parts of Eurocodes and the UK carry out the probability based risk assessment. A
National Annex. large number of vessels was assumed
2. Traffic action – The UK National Annex traffic conservatively such that the design ship impact
action is adopted as other bridges in Brunei have forces are essentially established in a deterministic
been designed for UK Highways Agency BD37 way. This conservatism was acceptable considering
loading previously. This ensures that the bridges that the design loads for the towers’ foundation are
in the transport network are designed for similar under the ship impact case, the seismic and
similar loading. the wind load cases.
3. Wind action – A site-specific wind climate The design impact forces (including dynamic
assessment was carried out based on historic amplification factor) for the Brunei Chanel Bridge is
data. Considering the thunderstorm 30.3MN and that for the Eastern Channel Bridge is
phenomenon which could lead to sudden burst
26.6MN. These values were determined via a
of high wind speed, the 10-minute wind speed marine impact risk assessment study using a 1500T
with mean return period of 50 years is
Rivertrade vessel as the design vessel, and
613
following AASHTO methodology. Eurocode BS is no brittle failure of non-ductile structural

EN1991-7 was followed for the application of the elements and no unseating of superstructure.
ship impact forces.
5.2.2 Seismic analysis and design
To design against possible local ship impact to the
piles, sufficient setback of the piles from the edge Considering the relatively low seismicity, seismic
of pile caps have been provided. The setback was response spectrum analyses were carried out for
estimated considering a number of representative the two cable stayed bridges based on linear modal
vessels similar to the design vessel and the bow analyses (Figure 12). Cable stayed bridge’s dynamic
crushing distances. behaviour is complex and seismic response may be
dominated by higher mode effects. It is
5.2 Seismic analysis and design recommended in Eurocode EN1998-2 that a
behaviour factor of q=1 is considered in design, i.e.,
5.2.1 Design earthquakes responding to elastic behaviour, for this type of
structure.
Based on a probabilistic seismic hazard
assessment, it can be established that Brunei is a
low seismicity region according to the definition in
BS EN1998-1 [7]. Despite this fact, considering the
importance and scale of this project, seismic design
is essential.
Seismic analysis and verification have been carried Figure 12: First lateral and longitudinal modes
out in accordance with BS EN1998-1 and BS from modal analysis of Brunei Channel Bridge
EN1998-2 [8]. The ground comprises thick layer of
It was found that the design seismic demand is
soft material and is hence classified as Type S,
similar to that due to Ultimate Limit State when
which means that site specific response analyses
wind is the leading variable action. Unlike the
are mandatory to establish the ground
marine viaducts in the same project where high
displacement and design seismic response spectra
damping rubber bearings were adopted to protect
(see Figure 11).
the driven concrete spun piles and foundation [9],
4.0
it was unnecessary to adopt more advanced
3.5
seismic isolation or seismic design strategy in the
Spectral Acceleration (m/s2)
CC3 - BCB+CB1+Ramp - 975 year

3.0
CC3 - BCB+CB1+Ramp - 2475year
design of the towers of the two cable stayed
2.5 bridges.
CC3 - ECB - 975 year
2.0
CC3 - ECB - 2475 year
1.5 5.3 Design against accidental fire condition
1.0
0.5 5.3.1 Design fire scenario

0.0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Passenger cars, buses, light and heavy goods
Structural Period (s) vehicles and dangerous goods (e.g. combustible
Figure 11: Design response spectra after site liquids, gases or chemicals) vehicles will be allowed
specific response analyses to travel on the bridge.
The bridges are designed for two performance A design fire scenario from a gasoline spill on the
levels - Ultimate Limit State with 975-year return carriageway was investigated for assessing the
period earthquake and Structural Integrity Limit response of the bridge due to an accidental fire on
State with 2475-year return period earthquake. In the bridge deck. For the design of the cable stayed
order to achieve this, the analysis and verification bridges, the spill fire was assumed to form a
rules in Eurocode 8 are followed for the 975-year circular pool for ease of calculation. The pool
earthquake. Additional checks are then carried out diameter was taken as 5m, as drainage gullies are
for the 2475-year earthquake to ensure that there provided on the carriageway at 5m intervals,
614
allowing the fuel to drain away, limiting the size of dampers and ensure that the designed
the fire. This corresponds to a 50MW design fire. movement at the location of the damper
The fire and corresponding cylindrical plume can be accommodated by the fire
consists of two layers - a clear flame zone at the protection system.
lower layer and a smoky zone at the upper layer. 4) Installation of fire protection should not
prevent the future re-tensioning of the
The zone affected by the direct flame can reach
cables, future strand by strand
temperatures of up to 981°C. It was decided to
replacement or inspection of the anchors.
provide fire protection to the stay cables here (see
Section 5.3.2) and hence there is no specific design Fire protection to stay cables is a relatively new
case for cable loss due to these very high technology which has only been adopted on a few
temperatures. It was found that the smoky zone bridges. To our knowledge, the two cable stayed
higher up can affect a maximum of 4 adjacent stay bridges in this project are one of the first examples
cables with a temperature of 520°C. The bridge to implement a fully integrated fire protection
structures were designed for this fire design system to stay cables during the initial design and
scenario considering reduced stay cable stiffness construction phase in the Asia region.
and strength in conjunction with reduced traffic
action on the bridge. This is further discussed in 5.3.3 Structural analysis and design
Section 5.3.3. The governing design scenario, the 50MW gasoline
spill fire on the carriageway, was considered at
5.3.2 Fire protection of stay cables
various critical locations along the bridge deck. This
Given the small residual risk of a more intense fire produced a smoky zone that affected 4 adjacent
than those described above, and the much higher stay cables with temperatures up to 520°C above
temperature at the clear flame zone, fire the height of the specified fire protection.
protection systems was specified and being
provided on the stay cables from deck level to at
least 13m above deck level.
Following the recommendation from PTI DC45.1-
12 (Edition 6, 2012) from the Post-Tensioning
Institute, it was specified that the fire protection
system shall resist a hydrocarbon fire with 1100
degree Celsius for at least 60 minutes without
heating up the strands to more than 300 degrees
Celsius and with no permanent decrease in load
capacity. Figure 13: One Design Fire Scenario and
It is also important that the fire protection scheme Associated Temperatures for the Stay Cables on
can accommodate the various serviceability Brunei Channel Bridge
demands for the stay cable systems, which are very The mechanical properties (yield strength and
different from typical structural elements such as elastic modulus) of the stay cables at elevated
steel beams or columns. The following were temperatures were represented as prestressing
specified: steel with reduction factors as shown in EN 1992-
1) The system shall have a hydrophobic 1-2 [10] Cl 3.2.4, resulting in a 50% reduction in
behaviour to avoid water adsorption. stiffness and 75% reduction in strength.
2) The design life of the fire protection system Figures 14 below shows how this fire scenario was
shall be the same as the component of stay the governing case for the additional passive
cable that the system is protecting. reinforcement in the edge girders as the values of
3) The fire protection should be designed to the bending moment due to this case (orange) are
accommodate any future installation of
615
in various locations higher than the in-service ULS Specifications”. IABSE Conference 2015:
values (green) on the Brunei Channel Bridge. Providing Solutions to Global Challenges,
Geneva, September 2015.
[3] Carlucci, A., Hooton, M., Moneypenny, K.,
Yip, S., Gainey, C., Leung, Wl. “Temburong
Bridge, Brunei – CC3 Navigation Bridges and
Associated Viaducts”. IABSE Conference
2015: Providing Solutions to Global
[4] BS EN1992-2:2005, “Eurocode 2 – Design of
concrete structures – Part 2: Concrete
bridges – Design and detailing rules”, 2005
Figure 14: Edge Girder Bending Moment including corrigendum July 2008
Diagrams, Brunei Channel Bridge [5] BS EN1991-1-7:2006, “Eurocode 1 – Actions
on structures – Part 1-7: General actions –
Adjacent stay cables to those softened were also
Accidental actions”, 2006 Including
checked to ensure they did not become overloaded
corrigendum February 2010
due to their neighbours’ loss of strength and
stiffness.
Transport Officials, “Guide Specification and
Commentary for Vessel Collision Design of
6 Conclusion Highway Bridges”, 2nd Edition, 2009
The two cable stayed bridges over the navigation [7] BS EN1998-1:2004 + A1:2013, “Eurocode 8:
channels in Brunei Bay form an important part of Design of structures for earthquake
the Brunei Temburong Link. The towers of these resistance — Part 1: General rules, seismic
bridges will be the most visually dominant parts of actions and rules for buildings”, 2004
the whole scheme, creating a new landmark and Incorporating corrigendum July 2009,
forming iconic gateway structures for Brunei. January 2011 and March 2013
[8] BS EN1998-2:2005 + A2:2011, “Eurocode 8 -
The two cable stayed bridges have been designed
Design of structures for earthquake
to Eurocodes. In-service loading, execution phase
resistance - Part 2: Bridges”, 2005
loading and extreme events have been considered.
Incorporating corrigenda February 2010 and
The extreme events’ design scenario, the structural
February 2012
analysis and design for ship impact, earthquakes
[9] To, M., Chong, YH., Sangakkara, S.,
and fire have been discussed in this paper.
Wojnarski, L., Luk, A., Yiu, J. “Temburong
Bridge, Brunei – CC2 Marine Viaducts in
7 Acknowledgement Brunei Bay”. IABSE Conference 2015:
This paper has been published with permission Providing Solutions to Global Challenges,
from Public Works Department, Ministry of Geneva, September
Development, Brunei Darussalam. [10] BS EN1992-1-2:2004, “Eurocode 2 – Design
of concrete structures – Part 1-2: General
8 References rules – Structural fire design”, 2004
Incorporating corrigendum July 2008
[1] Carter, M., Yip, S., Hussain, N., Chin, K. K.,
Ding, L. S., Lim, S. Y. “Temburong Bridge,
Brunei – Feasibility Study”. IABSE Conference
2015: Providing Solutions to Global
[2] Hooton, M., Kite, S., McNulty, A., Chin, KK.,
Ding, LS. “Temburong Bridge, Brunei –
Procurement Strategy, Design Basis and
616
Seismic Pounding Mitigation of an Existing Cable-Stayed Bridge Using

Metallic Dampers
Ahad Javanmardi, Khaled Ghaedi, Zainah Ibrahim
Civil Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603,
Malaysia
Karuppiah Udayar Muthu
Brindavan College of Engineering, Dwarakanagar, Yelahanka, Bangalore 560064, Karnataka, India
Contact: Ahadjavanmardi@gmail.com
Abstract
This paper aims to mitigate the seismic pounding effects on an existing steel cable-stayed bridge
through the implementation of metallic dampers. The earthquake-induced pounding phenomena
were reported on the bridge in 1988. To aid the aim, a finite element model of the bridge is
created and the nonlinear time-history is performed to assess the impact of the proposed control
system on the bridge seismic performance. Results of the comparative study showed that the
seismic pounding significantly mitigated by metallic dampers and the global seismic responses of
the bridge enhanced, relatively.
Keywords: Cable-stayed Bridge; Vertical pipe damper; Metallic damper; Pounding mitigation;
seismic performance; nonlinear dynamic analysis.
dynamic response of the cable-stayed bridges. The

1 Introduction rigidity of deck-tower connection limits the
Over the last four decades, the application of horizontal displacement of the deck and increases
cable-stayed bridges has gain popularity among base shear of the tower. On the other hand, the
long spans bridges due to their structure and hinge connection enlarged the flexibility and
economic advantages. On the other hand, these horizontal displacement of the deck. Furthermore,
types of bridges are characterized by low damping the geometry of towers such as shape and height
and high flexibility, which make them vulnerable also reflects on the dynamic response of the
to large amplitude oscillation during earthquakes cable-stayed bridges [8].
as unpredictable events [1–3]. The dynamic and The reports on the major earthquakes revealed
seismic responses of cable-stayed bridges have that, one of the major causes of the damage or
been investigated by many researchers [4–6]. The failure during earthquake events, is earthquake-
source of geometric nonlinearities such as cable- induced pounding phenomena. This phenomenon
sag effect, beam-column effect, and large happens when the separation gap between
displacement effect (p-delta), were identified by adjacent structure is smaller than the elastic
Nazmy and Abdel-Ghaffar [7]. The cable-sag effect deformation of the structures [9]. In addition,
causes excessive nonlinearity in cable-stayed structures with low lateral strength may need
bridges. In addition, the dynamic behavior of special attention to prevent the pounding with
cable-stayed bridges is significantly affected by adjacent structures [10,11]. The earthquake-
the identified nonlinearities. induced pounding may also occur in bridges if the
The deck-tower connection and bridge support at seismic displacement of the bridge exceeds the
abutments are also greatly dominated the opening of expansion joints at adjacent spans or
617
abutments [12–14]. The poundings in the cable- connected to the box girders. Each cable has nine
stayed bridge reported due to 1988 Saguenay, strands of 65.1 mm2 cross-sectional area. The
1999 Chi-Chi and 2011 Tohoku earthquakes [15– cables have a young modulus of 175 GPa, the yield
18]. The studies revealed that, when the seismic strength of 1500 MPa and ultimate strength of
isolation systems adopted in the cable-stayed 1725 MPa [15,16].
bridges, their seismic performance significantly
enhanced [19–21]. However, the seismic isolation 2.2 Numerical bridge modeling
system increases the seismic displacement of the The bridge is modeled and analyzed by SAP2000
bridge, which potentially increases the occurrence commercial finite element software [23]. The 3D
of earthquake-induced pounding in the bridge beam element is used to model the box-girders
with adjacent abutments. and tower. The shell and cable elements are used
According to the discussed literature, this study to model concrete deck and cables, respectively.
attempts to mitigate the pounding effect on an For steel and concrete materials, Fy =414 MPa and
existing cable-stayed bridge by using the new =27.5 MPa are used, respectively. Base of the
metallic damper called Vertical Pipe Damper tower is hinged which allows the tower to rotate
(VPD)[22]. The damage due to earthquake- around its axes. The bridge ends can move freely
induced pounding between the bridge and along the longitudinal direction and restrained in
abutments reported after the site inspection in the transverse direction. It should be noted that
1988 [15,16]. A study on the seismic performance the nonlinearity of materials, P-delta effect and
of the cable-stayed bridge retrofitted with metallic self-weight of the bridge have been taken into
dampers is performed through finite element account for the analysis. To consider the
analysis. The dampers are implemented at bridge pretension force of cables, the nonlinear static
ends. A comparative study is conducted based on analysis is initially performed before time-history
the nonlinear time-history analysis of the bridge analysis. The gap elements are used at bridge ends
models. to record forces during the pounding. The stiffness
and opening size of the gap element is calculated
2 Methodology based on Caltrans [24] and LRFD [25]. The
abutments are assumed to be fully rigid and
2.1 Shipshaw Bridge modelled as rigid link element. The 3D model of
the bridge is shown in Figure 1.
Shipshaw Bridge is a non-symmetric double-plane
fan-type cable-stayed bridge over Saguenay River Gap Element
near Jonquiere Quebec. The bridge consists of a
double leg steel tower and two box girders which
Damper Element
are supported a composite deck. The overall
length of the bridge is 183.2 m with four equal
span length. The bridge has 4% downward
longitudinal slope from the West to the East
abutment. The bridge site soil classified as rock.
The base of the tower is hinged while the bridge
ends are roller supported. The deck width is 11 m
and has 165 mm thick concrete slab and
supported by five longitudinal stringers at 2.4 m
interval. The deck is also supported by floor
beams spaced at 7 m interval. The box girder
dimensions are 1.5 x 3 m with 50 mm web and
flange thickness. A 43 m tower made of two 1.5 x
2.4 m hollow steel box having 50 mm thickness. At Figure 1. Details of the bridge model in SAP2000.
each side of the tower, four sets of cables
618
Three flexural fundamental natural periods of the 2

1 2
bridge model are compared with ambient 1.8 3 4
vibration test results [15,16] to verify the 1.6 Mean spectrum NBCC spectrum
numerical model. As Table 1 shows the numerical 1.4
Acceleration (g)
and experimental time periods are quite close to 1.2
each other. 1
Table 1. Natural time periods of the cable-stayed 0.8
bridge. 0.6
0.4
Mode Shape Time period (s)
0.2
FEA Experiment
0
1st flexural 2.09 1.85 0 1 2 3
2nd flexural 0.86 0.85 Period (s)
3rd flexural 0.57 0.57 Figure 2. Scaled spectral acceleration of selected

ground motions.
2.3 Earthquake ground motions
2.4 Design of metallic damper
The effectiveness of VPD in mitigating the
earthquake-induced pounding of the bridge is The effectiveness of control systems, specifically
studied through time-history analysis. The metallic dampers have been proven and reported
standard site acceleration response spectra for 5% by enormous researchers [28]. Javanmardi et al.
damping and 2% in 50 years probability of [22] proposed a new application of pipes in
exceedance (on firm soil) is calculated based on dissipating seismic energy, called VPD as shown in
Natural Resource Canada [26]. A total of 4 ground Figure 3. VPD tested experimentally under quasi-
motions are selected and scaled to site response static test. Results of the experiment showed that
spectra from Pacific Earthquake Engineering the VPD had stable force-displacement behavior,
Center [27]. The ground motions detail is good ductility, and high energy dissipation
presented in Table 2. The acceleration response capability. The VPD can dissipate in-plane
spectra of the scaled ground motions, mean bidirectional forces, which is a unique
response and standard response spectra are characteristic at where most of the metallic
shown in Figure 2. Time step size is set as 0.01 damper works only in one direction. In this study,
second and a total of 40 seconds time size is the damper properties are only applied in
employed in the nonlinear time-history analysis. longitudinal direction since pounding reported
along this direction.
Table 2. Detail of ground motions.
Loading Direction
No. Earthquake Station Magnitude
1 Saguenay/1988 US.ISFL 5.85
2 Mineral/2011 Basking Ridge_ NJ 5.74
3 Mineral/2011 Keystone College_ 5.74
La Plume_ PA
4 Sparks/2011 Wilshire Boulevard 5.68
Steel pipe
Harrah
Figure 3. VPD during the quasi-static test.

The deck is rigidly connected to the tower, while
at abutments the bridge is allowed to move along
619
the longitudinal direction. Therefore, in order to reduced after implementing the damper at bridge
limit the bridge ends displacements and mitigate ends for each applied earthquake.
the pounding of the bridge with abutments, the Original Bridge Bridge Retrofitted with VPD
VPDs are installed at bridge ends between the 3.0
floor beams and abutments (see Figure 1).
2.0
Consequently, the height of VPD is limited to
Displacement (Cm)
available space between the floor beam and 1.0
abutments. Initially, the bridge is analyzed under
Saguenay earthquake (No. 1) to find the required 0.0
characteristics of the VPD. It should be noted that -1.0
earthquake No. 1 was the actual cause of
pounding damage in the bridge. From the analysis, -2.0
it is concluded that the VPD having 5 mm -3.0
thickness, 75 mm diameter and overall height of 0 10 20 30 40
300 mm, is suitable to be implemented at bridge TIme (s)
ends. The nonlinear link element with multilinear
plastic type is used to model damper in SAP2000. Figure 5. Displacement time-history response of
the bridge under earthquake No.1.
3 Results and discussion The peak acceleration response at top of the
The maximum seismic displacement of the bridge tower is also reduced from to 9.2, 12.4, 12.6 and
is obtained at deck-tower connection as illustrated 8.2 m/sec2 to 8.8, 11.8, 9.7 and 5.8 m/sec2 under
earthquake No. 1, 2, 3 and 4, respectively. The
in Figure 4. As this figure shows, the seismic
time-history response of the tower acceleration
displacement of the bridge is reduced after
under earthquake No. 1 is shown in Figure 6. The
implementation of the VPDs at bridge ends. The
trend of tower acceleration is the same for both
maximum seismic reduction of the bridge is 9.1%
cases, however, the magnitude of original bridge
occurred under earthquake No. 3.
is higher compared to bridge retrofitted with the
Original Bridge Bridge Retrofitted with VPD metallic dampers.
3.5
Deck Displacement (Cm)
Original Bridge Bridge Retrofitted with VPD

3.0
10.0
2.5
Acceleration (m/Sec2 )
2.0 6.0
1.5
1.0 2.0
0.5
-2.0
0.0
1 2 3 4 -6.0
Figure 4. Bridge displacement at the deck-tower -10.0

connection. 0 10 20 30 40
In order to understand the seismic response of the TIme (s)
bridge after utilization of metallic damper, the Figure 6. Acceleration time-history response at top
displacement time-history of the bridge at deck- of the tower under earthquake No. 1.
tower connection under earthquake No. 1 is also
investigated. As shown in Figure 5, the time- The maximum base shear response of the bridge
history trend of the displacement response is under different ground motions is shown in Figure
almost similar for both bridges cases with and 7. In general, the base shear of the retrofitted
without VPDs, however, the peak displacement is bridge is slightly reduced. The maximum base
620
shear reduction is observed under earthquake No. Original Bridge Bridge Retrofitted with VPD
2 ranged from 6115 kN to 5394 kN. 3500
Original Bridge Bridge Retrofitted with VPD 2500
Right Abutment | Left Abutment

6000
Pounding Force (kN) @

1500
Base Shear (kN)
5000
4000 500
3000 -500
2000
1000 -1500
0
-2500
1 2 3 4
-3500
Figure 7. Maximum base shear of the bridge. 1 2 3 4
The maximum base moment of the bridge is also
Figure 9. Maximum pounding force of the bridge
decreased after implementation of the VPDs. at right and left ends.
Nonetheless, as Figure 8 shows, the decrease of
the base moment is insignificant. The base The pounding effect can be clearly understood
moment is reduced by 3 %, 5 %, 13.3 %, and 2%, from the time-history response of the bridge with
for earthquake No. 1, 2, 3 and 4, respectively. abutments. Figure 10 shows the time-history
response of pounding at left ends of the bridge
Original Bridge Bridge Retrofitted with VPD under earthquake No. 4. As this Figure
Base Moment (MN-m)
demonstrated, in the original bridge, the pounding

200 occurred two times at 21.3 and 23 seconds, with a
maximum force of 3240 kN, and when the bridge
150
retrofitted with metallic damper the pounding
100 occurred only once, and the maximum pounding
force is reduced to 1048 kN; 68% reduction.
50 Original Bridge Bridge Retrofitted with VPD
0 10 20 30 40
Pounding Force at Left Abutment (kN)
0
0
1 2 3 4
-500
Figure 8. Maximum base moment of the bridge. -1000
The pounding of the bridge ends with abutments -1500
for the original bridge is observed under all the -2000
selected earthquakes. Figure 9 shows the
-2500
maximum pounding force of the original bridge
and bridge retrofitted with VPDs. As the figure -3000
illustrates, the pounding force at the bridge ends, -3500
either become very small or 100% mitigated. The Time (s)
dampers control the longitudinal displacement of
Figure 10. Pounding time-history response of the
the bridge and dissipated seismic force through
bridge at left end subjected to earthquake No. 4.
plastic deformation of steel material. This
ultimately mitigates the collision of the bridge The pounding forces and respective occurrence
with abutments. However, relatively a small time of the bridge with the right abutment under
amount of pounding force is still observed under earthquake No. 3 are compared in Figure 11. The
the earthquake Nos. 3 and 4, as the VPDs are pounding in original bridge subjected to
designed for lower intensity earthquakes. earthquake No. 3, only happened once with a
621
maximum force of 3500 kN, which is reduced to 5 References

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623
Loading steps in analyzing the interaction between the tied arch

continuous bridge and multiple tracks
Han Zhongshu
Department of Civil Engineering, Central South University, Changsha 410075, Hunan, China
Yan Bin
Department of Civil Engineering, Central South University, Changsha 410075, Hunan, China
Min Zhou
PowerChina ZhongNanEngineering Corporation Limited, Changsha, China
Contact:hanzhs@126.com
Abstract
Because of the nonlinear interaction that exists between the bridge and the track, the
conventional algorithm of calculating each longitudinal force separately and adding them up
could cause certain error.
In this paper, the iterative formula of longitudinal resistance considering the loading history
and loading order was derived, and one particular (77+3×156.8+77)m tied arch continuous
bridge with four tracks was taken as an example to build an integrated model of large span
continuous bridge with tied arch including the concrete-filled steel tube arch, suspender,
beam, pier, pile foundation, multiple tracks and the rail expansion devices, and the influence
that the loading history would have on the system of tied arch continuous bridge and the track
was analyzed.
The study shows that while calculating the temperature effect, the temperature load should be
applied on the rail, beam and arch at the same time. While loading to double tracks in opposite
directions, the torque that pier top bears can be over 4000kN•m. When examining the
substructure, various kinds of live load conditions should be considered. The result of rail stress
acquired through the conventional algorithm will be 7% larger than the actualities while the
horizontal force of pier top will be 8~21% larger.
In many cases, the torque of pier top acquired through the conventional algorithm has a rather
large error compared with the actualities, so the loading steps considering the loading history
was highly recommended to calculate the force condition of the substructure in this kind of
bridge.
Keywords: railroad bridges; tied arch continuous bridge; multiple tracks; unbalance load; track-
bridge interaction
624
considering arch rib, brace, suspender, beam, pier and

1 Introduction the track is established for the first time. The
Scholars from both domestic and abroad have been distribution patterns of track stress and horizontal pier
carrying out researches about the interactions force under different settings of TED and respective
between rail structure and bridges such as simply temperature rises of each component are studied. On
supported bridge, continuous bridge, continuous rigid this basis, under the influences of temperature and live
frame bridge, arch bridge and cable-stayed bridge, load couplings, the bridge-track interaction considering
under the influences of temperature, live load and the loading history is studied.
earthquake [1-4]. Each country’s standard has specified
2 The loading steps considering loading
the examination methods and limitations of the CWR
on simply supported bridge and continuous bridge[5-8]. history
Due to the nonlinear beam-track interaction, the The present standards and documents often simplify
superposition principle is no longer suitable and the the longitudinal track resistance as an ideal elastic-
loading history and orders (hereinafter referred to as plastic model. Depending on whether the track is
loading history) must be considered. Most researches loaded or not, the coefficient of resistance can be
at present didn’t consider the influences of loading
taken as c1 and c2 respectively, and the relation
history, although some scholars like Ruge did consider
the influences on the longitudinal track stress on between the longitudinal track resistance p(u ) （
simply supported bridge due to the loading history, the kN/m）and the relative beam-track displacement can
force condition of the pier top hasn’t been considered be described as follows：
yet[9, 10]. The author has carried out researches about
the interaction between the track and middle-span
simply supported bridge, continuous bridge and cable-
stayed bridge previously. In some conditions, under
the influences of temperature and live load coupling,
the force on the pier would increase by 40% after the (1)
loading history is considered.[11]。
where u is usually taken as 2mm, and c1  23.2 ，
Large span tied arch-continuous beam bridge is known c2  15 [8] on the ballast track
for its large temperature span, complex structure and
various components, after being equipped with The relative beam-track displacement is u  y   （ y
multiple tracks and track expansion devices being the beam displacement,  being the track
(hereinafter referred to as TED), its beam-track displacement ） . In the first step, when the
interaction becomes rather complicated. The temperature load is applied, the restoring force p1 (u1 )
influences of trains often occur after the temperature caused by the beam-track displacement u1 is as
deformation of beam and track (because of the follows:
multiple tracks, the bridge would bear offset load from
trains), and the distribution patterns of track stress and c u u1  u
(2)
p1 (u1 )   1 1
the force conditions on piers considering the loading  c1u u1  u
history are not yet clear.
In the second step, when the live load is applied, the
A (77+3×156.8+77)m large-span tied-arch continuous relative deformation u2 occurs on the track on the
bridge carrying four tracks on the Harbin-Qiqihar high- base of u1 ，which is showed in Fig.1.
speed railway is taken as an example in this paper. By
p
using beam element with rigid arm to simulate the
c2u p2
main beam, beam element with the section c1u p1
information of steel-concrete structure to simulate
steel-concrete arch rib, and the nonlinear rod element u
to simulate the longitudinal track resistance, the u
u1 u2 u
analytical model of the interaction between the tied-
arch continuous bridge and the four-line track c1u
c2u
625
Fig.1 The relation between the relative displacement Taking the single span simply supported bridge
and the longitudinal resistance carrying one line in the UIC774-3 appendix C2 as one
example[6]，the effect on the beam-track system due
Suppose that the resistance coefficient became c2 ,
to the loading history is studied. In this example, the
and the restoring force f 2 (u2 ) caused consequently is
inertia moment of the beam is 2.59m4，the section
as follows: area is 0.74m2 ， the beam height is 6.0m ， the
0　　　　　　u1  u，u2  u1  u distance between the neutral axis of the beam and

c2 (u  u1  u2 ) u1  u，u1  u2  u bridge surface is 1.21m ， the linear expansion
2c u 　　　　u  u，u  u  u
 2 1 1 2 coefficient is 1e-5 ， the longitudinal stiffness of
c2 (u1  u ) 　 u1  u，u1  u2  u
　 (3)
 braking pier is 120kN/mm, and the friction resistance
f 2 (u2 )  c2u2 　　u1  u，u1  u2  u of sliding support is not considered. The coefficients of

 1  u，u1  u 2  u
c (
 2 1u u ) 　　　 u
longitudinal resistance on the track are c1  10 ，
2c u 　　　　u  u，u  u  u
 2 1 1 2
c2  20 . Calculate the expansion force with a beam
c2 (u  u1  u2 ) 　u1  u，u1  u2  u
 temperature increase of 35 ℃ , and calculate the
0　　　　　u1  u，u1  u2  u
braking force with a 20kN/m full-span load. The beam
The present longitudinal resistance on this part of track end will rotate under the deflection force, and the
p2 is as follows： relative longitudinal displacement of the upper margin
of the beam end towards the abutment is taken as
p2 (u2 )  p1 (u1 )  f 2 (u2 ) (4) 8mm. To compare the results with those of the
conventional method[6, 8], the following conditions are
The restoring force f n (un ) in the nth step is： set：
0　　　　　　 un 1  u，un  un 1  u ① The braking-deflection force under temperature

cn (u  un 1  un ) un 1  u，un 1  un  u increase：After the beam temperature increases,
2c u 　　　　u  u，u  u  u
 n n 1 n 1 n the train brakes while passing through the bridge,
cn (un 1  u ) 　　 un 1  u，un 1  un  u and compare the result with the value of

f n (un )  cnun 　 un 1  u，un 1  un  u
　 “expansion force + deflection force + braking

c (u
 n n 1  u ) 　　
u n 1  u，u n 1  u n  u force”
2c u 　　　　 u  u，u  u  u ② The braking-deflection force under temperature
 n n 1 n 1 n
cn (u  un 1  un ) 　un 1  u，un 1  un  u decrease：After the beam temperature decreases,


0　　　　　 un 1  u，un 1  un  u the train brakes while passing through the bridge,
(5) and compare the result with the value of
“expansion force + deflection force + braking
The longitudinal resistance pn (un ) in the nth step is： force”，the results are showed in table 1.
pn (un )  pn1 (un1 )  fn (un ) (6) Table 1 Calculation result in this paper
Based on the limited-element program ANSYS, the Braking-deflection force under

Under temperature decrease
beam-track interaction model is established by using temperature increase
Items
the nonlinear rod element to simulate longitudinal Loading Loading
resistance, the beam element with rigid arm to Sum Difference Sum Difference
steps steps
simulate the beam body, and the linear spring to
simulate the longitudinal stiffness of the Fixed
65.9 57.8 12.3% 50.2 39.6 21.1%
substructure[3]. By introducing equation (6) into the support
Track
model and changing the longitudinal resistance
Stress
between loading steps, the beam-track interaction
(MPa)
problem considering the loading history can be Sliding -63.7 -55.8 12.4% -12.5 -13.8 -10.4%
solved[4] （ hereinafter referred to as the “loading support

steps”）.
626
Horizontal Force piers are simulated by beam elements according to

on the braking pier -693.2 -559.6 19.3% 302.9 282.0 6.9%
actual situations, and the pile group foundation are
simulated by matrix elements with equivalent stiffness.
top(kN)
4 The force conditions of beam-track

Compared to the results of conventional method,
other than the value of braking-deflection force under
system under temperature or train
temperature decrease is slightly higher, the track influences.
stress derived from loading steps is smaller by
12.2~21.1%, and the horizontal force on pier top is 4.1 Temperature Influence
smaller by 6.9~19.3%. While calculating the temperature influence, take the
temperature change on the concrete bridge carrying
It is commonly acknowledged in UIC774-3 that the
ballast tracks as ±15℃[8], and take the temperature
difference between the track stress derived from
changes on the concrete-filled steel tube arch,
loading steps and that from total sum should be
suspenders, track as ±40℃[12, 13]. Analyze the force
smaller than 10%, in some situations the difference can
conditions on tracks and piers under the conditions of
be up to 20%, but it’s acceptable if it is safer than the
temperature dropping by 40℃ on track, 15℃ on beam,
standards[6].
40℃ on arch and 40 ℃ on suspenders respectively. The
3 The integrative model of tied-arch sum of the results from all conditions and results
continuous bridge carrying four tracks. derived from the model under the combined
influences of temperature dropping by 15℃ on the
Taking one (77+3×156.8+77) m concrete-filled steel beam, 40℃ on tracks, arch and suspenders are showed
tube tied-arch bridge with pre-stressed concrete in Fig.3.
continuous beam as an example. Its main beam is a
single-box and four-room beam with a box-shaped
Track stress(MPa)
Rail temperature Beam temperature Arch temperature

dropping by 40℃ dropping by 15℃ dropping by 40℃
section, the width of the bridge surface is 29.4m, 150
Suspender temperature Numerical sum Combined effects
bridge height at mid-span is 4.2m and that at the 100 dropping by 40℃
middle support is 8.6m. The bridge adopted concrete-

50
filled steel tube arch rib with spherical ends, and the
distance between two adjacent ribs’ centers is 12.2m. 0
The height of the side arch on the side main span is
-50
26m, the height of middle arch is 31m, the height of 0 200 400 600
the side arch on middle main span is 34m. A series of Coordinates(m)
steel tubes are set between ribs as transverse braces,
and suspenders are set at according positions. The (a) Track Stress
bridge carries four ballast tracks, the first two of which
Maximum horizontal force on pier top（ kN）
are for both passengers and goods while the last two 200
are only for passengers. 17
0
By using the fish-bone model to simulate the pre- -33
stressed concrete box girder, the skewbacks, -200
-249
suspenders, supports and the spatial positions of tracks -400 -358 -358
are accurately simulated by rigid arms. The concrete- -600
-623
filled steel tube arch with spherical ends is simulated as -800
combined section beam made of two different kinds of Rail Beam Arch Suspender Numerical Combined
temperature temperature temperature temperature sum effects
materials. The suspenders are simulated by rod dropping dropping dropping dropping
elements, and the initial stresses are simulated by Temperature loads

applying initial strains.
(b) Maximum horizontal force on pier top
TEDs are set at the side span centers on all four tracks,
which can keep the maximum track stress and Fig.2 Force conditions under the influences of changing
expansion stress at lower levels. Rails of 200 meters temperature
are built on subgrade on both sides of the bridge[6]. The The temperature changes on tracks and beam are the
627
main reasons for the changes of track stress and 15
Track stress(MPa)
horizontal force, and decide the TED positions directly. 10
Considering the temperature changes on concrete- 5
filled steel tube arch, the track stress distribution 0
-5
within the bridge range shows some fluctuation. The
-10
increase of track stress on middle main span can be up Deflection force on 1st line
Braking force on 1st line
Deflection forces on 2nd-4th lines
Braking force on 2nd-4th lines
-15
to 18.8Mpa, while the temperature change on
suspenders is too small to make a difference. -200 0 200 400 600 800
As we can see, the maximum track stress derived from Coordinates(m)

adding each component’s result up is higher by 61.9%, (a) Condition Ⅰ
and the horizontal force on pier top is higher by 74.0%,
Track stress(MPa)
which will cause a huge waste. While analyzing the 15
temperature effects on tie-arch continuous bridge, we 10
should consider the temperature loads on track, beam 5
and arch at the same time. 0
-5
4.2 Train Influence -10
Deflection force on 1st line Deflection force on 2nd line Deflection forces on 3rd,4th
Calculate the deflection force by simulating the entire -15 Braking force on 1st line Braking force on 2nd line Braking forces on 3rd,4th lines
process of train passing through the bridge. While -200 0 200 400 600 800
calculating the braking force, suppose the train brakes Coordinates(m)
[14]
on the bridge, and take the braking ratio as 0.25 , (b) Condition Ⅱ
[15] [7]
loading step as 5m , loading length as 200m . The Deflection force on 1st line Deflection forces on 2nd,4th lines Deflection force on 3rd line
Braking force on 1st line Braking forces on 2nd,4th lines Braking force on 3rd line
Track stress(MPa)
following four loading conditions are set. 15

Table 2 Schematic diagram for cases of bending force 10
5
Diagram for Diagram for 0
Number Number
loading conditions loading conditions -5
-10
-15
One Three -200 0 200 400 600 800

Coordinates(m)
(c) Condition Ⅲ
Track stress(MPa)
15
Two Four
10
5
0
PS: The arrows indicate trains’ moving directions, -5
which are opposite to braking forces’ conditions. -10
Analysis and envelope diagrams of track stress, -15
Deflection force on 1st line
Braking force on 1st line
Deflection forces on 2nd,3rd lines
Braking forces on 2nd,3rd lines
Deflection force on 4th line
Braking force on 4th line
horizontal force on pier top are showed in Fig.3.
-200 0 200 400 600 800
Coordinates(m)
(e) Condition Ⅳ
628
Maximum horizontal force on pier top(kN)
Track stress(MPa)
4000 -20
2000 -40
0 -60
-2000 -80
-4000 -100
Numerical sum of 1st line Loading steps of 1st line
-6000 Deflection force Braking force -120
-200 0 200 400 600 800
-8000
Condition Ⅰ Condition Ⅱ Condition Ⅲ Condition Ⅳ Coordinates(m)
Conditions
(a) Condition Ⅰ
(f) Maximum horizontal force on pier top 0
Track stress(MPa)
Fig.3 Deflection force and braking force under all -20
conditions -40
Under all conditions, maximum deflection force and -60
braking force all appear at the joint of beam end and -80
subgrade. -100 Numerical sum of 1st line Numerical sum of 2nd line
Because the bridge stiffness is relatively big, and the -120
Loading steps of 1st line Loading steps of 2nd line
deflection force is small, when single(double) line is -200 0 200 400 600 800
loaded, the maximum deflection force is Coordinates(m)
8.5Mpa(15.2Mpa). Other than the subgrade part,
distribution patterns of stress on loaded lines and (b) Condition Ⅱ
unloaded lines are basically the same. When two lines 0
Track stress(MPa)
are loaded in the same direction, a horizontal force of -20

1058.2kN will be applied to the pier top, and when two -40
lines are loaded in the opposite directions a torque of -60
4193.6kN·m will be applied to the pier top. -80
When a train brakes on the bridge, the stress -100 Numerical sum of 1st line Numerical sum of 3rd line
distribution within the bridge range is uniform, and the -120
Loading steps of 1st line Loading steps of 3rd line
unloaded lines are less affected. When the trains on -200 0 200 400 600 800
the first and the third line are moving in the same Coordinates(m)
direction and braking, track stress reaches the peak of
16.3Mpa. (c) Condition Ⅲ
0
Track stress(MPa)
5 The loading steps of the coupling effect -20
of temperature and trains. -40

-60
In terms of the four loading conditions showed in
-80
Table.2, set two conditions of braking-deflection force
-100
with increased and decreased temperatures, and Numerical sum of 1st line
Loading steps of 1st line
Numerical sum of 4th line
Loading steps of 4th line
-120
compare the results with that of the conventional -200 0 200 400 600 800
method of “positive temperature force + deflection
Coordinates(m)
force + braking force” and “negative temperature force
+ deflection force + braking force” respectively. The (e) Condition Ⅳ
results are showed in Fig.4 and Fig.5（only listing the
loaded lines）
629
Numerical sum of 1st line Numerical sum of 2nd line

120
Track stress(MPa)
Loading steps of 1st line Loading steps of 2nd line
2000 100
0 80
-2000 60
-4000 40
-6000 20
Numerical sum Loading steps
-8000 0
-200 0 200 400 600 800
Condition Ⅰ Condition Ⅱ Condition Ⅲ Condition Ⅳ
Coordinates(m)
Conditions
(f) Maximum horizontal force on pier top (b) Condition Ⅱ

120 Numerical sum of 1st line Numerical sum of 3rd line
Track stress(MPa)
Fig.4 Braking-deflection force with increased Loading steps of 1st line Loading steps of 3rd line
100
temperature under various loading conditions
80
60
As is showed in Fig.5, temperature load is the control 40
load of the CWR design on this kind of bridge, and the
20
track stress caused by live load is a small proportion.
0
When single line is loaded, the maximum track stress -200 0 200 400 600 800
derived from loading steps is smaller by 7% averagely, Coordinates(m)
while other parts’ results from loading steps are equal
or bigger compared to the conventional method, the (c) Condition Ⅲ
stress at the side span skewback can be bigger by 22%. 120 Numerical sum of 1st line Numerical sum of 4th line
Loading steps of 1st line Loading steps of 4th line
The maximum horizontal force on pier derived from
Track stree(MPa)
100
loading steps is bigger by 8%~21% averagely compared 80
to the conventional method, and when braking- 60
deflection force is loaded on two lines in the same 40
direction with increased temperature, the difference
20
reaches the peak of 21%. The torque on pier top
0
derived from loading steps is bigger by 20% averagely -200 0 200 400 600 800
compared to the conventional method under all Coordinates(m)
conditions, when two lines are loaded in the opposite
directions, the difference can be up to 51.3%. (e) Condition Ⅳ
120 Numerical sum of 1st line Loading steps of 1st line

0
Track stress(MPa)
100
80 -2000
60 -4000
40 -6000
20 Numerical sum Loading steps
-8000
0
-200 0 200 400 600 800 Condition Ⅰ Condition Ⅱ Condition Ⅲ Condition Ⅳ
Coordinates(m) Conditions
(a) Condition Ⅰ (f) Maximum horizontal force on pier top

Fig.5 Braking-deflection force with decreased
temperature under various loading conditions
With decreased temperature, track stress derived from
loading steps is smaller by 8% averagely compared to
630
conventional method, when multiple lines are loaded, temperature, the torque is bigger by 51%, which shows
track stress is smaller by 18% at the middle side span. big errors can be caused by conventional method in
calculating torque.
The horizontal force on pier top derived from loading
steps is smaller by 6% averagely compared to Loading steps considering loading history are highly
conventional method, and torque on pier top is smaller recommended while examining horizontal force and
18% averagely, the difference can be up to 36.1% when torque on pier of large span tied-arch continuous
two lines are loaded in the opposite directions bridge.
(Condition Ⅱ). References:
6 Conclusion [1] Okelo R, Olabimtan A. Nonlinear rail-structure
This paper derived the iterative formula of longitudinal interaction analysis of an elevated skewed steel
track resistance considering the loading history and guideway [J]. Journal of Bridge Engineering,
loading order, and introduce it into the tied-arch 2010,16(3): 392-399.
continuous bridge and four-line track interaction [2] Gonglian Dai, Bin Yan. Longitudinal forces of
model, and the influences on the force conditions of continuously welded rail on high-speed railway
large span tied-arch continuous bridge carrying cable-stayed bridge considering impact of adjacent
multiple lines due to the loading history are studied for bridges [J]. Journal of Central South University,
the first time. The main conclusions are as follows: 2012,19(8): 2348-2353.
[3] YAN Bin, DAI Gong-lian. CWR Longitudinal Force of
Temperature changes on concrete-filled steel tube Cable-stayed Bridge on High-speed Railway [J].
arch would have certain influences on the force Journal of the China Railway Society, 2012.34(3):83-
conditions of tracks on large span tied-arch continuous 87 (in Chinese).
bridge and should be considered. The algorithm of [4] Yan Bin. Interaction between Continuously Welded
considering each component’s temperature increase Rail and Medium & Small Bridges of High-Speed
separately and adding up can cause 61% error in track Railway [D]. Changsha: Central South University,
stress and 74% error in horizontal force on pier top, 2013 (in Chinese).
therefore, while calculating the temperature effect, [5] BS EN 1991-2:2003 Eurocaode 1: actions on
the temperature loads on beam, arch and track must structures-part 2:traffic loads on bridges [S]. 2003.
be considered at the same time. [6] UIC 774-3 Track/bridge interaction.
Under different conditions, the torque on pier top can Recommendations for calculations [S]. Paris:
be up to 4193.6kN·m on this bridge, which should be International Union of Railways, 2001.
considered at the next structure examination. In terms [7] Railway administration of Federal Germany. DS
of four-line bridge, various conditions of two lines 899/59 Special protocol of bridge on
being loaded in the same or opposite directions should railway[S].Translated by Zhang Jianfeng .Beijing:
be considered. Adopt the condition of two lines being Bridge Bureau of Railway Administration, 1985.
loaded in the same direction to calculate the horizontal [8] TB 10015-2012, Code for design of railway
force on pier top, and the condition of trains braking in continuously welded rail [S]. Beijing: China railway
the opposite directions to calculate the torque on pier publishing house, 2013 (in Chinese).
top. [9] Ruge P, Birk C. Longitudinal forces in continuously
welded rails on bridgedecks due to nonlinear track-
The algorithm of adding calculating temperature force, bridge interaction [J]. Computers & Structures,
deflection force and braking force separately up can 2007,85(7-8): 458-475.
cause the track stress to be 7% bigger, horizontal force [10] Ruge P, Widarda D R, Schmälzlin G, et al.
on pier top to be 8~21% bigger compared to the Longitudinal track-bridge interaction due to sudden
loading steps, which would cause the design to be less change of coupling interface [J]. Computers &
economical. Structures, 2009,87(1-2): 47-58.
When single line is loaded or two lines are loaded in [11] Yan Bin, Dai Gonglian. Analysis of interaction
the same direction, the torque on pier top derived between continuously welded rail and high-speed
from loading steps is bigger by 18%~36%, when two railway bridge considering load-history [J]. Journal
lines are loaded in opposite directions with increased of the China Railway Society, 2014 (in Press).
631
Application status and developing foreground of CRTS Ⅲ ballastless

track
Jing-Yuan Bai, Bin Yan
School of Civil Engineering, Central South University, Changsha, China
Contact: prudentbai@gmail.com
Abstract
The technology of high-speed railway is one of the central driving forces in national economic
growth. To increase the speed of high-speed trains and ensure their safety, the research and
development of brand-new ballastless track techniques are of vital significance. This article simply
talked about China's domestically designed CRTS III ballastless track. This technique is famous for
some technical characteristics: it replaced CA mortar with self-compacting concrete as adjustment
layer, which not only simplified the structure but also reduced the cost; 2-D scalable steel mould
was adopted to materialize the track slab with high precision shoulder post-tensioned prestressed
spatial curved space, which simplified the construction craft a lot; it adopted flexible longitudinal
coupled structure of the subgrade as bridge-tunnel unit structure, which weakened the influence of
temperature stress; unit-separated structure and flexible-separated structure were widely used,
which made the maintainability of all unit structure. This article was based on the analysis of these
technical characteristics and discussed the application status and developing foreground of this
technique in some way.
Keywords: CRTS III; ballastless track; self-compacting concrete; 2-D scalable steel mould; flexible
longitudinal coupled structure; unit-separated structure; flexible-separated structure
system can be described as a quantum leap under

1 Introduction the national strategy of researching and developing
In the 21st century, the technology of high-speed intellectual property rights independently and
railway was consisted of transportation systems promoting high-speed trains’ use in foreign
around the world as a significant sector, which countries, which not only exerts an extensive and
could be seen as the aorta for its role in one far-reaching influence on the creation and
country’s resource distribution and economic independence on Chinese high-speed trains, but
development. Therefore, it goes without saying also provides a crucial reference for international
that the invention of a new technology of peers when designing.
ballastless track played a vital part in speeding up From then on, considerable relevant research on
of high-speed trains and assuring their safety. CRTS III ballastless track were made by Chinese
Catering for this need, the China Railway 23rd scholars. In 2011, Wang[2] carried out a research
Bureau Group Co., LTD developed one technology on its mechanical characteristics and optimized its
utilized in high-speed track, the CRTS III ballastless structure and further perfected the design theory
track[1], independently in 2010. This totally new and method. What deserves to be mentioned is
1
632
that Gao[3] did the further research under cold reported, this ballastless track has the advantages
conditions three years later. He[4] and Wang[5] of all sorts of previous ones.
focused on the fatigue property and durability of
this ballastless track afterwards respectively, which 3 Structure composition
both contributed to prolonging its design life. Li[6]
succeeded to figure out the reasonable value of The CRTS Ⅲ ballastless track – as the newest and
elastic modulus of the layer in 2012. Tan[7] carried the most cost-effective high-speed track
out an in-depth study on the track structure design technology, its excellent performance can be
considering miscellaneous influential factors. attributed to four causes: replacing CA mortar with
Huang[8] researched the mixing procedure on the self-compacting concrete as adjustment layer;
rheological behavior under shear used in CRTS III to adopting 2-D scalable steel mould; the use of
ensure the construction quality of the filling layer, flexible longitudinal coupled structure of the
which also improved its stability and robustness. subgrade as bridge-tunnel unit structure; the
Partly referring to the measurement and analysis widely-used unit-separated structure.
conducted by Zhang et al.[9], Ren[10] using
method of drop test and establishing an equal 3.1 The adoption of self-compacting
proportion model with in-situ test, carried out its concrete
vibration characteristic. Traditional adjustment layer of CA mortar can only
Based on the previous research, this article is provide very limited flexibility and have a slight
aimed at introducing the structure of CRTS Ⅲ effect on buffering transition rigidity of the rail
ballastless track together with analysing its structure and cracks can occur frequently between
technical features, and discussing the application mortar and track slab, which brings a lot of
status and developing foreground to some extent. detriment and problems to operation safety and
maintenance. Having the capability to provide the
same flexibility with the high-flexibility CA mortar
2 Research and development
that of 10000MPa, self-compacting concrete can
thought not only simplify the structure, save raw materials
People usually choose to travel by train for its and cut down the pollution to the environment, but
comfortability, convenience, safety, and more also reduce 70 percent of costs of packed
importantly, its fastness. Hence the development adjustment layer compared with CRTS Ⅰ or CRTS
of high-speed railway focuses on high smoothness Ⅱ . Self-compacting concrete and track slab will
for the orbit and continuity of longitudinal rigidity shape into substantial compound structure, so that
homogenization, as well as the rail structure, which there will be no weak sandwich layer between
are the most important key technology to maintain them that tend to bear load well. This type of
the security and comfortability of high-speed train. concrete is shown in Figure 1.
Since the manufacture accuracy of the rail
geometry size, installation errors and rigidity
change are the root cause to answer for vibration
of high-speed train. Improving the precision and
longitudinal rigidity homogenization for the rail
structure and overcoming the vibrations can be
regarded as the most effective action to be
adopted. In terms of what is mentioned above, the
technical characteristics of brand-new CRTS Ⅲ
ballastless track which is famous for it is easy to
maintain and durable in practical use. On top of
that, its simple structure and convenient
construction appeal to many practitioners. As is
Figure 1. The self-compacting concrete
2
633
Since CA mortar is not adopted, complex 3.3 The longitudinal-coupled subgrade and
manufacturing process and specific CA mortar the widely-used unit-separated
agitator truck together with relative equipment are structure
canceled. Moreover, the mature construction craft
is applied into self-compacting concrete which can The subgrade structure is made of granular
be infused by concrete mixing station, tank truck materials and the surface rigidity of the subgrade is
and pump truck [12], which both shorten the time relatively low. Provided that the unit structure is
of construction. adopted, the supporting force at the end of slab
and binding force are not enough when the train
passes on it. To address this problem, the vertical
displacement at the end of slab is designed
3.2 The use of 2-D scalable steel mould comparatively large due to the low surface rigidity
Prefabrication technology is applied into track slab of the subgrade, which results in vibration source
of shoulder spatial curved surface. Combined that has great influence on the safety and
skillfully with Non-separated fastening system, convenience of the high-speed train. The
post-tensioned prestressed track slab reserved longitudinal-coupled structure can distribute stress
gate reinforcement and shear plate as well. concentration effectively and reduce stress peak to
Grinding measures aren’t applied into shoulder rail improve the integrity of the rail structure and
ditch, but prefabrication technology by 2-D increase its continuous rigidity. Furthermore, it can
scalable steel mould is adopted to materialize the give economical and effective solutions to the
slab of high precision spatial curved surface, which problems stemmed from the decreasing surface
simplifies the manufacture processing and lowers rigidity of the subgrade. The structure is shown in
the construction costs. Figure 3.
Without grinding crafts and equipment, the track
slab of high precision shoulder post-tensioned
prestressed spatial curved space is made by
prefabrication technology of 2-D scalable steel
mould. And the average work efficiency of one
mould production is 1.5-1.8 per day, which
increases the work efficiency obviously. What is
more, organic combination of non-separated
fastening and shoulder track slab is more
conductive to ensure the safety and stability of the
rail under the high -speed train dynamic load. The
mould is shown in Figure 2.
Figure 3. The longitudinal-coupled subgrade

Except for the technical creativity in the design of
longitudinal-coupled subgrade, the surface rigidity
of bridge and tunnel which provide favourable
conditions for the unit structure is applied into
track slab. On account of the high surface rigidity of
bridge and tunnel, the binding force is strong while
the vertical displacement at the end of slab is small,
which ensures the vibration caused from it is within
the limit of safety and comfortability. Solving the
series complex problems brought by continuous
structure under temperature force effectively, unit
Figure 2. The 2-D scalable steel mould slab structure is also characterized for the fact that
3
634
it cannot only simplify upper-bridge and inner-

tunnel trail structure and lower the difficulty of Only maintenance Needed to be maintained
needed ,unnecessary to or renewed according to
construction, but also reduce project costs. be renewed in 100 years the damage situation
Unit-separated structure, flexible-separated

structure and buffering separating layer set
Slab track Rail and fasteners
between self-compacting concrete and pedestal
make the maintainability of the bed of ballastless
track come true. When large settlement of
Self-compacting
foundation appears and the fastening can’t be concrete
CA mortar
adjusted (excess of maximum adjustment capacity

of fastening), compound slab can be lifted to
The concrete
requisite height integrally and resin mortar be pedestal or
Buffer separating
layer
infused under compound slab, thus rapid supporting layer
maintenance of ballastless track and no-break

traveling are guaranteed. Such rapid and Figure 4. The maintenance period of CRTS III[13]
convenient maintenance method can meet In conclusion, CRTS III’s structure is the simplest
technical requirements of no settlement after and its materials are the most economical. As
construction for under line foundation works of comparatively the least-cost and the
ballastless track and lower the over-strict control independently-researched China-made ballastless
standard of foundation settlement, in addition to track, CRTS III is of fully autonomous innovation
relaxing the basic conditions of track slab and has indefinite room for development.
pavement.
5 References
4 The application status and
[1] Cheng C, Ma Y. The China Railway 23rd Bureau
developing foreground Group Co., LTD: The innovative technology of
In terms of current research results of one phase, high-speed railway leading the world. J
no matter the configuration of CRTS III and Construction and Architecture 2011;02:55 (in
successfully prefabricated shoulder curved surface Chinese).
track slab, or structure design and stress of CRTS III [2] Wang CX. Study on mechanical characteristics
and brand-new theory system, all are different of CRTS III type slab ballastless track. M.S.
from CRTS I or II. The structure is simple and Dissertation, Beijing Jiaotong University; 2011
reasonably forcing to ensure the safety, reliability, (in Chinese).
stability and durability of the whole system. [3] Gao X. Study on mechanical characteristics of
CRTS III slab ballastless track in cold region.
Additionally, in terms of adopted resource and raw
M.S. Dissertation, Beijing Jiaotong University;
materials saving, the reinforcement of concrete
2014 (in Chinese).
pedestal can be saved 80 to 90 percent and the rail
[4] He YP. Study on fatigue property of the CRTS III
fastening is saved about 270; in terms of
slab track. M.S. Dissertation, Southwest
construction efficiency, Slab 5350, the original
Jiaotong University; 2011 (in Chinese).
beam of 32m needs paving 7 track slabs, while 6
[5] Wang AH. Study on the durability of CRTS III
track slabs are needed now. The construction
ballastless slab track. M.S. Dissertation, Beijing
process and crafts are completely identical but the
Jiaotong University; 2012 (in Chinese).
direct work efficiency of pavement and fine
[6] Li P. Study of influence of the layer on spatial
adjustment is increased 16 percent. Those savings
mechanical characteristic of CRTS III ballastless
are mainly for the track’s reliability which needs
track on subgrade. M.S. Dissertation, Central
maintenance relatively few times. And its period is
South University; 2012 (in Chinese).
represented in Figure 4.
[7] Tan BL. Research the structure selection of
CRTS III slab track on high-speed railway
4
635
roadbed. M.S. Dissertation, China Academy of

Railway Sciences; 2015 (in Chinese).
[8] Huang FL. Study on the rheological behavior
under shear of SCC used in CRTS III slab
ballastless track. Ph.D. Dissertation, China
Academy of Railway Sciences; 2016 (in
Chinese).
[9] Zhang GM, He YL, Mei CG, Yang LZ.
Measurement and analysis of environmental
vibration in railway bridge section of CRTS III
slab ballastless track. J Noise and Vibration
Control 2014;34(03):144-147 (in Chinese).
[10] Ren B. Experimental research on vibration
characteristics of vibration reducing CRTS III
slab ballastless track. M.S. Dissertation,
Southwest Jiaotong University; 2016 (in
Chinese).
[11] Chang HL. Overview of construction
technology of CRTS III type slab ballastless
track. J Journal of Shijiazhuang Institute of
Railway Technology 2014;13(04):33-37 (in
Chinese).
[12] Du CY. Pumping Technology in CRTS III Slab
Ballastless Track Construction. J Railway
Construction Technology 2015;10:107-110 (in
Chinese).
[13] Peng Q. CRTS III slab ballastless track self-
compacting high-performance concrete filling
layer of main quality defects and prevention
measures. J Concrete 2013;08:158-160 (in
Chinese).
5
636
Experimental Study on the Dynamic Deformation of Simply Supported

Beam in Chinese High-speed Railway
Gonglian Dai, Meng Wang, Tianliang Zhao, Wenshuo Liu
Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
Contact: csukingmeng@outlook.com
Abstract
At present, Chinese high-speed railway operating mileage has exceeded 20 thousand km, and the
proportion of the bridge is nearly 50%. Moreover, high-speed railway design speed is constantly
improving. Therefore, controlling the deformation of the bridge structure strictly is particularly
important to train speed-up as well as to ensure the smoothness of the line. This paper, based on
the field test, shows the vertical and transverse absolute displacements of bridge structure by field
collection. What’s more, resonance speed and dynamic coefficient of bridge were studied. The
results show that: the horizontal and vertical stiffness of the bridge can meet the requirements of
Chinese “high-speed railway design specification” (HRDS), and the structure design can be
optimized. However, the dynamic coefficient may be greater than the specification suggested value.
And the simply supported beam with CRTSII ballastless track has second-order vertical resonance
velocity 306km/h and third-order transverse resonance velocity 312km/h by test results, which are
all coincide with the theoretical resonance velocity.
Keywords: simply supported bridge; field test; dynamic deformation; dynamic coefficient;
resonance velocity
.
deformation of the bridge structure strictly is

1 Introduction particularly important[1].
Over the past 40 years, Chinese high-speed railway During the past few years, several scholars have
are developing rapidly. At present, Chinese high- studied on this issue[2]. However, most of the
speed railway operating mileage has exceeded 20 previous researches[3]~[4], use finite element
thousand km, and the proportion of the bridge is method or theoretical analysis to obtain the
nearly 50%. Moreover, high-speed rail design dynamic characteristics of bridge-track system,
speed is constantly improving. For example, in the while the experimental research is less, and the
train passing test, the actual velocity of high-speed long-term test is scarcer. In this paper, a research
trains even reaches 420 km/h in Zhengzhou- about the dynamic deformation characteristics of
Xuzhou high-speed line, which refreshed the high- simply supported beam with CRTSII ballastless
speed train test records. In order to avoid the high track in high-speed railway is present, based on the
speed railway bridge to become the short board of field test that CRH380A-001 trains pass through
train speed-up, as well as to ensure the 32m simply supported beam with continuous slab
smoothness of the line, controlling the track at the speed of 240 to 350km/h. By using field
637
collection and data analysis, this paper shows the The test train is CRH380A-001 train, which is a
vertical and transverse absolute displacements of Chinese electric high-speed train that was
bridge structure. Furthermore, the vertical and developed by China South Locomotive and Rolling
horizontal stiffness of the beam and the vertical Stock Corporation Limited (CSR). Each CRH380A-
cycle irregularity caused by continuous equal spans 001 train has eight coaches and 6 of them are
arrangement are discussed. In addition, a motor cars, the other 2 are trailers cars. And each
comparison about the resonant velocity of the coach has 2 bogies with a wheelbase of 2.5m and 4
bridge obtained by the experimental data analysis wheel sets. The axle load is less than or equal to
and theoretical calculation is presented. At the 15t, and the total length of the train is 203m, which
same time, the displacement dynamic coefficient contains 2 head cars with the length of 26.5m and
and strain dynamic coefficient of the beam are 6 intermediate cars with the length of 25m.
calculated. Finally, based on the above, some
suggestions about design specification are given. 2.2 Introduction of instruments and
measuring points
2 Testing situation SMW-WYDC-25D displacement sensor is adopted
to take sample in the test. And the network
2.1 Introduction of bridges and trains portable dynamic data synchronous acquisition
The test project is three span beams of a 12*32m system produced by china orient institute of noise
simply supported beam in the Shanghai-Kunming & vibration is used for collecting, storing and
passenger dedicated line. The bridge is on a uploading data. And the displacement meter
straight line with a slope of 7.8 per thousand. And placed on the bottom of the beam is fixed by the
the beam section is standard section of 32m prepressed full frame supported by the ground. At
prestressed concrete simply supported box girder the same time, in order to get the running speed of
with ballastless track commonly used in Chinese the train, the strain flower is pasted on the rail. The
high speed railway. The section size are as follows: test contents include: the transverse and vertical
the clear width of the bridge deck is 12m; the clear absolute displacements and the dynamic strain in
width of inside protective wall is 8.8m; the height the mid-span of the beam and the end of the bridge
of the beam at center is 3.05m, while at the end of under the condition of train passing. Furthermore,
the beam it is 3.078m. And the length of the beam the instruments installation and the arrangement
is 32.6m, while the effective span is 31.5m. What’s of the measuring points are in the same form
more, CRTS II slab ballastless track is laid on the among the first span, the sixth span and the twelfth
bridge. The bridge supports are arranged in the span. Therefore, taking the sixth span beam
form of ‘fixed-movable- fixed-movable’, and the measuring points as an example, the arrangement
fixed supports are all arranged at the left end of the is shown in figure 1.
beam. And the bridge has round-ended pier and
rectangular hollow abutment.
Vertical displacement
Rail lateral displacement
A
Slab longitudinal displacement A-A Section
Base plate Downline
Upline Downline Bridge deck
Bridge deck Rail Base plate
Slab
30 1600
Fixed support Movable support
A Central line
Beam bottom
Ground line
5#Pier 6#Pier
Figure1. Arrangement of measuring points
638
called the calibration train. The calibration train

3 Deformation of bridge structure passes the bridge at 5km/h speed in the test.
3.1 Vertical deflection of the beam In order to verify the authenticity of the test data
as well as to ensure the correctness of the
3.1.1 Test calibration and theoretical calculation calculation and analysis of the structural response
under train dynamic load, the theoretical
Due to the equal length design of each train, when calculation results are compared with the static
the train passes through the simply supported response of the beam under the test calibration
beam, it is equivalent to set periodic moving load train. First of all, the actual train load is simplified
series on it, so the simple beam will produce as follows: simplified load model one, the load of
periodic dynamic response. In order to study the each bogie is simplified as a concentrated load
influence of the dynamic effect on the structural acting on the center of bogie, the axle load P is
response, the accurate displacement response of taken as the 15t; simplified load model two, the
the structure under the static load of the train must adjacent bogies of adjacent carriages are regarded
be obtained. At the same time, this is also the key as the uniformly distributed load with equal length
to calculate the dynamic coefficient of bridge to the adjacent bogies, and the load intensity Q is
structure. When passing through a simply taken as 30kN/m(considering the train wheel
supported beam, the train speed is so low that the acting on the rail directly, the load acting on the
dynamic effect caused by the train movement can beam is dispersed after the transfer of the track
be neglected. In this case, the experimental train is structure). Two simplified load model calculation
diagrams are shown in figures 2.
7×L1
P P P P P P
L1 L2 L2 L1
x
Lb/2
ωc
a. Model one
7×L5
P q q
P
L3 L4 L4 L3
x
Lb/2
ωc
b. Model two
Figure2. Simplified load model

When a CRH380A-001 train passes through a supported beam to the last wheelset leaving the
simply supported beam with 32 meter span, the simply supported beam. When the train running
values of L1(L1 < Lb/2=16m), L2, L3(L3=Lb/2), L4 and L5 distance is x, the mid-span deflection of simply
are 17.5m, 7.5m , 16m, 10m and 15m, respectively. supported beam under the simplified load model
The calculation interval is taken from the first one and two can be expressed as formula (1) and
wheelset of the train entering the simple (2), respectively.
639
 Px(3L2b  4 x 2 )
 0<x  Lb / 2
 48EI
 P( Lb  x)[3L2b  4( Lb  x) 2 ]
 Lb / 2<x  L1 （1）
c1   48EI
 P( L  x)[3L2  4( L  x) 2 ] P( x  L )[3L2  4( x  L ) 2 ]
 b b b
+ 1 b 1
L1 <x  L1 +L2
 48EI 48EI
          
 Px(3L2b  4 x 2 )
 0<x  Lb / 2
 48EI
 P( Lb  x)[3L2b  4( Lb  x) 2 ] q x  Lb /2 （2）

c2   48EI
+
48EI 
0
t (3L2b  4t 2 )dt Lb / 2<x  L3 +L4
 P( L  x)[3L2  4( L  x) 2 ] q x  L3  L4


b
48EI
b b
+
48EI 
x  Lb /2
t (3L2b  4t 2 )dt L3 +L4 <x  Lb
          
0.0
Simplified load model one
deflection under simplified load model and the test
-0.1 Simplified load model two results have some differences at the minimum. In
simply supported beam (mm)
Test calibration train

summary, the simplified load model can be used as
Mid-span deflection of
-0.2
a static calibration instead of the test calibration
-0.3 train load. At the same time, the theoretical
calculation is close to the test result, which proves
-0.4
that the test data is true and reliable, and can
-0.5 reflect the actual situation of the bridge structure
-0.6
response under the train load.
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220
Train running distance (m)
3.1.2 Mid span deflection of the beam
Figure3. Comparison between theoretical In order to meet the travel safety and ride
calculation and the results of calibration train in the comfort requirements at a high speed, the stiffness
test of the beam bridge is restricted by limit the mid-
The mid-span deflection of the beam span deflection of the beam under live load in the
calculated by MATLAB programming using above- 7.3.2 section of the HRDS. It stipulates that, for the
mentioned formula (1) and (2) is put into figure 3 simplified supported beam with a span less than or
with the test results. As shown in Figure 3, the equal to 40m and the train design speed of
maximum value of mid-span deflection under the 350km/h, the ratio of span to deflection of the
action of simplified train load model one and model beam (span/deflection) is no less than 1600. The
two is very close to that of the test calibrated train, measured ratio of span to deflection of beam when
and the value is 0.5mm. The minimum value of trains with different speed passing through the
mid-span deflection is caused by the movement of beam is shown in figure 4. It can be seen that the
the load from the mid-span to the end of the beam. measured ratios are all much larger than the
Because the actual simple supported beam has a minimum limit in the HRDS, which shows that the
double-lines on it, when the train is running on the vertical design stiffness of the 32 meter double line
bridge, there is a load eccentric effect. When the simply supported box girder is conservative, and
load is in mid-span, the eccentric load effect has there is a certain optimization space.
little influence on the mid-span deflection.
However, when the load is close to the bearing, the
eccentric load effect has greater influence on the
mid-span deflection. Therefore, the mid-span
640
80000
Measured ratio of span to deflection of beam excitation frequency is close to the fundamental
70000 frequency of the beam, it will bring larger dynamic
response to both the train and the beam. In
60000
Span/Defection
another word, resonance phenomenon will occur.

50000 In box girder structure design, the resonance
phenomenon is avoided by controlling the
4000
3000
fundamental frequency of box girder. Therefore,
2000 Minimum limit in the HRDS the fundamental frequency of the beam is the basic
1000
parameter of the dynamic characteristics of the
0
240 245 275 300 325 350
bridge, and it is also a key index to control the
Train speed (km/h)
design of the box girder[5].
Figure4. Vertical ratio of deflection to span of
The comparison between the measured
simply supported beam at different speeds
natural frequency and the limit value in the HRDS
of the 32m double track simply supported box
3.2 Horizontal deflection of the beam
girder under the condition of high-speed railway
The horizontal deflection of the beam will continuous slab ballastless track is shown in figure
cause significant track irregularity, which will affect 7. It can be seen that, the measured vertical
the travel safety and the comfort of the ride. fundamental frequency of the beam is 6.8~7.5Hz,
Therefor the 7.3.3 section of the HRDS stipulates which is close to the existing paper[6], and the
that, the minimum horizontal ratio of span to transverse fundamental frequency of the beam is
deflection of the beam (span/horizontal deflection) 9.9~10.5Hz. The measured vertical fundamental
is 4000. In Figure 6, the measured horizontal ratio frequency of the simple supported beam is higher
of span to deflection of beam when trains with than the basic frequency limit 3.03Hz and no
different speed passing through the beam is given. dynamic checking fundamental frequency limit
It can be seen that the measured horizontal ratios 4.6875Hz in the HRDS, and there is sufficient
are all much larger than the minimum limit of HRDS, surplus.
which indicates that the horizontal design stiffness 12.0 Vertical fundamental frequency
of the beam is conservative, and proper 10.5

Transverse fundamental frequency
optimization design can be carried out.

9.0
300000 Measured horizontal ratio of span to deflection of beam
Frequency (Hz)
7.5
250000
Span/Horizontal defection
6.0
200000
No dynamic checking limit
4.5
Minimum limit in the HRDS

150000 3.0
1.5
100000 235 240 245 275 300 325 350
Minimum limit in the HRDS Train speed (km/h)

4000
3000
Figure6. Transverse and vertical fundamental
240 245 275 300 325 350
frequency of beam
Train speed (km/h)
Figure5. Horizontal deflection of beam 3.3.2 Theory and experiment resonance

velocities
3.3 Vertical and transverse resonance The vertical excitation frequency of the beam
caused by trains mainly depends on the speed of
3.3.1 Natural frequency of the beam
the train v(km/h) and the length of the coach
When the high speed train passes through the d (m) , the excitation frequency is fc  v / (3.6d ) [7],
simply supported beam with equal spans, it will
when the fundamental frequency of the beam is
produce periodic excitation to the beam. If the
i(i  1，
2，3 ) times of the excitation frequency, the
641
beam will produce resonance phenomenon, and Figure7. The deflection of the beam in the middle
the speed of the train at this time is named span at different speeds
resonance speed vri  3.6 fd / i ( f is the vertical
frequency of the beam). What’s more, when i  3 3.4 Dynamic coefficient
occurs, the response of bridge structure caused by The difference of deflection and stress of
resonance is very small. bridge structure under moving load and static load
The statistical results of the test data given in is usually judged by dynamic coefficient. The
the 3.3.1 section show that the vertical dynamic coefficient is the ratio of maximum
fundamental frequency of the beam is 6.875Hz, dynamic response to maximum static response of
and the transverse fundamental frequency of the structure or component[8]~[9], and the value of it is
beam is 10.5Hz. Therefore, the resonance velocity the comprehensive reflection of the dynamic
can be calculated, and the results are shown in characteristics and dynamic interaction state of the
table1. train-track-bridge[10].
Table1. Resonance velocity when trains pass 32m The displacement or strain dynamic
simply supported beam coefficients of the simply supported beam are
obtained by dividing the maximum dynamic
Vertical resonance first-order 618.75 deflection or strain when trains pass through the
speed（km/h） second-order 309.38 beam with different speeds by the maximum
Transverse Resonance second-order 472.5 dynamic deflection or strain when test calibrated
speed（km/h） trains rest on the beam. As is shown in figure 8, the
third-order 315
displacement dynamic coefficient is greater than
The vertical and transverse deflections of the the strain dynamic coefficient; when the train
simply supported beam caused by trains with speed is near 306km/h, both the displacement
different speed are shown in figure 7. It can be seen dynamic coefficient and the strain dynamic
that the measured vertical resonance speed is coefficient appear peak value, and at this point,
about 306km/h, and the measured transverse most of displacement dynamic coefficient is
resonance speed is about 312km/h, according to greater than the limit value (1.084) in the HRDS,
the peak value of the speed-deflection curve. and maximum of it is even up to 1.18. It can be seen
Comparing to the resonance speed in table 1, it can that the recommended value of dynamic
be seen that the second-order vertical resonance coefficient needs further discussion, especially
(the theoretical resonance velocity is 309km/h) and when the train speed is near the resonance velocity.
the third-order transverse resonance (the Displacement dynamic coefficient
theoretical resonance velocity is 315km/h) are 1.2 Strain dynamic coefficient
taken place in the bridge structure. In contrast, the

theoretical calculation of the resonant velocity is 1.1 Recommended value
in the HRDS
very close to the measured resonance velocity.
Dynamic coefficient
1.0
Vertical deflection
0.60 Tranverse deflection
0.58mm
0.57 0.9
0.54
Mid-span deflection (mm)
0.51 0.8
0.48
0.45 0.7
0.17mm 240 245 275 300 325 350
0.16 Train speed (km/h)
0.14
Figure8. Dynamic coefficients when trains pass
0.12 through the bridge at different speeds
306Km/h 312Km/h
0.10
225 250 275 300 325 350
Train speed (km/h)
642
4 Conclusion University (Natural Sciences), 2016, (09):105-112.

(In Chinese).
(1) The mid-span vertical deflection of 32m simply
supported beam with CRTSII ballastless track under [2] SHEN R.L., GUAN K., FANG K. Probability
the action of the calibration train loads is 0.5mm, distribution of random variables of impact
which is close to the theoretical calculation. coefficient in numerical simulation of vehicle-
bridge coupled vibration [J]. Journal of Vibration
(2) The minimum measured ratio of span to vertical and Shock, 2015, (18):123-128. (In Chinese).
deflection of the beam under dynamic load is
54000, which is far more than the minimum limit [3] OU Y.C., CHEN Y.B., XIE W.P., et al. Dynamic
value(1600) in the HRDS. What’s more, the responses of a vehicle-bridge coupled railway box
minimum measured ratio of span to horizontal girder system based on beam segment model [J].
deflection of the beam under dynamic load is Journal of Vibration and Shock, 2016, (17):88-94.
150000, which is far more than the minimum limit (In Chinese).
value(4000) in the HRDS. Therefore, the vertical [4] JI W., DENG L., HE W., et al. Local and global
and lateral stiffness design of 32m prestressed impact factors analysis for PC box girder bridges
concrete simply supported box girder in Chinese with corrugated steel webs [J]. Journal of Vibration
high-speed railway is conservative, which needs and Shock, 2017, (08):22-28.
further structural design optimization.
[5] SHEN R.L., QIANG S.Z. Studies on the vertical
(3) For the 32m simply supported beam with CRTSII dynamic performance of high-speed railway bridge
ballastless track, the vertical fundamental [J]. Sichuan Architectural, 1996, (02):18-20+32. (In
frequency is 6.875Hz, corresponding to the second- Chinese).
order vertical resonance speed 309km/h, and the
horizontal fundamental frequency is 10.5Hz, [6] HU S.T, NIU B., KE Z.T., et al. Study on the
corresponding to the third-order transverse optimization of standard span length simply
resonance speed 315km/h, which is consistent supported box girder for high-speed railway [J].
with the measured vertical and transverse China Railway Science, 2013, (01):15-21. (In
resonance speed 306km/h and 312km/h Chinese).
respectively. [7] MATSUURA A. Study of dynamic behaviors of
(4) The displacement dynamic coefficient of the bridge girders for high-speed railway [J].Journal of
beam is greater than the limit value (1.084) in the JSCE, 1976, 256(12):35-47. (In Japanese)
HRDS when the train speed reaches near the [8] Ishibashi, T. and Nagata, H.: “Impact Factor of
resonance speed, and maximum of it is even up to Concrete Bridges (Shinkansen),” Structure Design
1.18, which means that the recommended value of Material, No.68, pp.3-7, 1981.
dynamic coefficient needs further discussion.
[9] Fujio Machida, Akio Matsuura, “Dynamic
response of concrete railway bridges”, IABSE
5 Acknowledgement Proceedings, P-60/83.
The authors would like to thank the National [10] China Railway Corporation. China Code of the
Natural Science Foundation of China (Project Design of Railway Bridge. Beijing: China Railway
51378503) and Project of Science and Technology Press; 2005. (In Chinese)
Research and Development Program of China
Railway Corporation (Project 2015G001-K) for their
financial supports.
6 Reference
[1] DAI G.L., LONG L.J, LIU W.S. Experimental study
on the dynamic response of continuous slab tracks
and simply supported bridges [J]. Journal of Hunan
643
Design & Construction of Setiawangsa – Pantai Expressway (SPE - DUKE

Ph3) – Section 3 from Pandan to Setiawangsa in Kuala Lumpur
P.R.K.S. Srinivas
MMSB Consult Sdn. Bhd. Selangor, Malaysia
Tham Beng Choy

EKOVEST Project Management Sdn. Bhd. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Contact: srinivas.prks@mmsbconsult.com.my
Abstract
The Setiawangsa – Pantai Expressway (SPE - DUKE Phase 3) is an infrastructure development under
transformation programmes undertaken by the Government of Malaysia through Concessionaire
Lebuhraya DUKE Fasa 3 (LDF3) Sdn. Bhd. The total length of SPE mainline is 32Km besides 7
interchanges, 2 mainline toll plazas, 3 ramp toll plazas and is divided in to 4 sections [1]. The
proposed Section 3 from Pandan to Setiawangsa of SPE project involves design, construction,
operation and maintenance of 5km long elevated dual 2-Lane highway with 24.9m wide mainline
deck besides an interchange and ramp toll plaza at AKLEH interface in Kuala Lumpur. The project
alignment is located in densely developed urban environment and mainly traverses over existing
arterial roads, storm water tunnel (SMART) underneath, crosses urban arterials, expressway, LRT
line, river and acts as a city bypass for effective traffic dispersal system in order to alleviate traffic
congestion on local at-grade roads. The project is completely on an elevated structure in the form
of double deck and single deck arrangement in order to minimise the land acquisition, least
disturbance to road users, adjoining developments and utilities. Various types of super structure
viz., precast T-beams, U-Beams, cast in-situ / precast box girders are adopted besides different types
of foundation & substructure with longest span being 62m. This paper aims at presenting an insight
of various types of designs, innovative methods adopted to suit the site constraints and interfacing
issues to meet project timeline, cost effective design approach during the construction of Section 3
of Setiawangsa – Pantai Expressway.
Keywords: traffic dispersal; design development, geometry; bored pile, precast / cast in-situ
crossheads; precast / cast in-situ box girders; double deck, single deck, DBKL underpass, LRT
interfacing; utilities.
City Centre and other central business districts in

1 General the surrounding vicinity. This rapid spur in various
The economic reforms and transformation infrastructure developmental activities in the
programmes envisaged by Government of region triggered increased vehicular population
Malaysia resulted in rapid growth in Kuala Lumpur to/from the Kuala Lumpur City Centre causing
644
severe congestion. Current public transport system including Erosion Sediment Control Plan
together with existing highway/road infrastructure (ESCP), Social Impact Assessment (SIA)
is still inadequate to serve the traffic demand. including public engagement along the
Hence the need to provide effective highway proposed highway corridor;
dispersal systems that are integrated with existing 10) Identification of various utilities and their
and proposed public transport system to enhance protection / relocation where necessary;
the traffic dispersal there by alleviating the traffic
A case study viz., Setiawangsa – Pantai Expressway
congestion to the extent possible.
(SPE - DUKE Phase 3) – Section 3 from Pandan to
The Government of Malaysia has embarked on Setiawangsa is chosen to illustrate the above
various transformation programmes to transform processes and various challenges involved during
the country to a developed nation status and one design development and ongoing implementation.
of such programme involves the country’s Lebuhraya DUKE Fasa 3 Sdn. Bhd. (LDF3) is the
transportation sector. The transformation Concessionaire who has taken up the development
programme of transport sector includes of SPE (DUKE Phase 3) project comprising 4
improvements to existing system and develop new sections that acts as a part of city bypass and traffic
transport systems that integrates with existing dispersal link in the densely urban environment of
system for effective traffic dispersal. Kuala Lumpur on design, construct, maintain,
operate and manage basis. The total length of the
This paper entails the various challenges involved
SPE project is 32 Km with construction duration of
in design development and implementation phase
42 months [1].
of an urban highway on design, construct,
maintain, operate and manage basis by a The Concessionaire has fulfilled all the necessary
Concessionaire as an effective traffic dispersal in conditions precedent set forth in the Concession
dense urban environment. The main focus of this Agreement (CA) and obtained necessary approval
paper is on the design development and from the Government of Malaysia to commence
construction phase. the construction of permanent works during
second quarter of year 2017 [1]. The construction
2 Stages in Design Development of this project is in initial stages with a 15%
construction progress reported.
The various stages involved but not limited to in the
design development of an urban highway mainly
comprises the following:
3 SPE Section 3 from Pandan to
Setiawangsa (DUKE Phase 3)
1) Preliminary Engineering Design Drawings
Submission & Approval; The proposed project road is dual 2-lane highway
2) Road Safety Audit Stage 1 & 2; with interchanges and toll plaza. Majority of the
3) Detail Engineering Design Drawings & project alignment is elevated road and traversing
Calculations; above the existing roads. The proposed alignment
4) Design Deviation Justification Report will become a part of existing ring road system of
Submission & Approval; Kuala Lumpur that acts as City Bypass by
5) Road Safety Audit Stage 3; connecting SPRINT highway on southern end and
6) Independent Checking Engineer (ICE) Review & MRR2 on northern end. Figure 1.0 shows the
Approval; overall road network system in Kuala Lumpur and
7) Submissions & Approvals from relevant the overall alignment layout plan of SPE (DUKE
Authorities; Phase 3).
8) Identification of land requirement along the The main challenges involved in the design
project alignment and land acquisition process; development and implementation of the Section 3
9) Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA), of SPE (DUKE Phase 3) project are mainly:
Environmental Management Plan (EMP)
645
a) Geometry of the project alignment; The first 2Km of the project alignment is designed
b) Detail Design & Design Changes; as an elevated double deck structure due to the
c) Coordination & Interfacing with surrounding narrow road reserve of existing Jalan Kampung
developments; Pandan and Jalan 1/76 coupled with presence of
d) Construction Techniques & Methods due to storm water tunnel underneath. The remaining
site constraints & utilities; portion of project alignment is designed as an
e) Land Acquisition Process & Squatters elevated single deck structure since the existing
Relocation; road reserve is able to accommodate the full width
f) Traffic Management Plans (TMP); of elevated dual 2 lane carriageway of SPE.
g) Quality Assurance & Quality Control (QA & QC); However, the horizontal alignment of elevated
single deck carriageway is governed by the existing
The following sections briefly describe the above
road, proposed median of ongoing DBKL underpass
elements during project implementation:
and the vertical alignment is dictated by existing
local road crossings, AKLEH highway crossing, and
3.1 Geometry of the Project Alignment
LRT crossing. The proposed alignment of Section 3
The Section 3 of SPE alignment is mainly elevated of SPE from Pandan to Setiawangsa is shown in
structure and the geometry both in horizontal & Figure 2.0.
vertical is governed by existing road geometry,
storm water tunnel underneath, ongoing DBKL
underpass alignment, existing AKLEH highway / LRT
crossings, adjoining developments, other site
constraints and utilities.
646
3.2 Detail Design & Design Changes safety audit (RSA) including compliance report to
ensure the safety of road user which is the utmost
The engineering Consultants appointed by the priority.
Concessionaire to provide necessary engineering
designs for various elements of Civil & Structural 3.3 Coordination & Interfacing with
works have prepared preliminary engineering surrounding developments
design drawings and submitted to relevant
Authorities to obtain approval. Road Safety Audit One important aspect of this project is continuous
Stage 1 & 2 is also prepared and submitted to interaction with surrounding ongoing & existing
obtain approval. Upon obtaining the preliminary developments and engagement of public along
design approvals, the Consultants have prepared project alignment to ensure its smooth interfacing
necessary detail engineering design drawings and & implementation. The main coordination &
calculations from time to time together with Road interfacing for Section 3 of SPE involves existing
Safety Audit Stage 3 report to ICE for review and storm water tunnel underneath, ongoing DBKL
submissions to Lembaga Lebuhraya Malaysia (LLM) underpass construction at Jalan Ampang / Jalan
is in progress to obtain approvals to proceed with Jelatek, existing AKLEH highway & LRT, besides
implementation of works at site. Also due to other planned mixed developments enroute.
various site constraints, utilities conflicts observed
at site, social issues, the Consultants have to adapt 3.4 Construction Techniques & Methods
design changes to resolve the above mentioned due to Site Constraints & Utilities
issues and obtain necessary approvals for the The design of foundations and its implementation
design changes carried out with proper justification for the Section 3 of SPE elevated road structures is
reports. All the geometric design elements of the challenging task as the project alignment is
highway have gone through relevant stages of road
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passing through densely trafficked urban roads, time to time by adopting necessary alignment
presence of various utilities underneath the changes, structural design adaptation to suit the
existing roads such as storm water tunnel, water / condition at site by changing the type of structural
sewer pipes, cross drainage, TNB / Telekom cables element such as piling arrangement & size of piles
etc. To minimise the disturbance / relocation to for foundations (like bored piles, spun piles),
the utilities which requires significant time & cost, cantilever & portal piers with double deck and
different foundation types such as bored piles (4 single deck carriageways for mainline, cantilever,
piles, 3 piles, 2 piles, single pile), spun piles and portal & F-shape piers for ramps, different types of
boring using reverse circulation technique are superstructure (precast & cast in-situ crossheads,
being adopted. Figure 3.0 presents various types of U-beams, T-beams, and cast in-situ / precast box
piling arrangement adopted during design girders). The longest span designed is 62m with
development and complexity of construction due very tall piers & T-beams along SPE mainline
to various interfaces such as ongoing DBKL crossing the AKLEH highway. Figure 4.0 to Figure
underpass, existing AKLEH highway / LRT crossing. 6.0 presents typical cross sections for elevated
mainline & ramps carriageway showing different
Various issues are being raised during design
types of piling, cantilever and portal piers,
development and construction activities due to site
crossheads, beams, and box girders. The precast
constraints such as conflict with existing structures,
crossheads and beams are adopted for the ease of
utilities, access to permanent work site, adjoining
construction and launching to be carried out
properties and interfacing with proposed
mostly during night times as the project road is
developments. These issues are addressed from
above the existing road live traffic.
648
649
650
3.5 Land Acquisition Process & Squatter organised. An emergency response plan is
Relocation established in case of any emergency occurs.
Environmental Management Plan is implemented
As the proposed route of Section 3 of SPE is mostly in line with approved Erosion Sediment Control
elevated and runs over existing roads, the Plan (ESCP).
proposed Right of Way (ROW) matches with
existing road reserve except at places due to 4 Conclusions
geometric standards, additional land is proposed to
be acquired. As a part of land acquisition process, Throughout the design development and
land acquisition plans are prepared for both implementation process of this project various
Section 4 and Section 8 Gazette purposes together lessons are learnt in terms of timely land
with setback applications and submitted to acquisition process, early identification of utilities
relevant authorities for obtaining necessary and coordination with surrounding developments /
approvals. The public hearing is in progress to local authorities to minimise design changes, and
finalise and complete the land acquisition. The proper integration to minimise abortive works for
design development including design changes are successful completion of project in time and
carried out during the process of land acquisition without cost overrun.
and squatter relocation. The squatter’s relocation Finally, with proper vision, planning, understanding
is managed by continual process of engagement of existing site conditions, coordination, interfacing
with relevant authorities and squatters. with surrounding developments, precise
implementation programme, and continual
3.6 Traffic Management Plans (TMP) engagement with relevant authorities for obtaining
Proper traffic management plans (TMP) are necessary approvals, a highway of such magnitude
prepared in various phases based on the can be built in a timely and smoother manner in a
availability of site, Master Implementation dense urban environment.
Programme (MIP) for construction works and
submitted to relevant authorities (LLM/DBKL/JKR) 5 Acknowledgements
from time to time to obtain necessary approvals.
Our sincere thanks and acknowledgements to
The approved traffic management schemes are
Lembaga Lebuhraya Malaysia (LLM), Lebuhraya
implemented at site to carryout construction
DUKE Fasa3 Sdn. Bhd. (LDF3) and MMSB Consult
works. The TMP is successfully implemented at site
Sdn. Bhd. for their guidance, support and allowing
and monitored from time to time to ensure the
us to present this paper.
safety of existing road users.
3.7 Quality Control & Quality Assurance 6 References

(QA & QC) [1] Setiawangsa – Pantai Expressway (SPE)
Concession Agreement, January 2016.
All the necessary quality control procedures in
terms of site inspections, sampling and laboratory
testing are being carried out based on construction
drawings and project specification requirements.
Any permanent work that is in non-compliance
with project requirements, a non-conformance
report is issued which is to be closed by means of
rectifying the non-compliance by Contractor.
Presently the QA & QC is ongoing process.
Occupational Safety and Health is also given
significant importance during construction
activities and regular tool box briefing to workers is
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April 25 - 27 2018, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
The realisation of the 6.2km long Padma Multipurpose Road and Rail
Bridge in Bangladesh
V. Jones, R. Halliday, M. King
Rendel Limited, London, UK
Shafiqul Islam
Bangladesh Bridge Authority, Dhaka, Bangladesh
Contact: v.jones@rendel-ltd.com
Abstract
The Padma is one of the world’s mightiest rivers, being a distributary of the Ganges and the Jamuna
rivers, winding its way through Bangladesh to the Bay of Bengal. It is a major division between the
country’s south-west region and the capital city and economic centre of Dhaka. During the monsoon
season, the Padma River becomes fast flowing and capable of causing deep scour. Crossing the
Padma with a 6.2km long steel truss bridge, carrying road and rail, presents technical challenges to
the client, consultants and contractors, including significant river training work and deep
foundations in an alluvial flood plain, where the rock formation lies several km below the river bed,
and in an area subject to considerable seismic activity leading to possible liquefaction of the soil.
Other challenges include major vessel traffic and ship impact. Once these technical challenges are
overcome, the construction of the bridge will bring considerable social, political and economic
advantages to Bangladesh and development to the south-west region, giving greater access to the
country’s second port at Mongla and to the proposed Payra Port, which is currently under
construction. This paper describes some of the technical challenges faced and overcome in bringing
this landmark multipurpose crossing to fruition.
Keywords: steel-truss bridge; road; rail; river training; ship impact; seismic; scour.
1 Historical and Geographical Setting Geologically Bangladesh primarily comprises the
accretion from the littoral drift up the east coast of
The driving force and aspiration for the India together with the sediment flow down from
implementation of a fixed crossing of the Padma the Himalayas. This results in a country where 90%
River is the linkage of the South-West quadrant of of the landmass is within 10 metres of sea level,
Bangladesh to the Eastern Region of the country, which is subject to annual fluvial flooding, has
and to the capital Dhaka. In meeting this numerous unstable rivers and, notwithstanding the
aspiration, the Padma Multipurpose Bridge will link level of the riverine traffic, is dependent on the
Dhaka to the country’s second major port, Mongla, existing fixed crossings over this river system.
allowing diversity from its current primary
dependence on Chittagong port. Khulna, the third The missing link in the primary road network of
major city of Bangladesh, and Benapole, the ‘inland Bangladesh is that across the Padma River now
port’ will also thereby be linked to the east of the proposed at Mawa. With the decision made to
country. It will also form part of the Asian Highway provide that road link, the incremental capital cost
Network. to the bridge structure to additionally carry dual
gauge rail loading was determined as
comparatively small if incorporated at the outset.
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2 Project Inception
Rendel Ltd (formerly HPR) have been involved in Commencement of the construction phase began
the project for an extended period and carried out in November 2014 with MBEC Ltd(China) as the
the Pre-Feasibility Study for the proposed project Contractor for the Main Bridge. In December 2014
in 1999 incorporating surveys, studies, preliminary Sinohydro Ltd (China) commenced work on the
designs, cost estimating, economic and traffic River Training Works Contract. Works on the
evaluation. The recommendation from that study approach roads and ancillary works were already
was to progress to the next stage of the project. A underway, having commenced in January 2014, by
further Feasibility Study in 2003-2005 confirmed the Bangladesh Contractor Abdul Monem Ltd. The
the site location and formed the basis for the Construction Supervision Consultant (CSC-2) is the
Government of Bangladesh to proceed with the Korean Expressway Corporation (KEC) with Rendel
detailed design and construction of the project. Ltd (in association with BCL, KEI & PADECO) in the
role of the Management Support Consultancy
(MSC).
3 Scheme Description
The project comprises a 6.15 km Main Bridge,
extensive River Training Works of 14.0 km length,
approximately 13.6 km of approach roads and
Bridge End Facilities on both banks. The main
bridge is in the form of composite steel truss with
two levels, a railway at lower deck level and a
highway at upper deck level. There will be a
number of facilities at the bridge end on the Mawa
(north) side including offices, accommodation and
a visitor centre. The facilities on the Janjira (south)
side will be more extensive and will include the toll
facilities and a large office and accommodation
compound of a standard to be developed as a
major hotel and tourist resort after bridge opening.
The project will also require extensive enabling
works including the relocation of the ferry ghats,
temporary access roads and road diversions,
temporary working areas including harbours, and
temporary accommodation for site staff.
Figure 1. Project location within Bangladesh The 6.15km Main Bridge is comprised of 41 No.
150m long steel truss spans, 12.7m deep with a
In 2006 the Land Acquisition Plan (LAP), the 22m wide composite upper concrete deck to
Resettlement Action Plan (RAP) and the support the 4-lane highway. The lower level of the
Environmental Management Plan (EMP) were truss will support a standard (i.e. broad) gauge
completed. The initial detailed design and heavy freight railway line. The bridge will also carry
procurement by Maunsell / AECOM was other major services which will include a 0.76m
commenced under funding from the ADB in 2011, high-pressure gas pipeline and telecommunication
as was the Independent Design Check, by Flint & facilities. A separate 400kV power transmission
Neill. (now COWI). However, final procurement crossing on independent foundations will be
and implementation funding (2011 – 2015) of the provided upstream.
project has been undertaken by funding directly
from the Government of Bangladesh. The main bridge comprises very substantial piled
foundations consisting of sets of 6 no. 3m diameter
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raking piles up to 114m long supporting in-situ · Approach viaducts in concrete at both
concrete pile caps, bridge piers and superstructure. northern and southern ends on piled
Approach viaducts carrying both road and rail are foundations.
at each end of the main bridge and comprise 38m · Approach embankments and associated
spans utilising pre-cast pre-stressed beams with in- structures at each end of the bridge
situ reinforced concrete slabs. These will provide
for the separation of the road and rail alignments. · Approach road works connecting to
existing highway network on the North side
The approach viaducts including the transition
piers to the main bridge are supported on bored · Approach road works connecting to
piles of 1.5 and 3m diameter. existing N8 Highway on the South side
Approach embankments and highways extending · Bridge-end facilities on the North (Mawa)
many kilometres from the crossing on both banks side including toll plaza, and service area
have been constructed to connect to the existing facilities.
highway network.
· Bridge-end facilities on the South (Janjira)
The Bangladesh Bridge Authority awarded side including toll plaza, and service area
construction of the project in 5 principal packages facilities.
as separate construction contracts. Between them
these packages include: · A total of 14km of river training works
upstream, principally to the South bank.
· Main bridge crossing; over 6km of bridge
superstructure together with deep large · Provision for services to include gas,
diameter piled foundations. electricity and telecommunications.
Figure 2. Project components either side of the River Padma
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The required river training works comprise, on the probability) resulting in peak ground
North Bank, of a guiding revetment along the river acceleration of 0.051g
bank on a dredged slope with falling apron at the · Contingency Level Earthquake (CLE) with a
toe. The total length is around 1.5km along the return period of 475 years (20%
river bank and with a horizontal projection towards probability) resulting in a peak ground
the river of around 170m. Works on the extended acceleration of 0.143g at -120m PWD.
falling apron consists of 800kg geo-bags five layers
Seismic isolation of the superstructure is being
thick dumped on to a dredged surface. This gives
provided by friction pendulum bearings
way to a dredged slope at 1V:6H protected by 3
manufactured and tested by Wuhan Hirun of China.
layers of 125kg geo-bags and a 90cm thick layer of
These bearings, are the largest of their type ever
hard rock up to a level of -2.4m. Between -2.4m and
manufactured with capacity up to 10,000 tonnes.
+2.4m the slope is protected by dumped concrete
blocks over geotextile layer whilst above +2.4m the 4.1.2 Foundation Scour
concrete blocks are placed, again over geotextile The Padma River is the catchment of the Ganges
material. and the Brahmaputra-Jamuna Rivers with 100 year
The falling geo-bag apron of around 25m wide is return flows at the bridge site up to 128,000m3/s.
provided at -25m PWD level. Low water level Because of large fluctuations in flow and river level,
typically is at +2m level, with the highest during the the potential scour around the piled foundations is
monsoon period at around +6m. a significant concern. Design by AECOM sub-
consultants, Northwest Hydraulics (NHC) carried
On the South Bank the works are longitudinally
out detailed modelling of the proposed pile
much more extensive with a total length of around
foundation group identifying scour depths of up to
12km along the river bank. The revetment is
-70m PWD (50m) on the steel tubular raking pile
designed with similar cross section as the North
group. This figure arising as a combination of
bank.
general (river action) scour and local (bridge pile)
The project works will incorporate extensive scour. The effect of the potential loss of up to 50m
enabling works including the relocation of ferry of skin friction clearly has a large impact on the pile
ghats, temporary access roads and road diversions, design.
temporary working areas including harbours, and
4.1.3 Ship Impact
temporary accommodation for site staff.
A ship impact load, using vessels of up to 4,000
4 Design Criteria DWT more than adequately covers all vessels on
4.1 Design Codes – Main Bridge the Padma River ship register and was equivalent
to 23MN impact head on and 11.7MN side on to
The Main Bridge was designed primarily in the bridge piers. This conservative 4,000 DWT
accordance with the British Standard BS 5400: Steel loading was retained in view of the potential of coal
concrete and composite bridges whilst seismic handling ships that may service planned power
loading and design were according to a station requirements.
combination of Japanese and American codes.
4.1.4 Road and Rail
4.1.1 Seismic Criteria
The project highway will form part of the national
The Padma Bridge is in an area of high seismic highway system of Bangladesh (NH 8) as well as the
activity and Bangladesh University of Engineering Asian Highway Route No. 1 (AH 1). The highway
and Technology (BUET) carried out site specific loading is to UK standards; full HA + 45 units HB
seismic hazard assessment with 2 levels of seismic loading with geometric design to Highway
hazard prescribed. These were: Department of Bangladesh. The railway may form
· Operating Level Earthquake (OLE) with a an extension to the Indian Dedicated Freight
return period of 100 years (65% Corridor so loading for heavy freight
655
accommodates 32.5 tonne axles. Provision is analysis resulted in the development of the
included for overhead electrification. following pile, pile cap and pier arrangement:
4.2 River Training Works
The design of the River Training Works was carried
out by Maunsell / AECOM in association with
Northwest Hydraulic, SMEC and ACE Consultants,
resulting in, after several interim design reports, a
Final Design report submission in July 2011. The
river training structures are designed in accordance
with AASHTO bridge standards and HEC-18
(USFHA,2001) standards. The RTW is designed to
withstand a check flood (and scour) of a 500-year
return period without endangering the integrity of
the RTW or resulting in any collapse. The design
and check flood levels also include an allowance for
climate change.
5 Construction
5.1 Foundations and substructure
Figure 3. Pier, pile cap and pile arrangement.
After several preconstruction assessments it was
determined that a steel tube raking piled option The principal activities involved in the installation
was the most practical and economic solution to of each 6no. pile group for each pier are as follows:
the bridge foundations. The prescribed 3m dia. 1. Positioning and installation of guide frame
tubular piles are required to accommodate deep 2. Lifting and driving of 3m dia. working piles
river bed scour (+/- 50m), earthquake loads and 3. Cofferdam installation to head of pile
ship impact loads as well as associated construction group
dead and live loading from the bridge road and rail 4. Soil removal to inside of piles
traffic. From the river surface level and the 5.5m 5. Installation of centralising frame and base
deep pile cap a 6no. pile group rakes at 1:6 slope to grouting apparatus
the river bed and through the underlying subsoil 6. 10m concrete plug to base of pile
with pile lengths of up to 114m. 7. Base grouting
5.1.1 Piled Foundations 8. Sand infill
9. 10m concrete plug to top of pile
Extensive hydrological river bed modelling was
carried out to determine local scour effects around The piles are constructed from 60mm flat steel
the pile group. Steel tubular piles have been plate and rolled and formed into 3m lengths on
utilised in order to provide a bending resistance in site. These 3m sections are progressively welded
the pile that could not be generated in purely together to reach 2no. lengths of circa 75m and
concrete bored piles. The piles require to be 45m. The bottom and top sections are transported
designed for a number of load combinations. The to the driving platform and driven to length
1:6 rake of the pile was utilised in part to resist connecting both sections with a final on-site weld
lateral forces identified under earthquake loading. after installation of the first 75m length. Soil is then
removed from inside the pile leaving a 5m soil plug
A global model was constructed to understand the
at the base of the pile. A guide frame is lowered
impact on the six-span modules with differing
carrying feeder pipes and with manchette tubes
scenarios of scour at each of the pier locations. In
fixed to the bottom of the frame. After positioning
this way the critical axial loads, shear and bending
of reinforcement, concreting of the bottom 10m of
forces were determined in the pile foundation
the pile is completed. Base grouting of the interface
group at any particular pier. The outcome of the
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between the concrete plug and the soil plug is then Longitudinally, the main spans are in the form of a
progressed to ensure full end bearing of the pile is warren truss with the road deck slab connected to
mobilised. The tubular pile is then backfilled to the top chord by shear stud connections to provide
within 10m of the top of the pile when a second a composite connection. This form has a relatively
10m reinforced concrete plug is installed. high stiffness to mass ratio and has advantages in
the control of deflections and seismic performance
due to the reduced sprung mass to be carried to the
pier and piled foundation should an earthquake
occur.
Figure 4. Guide frame and foundation pile driving

Subsequent cofferdam installation, tremie
concrete placement and water removal allows the
construction of the 5.5m deep pile cap. The 6 steel
tubular piles are embedded into the pile cap for Figure 6. Schematic of deck, truss and pier.
1m, which has a maximum soffit level 2m below the
Standard Low Water Level.
Figure 5. Cofferdam and Pile Cap Reinforcement Figure 7. Main bridge truss and deck cross section
5.2 Superstructure MBEC (China) are the Main Bridge contractor for
the project. The fabrication and assembly of the 41
5.2.1 Truss Fabrication and Erection
steel trusses is carried out in a phased operation as
The Main Bridge length of 6,150m is subdivided follows:
into 7 modules with each module comprising
1. In Shanhaiguan, China, sister company
generally six 150m spans. Within each module the
CRSBG, fabricate and paint all truss
150m long warren truss spans are initially simply
members; typically, up to ≈60 tonne unit
supported under steel self-weight. After erection
weight comprising nodes, chord members,
each span is made continuous with adjacent spans
diagonals, upper and lower cross beams.
within the module which then becomes
structurally continuous for the addition of pre-cast
railway and road deck panels.
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Following final painting, completed trusses

moved to storage to await load out and
erection.
4. Shear legs floating crane transport to pier
location, lifting and placing.
Figure 8. Member Fabrication - China

2. Member transportation to the Mawa
Assembly Yard, via Mongla Port.
3. At Mawa, in an assembly shed, the
components are assembled by CRSBG into
larger 2-D part truss modules which are
then lifted into the vertical and assembled
into complete 3-D assemblies to include
railway stringer beam support brackets, Figure 11. Truss Erection
maintenance gantry support brackets as
well as the gas-line supports before being 5.2.2 Superstructure Analysis
moved into the paint shop for final Figure 7 above shows a typical bridge cross-section.
painting. All the main members of the bridge trusses are
formed in hollow steel box sections. Sizes of the
main members are typically between 1.2 and 2.8m
wide and 1.2 to 1.6m deep, with manhole access
through all internal diaphragms.
Plate thicknesses vary between 25mm to 70mm
with Grade steel S420ML for plate over 40mm thick
and S420M for plate less than 40mm. For the
railway support girders grade S355M is used.
Analysis, using MIDAS software was carried out
identifying three specific models related to
different stages of the construction process. These
Figure 9. Site pre-assembly at Mawa were;
· Simply supported span of the truss without
the concrete deck slab;
· Complete continuous module of the bridge
(5 or 6 spans) without the continuous
concrete deck
· Final stage fully constructed truss
incorporating composite action top chord
and utilising all appropriate load cases.
Fully composite for SDL and all live loading.
A further global model was constructed to
Figure 10. Full 3-D assembly at Mawa understand the impact on the six-span module with
differing scenarios of scour at each of the pier
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locations. In this way the critical axial loads, shear steel trusses by the concreting of the shear
and bending forces were determined in the pile connectors within the open pockets of the deck
foundation group of any pier. panels. This is followed by installation of
movement joint at the ends of each module and
5.2.3 Railway Deck
the addition of precast and in-situ parapets and
The railway is supported by the large section rolled barriers.
steel beams spanning between the truss lower
5.2.5 Dehumidification
chord cross beams. Attached compositely to these
beams are pre-cast reinforced concrete panels. The original design includes full corrosion
Following the appointment of China Rail (CREC) to protection inside and out. However, with very
design and construct the rail link across the bridge limited access internally, the Panel of Experts urged
from Dhaka, the design of these panels was the BBA to consider the provision of de-
amended at site to accommodate the precast long- humidification as this would provide the most cost-
sleeper track bed proposed. effective means to ensure long term internal
corrosion protection.
All railway deck panels are being pre-cast at the
Mawa side and will be placed on the erected Accordingly, Rendel Ltd as part of their MSC
trusses before the deck panels are placed above contract carried out a design of the system using 3-
them. D modelling and CFD simulation which permitted
the required holing to be added through solid webs
5.2.4 Roadway Deck
and diaphragms before the first span was erected.
On the top of the truss, the road deck is formed
from match-cast reinforced concrete panels 2m
long which are made composite with the truss
upper chords using shear connectors welded to the
top chords. These panels are cast in yards on both
sides of the river. Following comments and advice
from the BBA’s Panel of Experts, the detailing of
this critical connection was significantly enhanced.
Because of this enhancement it was necessary to Figure 11. CFD - velocity through lower chord node
re-design the deck panels. Work which was carried
The dehumidification design includes two closed
out by the original checker, now part of COWI
circuits within each 6-span module with all
group.
required plant installed within chambers in the
After casting and storage, the deck panels are truss lower chord. The whole installation can be
installed from a track mounted launching girder accomplished without any significant steelwork
running along the truss and then longitudinally modification.
post-tensioned before attaching to the supporting
Figur12.
Elevation of dehumidification plant layout in lower chord
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6 Summary
The realisation of the Padma Multipurpose Bridge Project has, for Bangladesh, seemed to have been a very
long time in coming. Initial financial problems, have been resolved by the Government of Bangladesh, and
the project, which is a matter of national pride is now being delivered. The very serious technical issues,
including
· a design to accommodate the seismic activity and river conditions of the region,
· installation of pile foundations to unparalleled depths for this type of pile,
· the transportation and installation of superstructure in the constantly changing environment of one
of the world’s largest deltas;
are all being addressed. Other issues such as refinement of the precast concrete roadway deck slab design,
access and maintenance gantries, gas pipeline and services installation together with lighting and
dehumidification are all being re-evaluated by the project teams of both the Contractors and Consultants.
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Opportunities and Challenges of Traffic Dispersal Structures in KL and

the Periphery
Ir. S.Baskaran
B.Sc (Hons), M.Sc., DIC., P.Eng.,C.Eng., M.I.E.M.,M.I.C.E.,MACEM, Ex-Director,Zaidun-LeengSdn. Bhd.
; Technical Director, SMEC (Malaysia) Sdn. Bhd.
Ir.ChanSooi Onn
B.Eng.(Hons.), M.I.E.M., P.Eng.; Director, Zaidun-LeengSdn. Bhd.
Abstract
Kuala Lumpur’s (KL) Traffic Dispersal Schemes offer the bridge designer and builder opportunities
and challenges. Bridge and approach ramps fight for space to avoid structures, existing bridges,
services, private land, roads and waterways. As a result of this, the geometry of the bridges have
steep gradients, high super elevations, tight radii, irregular support positions and are multi-level. In
addition, there is the constant increasing flow of traffic to cope with. As these bridges are significant
to the City’s landscape, aesthetics is an important consideration whilst keeping cost under control.
The intent of this paper is to delve into some of the challenges faced by bridge designers and builders
and the solutions evolved as a result of teamwork. The paper will also touch on systems design with
particular attention to constructability and maintenance. Prefabrication of major bridge elements
outside of construction site plays a significant role in an urban environment.
1 Introduction
Some of the recent examples of Private initiatives
KL’s traffic dispersal roads comprise a series of ring of BOT Projects are the:
roads and radials as shown in Figure. 1.
 SPRINT Expressway
Realizing the need to improve traffic flow in the  DUKE Expressway
rapidly developing City of Kuala Lumpur, the City
 DASH Expressway
Hall initiated the KL Traffic Dispersal Scheme in the
 and many others.
Mid 70’s.
These traffic dispersal schemes are in heavy traffic
Since then, in addition to the Government efforts,
areas with space constraints. Gradeseparated
a number of Private initiatives have pitched in to
interchanges are required whilst additional
improve traffic flow in the KL Central Business
elevated lanes have to be built.
District and the peripherals.
All this invariably requires bridging in one form or
another. Over the years the trends in bridge
construction have progressed from simply
supported precast beam toprecast segmental and
balanced cantilever construction.
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2.3 Constructability
The selection of bridge deck may be dictated by the
ease of construction at a particular location:
 New Routes
-Cast In-situ Voided Slab and Box sections
 Heavy Traffic Areas
-Precast Beams
-Precast Segmental
 Special Spans
-Cast In-situ Balanced Cantilever Box
For deck construction, techniques like Precast
Segmental offer opportunities to bridge over
heavily trafficked areas. High level, long and curved
spans can be tackled by the Balanced cantilever
method.
Figure 1. KL Traffic Dispersal System
2 Selection of bridge deck

2.1 General
The selection of the type of Bridge Deck will
depend on a number of factors1:
 Geometry
 Constructability
 Costs
 Aesthetics Figure 2. Prestressed spine beam
2.2 Geometry
For Piers, where conventional Piers crossheads
Geometry encompasses span, width, straight, skew cannot be cast (over heavy traffic) segmental
or curved. crossheads have been used. Long span portals can
also be built using segmental crossheads by
In most cases, the geometry of the bridge will
stitching method.
dictate the type of suitable deck. Based on our
experience Table 1 gives a general idea of the span
The ease of constructing foundation also plays a
and radius limitations of different bridge decks.One
significant part in determining whether a bridge
recent addition is the pre-stressed spine beam
structure can be built. Generally, foundation
which is suitable for up to 40m and with very tight
construction requires a relatively wide corridor for
curve of radius 25m. (Figure 2)
machinery to operate. In a very narrow
The above is based on Bridge deck types commonly construction corridor, next to busy roads, where
available in Malaysia. For special situations an in- closure of roads is very limited a hand-dug caisson
depth study is required. method (relatively cheap even though slow) or
even micro-piles have been used.
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Table 1.Types of Bridge decks
Min Radius
No Type Max Span (meters)
(meters)
1. Precast U-Beams 30 200

(Pre-tensioned)
2. Precast Beams 40 200

(Post-tensioned)
3. Insitu Voided Slab 25 (Reinforced) 80

30(Prestressed)
4. Insitu Box 30 (Reinforced) 80
5. Precast Segmental 50 (No Haunch) 60

80 (Haunch)
6. Cast In-situ Segmental 80 to 200 150
7. Spine beam (RC or 25 to 40 25

prestressed)
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Inevitability for short spans, insitu construction

has the best appeal as demonstrated by KL Traffic
dispersal schemes of the mid-70’s (as seen in
JalanIpoh and the Jalan Kuching Interchanges).
Segmental bridges are equally pleasing in almost
all situations.
The challenge is to get precast beams to work in
harmony with the environment. In the SPRINT, U-
Beams have produced a desired effect especially
when lane widths are varying.
Figure 3. Precast segmental box girder 3 Substructures

constructed using balanced cantilever method
3.1 Abutments
2.4 Cost
In the urban situation the common types of
Whilst precast beams are generally the cheapest Abutments are:
option for short spans it may be worthwhile to
look at other options like cast-insitu construction  Wall type
and precast segmental construction.  Bank seat type
Currently standard segmental single box segments Insitu concrete abutments used to be a feature in
are available off the shelf for the normal 2-lane older bridges with attractive ribbed finishes.
bridge sections. For one-off interchanges Recently reinforced earth (RE) walls have become
segmental bridges do not warrant any special popular due to speed of construction. Attention to
gantries as they can be constructed using cranes. details of abutments can be rewarding in terms of
(Figure 3) This will further reduce costs. aesthetics and buildability.
For custom made segments, the area of bridging 3.2 Piers
must reach at least 2 kilometers of bridge to justify
investment in a new mould. In this case, erection The selection of piers for a large-scale project can
gantries will be the preferred method of be a long drawn affair during which a number of
installation. types are compared on the basis of
constructability and aesthetics.
2.5 Aesthetics In heavy traffic areas pier crossheads can be cast
As bridges, especially in urban areas are objects of using segmental construction. (Figure 4) If longer
public view and sometimes become a landmark, crossheads are required stitching between two
aesthetics of bridges must be given due precast crossheads can be employed.
consideration.
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Figure 4.Segmental pier under construction Figure 6.Jalan Kuching interchange RAMPS
4 Pre - Privatisation 5 SPRINT

4.1 Description 5.1 Description
As mentioned earlier, prior to Privatisation, the Sprint Expressway is a main expressway network
improvements to traffic dispersal were carried out in Klang Valley, Malaysia. The 26.5 km of
by the Government Agencies. expressway has an elevated portion of
Some of the works carried out in the mid- 70’s approximately 6km.It was built in 1997 to 2004 to
include the following: disperse traffic from congested inner city roads and
narrow residential roads leading into the city
 New routes like the Parliament Section of Kuala Lumpur from the Western suburbs. This
 Jalan Ipoh Interchange expressway is one of the busiest during rush
 Jalan Kuching Interchange hour from/to Kuala Lumpur.
4.2 Structural Form 5.2 Selection of Deck

In the early days, traffic was relatively low, labour For a large scale project like SPRINT, much effort
was cheap and readily available. Insitu construction went into evaluating alternative deck types which
using falsework was popular for Interchange were narrowed to:
structures. Cast insitu voided slabs and boxes were
employed.Even the walls were chiseled to form the
rib finish. This produced some pleasing structural
forms. (Figure 5)
A B C D
A - Precast Post-tensioned U-Beam

B - Precast Pre-tensioned U-Beam
C - Segmental Box Girder
Figure 5.Jalan Ipoh Interchange Bridge
D - Precast Post-tensioned Box
Precast pre-tensioned U-Beams (Type B) was

chosen for lengths varying from 23-30 meters.
 The challenge is to get precast beams to
work in harmony with the environment.
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DUKE 2 is an entirely elevated highway 16km long

and comprises two links namely the Sri Damansara
Link and the Tun Razak Link. DUKE 3 alignment is
currently under design.
6.2 Selection of Deck

The concessionaire has from the beginning decided
that precast beams with in-situ deck slab shall be
Figure7. Kerinchi Link- Double Decker Toll Plaza used for the structures. The type of beams chosen
invariably is a combination of U beams and T beams
due to market availability and lower cost compared
 U-Beams have produced a desired effect
to other type beams and segmental box girders.
especially when lane widths are
The most challenging part is the positioning of the
varying.(Figure 7)
piers in a very constrained area. With experience
 Precast segmental box-girders were used
gained from Sprint and Kuala Lumpur Putrajaya
at locations of tight radius and maximum
Highway projects, this task was successfully
span of 65 meters across the Federal
accomplished. (Figure 9) Most of the time portals
Highway and NKVE.
will be used with some portals having spans
 A combination of both precast beams for exceeding 30m. With very little space to cast the
straight sections and segmental precast for crossheads, prefabrication of the crosshead has to
curved sections produced a cost effective be employed.
solution without compromising aesthetics.
(Figure 8)
 Piers had a single theme using the same
formwork with an aesthetic appeal.
Figure 9. One of the many prefabricated Pier

Crosshead
Figure 8. Kerinchi ramps over the Federal Highway
6 DUKE Expressway
6.1 Description
Duke Expressway is in three phases.
DUKE 1 was opened in 2009, has a total length of
18km with 50% elevated, of which 78% is new
highway alignment and remaining 22% is upgrading
of existing road. It has altogether seven grade Figure 10. One of the few cast in situ prestressed
separated interchanges and five directional ramps. portals
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7 DASH Expressway
7.1 Description
DASH is a 20.1km of which 16km (80%) are
elevated. It is a dual-carriage expressway with
interchange points.
Figure. 11 Computer model of 4th level crossing
7.2 Selection of Deck
Even a few of the foundations will have to be
The DASH project is divided into 2 sections, Section modified from the normal rectangular 4-pile group
A and Section B. to triangular 3-pile group.
Section B is approximately 5km long and is totally a Odd spans configuration for the long span crossing
viaduct throughout going through a very congested to avoid existing features made the analysis
built up area. challenging.
With little or no room to carry out beam casting Existing toll highway operator requirements with
almost all the beams will have to be cast off site and respect to the lane closures also create challenges
transported to the site at off peak hours.As with to the design. Foundations have to be designed to
SPRINT, U beams are chosen for the majority of create as little as possible disturbance to the traffic
Section B.However it differs from SPRINT with flow.
regards to the cross heads. The types chosen are
with prefabrication in mind to minimize formwork Another challenging design is the structure for the
and casting at site. toll plaza in Section B which is 80m wide and over
the New Klang Valley Expressway. There is little
The most challenging aspect of the design is at the space available to construct the supports for the
termination point of Section B at Penchala deck. Portals have to be provided with only 3
Interchange. The current interchange has already supports for the whole 80m width. Almost every
in place 8 ramps with another 7 proposed ramps portal along the whole 580m long toll plaza is
over these ramps. There will be 3rd and 4th level unique by itself and has to be designed individually.
crossings that require long span solutions.The The number of precast segments for the cross head
teamwork between the alignment and structure has to be judiciously arranged to make the cast in-
designers is very important in order to come up situ stitching portion as small as possible yet stable
with an alignment that will give suitable solutions. during construction and at service. The profiling of
By the time the project is completed the the prestress cable ducts also poses some
interchange should be the most complicated in challenges to satisfy both the limit states
Malaysia with 15 ramps! requirements, during transfer and at working
With little space available to place the stages.
foundation,five of the ramps will have to be long
span crossings. The chosen deck type is cast in-situ
balanced cantilever segmental box girder (for
spans exceeding 90m). The longest / long span
crossing (4th level crossing) at this interchange is a
96m + 160m + 150m +86m long ramp of width
13.94m. The finished level is 35m above ground
zero. Figure.12 A section of the toll plaza
As with DUKE project, positioning of piers along the

mainline along heavily developed locations also
poses a challenge and portals have to be relied on
many occasions.
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8 Conclusion 9 Acknowledgement
The early traffic dispersal structures of the mid-70’s The Authors wish to thank the various proponents
were mainly flyovers. They were of cast-insitu of the Traffic Dispersal Schemes -
construction. This was possible as traffic was low SPRINT/DUKE/DASH for the expertise, contribution
and labour cheap. The result has been some and opportunities given to work on their Projects
aesthetic and cost effective structures like the and the invaluable experience gained.
Kuching Interchange.
Later on, for the SPRINT, the crossings were more
complex, the projects got larger, and the traffic was
10 References
heavier. This required a precast solution where
most of the elements were cast off-site and erected 1. S. Baskaran, Guidelines for the Malaysian Toll
during off-peak hours. Precast elements were not Expressway System-Design Standards,
merely straight girders but also precast segments. Chapter 6; 2008
These resulted in defining structures like the 2. Robert Benaim, The Art of Engineering
Kerinchi ramps over the Federal Highway where Structures from the Pantheon to the Jubilee
segmental boxes were effectively employed over Line
the highway and u-beams were used for the
straights. 3. (Late) Sir. Professor Alan Harris, Philosophy of
Design, Various Lectures at Imperial College
The concessionaire for DUKE, caught on the idea of Landon
using precast beams wherever possible as this
provided the cheapest solution. The added
element was the use of precast segmental piers
over busy highways where the central median was
the only base to build from. The cross-heads to
carry the precast beams were erected segmentally
over busy highways during off-peak hours.
Closer to the present, 2017, the DASH has many
more challenges as the structures are multilevel
and the spans got longer due to space constraints.
Close co-ordination with the alignment,
geotechnical and construction engineers was
needed to realize the structures. The solution was
to use precast or cast in-situ balanced cantilever
constructions as has been the case with the
Penchala Interchange.
Thus the KL Traffic Dispersal Schemes has provided
the designer and builder many opportunities and
challenges in bridge engineering.
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Doha New Orbital Highway project, Junction 7 Existing Bridge

Widening
Andrew Bance, Joseph Cluett, Daisuke Saito
Mott MacDonald, Croydon, UK
George Daoutis
Mott MacDonald, Doha, Qatar
Contact: Daisuke.Saito@mottmac.com
Abstract
This paper outlines the design solution developed for the Junction 7 bridge widening, which forms
part of the New Orbital Highway (NOH) around Doha in Qatar. The focus is on the modifications for
the bridge at an existing junction which is being upgraded to become a larger junction for the NOH.
The client ASHGHAL decided that the existing bridge should be widened instead of being replaced.
The design of the widened bridge, including both new and existing structures, must comply with the
latest ASHGHAL design criteria, which are more stringent than those adopted for the original design
of the existing bridge. The main challenge is that the existing bridge was not designed for any
seismic loads, whereas the current project requirements involve a significant seismic response
analysis, from which the resulting forces are of a magnitude significantly larger than would normally
be expected in the Qatar low-seismic region. An innovative structural solution was developed for
the existing bridge to be widened whilst still being fully compliant with the latest design
requirements without need for any major strengthening work. The proposed solution has brought
significant cost-saving to the project, as well as maximising sustainability.
Keywords: Bridge widening, Seismic Retrofitting, Post-tensioning; Shrinkage
existing Salwa Road and the NOH, comprising new

1 Introduction bridges and two widened existing bridges. The
Contract 3 of the New Orbital Highway (NOH) in existing bridges are to be widened by adding a new
Doha connects the Mesaieed industrial area and structure to accommodate the traffic capacity
New Port Projects to Salwa Road, and includes a expected on the new highway network. Following
total of approximately 56 kilometres of road works. extensive studies on the scheme, it was concluded
The orbital route consists of a dual seven-lane that a new widened bridge should be fully
highway intersecting with five main interchanges integrated into the existing bridge because this
that will service the projected increase in the area’s strategy ensures safety for the live traffic by
traffic. Junction 7 is the interchange between the omitting any longitudinal joint between the new
669
and existing bridge. However, this solution 2 Assessment of the Existing Bridge
presented the following challenges that had to be
overcome in the design: Introduction
 The integrated structure must resist the The existing main bridge at Junction 7 consists of
full seismic loading required by the project, two symmetrical bridge decks running parallel with
when the existing bridge was not designed a 1.6m wide gap between them. Each bridge is a
for any seismic load 1.6m deep four-span post-tensioned multi-celled
 The integrated structure must resist the box girder with a span arrangement of 28m-30.1m-
differential strain effects due to creep and 30.1m-28m (See Figure 1 and Figure 2). The bridge
shrinkage of the new bridge decks are continuous across all four spans with a
 The existing parapet and deck slab must fully integral connection at each abutment. The
provide a higher level of containment bridges have fixed pot bearings at the central piers
against accidental vehicles than allowed and guided pot bearings at the side piers, as shown
for in the original design in Figure 3.
This paper outlines the design solutions proposed

to resolve the challenges faced in the junction 7
main bridge widening scheme.
Figure 1 - Existing Bridge Cross section
Figure 2 - Existing Bridge Structure Elevation
670
Figure 3 - Existing Bridge Articulation

 The central piers do not have insufficient
Assessment of the Existing Bridge
capacity to resist the full seismic loading.
The bridge was originally designed to AASHTO  The cantilevered part of the slab and the
Standard Specification for Highway Bridges” existing parapet do not have sufficient
sixteenth edition 1996 [1]. The entire widened capacities to resist H4a containment class
bridge, including all the elements of the existing accidental loads into the parapets.
bridge are required to meet the current ASHGHAL  The maximum tensile stress in the
Design Basis, which is largely based on BS5400 [2] longitudinal girder exceeds the acceptable
and introduces additional more stringent limit by approximately 30%
requirements. The differences in the design  The existing piles cannot tolerate the
requirements between the original and new design imposed deformation caused by the global
is summarised in Table 1: the main issue being that temperature changes.
the original design did not take account any level of
seismic loading. Figure 4 shows the design Based on these initial findings, it was originally
spectrum requested to be considered by the client thought that major strengthening work and
for the new design: previous hazard study [3] modifications to the existing bridge would be
suggests that the level of the design seismic loads inevitable.
that need to be considered are three times larger 0.4
Spectral Acceleration [g]
than those with a 1000-year return period in Qatar 0.35

at the peak ground acceleration (when the period 0.3
is 0s). 0.25
0.2
The initial assessment of the existing bridge 0.15
concluded the following: 0.1
 The existing bridge did not adopt seismic 0.05

0
detailing to ensure the post plastic
0 1 2 3 4
behaviour of the members under seismic Period [s]
loading.
Figure 4 – Design Seismic Spectrum
Table 1. Comparison of Design Requirements
Design criteria Original Design Widened bridge
Live load AASHTO – HS20-44 HA/HB loads to BS5400
Surfacing 50mm 120mm min
Seismic None 1. The provisions of AASHTO (LRFD) 2012,
based Rigorous Analysis such as multi
modal response spectrum analysis
Parapet containment level Unknown H4a to BS EN 1317-2
Temperature 75 degree range (+43, -32) 75 degree range (+43, -32)
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Figure 5 – Proposed Widening Cross Section
Figure 6 – Proposed Widening Plan
the overall structure to 27.15m total, as shown in

3 Widening Scheme Figure 5 & 6. The widening was proposed to be
fully integrated with the existing structure, along its
Overall Scheme cantilevered slabs of the existing structures.
A new bridge structure was required to be Although the integral connection causes a number
constructed to increase the width of the existing of structural challenges to the widening bridge, this
main bridges at junction 7. The new widening solution was considered to be more advantageous
bridges are designed to be a four span post- in terms of traffic safety, maintenance, and
tensioned cast in-situ voided slab deck with the aesthetics. The design challenges and proposed
same span configuration as the existing bridges. solutions are discussed in the following sections.
The new bridge deck adds 9.1m width to increase
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Linking Slab moment results in additional tensile stress along

the edge of the existing structure and this adverse
3.2.1 Creep & Shrinkage effect is diagrammatically shown in Figure 7. A
preliminary study (later modified) showed that the
One of the structural effects associated with the
existing bridge is overstressed at SLS in tension
integral connection is that the creep and shrinkage
even without the additional tensile stress caused
of the new concrete deck is restrained by the
by the shrinkage strain: strengthening for the
existing deck and results in a horizontal bending
existing deck appeared to be inevitable.
moment in the entire system. This bending
Figure 7 – Horizontal stress distribution due to the shrinkage of the new widening bridge without the new
linking slab
Figure 8 –Horizontal stress distribution due to the shrinkage of the new widening bridge with the new
linking slab
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To counter the effect, a new in-situ concrete linking falling off the bridge deck, which in turn eliminated
slab was designed to fill the 1.6m gap between the the need for the edge containment parapets. In
two existing structures. The linking slab allows the place of the edge containment parapets, TL-5 class
equal and opposite horizontal bending moments California single slope concrete median barriers
due to the shrinkage of the respective decks to act were provided as shown in Figure 9. The provision
on the same combined deck: therefore, the stress of the required H4a class edge containment
distribution in the whole system is balanced, which parapets would have resulted in major
is diagrammatically shown in Figure 8. The strengthening work to the cantilever slab and
triangular stress distributions caused by each side parapets of the existing deck. Instead the linking
of the widening deck cancel each other out. It slab was only designed for accidental vehicle loads.
should be noted that this arrangement introduces It should also be noted that the proposed design
additional compression force to the existing bridge, also increased the magnitude of live loads that
which eliminates any need for strengthening work could resisted by the stem of the existing
for the main girder, which provided significant cantilevered slab increased due to the alteration in
benefit to the project. Conversely, this introduced the structural system from cantilever to continuous
additional tensile stress in the new concrete due to slabs.
the restraint effect from the existing deck, leading
to an increase in the required number of new 3.2.3 Seismic and Temperature Loads
prestressing tendons. The initial assessment concluded that the existing
Transverse thermal effects on such a wide deck had piles and central piers with the fixed bearings did
to be checked, but are comfortably accommodated not have sufficient capacity to resist the horizontal
within the ‘floating’ deck articulation seismic loading. Furthermore, the abutment piles
cannot tolerate the imposed displacements due to
3.2.2 Parapet issue the combined effects of seismic global
temperature change, and creep shrinkage of
The preliminary assessment concluded that the
concrete. Since the abutment piles were
cantilever slab and edge parapets of the existing
integrated with the superstructure deck, it was not
deck did not have sufficient structural capacity to
practical to provide bearings to allow the
resist the impact and associated vehicle loading for
translational movements at the abutments. In
H2 or H4a containment loading based on BS6779-
order to counter these challenging issues, the
[4] and BD37/01 [5].
following strategy was developed for the seismic
design of the deck:
 Distribute the seismic force to the whole
substructure by providing elastomeric
bearings for all piers including the existing
 Use pile sleeves to reduce the stiffness of
the existing abutment system to enhance
the deformation capacity of the piles and
transfer the loads to other piers without
cutting the abutments
3.2.4 Elastomeric bearings

Figure 9 – Proposed Linking Slab
The new integrated design incorporates
elastomeric bearings for all new and existing piers.
The proposed linking slab used for the creep and The replacement of the existing fixed bearings
shrinkage issue outlined above also provided an allows the whole deck to act as a “floating”
important secondary advantage. The presence of structure on multiple flexible bearings, therefore
the linking slab eliminated the risk of vehicles the seismic inertia force can be shared by all piers
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both longitudinally and transversely. In order to abutment piles was reduced by providing sleeves
minimise any increase of seismic loading on the around the top section of the existing piles. The
existing abutments due to the removal of the fixed removal of lateral ground restraint to the piles
bearings, relatively stiff elastomeric bearings were allows them to deflect more without overstressing
specified at all the piers, with a lateral stiffness of them.
8kN/mm. The proposed floating system increases
the natural period of the structure from 0.9s to Analysis Results
1.3s, which in turn reduces the spectral seismic
Multi-modal response spectrum analysis was
acceleration.
carried out to assess the effect of the seismic loads
In order to avoid programme delay caused by the on the bridge. Figure 10 shows the bending
procurement processes such as testing and moment in the members due the longitudinal
approval, elastomeric bearings were designed as seismic loads. As can be seen, the entire
conventional elastomeric bearings to BS EN 1337- substructure resists the seismic inertia forces.
3[7] rather than as low damping isolators to BS EN Table 2 compares the original design and the
15129[8]. In the conventional design, the bearings proposed design in the bending moments of the
are required to be fully in contact with the existing piers and abutment piles. It is evident that
structure, which limited the maximum level of the the proposed widened schemed significantly
bearing stiffness, resulting in further challenges for reduced the peak forces in the existing structures.
the project.
3.2.5 Sleeves for the piles

In order to allow for larger lateral displacements of
the deck at the abutments, the stiffness of the
Figure 10 – Bending moments in the longitudinal seismic loads – all the substructure resist the longitudinal
seismic loads
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Table 2. Comparison of Design Requirements

Design criteria Original Design Widened bridge
Maximum bending moment due to 925 [kNm] 275 [kNm]
the temperature drop in the
abutment piles
Maximum bending moment due to 7365 [kNm] 2241 [kNm]
the seismic loading in the piers
[4] BSI, Highway parapets for bridges and other

4 Conclusions structures—Part 2: Specification for vehicle
The design for the existing bridge widening was containment parapets of concrete
developed to be fully compliant with the very construction. BS 6779-2:1991 Incorporating
challenging project requirements without resorting Amendment No. 1, 1992.
to major strengthening of the existing structural [5] The Highways Agency, Design Manual for
system. Minimising the strengthening work for the Roads and Bridges, Loads for Highway
upgrading of bridges is of paramount importance Bridges, BD 37/01, 2001.
to sustainable development of infrastructure.
[6] BSI, Road restraint systems Part 2:
The conventional solutions developed for this Performance classes, impact test acceptance
project demonstrate that seismic retrofitting work criteria and test methods for safety barriers
does not necessarily require expensive and including vehicle parapets. BS EN 1317-
sophisticated isolators or anti-seismic devices 2:2010, 2010
which, apart from being a conservative solution in
such a low seismicity region, would have caused [7] BSI, Structural bearings —Part 3: Elastomeric
delays for approval and procurement, and would bearings. BS EN 1337-3:2005, 2006.
involve increased maintenance. [8] BSI, Anti-seismic devices. BS EN 15129:2009,
The existing bridge is only 10 years old, but the 2010.
recent surge of infrastructure development in
Qatar has resulted in significantly higher design
loads that have been successfully accommodated
in harmonising new and old.
5 References
Transportation Officials, Inc., Standard
Specification for Highway Bridges sixteen
edition, 1996.
[2] BSI, Steel, concrete and composite bridges —
Part 4: Code of practice for design of concrete
bridges. BS5400-4:1990, 1990.
[3] Pascuccu V., Free M.W., and Lubkowski Z.A.
Seismic Hazard and Seismic Design
Requirements for Thearabian Peninsula
Region. The 14th World Conference on
Earthquake Engineering October 12-17,
2008, Beijing, China
676
Design & Construction of Duta – Ulu Kelang Expressway (DUKE Ph2) –

Tun Razak Link (TRL) in Kuala Lumpur
P.R.K.S. Srinivas
MMSB Consult Sdn. Bhd. Selangor, Malaysia
Tham Beng Choy

EKOVEST Project Management Sdn. Bhd. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Contact: srinivas.prks@mmsbconsult.com.my
Abstract
The Duta – Ulu Kelang Expressway (DUKE) Phase 2 is an infrastructure development under
transformation programmes undertaken by the Government of Malaysia through Concessionaire
Konsortium Lebuhraya Utara – Timur (KL) Sdn. Bhd (KESTURI). The proposed Tun Razak Link (TRL) is
a part of DUKE Phase 2 project that involves design, construction, operation and maintenance of
9km long elevated dual 2-Lane highway with 24.9m wide mainline deck including directional ramps,
interchanges and ramp toll plaza in Kuala Lumpur [1]. The project alignment is in densely developed
urban environment and traverses over existing arterial roads, crosses urban arterials, expressway,
river and acts as an effective traffic dispersal system between existing road network to alleviate
traffic congestion on at-grade local roads. The majority length of the project is an elevated structure
to minimise the land acquisition, least disturbance to road users, adjoining developments and
utilities. Various types of super structure viz., precast T-beams, U-Beams, crossheads, cast in-situ
box girders were adopted besides various types of foundation & substructure with longest span
being 51m. This paper aims at presenting an insight of various types of designs, innovative methods
adopted to suit the site constraints and interfacing issues to meet project timeline, cost effective
design approach during construction of TRL.
Keywords: traffic dispersal; design development, geometry; bored pile, spun pile, micro pile, EPS
light weight fill, precast crossheads; cast in-situ box girders; R.C. multi cellular box, interfacing;
utilities.
severe congestion. Current public transport system
1 General together with existing highway/road infrastructure
The economic reforms and transformation is still inadequate to serve the traffic demand.
programmes envisaged by Government of Hence the need to provide effective highway
Malaysia resulted in rapid growth in Kuala Lumpur dispersal systems that are integrated with existing
City Centre and other central business districts in and proposed public transport system to enhance
the surrounding vicinity. This rapid spur in various the traffic dispersal there by alleviating the traffic
infrastructure developmental activities in the congestion to the extent possible.
region triggered increased vehicular population The Government of Malaysia has embarked on
to/from the Kuala Lumpur City Centre causing various transformation programmes to transform
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the country to a developed nation status and one 10) Traffic Management Plans (TMP);
of such programme involves the country’s 11) Construction management that includes
transportation sector. The transformation project quality plan, master implementation
programme of transport sector includes programme, quality assurance & quality
improvements to existing system and development control, construction & supervision of
of new transport systems that integrates with permanent works;
existing system for effective traffic dispersal. 12) Site constraints & remedial measures, risk
assessment & risk management;
This paper entails the various processes and
13) Final Inspections of completed works by
challenges involved in design development of an
Authorities prior to opening to traffic;
urban highway since its inception till opening to
14) Opening to traffic, operations and
traffic on design, construct, maintain, operate and
maintenance during concession period.
manage basis by a Concessionaire as an effective
traffic dispersal in dense urban environment. The A case study viz., Duta - Ulu Kelang Expressway
main focus of this paper is on the design (DUKE Phase 2) - Tun Razak Link (TRL) is chosen to
development and construction phase. illustrate the above processes and various
challenges involved during design development
2 Stages in Highway Development and implementation. Konsortium Lebuhraya Utara
– Timur (KL) Sdn Bhd (KESTURI), the Concessionaire
The various stages involved but not limited to in the has taken up the development of Duta - Ulu Kelang
development of an urban highway mainly Expressway (Phase 2) project comprising two links
comprises the following: (Tun Razak Link & Sri Damansara Link) as a traffic
1) Technical & Financial proposal submission by dispersal link in the densely urban environment of
Concessionaire to Government of Malaysia for Kuala Lumpur on design, construct, maintain,
approval; operate and manage basis. This project is being
2) Concession Agreement; implemented under a Supplemental Concession
3) Traffic studies including traffic impact Agreement (SCA) to the Concession Agreement of
assessment (TIA) to justify the need of existing Duta – Ulu Kelang Expressway (DUKE). The
proposed highway; total length of this project is 16 Km with
4) Detail design development including relevant construction duration of 36 months [1].
engineering surveys/investigations for The Concessionaire has fulfilled all the necessary
submission and obtaining approvals from conditions precedent set forth in the SCA and
relevant Authorities; obtained necessary approval from the Government
5) Design evaluation for compliance to project of Malaysia to commence the construction of
design standards, and road safety audit (RSA); permanent works during last quarter of year 2013.
6) Identification of land requirement along the The construction of this project is completed and
project alignment and land acquisition process; currently opened to traffic successfully since 28
7) Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA), September 2017.
Environmental Management Plan (EMP)
including Erosion Sediment Control Plan
(ESCP), Social Impact Assessment (SIA)
3 Tun Razak Link (TRL) – DUKE Ph 2
including public engagement along the The proposed project road is dual 2-lane highway
proposed highway corridor; with interchanges and toll plaza. Majority of the
8) Identification of various utilities and their project alignment is elevated road and traversing
protection / relocation where necessary; above the existing roads and at places it is at-grade
9) Liaison with relevant Authorities for obtaining in nature. The overall layout plan of TRL is shown in
statutory approvals; Figure 1.0.
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The main challenges involved in the and squatter relocation. The squatter’s relocation
implementation of the Tun Razak Link - DUKE Phase was managed by continual process of engagement
2 project are mainly: with relevant authorities and squatters.
a) Land Acquisition Process & Squatters
3.2 Traffic Management Plans (TMP)
Relocation;
b) Traffic Management Plans (TMP); Proper traffic management plans (TMP) were
c) Design Approvals & Design Changes; prepared in various phases based on the Master
d) Construction Techniques & Methods due to Implementation Programme (MIP) for construction
site constraints & existing utilities; works and submitted to relevant authorities
e) Quality Assurance & Quality Control (QA & QC); (LLM/DBKL/JKR) from time to time to obtain
f) Coordination & Interfacing with surrounding necessary approvals. The approved traffic
developments; management schemes were implemented at site to
carryout construction works. The TMP was
The following sections briefly describe the above
successfully implemented at site and monitored
elements during project implementation:
from time to time to ensure the safety of existing
road users.
3.1 Land Acquisition Process & Squatter
Relocation 3.3 Design Approvals & Design Changes
As the proposed route of TRL was mostly elevated
The engineering Consultants appointed by the
and runs over existing roads, the proposed Right of
Concessionaire to provide necessary engineering
Way (ROW) matches with existing road reserve
designs for various elements of Civil & Structural
only except at places where it is at-grade and due
works have submitted the detail design drawings
to geometric standards, additional land is proposed
from time to time to Lembaga Lebuhraya Malaysia
to be acquired. As a part of land acquisition
(LLM) and obtained approvals to proceed with
process, land acquisition plans were prepared for
implementation of works at site. Also due to
both Section 4 and Section 8 Gazette purposes
various site constraints, utilities conflicts observed
together with setback applications and submitted
at site, social issues, and public objections raised
to relevant authorities for obtaining necessary
from time to time, the Consultants have to adopt
approvals. The public hearing was conducted to
design changes to resolve the above mentioned
finalise and complete the land acquisition. The
issues and obtain necessary approvals for the
design development including design changes were
design changes carried out with proper justification
carried out during the process of land acquisition
reports. All the geometric design elements of
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highway have gone through relevant stages of road carried out mostly during night times as the project
safety audit (RSA) to ensure the safety of road user road is above the existing road live traffic. Along
which is the utmost priority. sensitive areas like Hospital KL, the pile
embankments were replaced with light weight fill
3.4 Construction Techniques & Methods application such as EPS with RC Walls (refer to
due to Site Constraints & Utilities Figure 4.0).
The construction of foundations for the TRL
3.5 Quality Control & Quality Assurance
elevated road structures was the challenging task
(QA & QC)
as the project alignment is passing through densely
trafficked urban roads, existence of various utilities All the necessary quality control procedures in
underneath the existing roads such as water / terms of site inspections, sampling and laboratory
sewer pipes, cross drainage, TNB / Telekom cables testing were carried out based on construction
etc. To minimise the disturbance / relocation to drawings and project specification requirements.
the utilities which requires significant time & cost, Any permanent work that is in non-compliance
various foundations types such as bored piles (4 with project requirements, a non-conformance
piles, 3 piles, 2 piles, single pile), micro piles, spun report was issued which were closed by means of
piles and techniques like boring using reverse rectifying the non-compliance by Contractor.
circulation method were adopted. Figure 2.0 &
Occupational Safety and Health was also given
Figure 3.0 presents various types of piles and piling
significant importance during construction
arrangement adopted during design and
activities and regular tool box briefing to workers
construction.
was organised. An emergency response plan was
Various issues were raised during construction established in case of any emergency occurs.
activities due to site constraints such as conflict Environmental Management Plan was
with existing structures, utilities, access to implemented in line with approved Erosion
permanent work site, adjoining properties Sediment Control Plan (ESCP).
changing the type of structural element such as
types of foundations (like bored piles, spun piles, 3.6 Coordination & Interfacing with
micro piles, RC piles, CBP wall, and combination of surrounding developments
spun & bored piles), cantilever & portal piers,
One important aspect of this project was
different types of superstructure (precast & cast in-
continuous engagement and interaction with
situ crossheads, U-beams, T-beams, cast in-situ
surrounding developments along project
multi cellular box girders, vehicular box sections,
alignment to ensure its smooth interfacing and
combination of U-beams & cast in-situ box girder
implementation. The main coordination &
within same bridge). Figure 4.0 to Figure 7.0
interfacing for TRL involved Hospital Kuala Lumpur
presents typical cross sections for elevated
development and proposed MRT Line2 besides
mainline & ramps carriageway cross sections
other planned & approved mixed developments
showing difference types of piling, crossheads,
enroute.
beams, box girders, vehicular underpass box
structure, and contiguous bored pile wall bridge
structure.
The precast crossheads and beams were adopted
for the ease of construction and launching was
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681
682
683
Throughout the implementation process of this [1] Privatisation of the Duta – Ulu Kelang
project various lessons were learnt in terms of Expressway (DUKE) Phase 2 (formerly known as the
timely land acquisition process, early identification Kuala Lumpur North East Expressway) -
of utilities and coordination with surrounding Supplemental Concession Agreement (SCA), 2012.
developments / local authorities to minimise
design changes, and proper integration to minimise
abortive works for successful completion of project
in time and without cost overrun.
Finally, with proper vision, planning, understanding
of existing site conditions, coordination, interfacing
with surrounding developments, precise
implementation programme, and continual
engagement with relevant authorities for obtaining
necessary approvals, a highway of such magnitude
can be built in a timely and smoother manner in a
dense urban environment.
5 Acknowledgements
Our sincere thanks and acknowledgements to
Lembaga Lebuhraya Malaysia (LLM), Konsortium
Lebuhraya Utara – Timur (KL) Sdn. Bhd. (KESTURI)
and MMSB Consult Sdn. Bhd. for their guidance,
support and allowing us to present this paper.
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Large Scale Infrastructure Project Implementation in Malaysia. A Case

Study – Metropolitan Highways in Klang Valley: Damansara-Shah Alam
Elevated Highway (DASH)
Sazali Harun, P. Eng.
Malaysia Highway Authority.
Zarulazam Eusofe, P. Eng.

Prolintas Holdings Sdn. Bhd.
Contact: zarulazam@prolintas.com.my
Abstract
The rapid socioeconomic development in the Klang Valley has resulted in a surge of freight and
passenger transport movements and an increase in demand for better quality of roads, road networks,
and transport systems. Hence, the construction of the Damansara-Shah Alam Elevated Highway (DASH)
project was proposed to ease traffic congestion, by efficiently dispersing the traffic coming from the
surrounding townships, and by providing connectivity between the Puncak Alam catchment and the
Damansara North area. The case study, namely the DASH project, will be a 16.3 km expressway
traversing from Puncak Perdana in the west to Damansara Perdana in the east. The DASH project has
been chosen to illustrate the various processes and challenges involved in its planning and design and
in the fulfillment of its pre-construction requirements. Currently, this project is at its early stage of
construction and is scheduled to be completed by August 2020.
Keywords: Highway development; metropolitan highway; project management; sustainable design.
of construction expected to be 48 months based on

1 Introduction the Construction Work Programme (CWP) approved
by Lembaga Lebuhraya Malaysia (LLM) (DASHa,
Projek Lintasan Kota Holdings Sdn. Bhd. 2013). The DASH is intended to traverse through
(PROLINTAS), a wholly-owned subsidiary of diverse topography ranging from less developed
Permodalan Nasional Berhad, has taken up the areas, sensitive protected reserve, to densely
development of the DASH project, which is intended populated commercial zones and residential areas.
to connect the urban centre along the north- The highway consists of three-lane dual carriageway
western Corridor of the Klang Valley between with 3.5 m width of lane and 3 m width of paved
Damansara and Shah Alam on a Design-Build- shoulder. It is 90% elevated and only 10% at grade
Operate-and-Transfer basis. The construction with 13 interchanges and three toll plazas located at
commenced on 29th August 2016 and is scheduled Denai Alam, Rubber Research Institute Malaysia
to complete by 28th August 2020, with total duration (RRIM) and Mutiara Damansara.
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2 The Need for The Dash Project
The road within the DASH project corridor is

currently experiencing significant traffic congestion
particularly during peak periods. The roads within
this corridor consist of single and dual carriageway
roads of varying widths, connected via numerous
traffic lights and priority junctions. Road users are
currently experiencing long travel times between
these interurban centres with severe delays
occurring at junctions.
The construction of the DASH was proposed in order

to meet the obvious need for a new high-speed
highway link connecting the rapidly developing
north west areas of Shah Alam and Damansara and Figure 2.1 : External Cordon along DASH Alignment
to disperse traffic to the Central Business District
(CBD) of Kuala Lumpur through SPRINT Highway and Table 2.2 : Comparison of cost saving between
the Penchala Link Highway. The development is existing route and DASH route
seen as timely as it would bring with a host of
benefits. NEW
EXISTI ROU
COMPON DIFFERE SAVIN
The DASH would provide an efficient linkage from NG TE
ENT NCE G
the mid-region of Klang Valley to its north-west ROUTE (DAS
region, completing the connection between the H)
Shah Alam-Puncak Alam Highway via Persiaran Length 24.4
30 km 5.5 km
Mokhtar Dahari (B49) to Guthrie Corridor km
Expressway (GCE), bypassing NKVE to the LDP and to Journey 20
SPRINT Highway. Vehicles can then commute time 60 min min
RM
conveniently from Damansara and Petaling Jaya to (30 (80 40 min
8.33*
the new development areas along GCE and Shah km/h) km/h
Alam-Puncak Alam Highway. In addition, it would )
act as a traffic dispersal system for these areas. It Fuel cost RM RM RM
RM 1.04
will provide road users with a highway route to 5.70 4.66 1.04
avoid the already congested B49, Jalan Sg. Buloh Non-fuel RM RM RM
RM 1.30
(FR54), and NKVE, thus directly reducing the traffic cost 7.13 5.83 1.30
congestion at these routes during peak periods. Total RM
External cordon along the DASH alignment can be 10.67
refer to Figures 2.1 below. Thus, by providing this **
convenient access, the attractiveness of the towns
*Assumed value of time per passenger car = RM 12.50 per hour
located in the eastern region of Selangor will be **Measured in Malaysian Ringgit per passenger car per trip for the
promoted and enhanced. Table 2.1 shown the cost route. These estimates should only be taken as indicative of the level
saving that can be made between the existing route of savings which could possibly be accrued to the proposed new
highway
and DASH route (DASHb, 2014).
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3 Providing Sustainable Planning  To access the proposed alignment with due

consideration for environmental and social
The main challenges involved in the planning, impacts and future traffic demands;
design, and pre-construction of the DASH project  To estimate the construction cost and
are categorized as follows: identify the pros and cons along the
proposed highway’s corridor; and
3.1 Selection of a Sustainable Alignment  To select the most suitable alignment to be
adopted for DASH project.
A study was carried out by PROLINTAS with the aid
of topographical and satellite map of the corridor to The Land Use Studies, TIA, EIA and SIA have been
determine the most reliable and economical road carried out to meet the objectives of the feasibility
alignment. The greatest challenge is to achieve the study and to identify the best option for road
most appropriate alignment which can fit in the alignment PROLINTAS has decided that Option 6
highway corridor within the existing township and was the best and most sustainable alignment for the
high-rise buildings in the highly developed and DASH Project based on the following detailed study:
urban area of Damansara. Factors such as less river
crossing, site constraints, good terrain, good ground 3.2.1 Land Use Studies
conditions, and the suitability of the road alignment
based on the soil condition were also considered to The road alignment is to be built at least parallel
minimise the cost of the soil improvement works. Six with 80 percent of existing road networks, passing
possible alignments within the corridor were through many existing and future luxurious housing
identified and examined. These alignments are as development and passing near several busy
follows: commercial and business centres. The committed
developments along the alignment area need to be
 Option 1: Kayangan Height-Persiaran Jati identified through obtaining information from the
 Option 2: Alam Suria-Persiaran Jati & Tunnel Planning Department of the relevant local
authorities, including Majlis Bandaraya Shah Alam
 Option 3: Kayangan Height-Persiaran Surian
(MBSA) and Majlis Bandaraya Petaling Jaya (MBPJ).
 Option 4: Alam Suria-Sg. Tambul-Penchala
This was further confirmed by checking with related
 Option 5: Alam Suria-Mutiara Damansara-
developers and by carrying out site observations.
Penchala
 Option 6: Alam Suria-Damansara Perdana-
3.2.2 Traffic Impact Assessment (TIA)
Penchala
Option 6 covers an extensive area due to many
3.2 Feasibility Study newly introduced developments and highways in
Selangor which are expected to have a direct or
A feasibility study was carried out by PROLINTAS on indirect implication on the DASH project. As DASH
all the options (Option 1 to Option 6) to serve the runs along the East- West corridor, the challenge is
following purpose: to plan a highway with strategically located
interchanges which would be able to serve a
 To investigate the engineering feasibility for multitude of catchments ranging from housing
the proposed alignment and thereafter to areas, new development areas, and major regional
recommend the optimal timing of its thoroughfares, i.e. Bukit Cahaya-Kayangan Height
construction; development, Jalan Sg. Buloh, Kota Damansara area,
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Damansara Perdana / Mutiara Damansara area, 4 Creating Sustainable Design

LDP, and SPRINT Highway / Penchala catchments.
DASH is intended to be an urban highway, meaning
3.2.3 Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) that the corridor area for the highway alignment is
very limited. The obstruction or constraint mainly
A preliminary environment screening was comes from the existing townships, high-rise
performed to carry out environmental evaluation buildings, and existing infrastructure, for example
and to describe the likely environmental impact of MRT and LRT lines, bridges, TNB pylons, other
the project implementation. The potential impact highways etc. As opposed to designing highways in
on the existing water quality, air quality, noise and rural areas, land in the urban areas cannot be easily
vibration levels, biological environment, and acquired due to the negative social impact that the
mitigation measures during pre-construction stage, acquisition may cause to the surrounding areas as
construction stage, and operation stage have been well as the cost. From the beginning of the design
studied. An EIA report for the DASH project has to development scheme, the aim was to produce an
be submitted to the Director General of the efficient and sustainable design that is elegant,
Department of Environment for approval, prior to economical, and practical to construct, with minimal
the project implementation. The prepared impact on the social and environment. Passing
Environmental Management Plan (EMP) shall through the densely populated suburbs of the Klang
encompass all mitigation measures and conditions Valley, the bridge structure has to meet the
shall be incorporated into the project demands of the developed city and must fit in with
implementation plan, which will form part of the the existing infrastructure and the urban landscape.
project design and contact documents. Key requirements include rapid construction and
standardization of the structural arrangements
3.2.4 Socioeconomic Impact Assessment (SIA) without sacrificing the aesthetic elements.
A socioeconomic survey was conducted to gather 4.1 Road Geometry Design

information regarding public perception and the
communities’ attitudes towards the DASH project. The major challenges in DASH road geometry design
One of the challenges of this project is the need for is figuring out how to suit the design with the
continuous engagement with the public and existing conditions of the areas involved and their
interaction with surrounding developments along surroundings. The design must take into account all
the project alignment to ensure its smooth the relevant factors to optimize the highway
implementation. It also boasts a unique feature of geometry so that the social impact on the affected
integration with various elements such as highways, areas can be minimised. The highway design
MRTs, and mixed developments. interfaces with other highways such as PLUS and
Lingkaran Trans Kota (LITRAK), which means that the
Based on all the feasibility studies, Option 6 was impact study must be carried out not only for DASH
selected by PROLINTAS as the most suitable but also for the other highway concessionaires.
alignment as it passes through more road reserve
corridors and will cause the least disturbance to 4.2 Interfacing Design
existing high-density residential or developed areas.
Interfacing design with other developments is also a
major challenge. The alignment design must
consider the anticipated changes from other
developments as any changes emanating from them
688
are not under DASH’s control. Proper planning in prestressed U-beams with deck continuity were
terms of design coordination with other parties is used for most parts of the short span bridge
required to ease the interfacing design. superstructure, having maximum span length of 30
Nevertheless, the balance between design value m, to form a continuous bridge superstructure
and the comfort of future road users (for DASH) arrangement except at junctions and interchanges.
remains as top priority in the construction of the Meanwhile, there have been a few cases where, to
design and must always be given primary fulfill the local authority’s requirements, post
consideration. tensioned T-beams were used for the short span
bridge with span length of between 30 m to 40 m.
4.3 Design Features
4.3.3 Type of Deck Continuity
4.3.1 Bridges
The type of deck continuity used in DASH project is
The urban bridge also presented the designer and continuous separated deck, integral in situ
the contractor with other challenges. The bridge and crosshead, and integral pier. A primary reason for
approach ramps fight for space to avoid buildings, using continuity deck slab with precast prestressed
services, private lands, roads, and waterways. beams is the minimization of maintenance costs
Working within a constraint corridor, the designer associated with bridge deck joints and deck drainage
need to be innovative in order to strike a balance onto the substructure. Deck continuity also
between requirements and the available space, improves the appearance and riding qualities of the
where in certain cases it may not be ideal in terms bridge. Due to structural economy of continuous
of the geometry i.e. steep gradient, high super design and the minimization of deck joints, some
elevation, tight radius, and irregular support initial economic advantage may also be contained.
positions. Furthermore, due to certain conditions,
CA allows this to be done, with the Government 4.3.4 Selection of Piers
consent. In addition, there is also the constant flow
of traffic to cope with. The selection of piers for a large-scale project can be
a long-drawn affair, during which several types of
Over the years, the trends in bridge construction superstructures are compared on the basis of
have progressed from simply supported precast constructability and aesthetics. Single T-pier has
beam construction for straight bridges to in situ been chosen for a majority of the pier type either for
construction of spine beam, voided slab as well as supporting dual carriageway or single carriageway
box girder construction for curved bridges, or a deck for the bridge substructure. When the DASH
combination of both precast beams for straight alignment and existing at-grade infrastructure
bridges and segment precast for curved bridges. impose significant restraints in the pier location and
Steel bridges have also come into the picture but arrangement, portal structures have been
they are not as popular due to cost constraints. introduced at some locations to avoid the at-grade
obstructions.
4.3.2 Type of Bridge Superstructure
4.3.5 Selection of Crossheads
The selection of the type of bridge superstructure
was made based on a number of factors. In most Huge crosshead is unavoidable for both long
cases, the geometry of the bridge, i.e. span length cantilever T-shape and portal pier crossbeam at the
and radius limitation, will determine the suitable mainline. Priority has been given to precast
type of bridge deck and superstructure. Precast segmental crosshead (with or without in-situ
689
stitching) over cast in-situ crosshead for the pier 5 Pre-Construction

crossbeam and they are usually prestressed. The
choice of precast segmental crosshead was driven The pre-construction requirements to ensure the
by the need for speedy construction of bridge successful completion of the construction work and
viaduct and to minimise disruption to the compliance with all regulations and requirements,
environment during the construction period. contract, specifications and drawings, are as follows:
However, for the single deck ramps and when the
pier is located in the vicinity of site constraints, cast a) Project Quality Plan (PQP);
in-situ crosshead is preferred, either using b) Traffic Management Plan (TMP);
prestressed or reinforced concrete. c) Safety & Health Plan (SHP);
d) Environmental Management Plan (EMP); and
4.3.6 Ground Conditions e) Quality Assurance & Quality Control (QAQC).
The existing ground conditions vary greatly along 5.1 Project Quality Plan (PQP)
the DASH route. It was considered whether to use
bored piles, driven piles, or caissons for the
The objectives of PQP are as follows:
foundation arrangement. Driven piles are always
the first choice unless there are physical constraints.
 To outline the purpose and scope of quality
The benefits of driven piles are that they are low
management activities;
cost and speeds up construction. Where there are
 To define how quality management
no encumbrances and the location are not adjacent
activities will be planned and implemented;
to residential properties, driven 600 mm diameter
spun piles are the best. Its capacity can reach up to  To define acceptable quality standards; and
200 tonnes. Where large loads are encountered,  To define roles and responsibilities for
typical foundations consisting of multi-pile groups quality management activities.
were adopted, with pile diameters measuring
typically between 1 m to 1.8 m for the bored pile. At As DASH project divided into eight (8) nos of
special locations where space is restricted, or other package Contractors, it is a challenge to Consultants
factors dictated, single piles or caissons are used to coordinate and standardize the final PQP for the
with diameter of up to 4 m. All large diameter DASH project and accepted by Lembaga Lebuhraya
caissons will be hand dug and the length shall be Malaysia (LLM).
limited to a certain depth due to safety reasons.
5.2 Traffic Management Plan (TMP)
As bridges are often objects of public view
(especially in urban areas) and sometimes also serve Proper traffic management plans (TMP) are
as a landmark, the element of aesthetics must be prepared to cover various stages based on the
given due to consideration at the design stage. The Master Implementation Program (MIP) for
challenge is for the appearance of the bridge to construction works and submitted to relevant
blend in harmony with the surrounding authorities (LLM/MBPJ/DBKL/JKR) for approval. The
environment. As a result, the balance of visual main objective of TMP is to inform road users on the
proportion and the geometric shape between the ongoing construction activities to monitor and
superstructure and substructure will make the maintain smooth traffic flow, to minimise traffic
bridge a pleasant sight to behold from a distance. congestion, and to execute Emergency Response
Team (ERT) action in case of any emergency
occurring at the site. TMP shall be well planned and
690
proper implementation while carry out construction the site. The environmental monitoring locations
activity along the existing road median mainly are based on the EMP Baseline Monitoring report
Persiaran Mokhtar Dahari, Jalan Sg. Buloh and approved by the Department of Environment.
congested area at Damansara Perdana. Failing
proper implementation of TMP, massive traffic 5.5 Quality Assurance & Quality Control (QAQC)
congestion will occur at the site which will increase
traffic delay and cause a hazard to the road user. All the necessary quality control procedures in terms
of site inspection, sampling, and laboratory testing
5.3 Safety and Health Plan (SHP) are carried out based on construction drawings and
project specification requirements. QAQC will
SHP during construction consists of records of monitor construction submission for approval of
statistics on manpower, incident/accident, plant Method of Statement, Material Approval, Quality
and machinery, and weather conditions. The main Control Report (Testing result), and Non-
target is to achieve zero fatality at the site. SHP Conformance Report (NCR). For any permanent
provides control measures for hazards and work not complying with project requirements, a
occupational illness that may potentially arise out of NCR is issued which would require rectification of
the activities at the project site. Occupational Safety the non-compliance by the contractor before it can
and Health is given significant importance during be closed.
construction activities. Tool box briefings to workers
are regularly organized and Standard Operation 6 Towards a Sustainable Highway
Procedures (SOPs) are established in the form of Development
step-by-step instructions to help workers carry out
routine operations at the site. SHP aims to achieve
efficiency, quality output, and uniformity of
6.1 Planning Phase
performance while reducing miscommunication and
failure. As of to-date ending July 2017, DASH  To select the road alignment that will be the
managed to achieve 230,070 man-hours worked most appropriate alignment to fit in with the
without lost time injury (DASHc, 2017). existing townships with high-rise buildings in
urban and highly developed areas. The detail
5.4 Environmental Management Plan (EMP) feasibility studies on the land use, Traffic Impact
Assessment (TIA), Environmental Impact
Assessment (EIA), Socioeconomic Impact
As DASH alignment located within the existing
Assessment (SIA) are compulsory to ensure the
residential area and populated development, the
best option of the highway alignment is selected.
main challenge is to control the noise from bored
pile activity by providing the temporary moveable  To ensure minimal objections from the
noise barrier at the appropriate location during surrounding residents.
construction works and permanent noise barrier  To avoid sensitive area such as Malay and Forest
after project completed. A proper controlled in Reserve as much as we can since it will
Erosion Sediment Control Plan (ESCP) will be cause land acquisition problem.
implemented while working in sensitive area within
forest area. EMP is implemented in line with 6.2 Designing Phase
approved Erosion Sediment Control Plan (ESCP). It
involves monitoring of ambient air quality (limit 150  A sustainable and an efficient design shall be
ug/m3), noise quality (limit 65 dBA), vibration level elegant, economical and practical to construct
(limit (3.0 mm/s), and water quality (limit 50mg/l) at with a minimal impact on the environment.
691
 The maintenance cost could be one of the main 8 References

consideration when decided on the design that
going to be used. [1] Damansara-Shah Alam Elevated Expressway
(DASHa), Concession Agreement, August
6.3 Pre-construction Phase 2014.
[2] Damansara-Shah Alam Elevated Expressway
 The elements of the pre-construction (DASHb), Feasibility Study, October 2014.
requirements, i.e. TMP, PQP, SHP, EMP, and [3] Damansara-Shah Alam Elevated Expressway
QAQC, must be well prepared by the project (DASHc), Laporan Kremajuan Bulanan, July
team to ensure that the implementation of the 2017.
project fully complies with the Project
specifications and quality deliverables.
7 Conclusion
DASH project is emphasised to be a sustainable
metropolitan highway and had encountered
challenges in order to select alignment which can fit
in the urban areas. Many social and environmental
factors such as less river crossing, site constraints,
and good ground conditions need to be considered
to create sustainability and minimise the impact as
well as the cost of construction. Furthermore,
proper planning and execution during pre-
construction such as PQP, TMP, SHP, EMP and QAQC
are required to ensure the smoothness and
successful completion of DASH project construction.
692
Next-generation flexible plug expansion joints

Gustav Gallai & Knut Mettner
Mageba GmbH, Wels, Austria
Pascal Savioz
Mageba, Shanghai, China
Contact: ggallai@mageba.at
Abstract
A much-improved type of flexible plug expansion joint has been developed, with a polyurethane
surface, which offers a number of substantial advantages over the traditional bituminous type. The
Polyflex®Advanced PU expansion joint offers all the benefits of the asphaltic plug joint, including
smooth, safe, low-noise surface, great adaptability and easy installation. However, it overcomes
numerous disadvantages and challenges that have always plagued asphaltic plug joints. It offers
greatly improved strength, elasticity and durability, resulting in much less maintenance and far more
reliable watertightness. The joint’s material offers consistent behaviour at both high and low
temperatures, and excellent resistance against rutting. And installation is also far easier and less
prone to error, with the two-component compound being mixed at ambient temperatures. For
these reasons and others, this joint should be considered for use in bridge construction and, in
particular, in bridge maintenance – as demonstrated by successful experience around the world in
very varying climates and environments. This paper covers the extensive testing conducted at
several independent testing institutes and the significant features and benefits of the system, and
presents sample installations.
Keywords: expansion joint, flexible plug joint, new material, European Approval, life cycle cost
1 Introduction However, flexible plug expansion joints made from
traditional bituminous materials have long been
Flexible plug expansion joints, which create a plagued with durability problems, not performing
completely closed, absolutely flat driving surface as well, long term, as joints manufactured primarily
right across a structure’s movement gap, offer a from steel. Continuous dynamic loading and
number of benefits over other small-movement braking/acceleration forces from vehicle wheels,
expansion joint types. The continuous, flexible year after year, cause stresses in the material,
surface results in unsurpassed driver comfort and resulting in cracking, loss of watertightness and
extremely low noise under traffic, while also general deterioration – impacts that would only be
eliminating discomfort and safety risks for exacerbated by improper preparation on site and
pedestrians and cyclists. Furthermore, the way the incorrect temperature during installation.
joints are constructed, by pouring freshly mixed
material in situ, facilitates transport and handling To overcome these shortcomings while retaining
and makes expansion joints installable in sections, the aforementioned benefits, the design of the
lane by lane, with any desired shape or longitudinal flexible plug expansion joint has been optimized,
profile (e.g. with intersections or upturns). utilizing superior (non-bituminous) materials and
693
incorporating improved support and connection selected, solvent free, highly durable polyurethane
details. The result is described below. (PU) material.
The PU material originally used, which was adapted
2 History and background for road expansion joint requirements, had a long
Traditional bitumen-based flexible plug expansion history of use as waterproofing for roofs, and has
joint materials suffer from several disadvantages. been constantly improved over the years. The
At low temperatures, for instance, the material material has shown test values of 650% elongation
used is generally very stiff, causing de-bonding and before breaking (compared to 350-400% for
resulting in leaking due to cracks, while at high standard rubber), which enhances durability and
temperatures, the material becomes weak and makes the material an ideal choice for use in
tends to deform plastically resulting in rutting and expansion joint systems.
pulling out of the blockouts, particularly when With perforated steel support elements
subjected to traction loads. Inconsistent quality incorporated in the design, the joint can withstand
due to improper mixing and incorrect temperature long-term traffic loading and braking and reaction
during installation (high temperatures of typically forces while accommodating significant structure
approx. 180 °C required) also frequently cause movements, at both very low and very high
problems. As a result of such disadvantages, temperatures. Total movements of up to 100 mm
asphaltic plug joints are subject to various (4 inches) have been successfully and durably
limitations. For example, they should generally not accommodated on various projects in several
be installed in highways and locations with countries since 2007. Figure 1 shows an overview
frequent acceleration and braking, such as in the of all material components of the joint.
vicinity of bus stops, traffic lights etc., and they
should not be used in railway bridges under stone
ballast. In general, the functionality and durability
of asphaltic plug joints has often been found from
experience to be unreliable.
In Switzerland, investigations carried out in
cooperation with EMPA (the Swiss Federal
Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology)
showed that the bitumen quality being used for Figure 1. Illustration showing the main elements of
such joints varied considerably, with substantial the expansion joint
effects on joint functionality and durability. Small 1. Main structure
changes in the chemical composition of the raw 2. Polymer concrete base
materials led to big reductions in expansion joint 3. Bridge plate across gap
quality. As a result, construction project clients and 4. Perforated steel angle
expansion joint manufacturers became 5. Sponge rubber
increasingly concerned about the ongoing 6. Bridge waterproofing
suitability of the systems for use. Therefore, a 7. Special PU material
strong motivation to develop an improved type of 8. Anchoring
flexible plug expansion joint existed. 9. Stabilizing bar
10. Road surfacing
3 Design and characteristics of the In addition to its exceptional elasticity, the special
improved PU-based flexible plug PU material used offers enormous tear resistance,
joint with a tear strength of 20 N/mm². It typically has a
tensile strength of 14 N/mm², a density of 1.05
Instead of the bituminous material traditionally g/cm³ and a Shore A hardness of approximately 65.
used to form the driving surface of flexible plug It is highly resistant to wear and environmental and
expansion joints, this technology uses a specially chemical influences, and thus offers an
694
exceptionally long lifespan. In fact, its service life is previous stage is chemically reactivated by the
typically substantially longer than that of fresh material, creating a high-strength bond. The
connecting roadway surface materials. same chemical reactivation of previously cured PU
material also enables minor damage to an existing
The joint is fully functional in the temperature
polyurethane joint to be easily repaired, simply by
range –50°C to +70°C – a major improvement over
pouring fresh material onto the damaged area.
asphaltic plug joints. Due to its good performance
at low temperatures, the material can be used in
very cold climates. It is also very versatile, with 3.1 Summary of advantages and benefits
virtually any common joint shape possible – e.g.  Exceptional long working life, often longer
with upturns, skew angles and junctions (T-shaped than adjacent surfaces
and X-shaped junctions, etc.) as shown in Figure 2.  Highest possible driver comfort
 No noise from crossing traffic due to
surface that is flush with adjacent road
 Watertight
 Maintenance-free (no cleaning required)
 Quickly installed lane-by-lane with minimal
traffic impacts, drivable after a few hours
Figure 2. Intersections such as X- or T-shaped (left)
 Installation within a wide temperature
and upstands (right) can be easily created
range (5°C to 35°C)
Installation is relatively easy, not only in  Wear-resistant, no mechanical wear parts
comparison with traditional asphaltic plug joints  No rutting, high resistance to abrasion (e.g.
but also compared with expansion joints of other from braking traffic)
types. With no large, heavy parts, lifting plant is not  Damage to the joint can be easily repaired
required, and the poured material adapts to suit by reactivation of the PU material
the dimensions of the prepared recess. The two-  No recess for anchorage in structural
component PU material is mixed from complete concrete necessary
packing units at ambient temperatures, minimizing  Surfacing (asphalt or concrete) can be
the risk of suboptimal mixing and installation. applied continuously before joint
Processing is possible at ambient temperatures, installation
virtually independent of humidity, and the joint can  Any horizontal bend in the joint possible
be driven over after only a few hours.  Any curb / sidewalk detail possible
In the context of bridge maintenance, in particular  Low reaction forces
– when the joint is installed to replace an existing  Cold processing and easy handling with
one – the benefits of the joint’s use are even more preset mixing ratio minimizes risk of mixing
pronounced. The joint can typically be laid within errors
the depth of a bridge’s asphalt surfacing, avoiding  Resistant to environmental influences and
the need to break out any concrete etc. With only acids, bases, chlorides, etc.
minimal amounts of an existing structure to be  Smooth surface ideal for pedestrian areas
removed, and quick installation and short material (e.g. in airports and railway stations)
curing times, the new joint can be installed quickly,
economically and reliably. The speed of installation 3.2 Testing and awarding of European
(e.g. with a joint replaced during a night shift), with Technical Approval
new joints being trafficable within just a few hours,
In connection with the awarding of a European
minimizes impacts on traffic. If required, impacts
Technical Approval, with validity across the
on traffic can be further reduced by installing the
European Union, extensive testing and certification
new joint lane by lane – an approach that is fully
was carried out on the basis of the European
supported by the joint’s design. In phased
Regulation ETAG 032 [1] by the “Bundesanstalt für
installation, the already cured PU material of a
Materialforschung und –prüfung” (BAM), Berlin, by
695
the “Prüfamt für Verkehrswegebau” of the European Technical Approval Guideline (ETAG 032,
Technical University of Munich (TUM), and by the Part 3, Annex 3M Method a), and recorded
MAPAG testing institute, Austria. deformation after loading and any subsequent
recovery curve. In the test, deformations of max.
3.2.1 Testing of bond strength of the PU 0.5 mm were recorded immediately after
material unloading, and within one hour of unloading, a
The tests included verifications of bond strength on complete elastic recovery of the surface had
various surfaces such as concrete, polymer occurred. No damages or other changes to the
concrete, steel and asphalt. The recorded values surface were detected.
were very high, even at low temperatures,
demonstrating excellent resistance to de-bonding
and thus also excellent resistance to leaking.
3.2.2 Assessment of ageing and temperature

characteristics of the PU material
Ageing and temperature characteristics of the PU
joint filling mixture were evaluated at the BAM
institute in Berlin, after ageing for 3,030 hours. The
evaluation, based on ISO 4664 [2], was carried out
for a temperature range from -60°C to + 250°C. Figure 4. Mechanical resistance testing at the TUM
Both the complex modulus |G*| and the loss factor institute, Munich
tan δ demonstrated very good performance for the
declared temperature range of -40°C to +60°C (Fig. 3.2.4 Fatigue-resistance testing
3). A second full-scale specimen was then subjected to
further testing in the same testing rig at TUM,
Munich. The test involved repeated rolling over by
a pneumatic wheel, at an elevated temperature of
45°C, in accordance with ETAG 032, Part 3, Annex
3M Method b. The contact pressure of the
pneumatic tyre was 1.0 MPa, and the number of
overpasses was 3,030, with 30 of these executed
with an additional 10% of horizontal load to
simulate braking forces. No de-bonding or cracking
was observed, and the test was passed.
On the basis of experience in Europe with the same
Figure 3. Assessment of temperature testing procedure for asphaltic plug joints and
characteristics of the PU filling mixture at the BAM various national regulations, this successful high-
institute, Berlin temperature testing would support a 15-year
service life categorization.
3.2.3 Mechanical resistance testing
In addition, a standardized rutting test was carried
At the TUM institute in Munich, a full-scale out, at 60°C, in accordance with EN 12697-22 [3].
assembled joint specimen, in the maximum Figure 5 shows the enormous difference in
opening position, was subjected to a test load of performance between traditional asphaltic plug
150 kN via a pneumatic tyre (Fig. 4). The contact joint material and the PU material.
pressure was 0.94 MPa, the temperature was 23°C
and the specimen length was approximately 1 m.
The test was carried out in accordance with the
Austrian standard RVS and the appropriate
696
maintained at that level for six hours. After the test,

no signs of leakage or moisture could be found
under the specimen.
3.2.6 Measurement of level differences in the

surface
Figure 5. Comparison of common asphaltic plug The flatness of the full-scale specimen was checked
joint material and PU flexible plug joint material prior to the above-mentioned tests, to verify that
any deviations in the level of the driving surface
after rutting test acc. to EN 12697-22 at 60°C (Left:
Common asphalt plug material after 100 cycles at from the ideal connection line between the two
60°C. Right: PU flexible plus joint after 30,000 adjacent pavements (without any imposed
cycles at 60°C) horizontal deformations and in the unloaded
condition) are not greater than 5 mm – in
3.2.5 Movement capacity testing accordance with the Austrian standard RVS and the
relevant ETAG (Fig. 6).
To evaluate the movement capacity of the full-
scale joint specimen, a test was performed at the After loading, greater deviations are permitted, but
BAM institute in Berlin, in accordance with draft these must not exceed 10 mm. Verification checks
ETAG 032, Part 3, Annex 3N. The complete declared were carried out during and after both the fatigue
movement range, from maximum elongation to and movement tests as described above. The
maximum compression, was tested, with results were positive, under imposed horizontal
temperature varying synchronously to the relevant movements with a maximum level increase of +6
deformation state between -40°C and +60°C. mm and a maximum level decrease of -5 mm being
During the test, reaction forces and deformations recorded. During these tests, wheel loads were not
were recorded. applied because the effect of deformation under
this action was verified by the mechanical
The specimen was also subjected to 7,500,000 resistance testing as described above.
sinusoidal cycles, with an amplitude of 1 mm, at
ambient temperature and a frequency of 5 Hz. In
addition, dynamic properties were voluntarily
tested at -40°C. The dynamic behaviour of the
material was shown to be excellent, with the
specimen showing no irregularities or signs of
fatigue after the testing.
These tests were performed at the BAM institute
for a typical joint type for 50 mm total movement,
for the complete temperature range, and used as a Figure 6. Measurement of deviation from ideal
calibration sample for in-house testing for all other connection line across joint in maximum opened
types of the PU plug joint series. All tests were and maximum closed position, at the BAM
witnessed by the officially certified engineer of the institute, Berlin
European Approval body.
3.2.6 Watertightness testing

3.2.7 Skid resistance testing
After successfully passing the aforementioned
The full-scale specimen was subjected to skid
movement testing, the full-scale specimen was
resistance testing with a portable skid resistance
subjected to a watertightness test at the BAM
pendulum tester as described in EN 13036-4, using
institute in Berlin. At the maximum opening
the CEN rubber slider for carriageways and the 4S
position of the joint, water was applied to a level of
rubber slider for footpath areas.
30 mm above the highest point of the joint and
697
3.2.8 Testing of flexible plug material

Testing was carried out on the joint’s PU flexible
plug material to establish durability characteristics
as follows:
• Resistance to chemicals, such as oil, fuel and de-
icing agents, according to EN ISO 175 [4]
• Temperature-based ageing: Various tests
according to EN 13687 [5], Parts, 2, 3 and 5
• Ageing resulting from UV-radiation and
weathering: Long-term tests (3,030 hours) to
TR010 [6]
• Ageing resulting from ozone: Test according to Figure 7. Testing at the official Japanese testing
ISO 1431 [7] institute, Fuji
• Freeze-thaw test (with thaw salt) according to
EN 13687 Part 1
4 Installation procedure
The installation procedure for the poured material
3.2.9 Additional testing for use in cold climates is similar to that used for asphaltic plug joints – with
Since the use of studded tires in winter driving one essential difference: the material is processed
conditions is still common in some areas, testing cold at ambient temperature, avoiding the need to
was carried out, at the VTI-Linköping testing heat it on site. The only requirement is that the
institute in Sweden, to verify resistance to such temperature of both structure and air is at least
demands. The test was performed in June 2015 5°C.
according to EN 12697-16A [8], and demonstrated
excellent resistance, with an abrasion value of AbrA 5 Typical applications
= 0.1 to 0.2 ml. By comparison, traditional asphaltic In general, PU plug expansion joints may be used
surfacing with a value of less than 20 ml would be for almost any small-movement application (new-
classified as “very good”. build or refurbishment), but the following cases are
worthy of special mention:
3.2.10 Further testing in Japan
• Railway bridges (as well as road bridges)
For the use of PU plug expansion joints on Japanese
• Architectural applications
highways and national roads, a complete
• Pedestrian areas, cycle lanes
verification according to Japanese regulations was
• Areas where cleanliness is very important,
necessary. The main focuses of the testing at the
e.g. pharmaceutical and food processing
official Japanese testing institute at Fuji (Fig. 7)
industries, hospitals and laboratories
were verifications of resistance to rutting and
• Areas where resistance to acids and bases
abrasion, skid resistance and the ability to
is required, e.g. chemical industry
accommodate both slow and fast movements. The
• Replacement of existing expansion joints
complete testing program was successfully
completed in 2015. Figures 8 to 15 show examples of installations all
around the world, demonstrating the system’s
usefulness in diverse applications.
698
Figure 12. Kugelstein High-Speed Railway Bridge,

Figure 8. Pokoju Bridge, Wroclav, Poland
Austria
Figure 9. Shimomura Bridge near Kyoto, Japan Figure 13. Henry Hudson Parkway, New York, USA
Figure 14. South Western Highway, Pemperton,

Figure 10. Neckarsulm Bridge, Germany Australia
Figure 11. Tunnel application in the 2nd Bosporus

tunnel, Turkey Figure 15. Central Station Zurich, Switzerland
699
6 Reduction in life-cycle costs 8 References

As a result of many of its numerous advantages [1] EOTA (European Organisation for Technical
over traditional asphaltic plug expansion joints, this Assessment). European Technical Approval
PU-type flexible plug expansion joint offers great Guideline (ETAG) 032; 2013.
benefits with respect to life-cycle costs. Its far
[2] International Organisation for
superior strength, elasticity and durability, and less
Standardisation. ISO 4664 - Rubber,
error-prone installation, result in a much longer
vulcanised or thermoplastic – determination
service life, with less maintenance throughout that
of dynamic properties; 2006.
life. They also result in much improved long-term
watertightness, reducing deterioration and [3] CEN (Comité Européen de Normalisation).
associated life-cycle costs for the main structure. In EN 12697-22 Wheel Tracking Test; 2006.
fact, for such reasons, any extra initial cost for [4] International Organisation for
supply and installation is likely to be quite Standardisation. EN ISO 175 – Determination
insignificant in comparison with the total life-cycle of effects of immersion.
costs of a bridge’s expansion joints if these are of
traditional asphaltic plug joints [9], easily justifying [5] CEN (Comité Européen de Normalisation).
the use of this far superior PU flexible plug joint. EN 13687-1, -2, -3 and -5 – Ageing and freeze
thaw tests; 2003.
7 Conclusions [6] EOTA (European Organisation for Technical
The PU plug expansion joint offers all the benefits Assessment). TR 010 – Weathering test;
of the traditional asphaltic plug expansion joint – 2004.
including smooth, safe, low-noise surface, great [7] International Organisation for
adaptability and easy installation. However, it Standardisation. ISO 1431 – Ozone test;
overcomes the numerous disadvantages and 2000.
challenges that have always plagued asphaltic plug
[8] CEN (Comité Européen de Normalisation).
joints. It offers enormously improved strength,
EN 12697-16A - Prall Test; 2006.
elasticity and durability, resulting in much less
maintenance and far more reliable watertightness. [9] Spuler T., Loehrer R. and O’Suilleabhain C.
It also offers greater movement capacity, and Life-cycle considerations in the selection and
uniform material behavior over the temperature use of bridge expansion joints. Proc. 18th
range -50°C to + 70°C. Installation is far easier and IABSE Congress. Seoul; 2012.
less prone to error, with the two-component
compound being mixed at ambient temperatures.
And damage to previously placed material can be
easily and reliably repaired by pouring of new PU
material onto the old, damaged material,
chemically reactivating it. The speed of installation
and curing of the material is particularly beneficial
when the joint is installed on an existing structure
to replace an old expansion joint, as the amount of
demolition required is minimal and the
construction and material curing time is so short,
minimizing disruption to traffic. For these reasons
and more, this modern plug-type expansion joint is
likely to be increasingly used in years to come, in
both bridge construction and bridge maintenance.
700
Integration of SHM at an early stage in the design and construction of

long-span bridges
Kleidi Islami
Mageba SA, Bulach, Switzerland
Pascal Savioz
Mageba Shanghai, China
Masoud Malekzadeh
Mageba International, USA
Abstract
Automated monitoring systems are being increasingly used on long-span bridges to address a wide
range of challenges, such as those encountered during the construction stage or those associated
with maintenance and life-cycle optimization. Bridge designers are now more prepared than in the
past to consider the use of SHM systems in their work from an early stage, and to support
contractors in implementing such systems during the construction stage. Close coordination
between bridge designers, contractors and SHM specialists enables the appropriate equipment to
be integrated wisely in the construction process, and ensures that full advantage may be taken of
the benefits that can be gained from the use of an SHM system, right from the start of the bridge’s
life cycle. This can be particularly important, for example, where components of the SHM system
require to be embedded in a structure’s concrete during the construction stage, or where the
system will play a significant data measurement and assessment role in the construction process as
a whole. This is illustrated with reference to current bridge construction projects in India and
Canada.
Keywords: expansion joint, flexible plug joint, new material, European Approval, life-cycle cost
1 Introduction appropriate equipment to be integrated wisely in

the construction process.
SHM systems are becoming more and more widely
used on significant structures such as cable-stayed This paper describes the experiences of integrating
bridges, to address a wide range of challenges – SHM systems into a number of long-span bridges
including the ones related to construction phase as for the purpose of construction stage and
well as the issues associated with the maintenance permanent monitoring. Important parameters
and life-cycle optimization. Nowadays, bridge measured include cable vibrations, forces,
designers are more ready to consider the use of movements at bearings and expansion joints,
SHM systems in their specifications from an early inclinations and positioning of pylons, corrosion,
stage, and to support contractors in implementing strain in concrete and steel elements, weather, etc.
such systems during the construction stage. Close The positioning of sensors, determined by the SHM
and timely coordination between bridge designers, specialist in agreement with the bridge designer,
contractors and SHM specialists enables the typically includes critical locations such as tops of
pylons, longest cables, main girders and other key
701
elements as required (for example, with concrete compare these parameters once the bridge has
corrosion sensors located in splash zones) – thus been constructed [3]. In the present work,
optimizing the number of sensors. Different data automatic dynamic identification algorithms have
analyses are presented, but the authors will in been developed and applied to the monitoring of
particular present the dynamic identification static and dynamic parameters of two cable-stayed
results gained using automatic algorithms that bridges. The procedure for force identification in
allow continuous monitoring of the natural stay cables, implemented using Labview software,
frequencies of cables and of the overall structure. consists of measuring accelerations, identifying the
dynamic parameters (frequencies, damping values)
2 Benefits of considering use of SHM and converting these to forces according to the
early in bridge design process stay cable properties [4]. The first four frequency
modes of each measured stay cable are identified,
It is not long since the use of SHM was more an and used to derive four tension forces, the average
afterthought to the bridge design process than an of which is taken to apply. The procedure is
integral part of it, and unfortunately that appears repeated every ten minutes, and the data is
to sometimes still be the case. But with increased transmitted to the web user interface. A particular
awareness among bridge designers and benefit of this application is that stay cable
constructors of the benefits of using an SHM tensions calculated from the vibrational
system at all, it will become more and more the measurements can be compared with the direct
norm for SHM to be part of the planning and design forces applied at the anchorage jacks. In the case of
process right from the start. There are very the case studies described in the following
practical reasons for assessing SHM needs in a sections, the comparison demonstrated a high
timely manner. At a very basic level, the early degree of accuracy, with discrepancies of less than
integration of SHM and its requirements in a 5%, allowed the responsible engineers to have
bridge’s design and construction process ensures great confidence in the installed system.
that adequate time is given to the design and
Further very practical reasons for assessing SHM
specification, acquisition and delivery of the
needs early include any need to install components
system and all its components in advance of its
such as sensors early in the bridge construction
timely installation – in some cases, at an early stage
process – for instance, where corrosion sensors or
during the bridge’s construction. It also enables
strain gauges are to be embedded in the concrete
appropriate details of the SHM system’s acquisition
of a structure’s towers or piers – and the potential
and installation, and use during the construction
benefits to be gained from utilizing SHM’s powerful
stage or thereafter as appropriate, to be
measurement and data analysis tools to support
adequately specified and agreed in the bridge
the safe and efficient construction process [5].
construction contract. In some cases, early
These benefits, in particular, shall be illustrated in
consideration of SHM requirements can allow key
the following sections.
bridge components, such as bearings and
expansion joints, to be tailored to ideally suit the
bridge’s ongoing inspection and maintenance 3 The Kota Chambal Bridge, India
needs, optimizing long-term effort and expense [1]. The Kota Chambal Bridge, recently constructed in
And in other cases, it may be possible to mitigate Rajasthan, northern India, carries a bypass highway
design risks by allowing already in the bridge design of the city of Kota over the Chambal River, just
stage for an SHM system that would reduce or outside the city. It has a main span of 350m,
manage the risks – so planning early to use SHM spanning the full width of the river to avoid any
may enable a more efficient / cheaper structure to impact on wildlife in this designated sanctuary
be designed and built. area, and lateral spans of 175m at either end.
In the case of cable-stayed bridges, it is crucial to The bridge (Fig. 1), built by a Hyundai-Gammon
control pylon inclinations and cable forces during joint venture, is the first axial suspension cable-
the construction stage [2], and very useful to stayed bridge ever built in India, and its geometry
702
presented particular design and construction The sensor functionality varied as the structure was
challenges, so it was decided to use an SHM system built, as follows:
to assist already during the bridge construction
 During bridge construction phase (temporary):
phase, and subsequently, permanently, for
- Accelerometers on cables: Vibration
inspection and maintenance purposes.
frequency and force in cable
- Structural accelerometers (3D) at deck:
Measuring frequencies of deck vibration
and determining natural frequencies
- 2D Inclinometer at pier: Inclination of pylon
during construction phase
- 2D Inclinometer at deck: Inclination of deck
during construction phase
- Air temperature and humidity: For
Figure 1. The Chambal Bridge during construction correlation with structural parameters
 During the bridge’s service life (permanent):
3.1 The bridge’s SHM system - Accelerometers on cables: Vibration
frequency and force in cable
The SHM system was designed to serve different
- Structural accelerometers at pier and deck
purposes at different stages in the bridge’s life
(2D and 3D): Vibration frequency
cycle – during the construction stage, and
- 2D Inclinometer at pier: Inclination of pylon
thereafter during its service life. This required the
when bridge in service
system to be modified, in particular in relation to
- Displacement sensor at expansion joint:
sensor specifics and layout, at the end of the
Movement of deck at its end
construction stage. The equipment and sensor
- Wind speed and direction at piers and deck:
layout for the bridge construction stage, as
For correlation with structural parameters
installed in September 2016, is illustrated in Fig. 2
- Air temperature and humidity: For
(for one half of the bridge), and the corresponding
correlation with structural parameters
layout for the bridge’s ongoing service life, as
modified in May 2017, is illustrated in Fig. 3.
Figure 2. Sensor layout on one half of Chambal Bridge – Temporary (Construction stage)
703
Figure 3. Sensor layout on one half of Chambal Bridge – Permanent
and analysis results, and provide warnings when

there is a safety risk. One of the system’s control
boxes is shown in Fig. 6 (during installation), with
cables connecting to various sensors and
equipment.
The 2D inclinometers at the pylons measure
inclinations at high resolution, enabling deviations
due to non-uniform load distribution or cable
Figure 4. Accelerometer attached to a stay cable malfunction to be identified. Linear displacements
to assist during the bridge’s construction by are measured at the expansion joints at both ends
enabling correct load distribution to be confirmed of the bridge to an accuracy of less than 0.1 mm –
for checking the designed displacement values and
observing the behaviour of the bridge under
varying environmental and traffic conditions.
Figure 6. A control box with cables connecting to

Figure 5. Forced vibration of stay cable with
sensors including weather / environment sensors
accelerometer during bridge construction phase
Automated dynamic identification is included, to
The permanent system is designed to continuously
determine the natural frequency of the structure
record the dynamic movements and stresses in the
and of the stay cables (Fig. 7 and 8).
bridge, along with the environmental factors
(including traffic, seismic, wind, etc.,) that may
cause or affect these, and, in real time, process,
analyse, and interpret the data, display the data
704
FDD - Singular values
Temperature [°C]
Temperature vs. Date
28
-120
Temp 1
-130
26
-140 24
-150 Relative Humidity vs. Date
Humidity [%]
60
SVD.[deb]
-160 RH 1
40
-170
-180 20
-190 Longitudinal Inclination vs. Date
Incl. [deg]
-200 -0.1
-210
-0.2
2 4 6 8 10 12
Frequency [Hz]
Trasversal Inclination vs. Date

Figure 7. Stay cable natural frequency 0
Incl. [deg]
-0.05
0.04 data1 -0.1
16/11/2017 26/11/16
0.03
0.02 Figure 10. Monitoring of pylon verticality to support

0.01 bridge’s construction by ensuring right load
distribution
Acceleration [m/s2]
-0.01 The determined frequency values are displayed in

-0.02
time-frequency graphs, in order to continuously
record the behaviour of the structure and detect
-0.03
any possible damage, and the values are used to
-0.04
derive the tension forces in the cables (Figure 9).
-0.05
1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Fig. 10 represents the results of verticality
Data 4
x 10
measurements (inclination to X and Y axes) of one
Figure 8. Vibration damping after forced excitation of the bridge’s pylons. These measurements are
Frequency vs. Time important for the correct execution of works
1.2
related to load distribution at each side of the
1.15
pylon. A non-balanced situation would mean an
Frequency [Hz]
increase in inclination (longitudinally) of the pylon

1.1 for the sensors positioned both at the top and at
mid-height of the pylon. The figure shows that,
1.05 during the six months period covered, tilting in the
Freq 1 cable M11
longitudinal direction is always due to temperature
1
or to temporary unbalanced loading scenarios
8000 resulting from the addition of cast-in-place
segments to the main span. Analysis of the
7500 transverse direction shows that changes here are
Force [kN]
due not only to temperature but also to wind and

7000
to loading from the crane which is attached to the
pylon during construction. In both cases, the daily
Force 1 cable M11
6500
inclinations due to night and day temperature
27/09/16 16/11/16 05/01/17 24/02/17 15/04/17 fluctuations are clearly visible.
Date
The importance of the role played by the SHM
Figure 9. First natural frequency of one stay cable system already during the bridge construction
(above), and the derived tension force (below) stage illustrates the need, in many cases, to
705
consider the need for, and the needs of, an SHM responsibility of SNC-Lavalin, TY Lin International
system early in the bridge design and construction and International Bridge Technologies. The
process. Owner’s Engineer is headed by Arup Canada, and
Independent Engineer services are provided by
4 The New Champlain Bridge, Stantec and Ramboll.
Montreal, Canada The SHM system selected for use by the design
team is described below.
Canada’s largest current bridge construction
project involves the building of a New Champlain
4.1 The bridge’s SHM system
Bridge in Montreal to replace the existing 1962
structure of the same name. The existing bridge A permanent Robo-Control SHM system is
carries approximately 160,000 vehicles per day currently being installed, covering both the new
across the St. Lawrence River, with traffic projected Champlain Bridge and the new Île-des-Soeurs
to grow significantly in the coming years. The New Bridge. This system will provide, on an ongoing
Champlain Bridge (Fig. 11), expected to be basis, instant data which will enable the bridge’s
completed December 1st, 2018, will have a length performance, maintenance and rehabilitation to be
of 3,400 m, including a cable-stayed structure with optimized and its service life to the extended. It will
a main span of length 240 m. The superstructure is report specific load responses, measured at
designed as three parallel structures, including two specific structural components distributed across
three-lane corridors for vehicular traffic and a two- the bridge structure, providing all processed data
lane transit corridor for a planned light rail transit over time in graphical format. The system will also
system. The bridge will also include a path for raise suitable notification alerts, or alarms as
pedestrians and cyclists. The cable-stayed appropriate, should pre-defined threshold values
structure’s single tower, of height 160m above the be exceeded. This functionality shall enable the
water, consists of twin columns supporting the system to serve a range of purposes, including:
superstructure’s separate parts. providing the basis for long-term forecasting of
maintenance activities for monitored components;
providing the data needed to undertake special
inspections if deficiencies are detected and/or if an
extreme event occurs; facilitating the identification
of deterioration; provision of historical data
relating to loading conditions and the bridge’s
associated responses; and enabling remaining
service life to be evaluated.
When fully installed, in accordance with a schedule
Figure 11. Representation of the New Champlain dictated by the bridge’s construction process, it will
Bridge (Credit: Infrastructure Canada) incorporate over 200 sensors, as follows.
 36 displacement sensors (28 at joints, 8 at
The bridge is being built as the main element of a bearings). The combination of bearing and joint
$4.2 billion project which also includes the new Île- monitoring will allow individual bridge sections
des-Soeurs Bridge. A consortium consisting of SNC- to be accurately monitored, and enable
Lavalin, ACS and Hochtief is responsible for design, underperforming components to be identified.
construction, financing, operations, maintenance - Bearings: Positioned on the outer bearings –
and rehabilitation of the associated infrastructure, where the most significant movements are
under a public-private partnership agreement with likely to occur, and enabling any torsion of
the Government of Canada. Overall design and one side relative to the other to be
construction is by SNC-Lavalin, Dragados Canada, identified. All structurally independent deck
Flatiron Constructors Canada and EBC Inc., with sections (as limited by expansion joints) are
design of the New Champlain Bridge the
706
monitored, enabling any blockage of - Located at lower part of piers, on water:

bearings or joints to be identified. Positioned between low and high water
- Expansion joints: All joints on the south and level, throughout the bridge, to take account
north corridors have displacement sensors of freeze-thaw conditions and
at the mid-span of the joints, allowing for the decalcification. Where possible, located at
most accurate/average measurement of gap pier corners (more probable locations for
width at each joint. ship or ice sheet collisions and hence
 13 tri-axial accelerometers (frequency 100 Hz): concrete cover loss).
- Located at base of piers and pylon: To detect - Located on lower pier, on land: Positioned in
base acceleration (e.g. due to seismic events the car splash zones (prone to chloride
and eternal impact). concentration and degradation).
- Located at top of piers: To compare the - Located on upper pier: Positioned right
traffic vibration influence with data from below steel pier-cap (critical location due to
sensors on the girders, and correlate tilting water flowing down from pier-cap and deck
of piers with vibration measurements. which may contain de-icing chemicals). Also
- Located in girders: To measure vibration located below the drainage system exit to
levels due to traffic, and for comparison with monitor any leakage/corrosion.
the vibrations due to base accelerations in - Located in deck: Positioned in the deck slab
case of seismic events. stitch on the low side lanes where water
- Located on cables (outermost ones): accumulation is more likely, to monitor deck
Enabling vibrations to be converted into degradation due to de-icing salts, chlorides,
cable tensions, and excessive vibrations and and freeze-thaw.
high damping values to be detected. A number of sensors – those embedded in the
 6 tilt meters (on tower columns and piers). structure’s concrete – have already been installed
 138 strain gauges (54 embedded and 84 glued). (Fig. 12 and 13). The optimal use of the appropriate
Each, with other sensor data, will allow: corrosion sensors requires that they be embedded
- conversion of strain readings into forces and in the structure’s concrete when the concrete is
moments poured, and the same applies to strain gauges,
- derivation of creep strains and shrinkage depending on the distance from the surface at
strains at monitored temperatures which the strain should ideally be measured at any
- derivation of the magnitude of traffic loads particular location on the structure.
 4 Global Positioning System (GPS) units (one at
tower base, two at tops of tower columns, one
at base station). The conversion of GPS and tilt-
meter readings to real-time coordinates will
facilitate global analysis and the derivation of
stresses.
 2 weather stations (at top of tower and
superstructure of main span), measuring air
pressure, temperature, humidity, rainfall, wind
speed and wind direction.
 2 pyranometers (located at tower columns).
 18 temperature sensors (8 for pavement, 10 for
structure) – some embedded.
 18 corrosion sensors (all embedded). All have Figure 12. Installation of embedded corrosion
the ability to record open circuit potential, sensors and strain gauges
corrosion current, resistivity, linear polarization
resistance, ingress of chlorides and carbon
dioxide, temperature and relative humidity.
707
and to efficiently and effectively manage their

maintenance throughout their long service lives.
References
[1] Islami K., Meng N. and O’Suilleabhain, C.
Smart bridge components (expansion joints,
bearings and seismic devices) for intelligent
infrastructure. Proceedings of the 19th IABSE
Congress, Stockholm, Sweden; 2016.
[2] Caetano E., and Cunha A. Dynamic testing of
cable structures. Proc. EVACES’15 Congress,
Figure 13. Testing of embedded corrosion sensors Zurich, Switzerland; 2015.
and strain gauges
[3] Bosch H. and Pagenkopf J. Dynamic
proprieties of Stay Cables on Penobscot
5 Conclusions Narrows Bridge. Proc. 11th Americas
Early integration of SHM technology in the bridge Conference on Wind Engineering. San Juan,
design and construction process can be very Puerto Rico; 2009.
beneficial, not only to the construction process [4] Islami K. Enhanced system identification and
itself but also to the future functioning of the SHM automatic SHM of bridge structures, Ph.D.
system, be it for inspection, maintenance, Thesis, University of Padua, Italy and
evaluation or anything else. While an SHM system Columbia University, USA; 2013.
can be “added” to a structure at any time in its life
cycle, it can clearly be more cost-effective to install [5] Sigurdardottir D., Hubbell D., Sousa Afonso
it during the construction phase, and such early JP and Glisic B. Streicker Bridge: Assessment
installation can enable significant benefits to also of structural health condition through static
be gained in the early, perhaps critical, stages of and dynamic monitoring”. Proc. SHMII-5
the bridge’s life. For example – as illustrated by the Conference, Cancún, México; 2011.
referenced case studies – this can be important
where components of the SHM system require to
be embedded in a structure’s concrete during the
construction stage, or where the system will play a
significant data measurement and assessment role
in the construction process as a whole.
Measurements taken during the construction
phase can be very useful in confirming the correct
execution of works, e.g. in checking the verticality
of pylons and the correct distribution of tensions
among a cable stayed structure’s cables. And with
monitoring continuing for a number of years
following construction, the installed systems can
be used to monitor deck deflections, creep and
shrinkage, longitudinal deformations, pylon
deflections, corrosion and stay cable tension
forces, and correlate these with the many
environmental parameters. This can provide the
responsible engineers with great confidence in the
ongoing condition of these important structures,
708
Design Guidelines for Bolted Single Support Bar Modular Bridge Joint
Systems
Sougata Roy
Sougata Roy LLC, Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, USA
Frank A. Artmont
Modjeski and Masters, Inc., Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania, USA
Contact: sougata.r@gmail.com, frank.a.artmont@gmail.com
Abstract
A comprehensive experimental and analytical study was performed to characterize the dynamic behavior of
typical bolted single support bar (SSB) modular bridge joint systems (MBJS) under wheel loads and to determine
the fatigue resistance of the center beam-support bar (CB-SB) connections within these systems. The study
included static and fatigue testing of full-size SSB systems in the laboratory, characterization of suitable material
models for the nonlinear rate-dependent polymeric components, static analyses of the tested system, and
parametric 3D Finite Element Analyses (FEAs) of systems subjected to dynamic loading. The study established
the infinite life fatigue resistance of bolted CB-SB connections as that of AASHTO Category B, characterized the
behavior of the CB-SB connection and the influence of joint precompression level and polymeric materials, and
quantified the dynamic amplification factor (DAF) for SSB MBJS as a function of the system parameters. Design
guidelines for SSB MBJS were developed, and the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design and Construction Specifications
were revised based on the key findings of this study.
Keywords: modular bridge expansion joints; fatigue; infinite life; full-scale testing; AASHTO
specifications; structural dynamics; dynamic amplification factor; finite element analysis
709
expected to be that of Category B provided in the

1 Introduction AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications (BDS)
Single support bar MBJS are exceedingly being used [6]. Each SSB MBJS specimen (shown in Figure 1)
for accommodating thermal movements in bridges consisted of three CBs supported on three SBs, and
exceeding 27 in. (700 mm). These systems, included all typical connection details in a MBJS.
consisting of steel and polymeric components, The interior CB was loaded with simultaneous
exhibit complex dynamic response when subjected vertical and horizontal loads, as per Appendix A19
to successive impacts by each crossing truck axle. of the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Construction
The repeated dynamic loading generates many Specifications (BCS) [7]. All tests were performed
amplified stress cycles within the connections of under reversal loading, as it more accurately
the system, rendering them susceptible to fatigue represented the in-service loading, i.e., downward
cracking during their service life. Previous research displacement of the MBJS under passing vehicle,
[1] and observed cracking in field installations [2] followed by upward rebound during free vibration.
showed that the CB-SB connection was the most As was specified in [7], 70% of the total load range
critical detail; however, the behavior and fatigue was applied downward, and 30% was applied
resistance of this connection in SSB systems were upward. The magnitude of the loading was such
not well established. Additionally, the dynamic that the stress range at the critical bolted CB-SB
response characteristics determined from limited connection was 16 ksi, the constant amplitude
field measurements on SSB systems indicated a fatigue threshold (CAFT) for Category B details.
wide range of possible amplifications dependent Fourteen specimens were tested for 6×106 loading
on the joint size and the speed of the crossing cycles (twice the number of cycles at the
vehicles [1, 3]. Accurate estimation of the dynamic intersection of the finite and infinite life curves for
response is essential during design of these joints, Category B) without any fatigue cracking, according
as significantly amplified stress cycles can to the testing protocols established for this project
accelerate fatigue damage in their components. [4] for demonstrating Category B infinite life
resistance (Figure 2). These connections were
Recently, a comprehensive experimental and previously classified by the AASHTO specifications
analytical research was performed to characterize [6, 7] as Category D.
the fatigue resistance and dynamic behavior of SSB
MBJS. The study, detailed in [4], included: static While not presented in this manuscript, the infinite
and fatigue testing of full-size SSB systems in the life fatigue performance of other connection
laboratory; characterization of suitable material details within the MBJS was also verified by the
models for the nonlinear hysteretic polymeric fatigue testing [4].
components; static analyses of the tested system; Prior to initiating fatigue tests, each specimen was
dynamic analyses of a previously field-tested tested at a slower loading rate (static test) to
system; and determination of DAFs based on determine the specimen response and the loading
parametric studies of MBJS within the practical
range of joint dimensions and operating
conditions.
This paper summarizes the findings of the research,
and presents guidelines for designing fatigue-
resistant SSB MBJS.
2 Experimental Studies
The experimental studies included static and
fatigue tests of full-scale SSB MBJS assemblies [5].
The primary objective of the testing was to
determine the infinite life fatigue resistance of the
bolted CB-SB connection detail, which was Figure 1. Fatigue testing of SSB MBJS
710
MBJS assembly); and (3) two in-depth analyses of

the CB-SB connection, one modelling the
connection as an assemblage of linear and
nonlinear springs (each representing different
components) [8], and the other a 3D isolated solid
model of the connection as a submodel of the 3D
MBJS assembly model, employing all the features
of the connection and the assembly process.
Prior to performing the above analyses, analytical
studies were performed for assessing constitutive
material models characterizing the non-linear
Figure 2. Fatigue test results for bolted CB-SB response of the polymeric components in the MBJS
connection detail as was seen during the laboratory static tests. This
study consisted of non-linear FEA calibrated with
parameters for fatigue testing. The response of the experimental data.
loaded CB (supported on the SBs), was consistent
with a two span continuous beam subjected to Following the above studies, two sets of dynamic
vertical and horizontal loading. Minor nonlinearity time history analyses were performed. First, a
in the upward loading and hysteresis between the previously field-tested SSB MBJS was analysed to
loading and the unloading cycles were noted, assess the dynamic response characteristics of SSB
which were attributed to hysteretic response MBJS under vehicular loading and to identify
characteristics of the elastomeric components in suitable modelling procedures for subsequent
the system. Overall, the response characteristics parametric studies. Three models with different
among specimens were repetitive. levels of complexity were considered. This study
also investigated various load models for
3 Analytical Studies simulating the passage of the vehicular load.
Finally, parametric dynamic analyses of SSB MBJS
The primary goal of the analytical studies was to were performed and DAFs were developed as
parametrically investigate the response of SSB functions of the system dimensions and service
MBJS to moving loads and to develop dynamic conditions.
design guides for these systems. To that end,
several studies were performed, each addressing 3.1 Nonlinear Material Modelling of
different aspects. Three sets of analyses were Polymeric Components
performed on the SSB MBJS assembly that was
physically tested in the laboratory for developing Uniaxial compression tests were conducted on
suitable models that correlated with the static test sliding springs comprised of steel-reinforced
results, and for understanding the response natural rubber. For the sliding bearings, comprised
characteristics of the CB-SB connection and its of polyamide 6 OR Nylatron (a nylon
impact on the joint behaviour. These analyses thermoplastic), test data was collected from the
included: (1) three simple structural analyses of a literature.
CB supported on three SBs as a continuous beam, Both materials exhibited nonlinear stiffening
with different connection configurations and behaviour with hysteresis and rate-dependency
stiffness; (2) two detailed 3D FEAs, considering that were best modelled using a combined
different levels of refinement for the CB-SB hyperelastic-viscoelastic material model [4, 9]. A
connection (one employing frictional contact combination of the van der Waals hyperelastic
between connection faying surfaces, bolt model [10] and the Bergstrom-Boyce hysteresis
pretension, precompression of the sliding bearing model [11] was effective for modeling the sliding
and the sliding spring, and nonlinear material spring. A combination of the Marlow hyperelastic
constitutive relationships for the polymeric model [12] and linear viscoelasticity was effective
components, but ignoring the outer CBs of the for modeling the sliding bearings.
711
Figure 3. Comparison of experimental and Figure 4. Stresses along CB bottom flange

simulated material response for sliding springs comparing results of structural analysis models to
static tests
Parameters for the material models were
determined by optimization [4, 9]. The material
3.3 CB-SB Connection Behaviour
models captured the observed behaviour well, as
shown in Figure 3, particularly within the The detailed analytical studies of the CB-SB
operational strains and strain rates for SSB MBJS. connection (1) examined the behavior of the CB-SB
connection during assembly and under static
3.2 Structural Analyses of SSB MBJS loading, (2) determined the influence of the level of
precompression introduced within the connection
The three structural analyses models considered
on the connection response and its fatigue
were: (1) as suggested by Appendix A19 of the LRFD
resistance, and (3) investigated the behavior of the
BCS [7] for modelling the bending behaviour of the
connections when steel discs were used in place of
CBs in any type of MBJS (identified as A19); (2)
the polymeric components, as allowed by the LRFD
same as A19, but including the calculated support
BCS Appendix A19 [7].
deflections at the SB locations (identified as ADV);
and (3) a more generalized model that Both the simplified one-dimensional spring
incorporated adjustable-stiffness translational and assemblage model [8] and the detailed 3D FE
rotational springs at each support location model [4] employed the nonlinear material
(identified as GEN). Comparison of the results from constitutive relationships for the polymeric
the structural analysis models with static tests is components and incorporated step-by-step the
shown in Figure 4. joint assembly process. Each model was analyzed
for different precompression gaps and different
The analysis results revealed that including support
loadings. During assembly, the polymeric
deflection at the SB locations was essential for
components were precompressed within the
accurately predicting the stresses in the CBs. The
connection equal to the precompression gap.
best correlation with experimental results was
provided by the GEN model, where the stiffness of From the analysis results, three stages of
the support springs could be adjusted so that the connection behaviour were identified (Figure 5).
predicted response closely matched the During the first stage of behaviour, the connection
experimental response. For the horizontal accommodated applied loads through changes in
response, a simply supported continuous beam precompression within the polymeric components.
was used for all models, contrary to the coplanar Under large upward loading, the precompression
frame recommended by LRFD BCS Appendix A19 force in the sliding spring dissipated as the CB
[7], which was intended for multiple support bar separated further from the SB. During this second
(MSB) systems and did not represent the physical stage of behavior, the applied loads were
behaviour of SSB systems. accommodated through changes in the clamping
force between the faying surfaces of the bolted
712
the new load pulse models was trapezoidal [13],

obtained by convolution of wheel contact area and
the CB flange width. The other load pulse was
obtained by direct equilibrium of loads shared by
the CBs at each instant. While the analysis results
with these load pulses applied to the BE model
generally showed good correlation with the field
tests, a trapezoidal load pulse was conservatively
considered for all subsequent dynamic analyses.
The analysis results of BE, SE and EBE models
correlated well with the field testing results as
Figure 5. Connection behaviour stages for spring shown inFigure 6, particularly the maximum
assemblage model with polymeric sliding bearing response. While the SE model provided a more
and sliding spring components accurate response, the results demonstrated that
the dynamic behavior of SSB MBJS can be
connection, and large force changes were observed adequately represented by the EBE model, which
in the stirrups. Finally, upon continued upward was much less computationally intensive than the
loading the bolts started to experience prying SE model. The results also showed that in addition
forces. to the damping inherent in the polymeric
The results indicated that for the best fatigue components, the damping of the steel components
performance the connection should remain in the was significant for accurately capturing the free
first stage, where it is fully compacted (no gaps vibration response.
between connection faying surfaces), ensuring The response of the CB was primarily due to the
negligible force changes in the stirrups and the downward loading. The maximum upward or
bolts. rebound response (bending moment) in the
vertical direction during to the free vibration phase
3.4 Dynamic Analysis was less than 15% of the downward response. In
The first set of dynamic time-history analyses were the horizontal direction (Figure 7) the free vibration
based on the SSB MBJS in the I70/I25 Flyover Ramp was almost non-existent. A locked-in displacement
in Denver, Colorado that was field tested by Dexter relative to the initial position existed after the pulse
et al. [1]. A beam element model (BE), a detailed 3D loading due to the inherent friction between sliding
solid element model (SE), and an enhanced beam bearing and the SB, resulting in a critically damped
element model (EBE) were investigated. For the BE response. The maximum horizontal bending
model, all components including the polymeric
components were modeled with linear elastic
beam elements. For the SE model, all features of
the MBJS were modeled including the nonlinear
time-dependent material behavior of polymeric
components (as presented in 3.1), and the
assembly steps of the CB-SB connection. The EBE
model was a hybrid of the BE and SE models, where
the BE model was enhanced by incorporating the
nonlinear material behavior of the polymeric
components and the assembly of the CB-SB
connections. Two new load pulse models, and
three existing load pulse models (sinusoidal,
triangular, haversine) were considered for Figure 6. Dynamic analysis results of field-tested
representing the wheel loading on the CBs. One of SSB MBJS [1] – vertical bending moment
713
Figure 8. Dynamic analysis results of field-tested Figure 7. Shock Spectrum for SSB MBJS developed
SSB MBJS [1] – horizontal bending moment from parametric analysis results
moment was about 20% of the maximum vertical the duration of pulse loading due to the crossing
moment. vehicle decreased with respect to the fundamental
period of the SSB MBJS, the DAF increased, and vice
3.5 Parametric Analysis versa. This observation is consistent with the
general perception that dynamic response
Using the EBE model identified from the first set of increases with increased vehicle speed (shorter
dynamic analyses as the best balance of accuracy pulse duration) and decreased system natural
and computational efficiency, a parametric study frequency (flexible systems). For larger DIPs (where
was performed for vertical loading only considering stiffer systems essentially respond statically), the
the most influential geometric and operating DAF approached a value of 1.50, which is less than
variables: the joint size; the gap opening; the the current value for MBJS design specified in the
precompression gap for CB-SB connection LRFD BDS of 1.75. However, for systems having
assembly; and the vehicle speed. The results of the longer natural periods and/or subjected to shorter
dynamic time-history analyses were normalized by pulse duration, the DAF could be significantly
a dynamic interaction parameter (DIP), which was higher than the specified value. For MBJS having
defined as the pulse duration, td (including the DIPs less than approximately 4, the DAF increased
effects of the vehicle speed and the joint exponentially to 3.0 as the DIP approached 2.0.
characteristics) divided by an equivalent natural While the parametric studies did not include all
period of the MBJS, TEQ. The equivalent natural possible combinations as the DIP approached 2.0,
period was estimated for each parameter the dimensions of the analyzed systems based on
combination, independently from the analysis the sizes of modern SSB MBJS indicated a DAF as
results, based on a generalized single-degree-of- high as 2.3 for DIP of about 2.4. As such the
freedom idealization of the SSB MBJS. The DAF was equation is expected to be applicable to majority of
defined as the total maximum downward and the modern systems having DIPs greater than 2.4.
upward dynamic response divided by the static
response. Using the DAFs obtained from the 4 Conclusions
simulations at the midspan and the support, and Through the study presented here, a thorough
the respective system DIPs, a shock spectrum for understanding of the behavior of SSB MBJS,
SSB MBJS was generated as an upper bound, which particularly with bolted CB-SB stirrup connections
represented the variation of the DAF due to vertical was obtained. The CAFT of the bolted CB-SB
loading as a function of the system parameters and connections was established as Category B, which
the operating conditions (Figure 8). would enable efficient design of SSB MBJS. Three
The shock spectrum demonstrated that the stages of behaviour for the CB-SB connection was
dynamic response of SSB MBJS depended on the identified. For achieving Category B fatigue
interaction between the dynamic properties of the resistance, however, the connection must remain
system and the speed of the crossing vehicle. As in the first stage, i.e., fully compressed such that
714
the bolts do not experience any prying forces. In loading imparted by vehicles needs to be further
comparison, the welded CB-SB stirrup connections investigated by field studies.
are classified as AASHTO Category C against fatigue
The parametric studies showed that stiffer SSB
crack growth into the CB from the stirrup-CB weld
systems are preferable for reducing the DAF. The
toe.
specified DAF of 1.75 in the AASHTO Specifications
The experimental and analytical studies is conservative for majority of the modern SSB
demonstrated that the stiffness of both the sliding MBJS with DIP greater than 4. For systems with DIP
bearing and sliding spring at the expected strain less than 3, the DAF could be larger than 1.75 and
rates experienced by these components in-service should be verified by the equation presented in . A
were much less than the stiffness of steel material, linear variation of DAF between DIP of 3 and 4 may
in contrary to what was postulated by Dexter et al. be assumed conservatively. Simple methodology
[1]. The behaviour of the CB-SB connection for estimating DIP is presented in [4]. The proposed
significantly changed and the fatigue resistance of equation, however, needs to be verified by field
the connection greatly reduced, when polymeric studies.
components within the CB-SB connection were
Various shortcomings within the AASHTO
replaced by steel discs.
specifications regarding the testing and design of
The dynamic analyses, corroborated by limited SSB MBJS were identified in this study that were
field test results, showed that the primary response addressed in the latest version of the AASHTO
of the CB was due to the vertical loading. The Specifications. In addition to defining the fatigue
parametric studies showed a significant scatter in resistance of bolted CB-SB stirrup connections, a
the rebound response, ranging between 2 to 37% more rational procedure for fatigue testing of SSB
of the total dynamic response, and a clear MBJS and the duration for infinite life testing were
relationship of the rebound with DIP could not be included in the revised specifications. Given the
discerned (Figure 9). The current provision in the large number of fatigue stress cycles expected
AASHTO specifications for upward loading (30% of during a 25-30 years’ service life, verification of
the total load), although conservative for some SSB infinite life fatigue performance of MBJS was
MBJS, appears to be a reasonable requirement. A encouraged. For fatigue testing, only the bottom
critically damped response in the horizontal flange of the CB may be restrained against lateral
direction resulted due to the inherent friction in movement, which would allow bending of the CB
the CB-SB connection, suggesting lesser DAF for web subjected to lateral loading. This response has
horizontal loading. Thus, the dynamic amplification been noted in field testing. The specifications were
of the vertical and the horizontal load components also revised for verification of structural analysis
should be treated separately for SSB MBJS. The models with respect to experiments. It is
dynamic characteristics of SSB MBJS and an recommended that the test results be reported
appropriate load model including the horizontal with respect to measurements at strain gauges
adjacent to the test detail. The design
recommendations presented here and the revised
specifications are expected to ensure consistent
and cost-effective design and verification of SSB
MBJS.
5 Acknowledgements
The study reported herein was performed as part
of the doctoral research by the second author in
the Department of Civil and Environmental
Engineering at Lehigh University, under the
guidance of the first author. The study was
Figure 9. Plot of RF over DAF against DIP motivated by a test program of SSB MBJS
715
incorporating bolted CB-SB connections conducted Eighth International Conference on Bridge

at the ATLSS Engineering Research Centre. The Maintenance, Safety, and Management.
authors gratefully acknowledge the partial funding
[10] Kilian HG. Equation of state of real networks.
and material support for this study from the
Polymer. 1981, 22(2): 209-217.
sponsor. Additionally, the authors acknowledge
the resources and support provided by Lehigh [11] Bergstrom-JS, Boyce MC. Constitutive
University. modeling of the large strain time-dependent
behavior of elastomers. Journal of the
6 References Mechanics and Physics of Solids. 1998, 46(5):
931-954.
[1] Dexter RJ, Connor RJ, Kaczinski MR. Fatigue
Design of Modular Expansion Joints. 1997; [12] Marlow RS. A general first-invariant
NCHRP Report 402. hyperelastic constitutive model. 2003:
Constitutive Models for Rubber III:
[2] Roeder CW. Fatigue Cracking in Modular Proceedings of the Third European
Expansion Joints. 1993; WSDOT Report WA- Conference on Constitutive Models for
RD 306.1 Rubber.
[3] Ancich EJ, Chirgwin GJ, Brown SC. Dynamic [13] Artmont FA, Roy S. A Model for Simulating
Anomalies in a Modular Bridge Expansion Dynamic Vehicular Load on Modular Bridge
Joint. ASCE Journal of Bridge Engineering. Expansion Joint Systems. IJBRC 2016: 8th
2006; 11: 541-554. World Congress on Joints, Bearings, and
[4] Artmont FA. Evaluation of the Fatigue Seismic Systems for Concrete Structures.
Performance and Dynamic Behavior of Single
Support Bar Modular Bridge Expansion Joint
Systems. 2017: PhD Dissertation, Lehigh
University.
[5] Roy S, Artmont FA. Laboratory Testing of
Bolted Single Support Bar Systems for
Infinite Fatigue Life and Proposed
Specification Revisions. IJBRC 2016: 8th
World Congress on Joints, Bearings, and
Seismic Systems for Concrete Structures.
Transportation Officials. AASHTO LRFD
Bridge Design Specifications. 2014.
Transportation Officials. AASHTO LRFD
Bridge Construction Specifications. 2010.
[8] Artmont FA, Roy S. Behavior of Bolted Center
Beam to Support Bar Connections within
Single Support Bar Modular Bridge
Expansion Joint Systems. IJBRC 2016: 8th
World Congress on Joints, Bearings, and
Seismic Systems for Concrete Structures.
[9] Artmont FA, Roy S. Evaluation of a Material
Model for Sliding Springs in Modular Bridge
Expansion Joint Systems. IABMAS 2016: The
716
Bridge Deck Waterproofing on Concrete

Philippe Stoll
MSc Civil Eng ETH, Zurich, Switzerland
Sika Kimia Sdn Bhd, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Philippe Stoll received his master’s degree in civil engineering from the Federal Polytechnic Institute ETH,
Zurich in 2003. He started his carrier with Gaehler & Partner AG as a consultant for underground structures.
In 2011, he joined Sika as Corporate waterproofing expert, and has worked in Switzerland, India and
Malaysia.
Contact: stoll.philippe@my.sika.com
Abstract
Bridges are critical elements for infrastructure projects. Bitumen based state of the art systems
cannot fulfil the increasing requirements for modern bridges when it comes to minimum service
life and resistance to severe stresses, so developing new resin based systems which can provide a
longer service life, shorter down times in case of maintenance works and reduced repair costs are
the main target for system manufacturers.
New spray-applied solutions offer rapid application and curing, and form a tough, elastic and
seamless waterproofing layer. The key element is the increased tensile bond (> 0.4 N/mm2) and
shear strength to the asphalt overlay, which is substantially higher compared with traditional
bitumen tack coats.
The worldwide recognised standards for liquid applied waterproofing systems on concrete bridge
decks are BBA/HAPAS and ETAG 033.
Keywords: bridge deck waterproofing, liquid applied, asphalt bond, pellet, BBA, ETAG033
In the past, several different material systems and

1 Introduction approaches have been developed and applied as
The waterproofing of bridge decks is recognized as deck waterproofing systems. Starting with
a vital and necessary element to improve the bitumen or tar, later different bituminous sheets
durability and extend the service life of bridge and polymer modified membrane systems,
structures. It represents the first line of defence waterproof concrete, and finally now with liquid,
against the ingress of water, chlorides (from the spray applied membranes which are fully bonded
atmosphere or road de-icing salts) and other to the substrate [1].
aggressive chemicals into the bridge deck. All of these systems have their own strengths and
Concrete bridge deck deterioration is one of the weaknesses. Worldwide many different
most extensive bridge maintenance problems waterproofing systems are installed, dependent
affecting the service life of bridges, causing severe on the country, its standards/regulations, plus the
damage and even destroying the structure, climatic conditions. But bridge deck waterproofing
through steel reinforcement corrosion or erosion is actually one of the most heavily regulated types
and corrosion of the cement matrix of the of applications in civil engineering with stringent
concrete. Therefore it is paramount to the testing to prove suitability for use in these tough
durability of the bridge that this key element is conditions.
protected.
717
2 Corrosion 4 Standards
Reinforced concrete is one of the main bridge
4.1 BBA / HAPAS
construction materials and classified as extremely
durable if properly constructed. In 1995, the British Board of Agrémont & Highway
Authority Product Approval Scheme (BBA HAPAS)
A certain degree of permeability is always present
was established to provide a nationally recognised
in a concrete structure. However, when combined
approval scheme for innovative products and
with surface abrasion and hairline cracking, water
systems used on highways and related areas in the
and corrosive materials, especially carbon dioxide
UK. Bridge deck waterproofing systems have to go
from the air and chlorides from marine
through rigorous test procedures in different
environments or de-icing salts can penetrate the
environmental conditions including a real bridge
concrete and attack the steel reinforcement. An
deck waterproofing application, before
electrolytic corrosion process starts, due to the
certification and approval is given. The approval
reduction of alkalinity of the concrete and
scheme not only covers performance testing of
moisture being present, and the concrete
the system, but also includes manufacturing
effectively becomes a battery.
quality control of each single product used for the
The chemical compound iron-hydroxide or ‘rust’ is system [3].
formed, expanding the steel volume by up to eight
The most critical requirements are:
times its original thickness, which then spalls &
cracks the surrounding concrete, eventually  Shear bond of asphalt > 0.2 N/mm2
destroying it. If left untreated, this can lead to  Pull-off strength of asphalt > 0.1 N/mm2
catastrophic structural failure.
These values are set for a theoretical asphalt layer
The primary defence against these corrosive thickness of minimum 120mm, which is undercut
agents is a good quality, dense concrete, in many projects. Thinner asphalt layers require an
combined with a proven and correctly installed increased pull-off strength of > 0.4 N/mm2.
waterproofing membrane.
3 Performance requirements
Irrespective of the method and material used, it is
essential that the waterproofing system meets
minimum performance requirements including
[2]:
 impermeability to water
 good adhesion to the deck and primer
 good adhesion to the asphalt overlay Figure 1: Spay application of fast reacting
 bridging of shrinkage, thermal or movement PUA/PUR hybrid waterproofing membrane, India
cracks in concrete
 tolerant of uneven deck surfaces and details 4.2 ETAG 033
 tough and able to withstand site damage,
The European Technical Approval Guideline
including traffic from the paving equipment
(ETAG) 033 covers the waterproofing of concrete
 safe to apply
bridge decks with liquid applied systems.
 able to withstand the elevated surfacing
material temperatures (up to 240°C) This standard gives similar testing procedures to
 applicable in a wide range of climatic BBA HAPAS, to ensure that the physical
conditions performance of the applied system under various
 non bio-degradable conditions, meets the requirements of a high
performing bridge deck waterproofing system [4].
718
5 Certified system times the minimum BBA HAPAS & ETAG 033
requirement. The actual bond is highly dependent
One of the weakest points of traditional on the asphalt temperature during rolling.
waterproofing systems is the bond between the
waterproofing membrane and the asphalt overlay,
as all of them use bitumen based tack coats with
aggregate embedded to form a shear key. When
this bonding method is combined with the use of
thin section asphalt overlays at only 60 – 90mm
thickness (for economics and weight reduction), it
frequently leads to premature failure in the
asphalt surface, including potholes, slipping or
shear failure between the overlay and the
membrane itself. To overcome these issues
related to bonding with thin sections of asphalt, a Figure 3: Expanding hot melt pellet application on
new innovative solution was derived to increase sprayed membrane before asphalt overlay, Kuwait
the tensile and shear strength of already existing
BDWS (Bridge Deck Waterproofing Systems) to 6 Conclusions
the specified asphalt overlay [5]. An increasing number of vehicles globally requires
high quality infrastructure. Bridge deck
deterioration is one of the most extensive bridge
maintenance problems affecting the service life of
bridges, whilst refurbishment and traffic
diversions are a notable factor regarding the
whole life cycle costs of the structure. Therefore
using more durable systems with increased
bonding between the waterproofing and asphalt
overlay, and quicker back-into-service time is one
strategy to meet or extend the service life of the
structure. Modern protective systems, based on
Figure 2: System build-up organic reactive resins with innovative bonding
1. Wearing course: Asphalt concrete (+140 solutions, can meet these demands for the future.
to +180°C)
2. Base course: Asphalt concrete (+140 to 7 References
+180°C)
[1] Current practice Sheet No.9) Bridge deck
3. PU tack coat plus expanding hot melt
Waterproofing Association
pellets uniformly broadcast
4. Fast reacting hybrid PUA/PUR liquid [2] H. Gantner – Bridges: Lead Article
applied waterproofing membrane waterproof decks (2007)
5. Epoxy primer, broadcast [3] BBA / HAPAS: Guidelines document for the
6. Concrete deck assessment and certification of
The key bonding technology is based on waterproofing systems for use on concrete
expanding hot melt pellets, which are uniformly decks of highway bridges, August 2012
spread into a well adhering tack coat. The heat of [4] ETAG 033: Guideline for European Technical
the asphalt during application makes the pellets Approval of liquid applied bridge deck
expand and form sticky glue, which significantly waterproofing kits, Version July 2010
improves the tensile bond (> 0.4 N/mm2) and
shear strength between the asphalt overlay and [5] S. Hunter - Innovations in Bridge Deck
the waterproofing membrane by up to seven Protection presentation (2015)
719
The durability of Finger Type expansion joints for Penang Second

Bridge with Comparison studies based on expansion joints for bridges
in Malaysia & around the world
Dato’ Thomas Chong Seng Shia
Managing Director – Hercules Group of Companies, Selangor, MALAYSIA
Contact: info@hercules-engineering.com
Abstract
The cost of maintenance & replacement of movement joints in bridges around the world have been a major
concern for all government authorities and highway operators. Damaged movement joints not only impaired
serviceability of roads & bridges, it also causes losses of income to the government authorizes / operators
and most critically, legal suits by the public due to failure to provide public safety.
This paper is aimed to provide more technical information for further improvement in the quality & durability
of movement joints. The various types of movement joints installed in bridges in Malaysia and around the
world will be presented. The causes of failures will be analyzed together with replacement cost comparison.
A case study using the example of Penang Second Bridge will also be presented.
Keywords: Bridge, expansion joint, finger joint, joint failure
1 Introduction
The most common type of bridge joint in Malaysia
Bridge joints play a critical role in the overall is the elastomeric type with bolted connections.
performance of a bridge structure. The type of Opinions vary as much on this type of bridge joint.
deck joint selected for a bridge structure is Like so many other details in a highway bridge, the
generally dependent on the type and magnitude of decisions on which type of joint to be used based,
motion of the joint is required to accommodate. to a great extent, on subjective rather than
Bridge joint can be designed to provide for functional issues. Some bridge authorities such as
longitudinal and transverse movement as well as Singapore Land Traffic Authority completely
the rotation caused by the thermal expansion and removed the usage of this joint from their standard
contraction, shrinkage and creep, and other specification due to maintenance nightmare
loading conditions. whereas the Malaysian Public Works Department -
JKR specification still believes this type of joint as
2 The common types of bridge joint economical and therefore installed in most of the
in Malaysia bridges in Malaysia.
· Asphaltic Plug Joint Owner and the design engineer who must decide
· Elastomeric Bridge Joint which type of joint best suited for the particular
· Strip Seal Joints operation. Although they are often relegated to
· Finger or Saw-tooth Type only part of the final drawing, the deck joints play a
· Modular Joint significant role in the overall performance of a
bridge and highway. In making this decision, bridge
720
designers need to consider the durability and quality movement joints be installed to improve its
maintainability of the selected joint and the long- durability thence reducing the maintenance costs.
term direct and indirect costs associated therewith.
4.2 Submission Requirements
Expansion joint should indeed accommodate all
movements of the bridge structure, withstand all It is very common that only prices are considered
applied loads, have a good riding comfort without in the tenders for supply of movement joints in
causing inconvenience or hazards to the road Malaysia or most part of the world. Technical
users, require little maintenance, and allow easy design compliance is usually taking the back seat by
inspection, repair and or replacement. Currently, the main contractors due to cost cutting.
these demands seem to exceed what the bridge
It is therefore commended that Design
joint industry can accommodate.
specification requires that the movement joint
suppliers submit their technical proposals which
includes design calculations, design details and
3 Possible Causes of Joint Failure quality control plan etc. in a Technical Design
Submission.
Most bridge joint failures are caused by:
It is a common failure in the concrete transition
· Poor anchorage System strip due to inadequate or ZERO reinforcement. It
· Failure of the Transition Strip Material is important that positive anchorage system for the
· Excessive Movement of Joint Capacity movement joints be detailed and incorporated to
· Traffic Pounding ensure that the impact loads are transferred to the
· Poor Design Details permanent reinforcement of the super-structures.
· Poor Workmanship in Fabrication &
Only when a Technical Compliance Status is
Installation
obtained from the authority or project engineer(s)
or its representative design consulting engineer,
4 Way Forward to Improving Quality thence a joint manufacturer is qualified to supply
of Bridge Deck Joints and their movement joint system is considered
Technical proposal had been submitted to further commercially by the main contractor.
improve the quality & durability of movement What good is it to pay for a “cheap” movement
joints in Malaysia. joint that incurs more maintenance costs and
The situation of movement joints in Malaysia had danger plus inconveniences to the public users?
been presented by JKR and several comments were This is not only a bad economy but seriously
made by panel participants. The various types of damages the image of bridge engineer and the
movement joints had been studied and the causes engineering capability in bridge construction
of its failures had also been analyzed. industry.
4.3 Testing Requirement

4.1 Revising Design Specification & Quality It is unfortunate that most movement joints
Control supplied in Malaysia or most part of the world were
NOT tested for its performance, durability & quality
It is of utmost importance that the Design before it was allowed to be installed.
specification be improved to ensure only world-
class quality movements joints are installed in It is therefore recommended that all types of
Malaysian bridges & highways to reflect the movement joints be tested for its material
engineering excellence in the bridge joint industry. properties, workmanship and design performance
in general to ensure its durability.
It is only by stating clear and enforcing the technical
requirements in the design specification, will good
721
4.4 Cyclic Load Performance Test

It is important that all movement joints be tested
for the design wheel loads e.g. 85kN as specified in
AASHTO LRFD design specifications & EN
specifications. It is only by means of physical
testing of the movement joints under fatigue loads
to the required frequency (usually 2mil cycles) in
order for the joints to be certified in compliance
with the design wheel loads requirements.
Fatigue load test also ensures that the holding Figure 1. Typical Design Detail
down bolts / nuts are not loosening after the 2mil
cycles of impact wheel loads. The above details may only be systematic but it
contains several problems:
4.5 Water Ponding Test
4.7.1 Steel Reinforcement Details
“Water-proofing” is a common failure for the
movement joints. It is therefore recommended There is no indication of starter bars or inverted
that water ponding test be carried out on site after “U” bars for the transition strip materials. This will
the movement joints are installed. It is particularly only leave it to the main contractor / joint installer
important when the movement joints are installed who may not be technically sound to construct the
for flyover / viaduct as any penetration of water transition strip accordingly with ZERO steel
will not only cause undesirable stains on crosshead reinforcement.
but also endangers the underpass traffic. This will only crack in no time across the entire
carriageway under shrinkage and thermal
4.6 Anchorage Pull-out Test movements. The cracks will propagate and finally
“Bolt loosening and anchor failures” are also cause the movement joints to be loosening.
commonly failure for the movement joints. It is
therefore recommended that “Anchorage Pull-out 4.7.2 Protection Angles
test” be carried out to ensure the design load On top of ZERO steel reinforcement for the
compliance of the proposed anchorage system for transition strip materials, there is no design
the movement joints. consideration to protect the edge of transition strip
It is obvious that the implementation of a more against wheel impact load or future re-surfacing of
stringent specification to include testing asphalt roads.
requirements may increase the initial cost of the It is recommended that protection angle with
movement joints but in long term it will certainly closed loop anchorage be incorporated in all
be more economical than the removal & movement joint details as specified under
replacement costs which include heavy Singapore LTA M+W Specification.
mobilization and demobilization costs and many
The incorporation of protection angles for the
other hidden costs such as traffic management.
transition strip has always been a good design
4.7 Specified Design Details philosophy. The recently installed Hercules Finger
Joints [HFJ] for the World-class Penang Second
It is also noticed that the specified design details for Bridge “Jambatan Sultan Abdul Halim Muadzam
the movement joints require further improvement. Shah” and Mahgna-Gumti Bridges in Bangladesh
A typical design detail is enclosed as an example to had been incorporated with protection angle and
illustrate the possible problems which may cause this had proven to be most effective for the
pre-matured failure to the movement joints. movement joints.
722
inadequate embedment length for the anchors, it

will become loose under cyclic wheel impact loads.
5 Cost Comparison Between

Different Movement Joints
A typical cost comparison recently carried out for a
highway operator is enclosed for studies and cost
analysis.
Typically, owing to its limitations and abrasion
problems elastomeric rubber joints & Asphaltic
plug joints require major maintenance and / or
replacement in every 5 years. Drawing from the
attached comparison table, it is proven that Single
element (Strip Seal) metal runner joints & Finger
type joints are more cost effective in long-term say
10 years period. (Refer to App. A)
6 Adequate Time for Fabrication &

Site Installation
Having improved specification with tested
movement joints will certainly improve the
performance thence durability of the movement
joints which will ultimately reduce expenses / costs
in maintaining sub-standard movement joints.
However, it must also be emphasized that
sufficient time should ALWAYS be allowed for good
Figure 2. Finger Type Joints Installed in Penang workmanship not only in fabrication but more
Second Bridge importantly for the movement joints to be
thoroughly installed at site.
4.7.3 Holding Down Anchors
It is shown that anchors of movement joints are to
7 Conclusions
be “cast-in” instead of post-drilled after pouring of The possible causes of joint failure and proposal to
concrete. However, there is no indication of enhance the quality & durability of movement
specified embedment length for its pull-out load joints discussed in this paper based on the
capacity. experiences from the author after involving in
The detail may have indicated “cast-in” anchors but bridges construction & retrofitting works for more
the actual practice in the local construction than 30years.
industry is the exact opposite i.e. “Post-drilled” It’s important that the causes of joint failure and
method by irresponsible main contractors / joint proposal be taken seriously to enhance the quality
installers. & durability of movement joints. This can only be
These post-drilled anchors are probably the major achieved by all parties work together to improve
cause of joint loosening. Without proper design for with a common goal to provide a safe and smooth
the starter-bars and post-drilled anchors are most driving experience to the public users.
likely to be “cut short” when it is obstructed by the
steel reinforcement of the bridge deck. Having
723
8 Acknowledgements – References
- Hercules Expansion Joint System
- Ir. Leow Choon Heng, “JKR EXPERIENCE IN BRIDGE
DECK EXPANSION JOINTS”
- M. Azadur Rahman (Acumen Consulting House
Ltd, Dhaka, Bangladesh)
- Md. Amir Hossain Khan (Corps of Engineers,
Bangladesh Army)
724
APPENDIX A
725
Retrofitting and Strengthening Interventions of RC Members Using

Ultra High Performance Concrete (UHPC)
Wee Teo
Heriot Watt University Malaysia (HWUM), Putrajaya, Malaysia
Kazutaka Shirai, Yin Hor

Hokkaido University, Japan
Contact: t.wee@hw.ac.uk
Abstract
Two test series with various UHPC strengthening interventions were conducted in this study to
investigate the behaviour of composite reinforced concrete (RC) slabs strengthened with UHPC. The
first, RE series is a retrofit interventions, tested UHPC as patch material for repairing deteriorated
concrete structures. As for the second, OV series is a UHPC overlay interventions, was used to
strengthen soffit of RC slab members. The results showed that, in RE series, UHPC safeguard against
diagonal cracking compare to conventional RC slab. The UHPC exhibited excellent energy absorption
with extensive deflection hardening and ductility during the post cracking range. In OV series, all
slabs showed formation of diagonal shear cracks and sign of debonding modes. The UHPC overlay
delayed the development of shear cracking. The ultimate load carrying capacity and tendency of
flexural failure increase with the overlay thickness.
Keywords: UHPC; retrofit; strengthening; slabs; high-rise buildings.
4]. The preliminary results obtained from these

1 Introduction studies showed very promising.
Ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC) is a This paper aims to extend the investigation of using
relatively new advancement in concrete UHPC to strengthen conventional concrete slabs at
technology. It exhibits superior advanced the tension zone. Two test series with distinct
properties such as ultra-high strength with
UHPC strengthening interventions were
compressive strength over 150 MPa, high ductility
conducted in this study. The experimental
and long term stability compared to normal
strength concrete. programme and test results obtained would be
described in the subsequent sections.
Due to its superior properties, recently UHPC is
being explored to be a potentially new material for
used in rehabilitation and strengthening of existing
reinforced concrete (RC) members. Few research
studies were conducted on using UHPC as top
overlay to strengthen the existing RC members [1 –
726
2 Experimental Programme reinforcement (5T10). Geometric and

reinforcement details of the experimental
2.1 Test specimens specimens are summarised in Table 1.
Nine rectangular concrete slabs were carried out in Full details on the specimen preparation can be
this experimental programme. All slabs are 1600 found in [5].
mm long with a clear span of 1200 mm. They were
tested under three-point load condition, as shown
in Figure 1. Details of cross-sectional dimensions
and reinforcement of each slabs are shown in
Figure 2 and summarised in Table 1. All slabs were
reinforced with five T12 mm diameter high tensile
steel bars (5T12) at top and bottom. No transverse
shear reinforcement was provided, but to avoid
anchorage failure at the end supports, three R6
mm diameter mild steel links were installed.
Figure 1. Experimental setup

Two test series with distinct UHPC retrofitting and Figure 2. Details of RE and OV series composite
strengthening interventions were adopted, namely UHPC-concrete configurations
RE and OV series respectively. RE series consisted
of five slabs, while the OV series consisted of four 2.2 Test setup and instrumentation
slabs.
All slab specimens were simply supported and
RE series was designed to represent the use of subjected to three-point load configuration shown
UHPC as retrofit material for repair and in Figure 1. Each slab had a clear span of 1200 mm
rehabilitation of concrete members at the tension and carried a concentrated load at mid-span,
zone. Often in practice, deteriorated concrete will applied at a loading rate of 0.1 kN/sec.
be removed and high performance repair materials
applied to the concrete substrate. In this series, Two types of instrumentation were used, namely
different UHPC thicknesses were assigned to linear variable differential transducers (LVDTs) to
reflect different extents of deterioration and measure vertical mid-span deflection and electrical
repair. resistance strain gauges to measure internal
longitudinal reinforcement steel strain. Details of
OV series was designed with UHPC strengthening the positions of the LVDTs and strain gauges are
through overlay at the tension zone. Two shown in Figure 1.
thicknesses of UHPC overlays were considered,
namely 25 mm and 50 mm. Two slab specimens of
each overlay thickness were prepared. One
without reinforcement and another had five T10
mm diameter high tensile steel bars as longitudinal
727
2.3 Material characterization After casting, all samples were cured and treated in
the same environment as the slab specimens. In
2.3.1 Normal strength concrete (NSC) this study, three mixtures were prepared for the
slab specimens of both RE and OV series. The
The NSC of the slab specimens was supplied by a
compressive strengths obtained at 28 days for each
local ready-mix supplier. Six 100 mm standard
mixture are summarised in Table 2.
cubes and six 100 by 200 mm standard cylinders
were prepared for the compressive strength tests. The type of steel fiber used in this study is a straight
All cubes and cylinders were cured under identical fiber with 13 mm long and 0.2 mm diameter
conditions as the slab specimens until the day of (aspect ratio = 65). The average tensile strength of
testing at 28 days. The average compressive the fiber is equal to 2300 MPa. After several
strength of the NSC at 28 days was 33 MPa and 23 attempts on different percentages of steel fibers, it
MPa for cubes and cylinders respectively. was found that 3% of steel fibers achieved the best
performance and was therefore chosen for this
2.3.2 UHPC study.
Target design strength of the UHPC in this study is Table 2. Mechanical strength properties of UHPC
150 MPa. The mix proportion and constituents mix designs used in this study
used in this study can be found in [5]. To obtain the
Ultimate compressive
rheology and mechanical properties of the UHPC
strength of UHPC Flexural
mix, three tests were carried out namely: (1) Cube Cylinder strength Spread
compressive strength test, (2) three-points flexural Mix
samples samples σf [mm]
test, and (3) flow test. Full details of the UHPC fcu,U f'c,U [MPa]
mechanical properties obtained are summarised in [MPa] [MPa]
Table 2. 1st 166 156 233
Four cube and cylinder samples were collected in 2nd 156 151 27.4 215
each mixture to measure its compressive strength. rd
3 184 152 224
Table 1. Details of slab specimens
UHPC Longitudinal reinforcement

b h thickness Top steel Bottom steel T12 T10
Specimen
[mm] [mm] hU
fy fu fy fu
[mm] A’s As AsU
[MPa] [MPa] [MPa] [MPa]
RE-0 300 100 - 5T12 5T12 - 501.6 564.7 - -
RE-20 300 100 20 5T12 5T12 - 501.6 564.7 - -
RE-32 300 100 32 5T12 - 5T12 501.6 564.7 - -
RE-50 300 100 50 5T12 - 5T12 501.6 564.7 - -
RE-100 300 100 100 5T12 - 5T12 501.6 564.7 - -
OV-25 300 125 25 5T12 5T12 - 501.6 564.7 - -
OV-25a 300 125 25 5T12 5T12 5T10 501.6 564.7 474.9 506.6
OV-50 300 150 50 5T12 5T12 - 501.6 564.7 - -
OV-50a 300 150 50 5T12 5T12 5T10 501.6 564.7 474.9 506.6
728
RE series. Throughout loading, no visible signs of

3 Discussion of Results major cracks were observed along the whole span.
The final failure mode was ductile with a single
3.1 RE series flexural crack initiated at mid-span of the slab.
The modes of failure and crack patterns exhibited Table 3 summarise the ultimate failure loads in
in each slabs in the RE series are illustrated in each slabs obtained from experiment and their
Figure 3. It can be seen from the figure that respective modes of failure.
strengthening with UHPC at the tension zone
improve dramatically the modes of failure
exhibited. From brittle diagonal shear failure in slab
RE-0 to ductile flexural failure in slab RE-50.
Besides improvement in failure modes, the overall
behaviour of the strengthened slab change
completely as well. As can be seen in Figure 4, all
UHPC strengthened slabs (RE-20, RE-32 & RE-50)
underwent extensive deflection hardening and
ductility during the post cracking range. Although
no sign of strength enhancement was found in any
of the strengthened slabs as compared to
reference slab RE-0, but that could easily be offset Figure 4. Load versus mid-span deflection curves of
by their excellent energy absorption capabilities. RE series
Table 3. Details of slab specimens

Ultimate
Specimens Failure Load, Pu Modes of Failure
[kN]
RE-0 61.08 Shear
RE-20 57.18 Flexure-shear
RE-32 43.68 Flexure
RE-50 55.38 Flexure
RE-100 113.05 Flexure
OV-25 73.47 Shear
OV-25a 77.97 Shear
OV-50 77.97 Shear
OV-50a 95.06 Shear
3.2 OV series
All slabs in the OV series were strengthened with
UHPC overlay at the tension zone. The test
Figure 3. Failure modes and crack patterns of RE variables in this series are thickness of UHPC
series overlay and internal longitudinal reinforcement
Slab RE-100 is a reference specimen made of UHPC. rebars. Figure 5 shows the final crack patterns and
It attained the highest ultimate failure load of the modes of failure exhibited for each slab in the OV
729
series. Their ultimate failure loads are summarised Experimental results also showed that presence of
in Table 3. longitudinal steel bars within the UHPC layer
increased the ultimate strength of the slab as long
as sufficient cover was provided for effective bond
development. As shown in slab OV-50a achieved an
ultimate load of 95.06 kN, an increase of 22% over
that of slab OV-50. On the other hand, the strength
of slab OV-25a was only 6% greater than that of OV-
25.
Figure 5. Failure modes and crack patterns of OV Figure 6. Load versus mid-span deflection curves of
series OV series
As can be seen from Figure 5, regardless of UHPC The load versus mid-span deflection curves of the
overlay thickness, all the strengthened slabs failed slabs in OV series are shown in Figure 6. From the
in shear in the normal strength concrete section. figure, it indicated that with UHPC overlays at the
Through all loading stages, there were no apparent tension zone, the overall stiffness of the
signs of distress or extensive cracking in the slabs. strengthened slabs improved significantly
The UHPC overlay actually helped delay the compared with reference slab RE-0. Extensive
development of diagonal shear cracks. Once a deflection hardening and ductility during the post
diagonal shear crack formed, ultimate failure cracking phase was seen in all strengthened slabs
prevailed. In some cases, the composite interface as well.
between the UHPC and NSC suffered debonding Also the thickness of the UHPC overlay greatly
failure, as clearly indicated in Figure 5. influenced the stiffness of the slabs. It was found
Also based on our observations, the thickness of that thicker UHPC layers lead to increased stiffness,
the UHPC overlay did not significantly influence the as clearly observed in slabs OV-25 and OV-50. Slab
ultimate strength and failure modes underwent. OV-50a with reinforced UHPC layer did not seem to
Slabs OV-25 and OV-50 both failed in comparatively differ from slab OV-50 in initial stiffness. But the
similar ways at ultimate loads of 73.57 kN and reinforcing bars in the UHPC layer helped to extend
77.97 kN, respectively, only a 6% marginal the ultimate resistance capacity of the slab and
difference. This is mainly because ultimate failure lead to lesser deflection.
in both slabs was controlled by debonding failure Another important observation is that, similar to
at the composite interface. Despite that failure, the the findings of Habel et al. [2], the minimum
ultimate strengths of both slabs were about 24% thickness of the UHPC layer is limited by the size of
higher than that of RE-0. It must also be noted that the reinforcing bars and the UHPC cover over them,
the tendency for fracture failure in the UHPC layer so that effective force transfer between the
was higher with thicker overlays, as found in slabs reinforcing bars and UHPC can be developed.
OV-50 and OV-50a.
730
4 Conclusions Concrete, Kassel, Germany; 05-07 March

2008.
The following conclusions could be drawn from the
results of experiments on both RE and OV series: [2] Habel K., Denarié E., and Brühwiler E.
Structural response of elements combining
1) In RE series, the UHPC strengthening ultrahigh-performance fiber-reinforced
interventions greatly affects the failure modes and concretes and reinforced concrete. ASCE
crack patterns of the composite UHPC-concrete Journal of Structural Engineering. Nov 2006;
slabs. As thickness of UHPC layer increases, the Vol. 132, Issue 11: pp. 1793-1800.
failure mode changes from brittle diagonal shear
failure to ductile flexure failure. Although no [3] Habel K., Denarié E., and Brühwiler E.
improvement in the ultimate strength was Experimental investigation of composite
observed, all strengthened slabs exhibited ultra-high-performance fiber-reinforced
excellent energy absorption capacity with concrete and conventional concrete
extensive deflection hardening and ductility. members. ACI Structural Journal. 2007; Vol.
104, Issue 1: pp. 93-101.
2) In OV series, all slabs strengthened with [4] Noshiravani T., and Brühwiler E.
UHPC overlays at tension zone failed in shear. The Experimental investigation on reinforced
slabs showed diagonal shear cracks in the normal ultra-high-performance fiber-reinforced
strength concrete section followed by debonding concrete composite beams subjected to
at the UHPC-concrete interface. The results combined bending and shear. ACI Structural
indicated that the UHPC overlay improves the Journal. 2013; Vol. 110, Issue 2: pp. 251-261.
overall stiffness of the slabs and delays the
development of shear cracks. With addition of [5] Hor Y., Teo W., and Kazutaka S. Experimental
reinforcing rebar in the UHPC layer, further investigation on the behaviour of reinforced
enhancement could be observed in the ultimate concrete slabs strengthened with ultra-high
strength. However, sufficient concrete cover is performance concrete. Construction and
required to ensure effective full bond Building Materials. 2017; 155: pp. 463-474.
development.
3) The results from this research were very

promising and demonstrated the potential of UHPC
as an excellent strengthening material for
structural application.
5 Acknowledgments
The authors gratefully acknowledge the Universiti
Teknologi PETRONAS (UTP) for providing the
financial support via a Yayasan UTP-Fundamental
Research Grant (YUTP-FRG) Cycle 1/2013 and
facilities for conducting experiments that
contribute to this paper.
6 References
[1] Brühwiler E., and Denarie E. Rehabilitation of
concrete structures using ultra-high
performance fibre reinforced concrete.
Proceedings of the 2nd International
Symposium on Ultra-high Performance
731
Lateral Behaviour of PT Segmental Bridge Columns with Ultra High

Strength Concrete (UHSC)
Ehsan Nikbakht, Ahmed Al-Nini, Saleh Mohammed Dahi
Civil and Environmental Engineering Department, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Malaysia
Mst. Sadia Mahzabin

Civil Engineering Department, Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman (UTAR), Malaysia
Contact: ehsan.nikbakht@utp.edu.my
Abstract
In recent years, application of precast post-tensioned (PT) segmental columns consisting of a
number of precast segments and footing foundation aligned and connected altogether by post
tensioning strands, has shown increasing focus in seismic regions due to their advantages over
traditional columns including self-centering capability with low residual displacement and
permanent deformation under severe lateral seismic loading. Recently, there have been an emerge
of interest to use ultra-high strength concrete (UHSC) due to their great tensile and compressive
strengths. In this study, a three dimensional (3D) nonlinear finite element model for PT segmental
columns are developed and the results are validated with the experimental test conducted. A
parametric study is carried out to investigate the influence of UHCS with different compressive
strengths of 126 MPa, 150 MPa and 193 MPa; and tensile strengths of 6.0, 8.9 and 12.3 MPa on
lateral response of PT segmental columns. In this study, PT segmental columns with normal
strength; High strength concrete fully replaced with normal strength concrete throughout the
columns; and UHSC as jacketing around the first segment are investigated. The influence of
compressive strength and tensile strength on stiffness, lateral load capacity and ductility of the
segmental columns with different concrete strengths are discussed. Also, strengthening of PT
segmental columns with UHSC jacketing were examined and the results are compared.
Keywords: Precast; Bridge; Post-tensioned; Segmental columns; High performance concrete.
studies including analytical and experimental

1 Introduction investigations have been carried out in order to
Precast PT segmental columns has attracted the enhance the energy dissipation of PT segmental
attention of many researchers in the past few columns by incorporating different types of
years. Uplifting of the segments in these kind of material in the plastic hinge area such as fibre
columns prevents the stress concentration and reinforced concrete and using exterior yielding
damages in the hinge area. However, due to their devices at the base segment [3-8]. In recent years,
relatively low energy dissipation capacity and self- UHSC has been used in various structures due to
centering capability, they are prone to a brittle their great energy dissipation capacity, durability
failure at large drift levels [1-2]. To date, several and fatigue performance [9-12]. UHSC is a new
732
technology and development in concrete industry footing-first segment. As can be seen from the
with the strength of more than 150 MPa and tensile figure, there is a good agreement between
strength of 8 MPa [13]. In this study, the efficiency experimental and numerical results of load-
of using UHSC on lateral performance of precast deflection response and the column deflection
segmental columns in terms of ultimate strength, under axial post-tensioning force and lateral
ductility and deformation capacity are loading.
investigated. A numerical study has been
conducted in order to investigate the influence of
key design parameters in post-tensioned UHSC
segmental columns.
2 Experimental test and numerical

analysis
In this study, a 3-D nonlinear finite element ANSYS
software is implemented in order to investigate the
behaviour of PT segmental columns against lateral
loading. Firstly, the numerical modelling has been
verified with experimental test conducted in earlier
work by the author [2]. In the experimental test, a
column specimen with circular cross section,
diameter of 530 mm and an aspect ratio of 4.30 is a) Lateral load-deflection of the specimen
experimented (Figure 1). In the experimental test,
firstly, axial force of 1470 kN is applied as post-
tensioning force. Thereafter, using displacement
control loading, seven cycles of lateral loading with
amplitude of 0.6, 0.9, 1.2, 1.6, 2.2, 3.0 and 4.0% are
performed.
b) Opening of the first segment at 5.0% Drift level
Figure 2. Comparison of the experimental and

numerical results
3 Parametric study
In this section, various parameters such as UHSC
jacketing, UHSC compressive and tensile strengths
on lateral behaviour of PT segmental columns are
analysed and presented as follows. Figure 3
compares the lateral load-deflection of three
Figure 1. Dimension and geometry of the specimen different PT segmental columns with normal
strength concrete (NSC); UHSC; and NSC
strengthened with 50 mm UHSC jacketing around
A comparison between load-deflection computed
the first segment. The concrete compressive
by FEM and experimental results are shown in
strength of 40 MPa for NSC column and 150 MPa
Figure 2(a). Moreover, Figure 2(b) displays the base
for UHSC were used. As shown in the figure, the
opening of the column at the junction of the
733
column completely made of UHSC achieved the tensile strengths of 6.0, 8.92 and 12.32 MPa are
greatest ultimate load capacity with 402 kN, versus analyzed and the results are presented in Figure 5.
280 kN and 202 kN lateral load capacities for the
segmental columns with UHSC jacketing and NSC
column, respectively. Also, UHSC columns show the
greatest ductility and lateral deflection. Moreover,
the results indicate that the stiffness of the PT
segmental columns strengthened with UHSC
jacketing approximately exhibits same stiffness as
NSC column. However, the columns strengthened
with UHSC jacketing exhibited greater ultimate
strength, ductility and deformation capacity, which
proves the efficiency of using UHSC jacketing in PT
segmental columns.
Figure 4. Load-deflection of PT segmental columns
with different concrete compressive strengths
As can be seen from the figure, the column with

12.32 MPa concrete tensile strength shows 212mm
lateral displacement, whereas the columns with
6.0 MPa and 8.92 MPa display the displacements of
74mm and 115mm, respectively. This implies that
tensile strength in UHSC has a significant effect on
lateral deflection of the columns. However, due to
Figure 3. Load-displacement of three different PT
less amount of cracks induced in the column with
segmental columns
concrete tensile strength of 12.32 MPa, it exhibits
a lower stiffness and greater ductility compared to
In this study, also the influence of compressive other columns with tensile strengths of 6.0 MPa
strength of UHSC on lateral behaviour of PT and 8.92 MPa. It is also shown that the low
segmental columns has been investigated. Figure concrete tensile strength in UHSC causes
4 shows the lateral load-deflection of the columns premature failure with lower ultimate load
with three different compressive strengths of 126 capacity, i.e. the column with 6 MPa concrete
MPa, 150 MPa and 193 MPa. As can be noticed tensile strength failed at the lateral load of 340 kN
from the figure, compressive strength of UHSC has while the column with 12.32 MPa resists up to 410
little effect on ultimate load strength of PT kN.
segmental columns. However, the column with
higher compressive strength with 196 MPa has
slightly greater stiffness compared to the other
columns with strengths of 126 MPa and 150 MPa.
Moreover, in this study, the influence of
UHSC tensile strength on lateral behaviour of PT
segmental columns has been investigated. Based
on literature, tensile strength of UHSC varies
depending on the percentage of constituent fibers.
Three PT segmental columns with a constant
concrete compressive strength 150 MPa; and
Figure 5. Load-deflection of PT segmental columns
with different concrete tensile strengths
734
4 Conclusions concrete-filled fiber tubes. Journal of

Composites for Construction. 2010; 14, 616–
In this study, the lateral behaviour of PT 628.
segmental columns with UHSC were analyzed
and investigated. The results showed that the [5] Moon, D.Y., Roh, H., & Cimellaro, G.P.
Seismic performance of segmental rocking
segmental column with UHSC experiences higher
column connection with NITI martensitic
ultimate loading, stiffness and ductility.
SMA bars. Advances in Structural
Specifically, it was shown that the segmental
Engineering. 2015; 18, 571–584.
column with 150 MPa exhibits 40% higher
ultimate strength compared to of NSC segmental [6] Nikbakht, E., Rashid, K., Hejazi, K., & Osman,
column. Also, UHSC jacketing was applied around S.A. A numerical study on seismic response
the first segment in the critical area. The results of self-centering precast segmental columns
indicated that UHSC jacketing increases the at different post-tensioning forces. Latin
ultimate load of NSC segmental columns by 35%. American Journal of Solids and Structures.
Moreover, the influence of UHSC with various 2014; 11, 864–883.
compressive and tensile strengths were [7] Roh, H., & Reinhorn, A.M. Hysteretic
discussed. It was shown that the compressive behavior of precast segmental bridge piers
strength of UHSC has insignificant effect on with superelastic shape memory alloy bars.
lateral ultimate load capacity of the columns. Engineering Structure. 2010; 32, 3394–3403.
However, tensile strength of UHSC showed [8] Saiidi, M.S., O’Brien, M., & Sadrossadat-
considerable effect on ultimate load, ductility Zadeh, M. Cyclic response of concrete bridge
and deformation capacity of PT segmental columns using superelastic nitinol and
columns. Moreover, the PT segmental columns bendable concrete. ACI Structural Journal.
with higher concrete tensile strength 2009; 106, 69–77.
experienced lower stiffness and greater ductility
[9] Farhat, F. A., Nicolaides, D., Kanellopoulos,
as a result of less amount of concrete cracks
A., & Karihaloo, B. L. High performance fibre-
induced. reinforced cementitious composite
(CARDIFRC)—Performance an application to
5 References retrofitting. Engineering Fracture
[1] Nikbakht, E., Rashid, K., Mohseni, I. and Mechanics. 2007; 74(1–2), 151–167.
Hejazi, F. Evaluating seismic demands for [10] Graybeal, B., & Tanesi, J. Durability of an
segmental columns with low energy ultrahigh performance concrete. Journal of
dissipation capacity. Earthquakes and Materials in Civil Engineering. 2007; 19(10),
Structures. 2015; 8(6): 1277–1297. 848–854.
[2] Nikbakht, E. and Rashid, K. Investigation on [11] Yoo, D. Y., Shin, H. O., Yang, J. M., & Yoon, Y.
seismic performance and functionality of S. Material and bond properties of ultra high
self-centring post-tensioned segmental performance fiber reinforced concrete with
columns. Structure and Infrastructure micro steel fibers. Composites Part B:
Engineering. 2017. ISSN: 1573-2479 (Print) Engineering. 2014; 58, 122–133.
1744-8980.
[12] Li, H., & Liu, G. Tensile properties of hybrid
[3] Billington, S.L., & Yoon, J.K. Cyclic response fiber reinforced reactive powder concrete
of unbonded posttensioned precast columns after exposure to elevated temperatures.
with ductile fiber-reinforced concrete. International Journal of Concrete Structures
Journal of Bridge Engineering. 2004; 9, 353– and Materials. 2016; 10(1), 29–37.
363.
[13] AFGC-SETRA. (2002). Ultra high performance
[4] ElGawady, M.A., Booker, A.J., and Dawood, fibre-reinforced concretes. Interim
H.M. Seismic behaviour of posttensioned recommendations. Bagneux, France: SETRA.
735
Cyclic Behavior of Precast Segmental UHPFRC Bridge Columns with

Replaceable Damage-Concentrated Elements
Zhen Wang, Jingquan Wang, Junzheng Zhu
Southeast University, Nanjing 210096, PR China
Contact: wangjingquan@seu.edu.cn
Abstract
A novel precast segmental bridge column was put forward innovatively to contribute to
accelerated bridge construction and rapid repair of bridge after earthquake, which is in
accordance with the theme called engineering innovations for rapid urbanisation. The proposed
bridge column was manufactured with cost-effective ultrahigh performance fiber-reinforced
concrete (UHPFRC) incorporating river sand and coarse aggregate. As the potential damaged
region, the bottom segment was composed of three parts: inner core zone designed to bear axial
loading, outer replaceable UHPFRC plates (RUP) designed to bear lateral loading, and middle
replaceable steel dissipaters (RSD) designed to enhance energy dissipation (ED), when the entire
bridge structure was subjected to earthquake shock. The rapid repair after earthquake was
completed with substitutions of replaceable damage-concentrated elements including RUP and
RSD. Cyclic loading tests were conducted on three 1:3 scaled specimens and their repaired
specimens. The research parameters included posttensioning (PT) force level and usage of RSD.
Test results show that both construction and repair can be very time-saving for the proposed
bridge column. Major damage focuses on replaceable damage-concentrated elements while
remaining parts are basically intact. All the specimens present good deformation capacity and
excellent self-centering feature. Two different failure modes can be found: some specimens failed
in the lateral bearing capacity while others failed in the ED capacity. Compared with the original
specimen failed in the same failure mode, the repaired specimen has similar lateral bearing
capacity and deformation capacity but seriously weakened initial stiffness.
Keywords: bridge column; cyclic loading test; resilience; replaceable element; ultrahigh
performance fiber-reinforced concrete (UHPFRC); self-centering; precast segmental construction
Because of its high strength, superior ductility and

1 Introduction enhanced durability, ultrahigh performance fiber-
Recent researches showed that precast segmental reinforced concrete (UHPFRC) has been tried to be
bridge columns with posttensioning (PT) tendons employed in cast-in-place bridge columns as
not only possess advantages of accelerated bridge construction material for entire members [2] and
construction (ABC) but also present self-centering used in precast bridge columns as grout material
capacity [1]. But for the original design without [3]. River sand and coarse aggregate could be
energy dissipaters, two problems are required to incorporated into UHPFRC to make UHPFRC be
be solved: one is that concrete crushing easily cost-effective [4]. Utilizing the cost-effective
occurs at plastic hinge regions; the other is that UHPFRC in plastic hinge regions becomes a
energy dissipation (ED) capacity is poor during meaningful choice to solve the first problem. In
earthquake shock. addition, precast segmental bridge columns would
736
make UHPFRC become an obvious choice to bridge structure was subjected to earthquake
reduce construction and fabrication costs [5]. shock. All the precast components were
manufactured with the cost-effective UHPFRC
Internal partially unbonded mild steel bars and
incorporating river sand and coarse aggregate.
external ED devices were used to solve the second
Cyclic loading tests were conducted on three 1:3
problem. But it is different to repair the fracture
scaled specimens and their repaired specimens.
of those internal mild steel bars embedded in
The design parameters including PT force level
precast segments after earthquake. Moreover, it
and usage of RSD were varied to research their
maybe a problem needed to be solved that
influence on seismic behavior of the proposed
durability of external ED devices used in the wild
bridge column.
environment.
In this paper, replaceable damage-concentrated 2 Specimen design
elements were designed elaborately to convert
precast segmental bridge columns to novel 2.1 Specimen details
earthquake resilient bridge columns. As the
potential damaged region, the bottom segment For each specimen, eight 15.27 mm diameter
was composed of three parts: inner core zone seven-wire strands were employed to be
designed to bear axial loading, outer replaceable unbonded PT tendons. The distance was 2000 mm
UHPFRC plates (RUP) designed to bear lateral from the top surface of the foundation to the
loading, and middle replaceable steel dissipaters location of the lateral force. Detailed design
(RSD) designed to enhance ED, when the entire parameters can be seen in Figure 1 and Table 1.
Ducts for prestressed
160
Front View Top View 2000 strands, ϕ40
400
500
100
Cap beam Ducts for connection Ducts for prestressed 100 100
Prestressed strands setup, ϕ40 bar, ϕ70 100 100 100
80 80 80 50 30
50
Segment S3 20 110 110 20
50 55 100 190 55
Top joint 120 50 55 100
100 190
260 100 220 200
Segment S2 600 Embeded bars 100 100
120 55 100
400 50
Segment S1~S2 30 Segment S3
150 30
Middle joint RUP Ducts for prestressed
Prestressed bars strands, ϕ40 Ducts for prestressed Ducts for
300 bars, ϕ50 RSD, ϕ30
160
Segment S1 RSD
TS
Bottom joint
800
Connections
400
500 for RSD
Foundation
Ducts for prestressed
800 bars, ϕ80 1300
Figure 1. Major design details (unit: mm)

Shown in Figure 2 and Figure 3, four different sizes and R-3 with the type Ⅰ-, the type Ⅱ- was used
of RSD and threaded sleeves (TS) were used in this in specimen R-1 and all repaired specimens to
study. Each RSD had a center fuse part with improve the mechanical connection by increasing
reduced diameter and two threaded ends with the total length of RSD and decreasing the inner
larger diameter. Because the sliding between diameter of TS. The fuse diameters of RSD Ⅰ-22
threaded ends and TS was found in specimen R-2 and Ⅱ-22 are 16mm while the fuse diameters of
737
RSD Ⅰ-32 and Ⅱ-32 are 22mm. The parameters prism specimens. Tested material properties of
of RSD and TS conform to Chinese code [6]. the used rebar are introduced in Table 2.
Lem Ⅰ-32 Ⅰ-22

23 160
165
732
144
Dfu Lfu
Cement 155
Sand
Rtr Coarse aggregate
Silica fume
397
Dte Lte High active admixture
Water
737
Superplasticizer
Steel fiber
Figure 2. RSD and corresponding embedded bars
Figure 6. UHPFRC mix (unit: kg/m3)
Table 2. Tested material properties of rebar
Es fy fu
Type
Ⅱ-22 Ⅰ-22 Ⅱ-32
[GPa] [MPa] [MPa]
Ⅰ-32
D6 200,0 570,1 682,2
D12 200,0 566,7 673,7
D22 200,0 435,6 595,7

Figure 3. TS in this study
D32 200,0 459,0 601,3
2.2 Method of assembling Seven-wire strands 195,0 1860 —

Figure 4 shows many details about the Note: D22 and D32 were used to manufacture RSD -22
construction process of specimens. and -32 respectively. Es, fy and fu are elastic modulus,
yield strength and peak strength of rebar.
2.3 Rapid repairs for damaged UHPFRC
bridge columns 3 Experimental campaign
After the first loading history, rapid repairs were Four prestressed bars were placed through the
conducted for damaged bridge columns. The main foundation and anchored into the strong floor to
works of rapid repairs were summarized to be prevent the slipping between the foundation and
relaxation and re-tension of unboned PT tendons, the strong floor. The gravity loading was applied
and replacements for RSD and RUP. More details to the specimen through two prestressed bars and
about rapid repairs are shown in Figure 5. two oil jacks. One horizontal actuator was used to
apply lateral force to the top of specimens to
2.4 Materials simulate the seismic loading.
In this research, UHPFRC and mild steel rebar The lateral cyclic loadings were applied using
were used to construct precast segments. The displacement control to drift levels of 0,25%,
UHPFRC mix proportion used is shown in Figure 6. 0,375%, 0,5%, 0,75%, 1,0%, 1,5%, 2,0%, 3,0%,
The compressive strength equal to 124.3 MPa was 4,0%, 5,0% and 6,0% [1].Each drift level included
based on 100mm×100mm×100 mm cubic repeated two times until the tested specimen
specimens, while the elastic modulus equal to failed.
48.0 GPa was based on 100mm×100mm×300 mm
738
Table 1. Design parameters of specimens
Core zone of segment S1/ Other segments PG PP

Specimen RD+TS ηG ηP
Longitudinal bar ρl [%] Stirrups ρv [%] [kN] [kN]
R-1 8D12/32D12 1,35/1,98 D6@50/2D6@50 1,07/2,48 Ⅱ-22 1000 0,044 400 0,018
R-2 8D12/32D12 1,35/1,98 D6@50/2D6@50 1,07/2,48 Ⅰ-22 1000 0,044 800 0,036
R-3 8D12/32D12 1,35/1,98 D6@50/2D6@50 1,07/2,48 Ⅰ-32 1000 0,044 400 0,018
R-1-R 8D12/32D12 1,35/1,98 D6@50/2D6@50 1,07/2,48 Ⅱ-22 1000 0,044 400 0,018
R-2-R 8D12/32D12 1,35/1,98 D6@50/2D6@50 1,07/2,48 Ⅱ-22 1000 0,044 800 0,036
R-3-R 8D12/32D12 1,35/1,98 D6@50/2D6@50 1,07/2,48 Ⅱ-32 1000 0,044 400 0,018
Note: ρl is the longitudinal reinforcement ratio; ρv is the volume ratio of stirrups; PG and ηG are the gravity loading and
the corresponding axial loading ratio respectively; PP and ηP are the posttensioning force and the corresponding axial
loading ratio respectively.
(a) the anchor ends of PT tendons
(c) the core zone (d) RSD attached to

(b) the foundation with threaded ends (e) RUP placed
and RSD segment S2
(h) cap beam lifted
(f) prestressed bars (g) the segment S3 (j) specimen before

(i) PT tendons prestressed
used to fix RUP placed loading
Figure 4. Assembly method for the earthquake resilient UHPFRC bridge column
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h)
739
Figure 5. Rapid repair method for damaged UHPFRC bridge columns: (a) damaged UHPFRC bridge columns
after the first loading history; (b) decrease of prestressed bars for gravity loading and relaxation of
unbonded PT tendons; (c) RUP dismantled; (d) RSD removed; (e) the core zone without RUP and RSD; (f) new
RSD attached to the foundation and the segment S2 with TS; (g) new RUP fixed; (h) rapid repair completed.
force on external RUP. Because of no bars
4 Test results embedded in RUP, lateral bending failure occurred
for RUP, which generated obvious decline in the
4.1 Failure modes lateral bearing capacity of specimens. The failure
In this experimental research, two different failure mode is defined by that lateral strength drops
modes had been found: the lateral bearing below 80% of the maximum value [7].
capacity failure mode and the ED capacity failure For the second failure mode, the slipping between
mode. TS and threaded ends was found when specimens
For the first failure mode, reliable connections were subjected to large drift. Limited deformation
between TS and threaded ends were always of RSD decreased lateral extrusion force on
existent during the entire cyclic loading history. external RUP, which had no or a little lateral
RSD had sufficient elastic-plastic deformation due bending cracks, shown in Figure 8. ED capacity
to tension and apparent buckling deformation due was severely weakened due to the slipping. The
to compression, as shown in Figure 7. When ED capacity failure mode is defined by that the
specimens were subjected to large drift, buckling equivalent viscous damping ratio [2] drops below
deformation of RSD leaded to lateral extrusion 80% of the maximum value.
(a) specimen R-1 (b) specimen R-1-R (c) specimens R-2-R

Figure 7. Specimens failed in the lateral bearing capacity failure mode
(a) specimen R-2 (b) specimen R-3 (c) specimen R-3-R

Figure 8. Specimens failed in the ED capacity failure mode
similar maximum value of lateral force could be
4.2 Hysteretic response
found.
Figure 9 shows hysteretic curves for original and
With RSD Ⅱ-22 and threaded sleeves Ⅱ-22,
repaired specimens. Shown in Figure 9(a), with the
specimen R-2-R has higher strength of the
same failure mode of lateral bearing capacity,
connection between TS and threaded ends than
specimens R-1 and R-1-R exhibit stable ductility
those of specimen R-2, which leads to that
behavior and high self-centering feature. The
specimen R-2-R has the lateral bearing capacity
740
failure mode while specimen R-2 has the ED 4.3 Strength, ductility and initial stiffness
capacity failure mode. Shown in Figure 9(b), the
Shown in Figure 10, the parameters including the
hysteretic curve of specimen R-2-R has larger
yield lateral force Fy, the displacement ductility
maximum value of lateral force and bigger
factor μ, and the initial stiffness Kini can be
envelops area than those of specimen R-2. Both
obtained to describe strength, ductility and
specimen R-2 and specimen R-2-R have flag-
stiffness based on the envelope curves [2].
shaped hysteretic curves.
Because specimen R-3-R used RSD Ⅱ-32 and TS Ⅱ Load
-32, it has a little larger maximum value of lateral Actual System
force and slightly bigger envelops area than those
of specimen R-3, shown in Figure 9(c). The two Fy
specimens have the same failure mode of ED Idealized
capacity and closer self-centering hysteretic Elastoplastic
curves. System
Kini
uy uu Displacement
Figure 10. Idealized elastoplastic system for load-
displacement curves of specimens tested.
Table 3 provides more detailed data to compare
quantitatively cyclic behavior of the original and
the repaired specimens.
Table 3. Parameters used to measure strength,
ductility and initial stiffness
(a) specimen R-1 and specimen R-1-R
Kini Fmax Ru
Specimen μ
[kN/mm] [kN] [%]
R-1 12,9 218,9 7,8 6,0
R-2 14,0 174,2 8,3 5,0
R-3 14,6 172,9 9,3 5,0
R-1-R 9,7 218,8 6,2 6,0
R-2-R 12,4 222,4 6,5 5,0

(b) specimen R-2 and specimen R-2-R
R-3-R 11,9 191,1 5,9 4,0
Note: Fmax is the maximum value of lateral force; Ru is
the ultimate drift ratio.
Compared to specimen R-1, specimen R-1-R has
not only the same failure mode, but also the
closer maximum lateral force and the same
ultimate drift ratio, while the initial stiffness is
weakened by 24.8%. Compared to specimen R-2,
specimen R-2-R has the different failure mode and
(c) specimen R-3 and specimen R-3-R the same ultimate drift ratio, while the initial
Figure 9. Hysteretic curves of specimens stiffness is weakened by 11.4% and the maximum
lateral force is improved by 27.7%. Compared to
specimen R-3, specimen R-3-R has the same
741
failure mode. The maximum lateral force is

increased by 10.5% for specimen R-3-R because
specimen R-3-R used RSD Ⅱ-32 and threaded
sleeves Ⅱ-32. The ultimate drift ratio decreases
from 5% for specimen R-3 to 4% for specimen R-3-
R, and the initial stiffness is decreased by 18.5%
for specimen R-3-R.
4.4 Equivalent viscous damping

For each set of cycles at given amplitude, the (b) repaired specimens
equivalent viscous damping ratio ζeff is calculated Figure 11. Equivalent viscous damping versus drift
as [2]:
Ed 4.5 Residual drift
ζ eff  (1)
2πK secuo2 Shown in Figure 12, residual drift is equal to the
average of residual drifts in the positive and
where Ed is the total energy dissipated per cycle negative loading direction at each drift level.
(the first cycle); Ksec is the scant stiffness; and uo is
the amplitude of the cycle.
Shown in Figure 11, for specimens failed in the
lateral bearing capacity failure mode, the
maximum damping ratios reach up to 11.2% at 4%
drift, 9.0% at 5% drift and 10.6% at 4% drift
respectively for specimen R-1, specimen R-1-R and
specimen R-2-R. For specimens failed in the ED
capacity failure mode, the damping ratios drop
from the maximum value of 8.7% at 3% drift to 6.8%
(a) original specimens
at the ultimate drift of 5% for specimen R-2, from
the maximum value of 5.7% at 2% drift to 4.0% at
the ultimate drift of 5% for specimen R-3, and
from the maximum value of 9.6% at 3% drift to 6.7%
at the ultimate drift of 4% for specimen R-3-R.
(b) repaired specimens

Figure 12. Resident drift versus drift
Figure 12(a) shows that the residual drifts are less
than 0.4% at 6% drift for three original specimens,
(a) original specimens which proves that the proposed specimens have
obvious self-centering feature.
Shown in Figure 12(b), for three repaired
specimens, specimen R-2-R has the maximum
residual drift no more than 0.8% at 6 %drift. The
reason may be that higher PT force prompts
buckling of RSD to be more serious. Moreover, the
742
residual drift of specimen R-3-R centers between Research and Development Plan of China Railway
specimen R-2-R and specimen R-1-R, and is more Corporation (2017G006-C).
than the residual drift of specimen R-3 after 2%
drift. It is that because specimen R-3-R used RSD 7 References
Ⅱ-32 and TS Ⅱ-32, which can lead to more
[1] Ou Y.C., Wang P.H., Tsai M.S., Chang K.C.,
elastic-plastic deformation of RSD. The residual
and Lee G.C. Large-scale Experimental Study
drift of specimen R-1-R is minimum and equal to
of Precast Segmental Unbonded
that of specimen R-1.
Posttensioned Concrete Bridge Columns for
Seismic Regions. ASCE Journal of Structural
5 Conclusions Engineering. 2009; 136(3): 255-264.
Following conclusions were drawn: [2] Zohrevand P., and Mirmiran A. Seismic
(1) The new structural solution is proved be Response of Ultra-high Performance
reliable for bridge columns. According to the Concrete-filled FRP Tube Columns. Journal
solution, both construction and repair are very of Earthquake Engineering. 2013; 17(1):
time-saving. All the specimens present good 155-170.
deformation capacity and excellent self-centering [3] Tazarv M., and Saiid Saiidi M. Low-damage
feature. Precast Columns for Accelerated Bridge
(2) In this research, two different failure modes Construction in High Seismic Zones. ASCE
can be found: the lateral bearing capacity failure Journal of Bridge Engineering. 2015; 21(3):
mode and the ED capacity failure mode. 04015056.
(3) More attentions should be focused on the [4] Liu J., Han F., Cui G., Zhang Q., Lv J., Zhang
length of the fuse part of RSD, which determines L., and Yang, Z. Combined Effect of Coarse
the start point of elastic-plastic deformation and Aggregate and Fiber on Tensile Behavior of
the final level of buckling for RSD. RUP should be Ultra-high Performance Concrete.
reinforced with steel mesh. Construction and Building Materials. 2016;
121: 310-318.
(4) Compared with original specimen, the
corresponding repaired specimen has similar [5] Binard J.P. UHPC: A Game-changing
lateral bearing capacity and deformation capacity Material for PCI Bridge Producers. PCI
when they are failed in the same failure mode. Journal. 2017; 62(2): 34-46.
The initial stiffness of repaired specimens is [6] JG/T 163-2013. Couplers for Rebar
seriously weakened. Mechanical Splicing. Beijing: Ministry of
The experimental results show that the proposed Construction of the People's Republic of
construction and repair method require further China Beijing; 2013.
developments to solve problems relating to [7] Ou Y.C., Chiewanichakorn M., Aref A.J., Lee
effectiveness, robustness and reliability of G.C. Seismic Performance of Segmental
connection. Precast Unbounded Posttensioned Concrete
Bridge Columns. ASCE Journal of Structural
6 Acknowledgments Engineering. 2007; 136(11): 1636-1647.
This work was financially supported by the
National Natural Science Foundation of China
(51378110, 51438003), Six Talent Peaks Project in
Jiangsu Province (JZ-007), A Project Funded by the
Priority Academic Program Development of
Jiangsu Higher Education Institutions (CE02-1-4),
and the Project of Science and Technology
743
Prefabricated Box Girder with Ultra High Performance Concrete
Wei He, Lin Li, Keli Xiao, Yanjun Jin, Xinglong Duan
Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu, China
Contact: harveyhe@vip.163.com
Abstract
In order to solve traffic difficulty brought by the bridge construction in the city, and difficult
transportation of beams, this paper puts forward the prefabricated-box-girder bicycle viaduct with
ultra - high performance concrete (UHPC) through which will achieve light and thin beams, easy
transportation and rapid construction. Based on the bicycle viaduct with 5.5m in width, this paper
not only designs a prefabricated ribbed thin-walled box girder with 30m in span, including the
detailed design of prefabricated segment stiffeners, shear connectors and external prestressing but
also compares the UHPC box girder with ordinary concrete box girder and steel box girder. The
research shows that with the application of UHPC in prefabricated viaduct in city, the ratio of height
to span of beams and the slab thickness decrease to 1/30 and 10cm respectively, the dead weight
is 50% lower than that of the ordinary concrete beams and the 3m long lifting weight is only 10 tons.
Light and thin beams are suitable for transportation in city because of their low requirements for
transportation and hoisting equipment. UHPC beams have no steel bars and own the advantages of
dense texture, good durability, low maintenance costs, reflecting the concept of low carbon
environmental protection and green bridge.
Keywords: UHPC; Prefabricated assembly; bicycle viaduct; green bridge.
on the maximum bulk density theory and fibre

1 Introduction reinforced material technology. As shown in Figure
The development of the city has put more 1, compared with ordinary concrete, UHPC has
requirements on the construction period and higher mechanical properties [2][3]. The tensile
method of bridge construction in order to reduce strength of UHPC is over 10MPa, and the
the traffic impact caused by bridge construction. compressive strength is ten times that of ordinary
Prefabricated assembly technology is widely used concrete. Therefore, UHPC box girder without
in the construction of urban bridges, which has reinforcement has a better durability, and its post-
shorter lead times, better quality and less impact maintenance cost is low.
[1]. However, the ordinary concrete has poor Table 1 Comparison of the basic mechanical
tensile properties and heavy weight, which puts properties between UHPC and ordinary concrete
forward higher requirements on the transportation
and lifting equipment. Type UHPC Concrete
Compressive strength(MPa) 120～200 30～50
Ultra-High Performance Concrete (UHPC), also
known as Reactive Powder Concrete (RPC), is a Tensile strength(MPa) 7～12 1～2
cementitious composite material developed based Eastic modulus(GPa) 25～45 30～35
744
2 Prefabricated Girder with UHPC 2.2 Construction method

The prefabricated segment assembly method is
2.1 Design scheme used in bridge construction. As shown in Figure 4,
Taking the 5.5m bicycle viaduct as the background, the beam body is divided into 3-meter-long
the prefabricated UHPC box girder with standard segments, which are prefabricated by the short-
span of 30m is designed in the paper. As shown in line method in the factory and then transported by
Figure1&2, the box girder high 1m and plate truck to the bridge position. Mobile bracket
thickness reduced to 10cm. So the weight is 50% is method is used when assembled on site. First, the
lower than that of the ordinary concrete beams. A bracket was erected on two piers, and then the
15 cm-thick diaphragm is placed at both ends of the crane hoisted the beam into the air. Finally, steel
precast section to reduce the transverse stress and wires is tensioned. Compared with ordinary
distortion stress of the thin-walled box girder and concrete beams, the weight of the UHPC box girder
enhance the stability. is small, and the requirements for cranes and
brackets are lower. Compared with steel bridge,
As shown in Figure 4, there are three shapes of the UHPC box girder avoids the welding problem on
shear connector are arranged on the full cross- site.
section. Due to the ultra-high strength of UHPC,
there is no common reinforcement in the shear
connector.
Finally, the finite element model was established
analyze the rationality of the structure. A total of 8
tendons of steel wires were designed. The whole
cross-section of the beam was compressed, the
maximum compressive stress σ = -17.3MPa and the Figure 4.The diagram of construction
lower flange compressive σ = -1.06 MPa. The flex-
span ratio of the beam under live load is 1/1470 3 Conclusions
and the frequency is 2.06Hz.
(1) UHPC box girder has good durability and low
maintenance costs, which is suitable for Urban
Bridges and reflects the concept of low-carbon,
environmentally friendly, green bridge.
Figure 1. Figure on the beam segmentation (cm)
(2) The ratio of height to span of UHPC box girder
decrease to 1/30. Compared with ordinary
concrete beams, its weight is reduced by 50%,
which is good for transportation and hoisting.
4 References
[1] Zhou L., Yan X.F., Li X.f. Exploration and Practice
Figure 2. General cross section (cm)
of Bridge Prefabrication Technology.
Prestressed technology; 2014; 107(6)
[2] Chen B.C, Ji T., Huang Q.W., Wu H.Z, Ding Q.J.
Zhan Y.W. A review of super high performance
concrete. Journal of Architecture and Civil
Engineering. 2014; 31(03):1-24.
Figure 3. Schematic diagram of beam segments (cm) [3] Fang Z., Zheng H., Yang J., Su Jie, Huang Z.Y.
Design method of super high performance
concrete structure. Journal of Architecture and
Civil Engineering, 2017, 34 (05): 59-67.
745
Sustainable Ultra High Performance Cementitious For Rapid

Urbanization and Carbon Neutral Mega Construction Projects
F C.Lai
Hume Concrete Product Research Centre Sdn Bhd, Malaysia
Contact: fclai@humeconcrete.com.
Abstract
The cement concrete industries globally produced about 4.2 billion tons (required processing
energy 1,400kWh/ton) and produce 30 billion tons concrete and contribute about 7%global
warming effects. Global rapid urbanization, energy demand in buildings will increase 50%, while
existing global building floor area 220 billion m2 is expected to double by 2050, driving energy
demand and related GHG emissions for construction. Thus, the shortcoming of innovative and
sustainable cement concrete to bring together the building and construction industry to facilitate
the global transition towards for low-emission, energy-efficient buildings to achieving the common
objective of limiting global warming to well-below 2 Celsius (2°C). The objective in this study is to
use the biomass and industrial waste to produce the Sustainable Ultra High Performance
Cementitious (SUHPC) for Carbon Neutral Cement Concrete (CNCC). SUHPC was produced by
biohybrid- mechano-chemical activation method. SUHPC performance was evaluated in OPC
mortar by replace the OPC from dosage 5% to 100% Mortar prism strength with SUHPC at low
dosage series increased the early strength but at high dosage series enhanced the early and
ultimate strength of OPC. The produced SUHPC concrete quality strength is performed at high
performance concrete (HPC) upto ultra high performance concrete (UHPC) level. The innovative
SUHPC has proven here to be useful sustainable technology, increased productivity, durability and
social economy benefits for Malaysian and abroad cement concrete plants for some rapid
urbanization mega infrastructure projects such as Mega Railway Sleeper KV-Double Track MRT
Project, Mega Tunnelling Pahang Water Transfer Projects (PWTP), Mass Rapid Transit (MRT)
Project, Sarawak Hydropower Murum Dam and general construction projects. Embodied energy
and CO2 emission reduced > 85% and reduced non-renewable materials approaching carbon
neutral cement concrete. SUHPC is suitable for rapid urbanization and carbon neutral mega
construction projects to provide the innovative sustainable construction materials development
and future resilient construction.
Keywords: sustainable, ultra high performance, carbon neutral mega construction, biomass.
produced yearly all over the world. About 28

1 Introduction million Ton/year production cement in Malaysia.
Cement industries globally produced about 4.2 Global production cement alone energy
billion Ton/year and 30 billion tons of concrete are consumption about 7.524 million GWh together
746
with the iron and steel related to cement 170MPa but limited acceptance in the market due
manufacturing total energy consumption become to its low sustainability, extremely high cement
10.2 million GWh. Cement production is binder content (>900kg/m3) and very high cost per
categorized as energy intensive industry [1]. The meter cubic. However, successful synthesized the
main thermal energy is used during the burning New High performance Composite Binder [9],
process (Specific thermal energy or embodied [10], [11] and sustainable high performance
energy =1111kwh/Ton to 1387kWh/Ton) for concrete (SHPC) strength > 100MPa for
clinkering process. Note that the total energy replacement cement with the waste materials
consumption for cement milling production is in from 66%-100% has been first reported recently
the range of 90kWh/t to 113kWh/t. Thus, for Nano Composite Cement (NCC) or Carbon
necessary measures are to be taken to reduce Neutral Cement (CNC). The high impact
energy use along with the prevention of sustainability of Sustainable self-compacting
environmental degradation, depletion of the concrete and ductile SUHPC with CNC in
limited resources and contribute 7% to global composite strength has first been reported from
warming effects due to the release of carbon 150MPa to 400MPa [12], [13], [14] and [15] in
dioxide to the atmosphere. Malaysia.
Biogenic waste Rice husk ash (RHA), palm oil fuel Malaysia current high rise units demand in excess
ash (POFA), industrial waste fly ash, slag, quarry of 1.3 million and increasing, the need for more
dust and etc are abundantly available and proved practical cost effective, innovative and
pozzolanic waste materials in Malaysia [2]. Some sustainable management industrial building and
problem related to the sustainability for cement infrastructures System are of highly important to
and concrete production still existing in the the Malaysian Property and construction Industry
Malaysia’s cement industries. The most common [16]. As we can see the global urbanization,
problem is the concrete with local high volume fly growing population, as well as rapid growth in
ash/slag replacement cement, experienced purchasing power in emerging economies and
constraint to attain the required early strength developing countries, means that energy demand
and ultimate strength limited in the range of in buildings could increase by 50% by 2050, while
60MPa to 70MPa at 28days age. Higher than global building floor area 223.4 billion m2 is
98MPa concrete only can be produced by binary expected to double to 415.2 billion m2 by 2050,
or ternary blended cement and limited to use driving energy demand and related GHG emissions
together with silica fume or RHA [3]&[4] at for construction. Cement concrete production and
maximum total replacement cement 40%. when indirect building emissions from power
Micronized RHA by milling with ballmill and generation are included, buildings and
ultrasound milling only reached the particles size construction represent nearly 40% of global
in the range from 90nm to submicron [5]. energy and global GHG of CO2 emissions. While
Although the current ECO-cement from Japan the green building development traditionally still
produced from municipal waste by replacement focusing on the environmental aspects of
cement upto 40%-50% has been reduced CO2 buildings, communities are now addressing the
emission against the normal OPC production but need for resilience while rebuilding to meet the
still required clinkering by calcination with challenge of the next natural or man-made
limestone and its chemicals and physical disaster [17]. The conventional cement concrete is
properties perform as normal OPC. Alkaline vulnerable in disaster resilient construction to
activated fly ash geopolymer technology the mitigate the hazardous disaster such as storm,
current state of the art [6] and [7] still required seismic activity and chemical attacks. The critical
high temperature steam curing 800C to 1200C for gap to understand its nanostructure, integrating
48hrs to full strength development at 28day only understanding of nanostructures with processing
can achieve from 48.0MPa to 80MPa. and chemical engineering properties is a limitation
in the science and technology of cement concrete
Although the Ductile Ultra high performance
concrete (UHPC) in Malaysia [8] strength 130MPa-
747
Thus, the shortcoming research and reporting tropical climate temperature and 600C for routine
regarding the nano cement concrete additive steaming temperature in the precast concrete
(NCCA) for sustainable construction concrete with plant.
very high volume replacement >65% OPC cured at
room temperature with high impact in 2.2 Instruments
sustainability and resilient cement concrete so
The slump flow according to the ASTM
called Nano Cement Concrete (NCC). Limited
C143/C143M . Flexural strength test according to
information for the high sustainability and
the ASTM C1018. Unit Test Compressive machine
resilient NCCA development remaining as
capacity up to 5,000kN. Concrete mixer is the pan
obstacles towards process of implementing the
mixer type with the capacity from 0.06m3 to
green future in construction industry especially
2,5m3. Compressive strength test according to the
towards the global green concrete or carbon
BS EN 12390-3-2002 and ASTM 109/C109M-05.
neutral concrete production and disaster resilient
Depth of penetration of water test was conducted
construction technology at the community level.
according to the BS EN 12390-8-2000. Hardened
The objective in this study is to developed and NCC concrete was scan with the field emission
advancing the innovative nano cement concrete scanning electron microscopy (FESEM), Zeiss,
additives (NCCA) to produce the sustainable ultra Germany model SUPRA 55VP and the energy-
high performance cementitious for some rapid dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX/EDS), Oxford,
urbanization infrastructure mega construction U.K model INCA. The rapid chloride penetration
projects and towards carbon neutral mega test according to the ASTM1202.
construction projects by incorporating in the
synthesized multifunctioning nano additives which 2.3 Methodology for NCC concrete
all raw materials feedstock from renewable evaluation
sources. Their performance in sustainability in
term of carbon dioxide emission, embodied 2.3.1 SEM, EDX test
energy, compressive strength and others The hardened NCC was tested with SEM and EDX.
properties was benchmarking against the according to the standard method. The hardened
conventional concrete. interface paste in mortar/concrete age 28days
was tested with SEM and EDX. All the SEM and
EDX testing results was shown in the Fig.1 and
2 Methodology Table.3.
2.1 Samples and materials 2.3.2 Mortar compressive strength test
PCE superplasticizer was supplied by a local The mortar flow spread was tested according to
admixture company. The Nano Cement Concrete the ASTM C109 and Compressive strength
(NCC) was incorporated with a NCCA Carbon according to the BS EN 196-1:2005 or ASTM
Neutral Bio (CNB)-base polymer [12] and [13]. All 109/C109M-05 at the age of 1day, 7day, 28day.
the carbon neutral NCCA, renewable fillers and Curing temperature was evaluated at 270C and
NCC were prepared and manufactured according 350C. All the mortar compressive strength was
to the former production methodology mentioned outlined in the Table.4 and Figure.2.
in the [14] and [15].
2.3.3 Normal concrete grade 45 and NCC
In order to ensure the trial run results are compressive strength test
reproducible in the real production concrete, the
All the NCC trials mix was produced and the
local 10mm, 16mm and 20mm aggregates is
control mix design concrete grade 45 were
normal crushed granite type and the fine sand
denoted as in the Table.1 & 2.
supplied from the local ready mix or precast
concrete plant. The curing temperature was
conducted at 270C and 350C to simulate the
748
Table 1. Concrete mix designation and description
Mixes Concrete mix design description
OPC-WB-0.38-270C Normal Grade 45 at W/B=0.38 and water cured at 270C with OPC.
15CNC-WB-0.15-270C NCC at W/B=0.15 water cured at 270C with 15% CNC into OPC cement.
40CNC-WB-0.15-350C NCC at W/B=0.15 water cured at 350C with 40% CNC into OPC cement
Table 2. Normal Concrete Grade 45 and NCC mix design part by weight
Concrete mixes Superplasticizer polymer dosage Binder W/B

Renewable Filler
PCE CNB
OPC-WB-0.38-270C 0.05 - 1 0.38 4.0
15CNC-WB-0.15-270C - 0.01 1 0.15 1.7
15CNC-WB-0.15-350C - 0.01 1 0.15 1.7
30CNC-WB-0.15-270C - 0.01 1 0.15 1.7
30CNC-WB-0.15-350C - 0.01 1 0.15 1.7
40CNC-WB-0.15-270C - 0.01 1 0.15 1.7
40CNC-WB-0.15-350C - 0.01 1 0.15 1.7
65CNC-WB-0.15-270C - 0.01 1 0.15 1.7
749
65CNC-WB-0.15-350C - 0.01 1 0.15 1.7
85CNC-WB-0.15-270C - 0.01 1 0.15 1.7
85CNC-WB-0.15-350C - 0.01 1 0.15 1.7
100CNC-WB-0.15-270C - 0.01 1 0.15 1.7
100CNC-WB-0.15-350C - 0.01 1 0.15 1.7
test. The concrete mould then were demoulded

and apply the constant pressure at 500kPa for
2.3.4 Depth of Penetration of water test 72hrs. Then the three specimens were split into
two portion to measure the water penetration
For depth of penetration of water test according
depth. Measure at least 3 points of the water
to the BS EN 12390-8-2000 three cubes with
penetration depth and take the average.
dimension 150mmx150mmx150mm were casted
and cured for 28 day age before performing the
Figure 1. SEM photo Hardened NCC mortar/concrete.
65
63
62
60 59
56
55
53 53
Strength/Mpa
50 49.5
47.5
45 45 45.5
44
41
40.5
40 39.5
36 OPC I-270C OPC I-350C 15CNC-270C
35 35
15CNC-350C 30CNC-270C 30CNC-350C
32 40CNC-270C 40CNC-350C 65CNC-270C
30 30 65CNC-350C 85CNC-270C 85CNC-350C
100CNC-270C 100CNC-350C
25
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Age/day
Figure 2. Mortar compressive strength
750
OPC-WB-0.38-270C 15CNC-WB-0.15-270C
15CNC-WB-0.15-350C 30CNC-WB-0.15-270C
30CNC-WB-0.15-350C 40CNC-WB-0.15-270C
40CNC-WB-0.15-350C 65CNC-WB-0.15-270C
190 65CNC-WB-0.15-350C 85CNC-WB-0.15-270C 185
180 85CNC-WB-0.15-350C 100CNC-WB-0.15-270C
170
160
150 150
140
130 133
Strength/Mpa
120
110
100 100
95
90
80
70
60 60
55
50 50
40
30 30
20
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Age/day
Figure 3. Concrete compressive strength
Table 3. Composition chemical for the hydrated

2.4 Results and Discussion
nano coating/binder
2.4.1 SEM and EDX test Mineral Oxides %(w/w)
The hardened NCC cement was scan with SEM and
their results are shown in the Fig.1. The NCC
Al2O3 13.20
cement hydrated at nano and sub micron scale
much denser and compacted microstructure SiO2 11.57
phase (most of the micro voids sealed up with the
nano and submicron hydrated NCC C 5.00
microstructure) than the normal hydrated OPC
(forming a lot of elongation micro voids/gap about MgO 1.68
10µm to 20µm). The hydrated NCC calcium silicate
Na2O -
gel or alumino silicate gel surrounded the
submicron-micron fillers binding them together to K2 O 0.80
form a dense and macro defect free phase proved
the formation of nano to submicron hydration CaO 40.00
products. Besides, extremely low Ca(OH)2 free
lime crystal against the normal OPC paste. From Fe2O3 8.00
the EDX test (Table.3) indicated that the nano size
particles or cement coated/binded onto the fillers
and reinforced additives surface enriched with the 2.4.2 Mortar compressive strength test
reactive aluminate and silica mineral phase. The
The cement replacement from 15% upto 85% CNC
chemical composition for the nano coated/binded
cement (Table.4 and Figure.2) with NCCA in
surface in this interface zone was shown in the
general quality strength index at 3days and 28days
Table.3.
against the OPC cement is 88% to 108% and 104%
to 113%. Surprisingly, replacement 100% CNC to
OPC with NCCA the early 3days and 28days quality
strength index still can achieve 83% and 93%
751
respectively. The strength development of the 100CNC-270C 30.0 40.5 49.5

NCC cement indicated that mainly depend on the
nano densification, reactivity index and curing 100CNC-350C 33.0 44.5 53.5
temperature. In general, for 100% replacement
cement strength development through the entire
age from 3day till 28days without any The NCCA significant improved efficiency in saving
deterioration in strength comparable as the OPC. 60%-95% clinkering energy in the production of
sustainable cement concrete. Carbon dioxide and
Table 4. Mortar compressive strength test
others toxic gases emission was reduced up to
95% by replacing clinker with waste material such
Cement type Compressive Strength (MPa) as fly ash, out-spec clinker or slag up to 100%. All
this promising testing results performance is
3d 7d 28d beneficial to Malaysian and abroad cement
concrete plants in manufacturing sustainable
OPC I-270C 36.0 45.5 53.0
cement concrete for sustainable and resilience
OPC I-350C 39.5 47.5 56.0
mega infrastructure projects such as Mega
Railway Sleeper KV-Double Track MRT Project,
15CNC-270C 39.0 47.5 60.0 Mega Tunneling Pahang Water Transfer Projects
(PWTP), Mass Rapid Transit (MRT) Project,
15CNC-350C 45.0 53,0 63.0 Sarawak Hydropower Murum Dam and general
construction projects.
30CNC-270C 38.0 46.0 57.0
2.4.3 Normal Grade 45 and NCC compressive

30CNC-350C 42.5 49.0 61.0
strength test results
40CNC-270C 37.5 45.0 55.0 From the test result in Table 5 and Fig.3, the 15%
to 100%CNC-WB-0.15-270C&350C shown very high
40CNC-350C 40.0 50.0 58.0
strength even achieving ultra high strength
65CNC-270C 36.5 43.0 58.5 enhancing effects against the OPC mix grade 45,
increased +100% to 233% at 1day early strength,
65CNC-350C 38.0 47.0 62.0 +90% to 200% at 7days strength and +142% to
236% at 28days ultimate strength.
85CNC-270C 32.0 41.0 59.0
85CNC-350C 35.0 44.0 62.0
Table 5. Compressive strength test results
Mix number Compressive strength (MPa)
1d 7d 28d
OPC-WB-0.38-270C 30.0 50.0 55.0
15CNC-WB-0.15-270C 95.0 145.0 180.0
15CNC-WB-0.15-350C 100.0 150.0 185.0
30CNC-WB-0.15-270C 85.0 135.0 170.0
752
30CNC-WB-0.15-350C 90.0 140.0 175.0
40CNC-WB-0.15-270C 75.0 125.0 160.0
40CNC-WB-0.15-350C 80.0 130.0 165.0
65CNC-WB-0.15-270C 70.0 115.0 150.0
65CNC-WB-0.15-350C 75.0 120.0 155.0
85CNC-WB-0.15-270C 65.0 105.5 140.0
85CNC-WB-0.15-350C 70.0 110.0 145.0
100CNC-WB-0.15-270C 60.0 95.0 133.0
100CNC-WB-0.15-350C 65.0 100.0 138.0
Due to the superior performance in strength in the Table.6 shown that the NCC significant
enhancing effects, the NCC easily can reduce improved the sustainability (44% to 98%) in term
steaming energy cost even eliminate the steaming of their CO2 emission, embodied energy and water
energy completely, reduce cycle time production, footprint. Compressive strength was enhanced
delivery time, installation time and fast build or 100% to 236% and surprisingly, its maximum size
rebuilding for resilient construction site with reduction can attain upto 80%. Thus, significant
robust quality. reduced materials cost, transportation cost and
stacking buffer stock space at production yard.
2.4.4 Hume RC square pile concrete evaluation Beside, the drilling diameter and handling cost in
test bored pile significant reduced and productivity
The sustainability, weight reduction, water was significant improved as well. Water
penetration (WP), compressive strength , rapid penetration and rapid chloride penetration also
chloride penetration and service life of Hume RC significant improved from 79% to 92% therefore
square pile with innovative NCC was significant enhanced the durability service life
benchmarking against the most common bored 100% to 200%.
pile grade 30. All the evaluation test were outline
Table 6. NCC against the normal bored pile, sheet pile and IBS
NCC % improved
Emb. Water foot Weigth Comp.

CO2 WP RCP Service life
energy print reduction strength
NCC against
Normal 75-98 75-98 44- 84 30-80 80-90 100-236 79-92 100-200
bored pile
NCC against 75-88 75-88 44-74 30- 67 80-90 100-236 79-92 100-200
the normal
753
sheet pile
NCC against
the normal 75-97 75-97 44-80 30-75 80-90 100-236 79-92 100-200
IBS
NCC against
the normal 75-97 75-97 44-80 30- 75 80-90 100-236 79-92 100-200
Beams
space in the current modern congested high rise

IBS. The steam curing can be eliminated and fast
2.4.5 Hume sheet pile concrete evaluation test demoulding and deliver to the site at 1 day or
In the case of Hume sheet pile with innovative 3days instead of 28days. Thus, the NCC can be
NCC (Table.6) shown that significant improved the resilient to mitigate the natural disaster flood, soil
sustainability (30% to 88%) in term of their CO2 erosion and seismic zone especially in the rebuild
emission, embodied energy and water footprint. with the IBS housing and high rise construction
Compressive strength was enhanced 100% to projects in Malaysia. Thus, significant reduced
236% and its maximum size reduction can attain transportation cost, installation time and stacking
upto 67%. The steam curing can be eliminated and buffer stock at production yard. Water
fast demoulding and deliver to the site in 1 day or penetration and rapid chloride penetration also
3days instead of 28days. Thus, the NCC can be significant improved from 79% to 92% therefore
resilient to mitigate the natural disaster flood and significant enhanced the durability service life
soil erosion especially in the Massive Rapid Transit 100% to 200% for sustainable IBS marine jetty
(MRT) mega construction projects in Malaysia. The structures.
common sheet pile damage problem during
2.4.7 Hume Beams concrete evaluation test
clamping-driving the sheet pile was reduced
significantly without repairing cost. Thus, Hume Beams with innovative NCC (Table.6) shown
significant reduced transportation cost and that same performance as in the Hume IBs
stacking buffer stock at production yard. Beside, system, significant improved the sustainability
the sheet pile driving and handling cost significant (44% to 97%) in term of their CO2 emission,
reduced and productivity was significant improved embodied energy and water footprint.
as well. Water penetration and rapid chloride Compressive strength was enhanced 100% to
penetration also significant improved from 79% to 236% and its maximum size reduction can attain
92% therefore significant enhanced the durability upto 75%. Hume Beams much lighter or longer
service life 100% to 200%. single span (40m to 200m), thinner section and
the depth is shallower occupied much smaller
2.4.6 Hume Industrial Building System (IBS) space indirectly increasing the availability space in
concrete evaluation test the current mega construction project MRT for
LRT, KVDT superstructures fly over bridges in the
Hume Industrial Building System (IBS) with remote area for swamp area or frequent flooding
innovative NCC (Table.6) shown that significant area or rivers. The steam curing can be eliminated
improved the sustainability (44% to 97%) in term and fast demoulding and deliver to the site at 1
of their CO2 emission, embodied energy and water day or 3days instead of 28days. Thus, the
footprint. Compressive strength was enhanced innovative NCC can be resilient to mitigate the
100% to 236% and its maximum size reduction can natural disaster flood, soil erosion and seismic
attain upto 75%. Hume IBS beam much lighter or zone especially in the rebuild with the Hume
longer span and the column is occupied much Beams and high rise construction projects in
smaller space indirectly increasing the availability Malaysia. Thus, significant reduced transportation
754
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[5] Ade Ilham., Lee Y.L., Koh H.B., Chee K.W.,
the durability service life 100% to 200%.
Suraya H.A., Suhaizad Sulaiman and Yung
T.H. Micronised biomass silica and nano
3 Conclusions particles synthesis-recent development.
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energy (75% to 98%), water foot print (44% to
[6] Duxson P., Fernandez J., Provis J.L., Lukey
84%), depletion of mining minerals. Fast
G.C.A., Palomo J.S.J., Van Deventer.
rebuilding during recovering from the hazard
Geopolymer technology: the current state
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of the art. J. Mater Sci.2007; 42: 2917-2933.
ultra high early strength. Durability service life
significant improved and extended minimum [7] Ravindra N.T and Ghosh S. Effect of mix
twice against the normal concrete. The interesting composition on compressive strength and
findings and benefits of NCC was shown in this microstructure of fly ash based geopolymer
study for Malaysian and abroad for sustainable composites. ARPN Journal of Engineering
and resilience mega infrastructure projects and and Applied Sciences.2009; 4(4): 68-74.
general construction projects. Application of this [8] Voo Y.L and Foster S.J. Characteristics of
innovative NCC in the Malaysian and global ultra-high performance ‘ductile’ concrete
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water footprint, economic and significantly Engineering 2010; 3(3): 168–187.
enhanced sustainable and resilient construction
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cement for sustainable high performance
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[2] Mohamed E.I, Mohd Warid Hussin and Cement Production, Paper presented at
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Symposium on utilization of high-strength [11] Lai F.C. Sustainable High Performance
and high-performance concrete. 27th-29th Concrete Development Towards Green
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[3] Ade Ilham. Mix design and properties of NRMCA Concrete Convention Ready Mixed
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[13] Lai F.C. Innovative Cement Additives Quality
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[14] Lai F.C. Innovation in hybrid nano composite
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2016.
[15] Lai F.C. Innovation in sustainable hybrid
pico-nano composite ultra high
performance cement concrete, Invited as
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756
Method of Designing a Plate-like Ultra High-rise Building

Shoko Okamura, Kei Muto
Takenaka Corporation, Tokyo, JAPAN
Contact: okamura.shouko@takenaka.co.jp
Abstract
This paper describes the method of structural design of a plate-like ultra high-rise building, taking
the Shinjuku Toho Building as an example. In particular the major problems in the structural design
of this building are described, namely ensuring safety during earthquakes, ensuring habitability
during strong winds, and ensuring the load resistance of the columns that are subject to large axial
forces. Also, the test results and performance of an "improved non-scallop method" for beam-
column joint are described. Finally the method of structural designing "Godzilla’s Head" is
described.
Keywords: Plate-like high-rise building; 780N/mm2 steel; CFT columns; active mass dumper;
beam-column joint.
ground, "Godzilla's head" (height 12 m) appears,

1 Introduction forming a new landmark in Kabukicho.
The Shinjuku Toho Building was completed in TM&ⒸTOHO CO., LTD.
Kabukicho, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo in 2015. It is a
multi-purpose building with a height of 130 m, 1
basement level, and 30 stories above ground, and
contains a cinema, shops, and a hotel. Kabukicho
is one of the most famous entertainment districts
of Tokyo, and this building is located in the center
of an area bustling with people at all times of the
day and night.
The slim impressive façade of this building can be
seen from the main street on the south side (Fig.
1). The external walls of the high-rise part are
made from PC panels, and the external walls of
the low-rise part are made from metal sandwich
panels folded into a plaited shape. On the 8th
floor outdoor terrace located 40 m above the Figure 1. Building external view
757
▽Height 130.25ｍ
Lower floor exterior

metallic panel 13,200
▽30FL
Hotel
rooms
Atrium
Wall greening
Hotel
lounge High-rise
73,600
façade
PC panels
▽8FL 40.00m
（Hotel lounge and rooms）
Cinema Screen
▽5FL（Cinema complex）
▽3FL（Cinema complex）
Restaurant and shops ▽1FL

Parking area 48,100 21,300
3rd story plan 19th story plan
Figure 2. Building vertical cross-sectional composition and plans of high-rise part and low-rise part
Fig. 2 shows the composition of the building. The the low-rise part and in the Y-direction of the
characteristic of the building is that the 9th floor high-rise part, and a braced moment resisting
part has a large set back. In order to improve the structure provided with the “Takenaka buckling
business feasibility of the hotel and maximize the restrained brace with H-section steel” in the X
effective floor area of guest room, a plate-like direction of the high-rise part. In particular in the
guest room plan scheme was adopted for the high-rise part buckling restrained braces were
high-rise part as shown in Fig. 2. In addition, in provided at 4 locations on each story spanning
order to express the slim façade on the north and between stories to increase the story stiffness.
south faces shown in Fig. 1, the part from the 9th Also to reduce the horizontal displacement during
floor and higher has a convex plan shape. earthquakes, vibration control devices were
arranged on each story to absorb the seismic
From the 1st floor to the 7th floor the shape has
energy. The vibration control devices consisted of
an approximately 48 m x 74 m almost regular
oil dampers or viscous wall dampers arranged in a
rectangular shape, and from the 8th floor to the
well-balanced manner on each story to suit the
30th floor the shape is 13.2 to 21.3 m x 74 m. The
architectural plan. (Fig. 3)
height from the 8th floor to the highest part is
about 90 m, so the aspect ratio at the north and The spacing between columns in the commercial
south faces exceeds 6 and the building is slender. facilities of the low-rise part is 8.1 to 13.4 m in the
X direction and 11.2 m in the Y direction. The
2 Structural scheme spacing between columns in the hotel in the high-
rise part is 5.1 to 8.1 m in the X direction and 5.6
2.1 Structural scheme of above ground to 11.2 m in the Y direction on the 9th to 30th
part stories. The spans differ greatly between the
upper and lower stories bounded by the 8th story,
The structural form of the above ground part is so in the Y direction the 8th story the floor beams
structural steel; a moment resisting structure in are large depth transfer girders, and in the X
758
direction the services pit story provided on the 7th (maximum 22.4 x 34.9 m), some columns are
story is used as a transfer truss having a depth of rising above the beams, and for the columns rising
one story 5.5 m, and these were used to switch above beams that were subject to large axial
the column positions. Also in order to provide a forces from the high-rise part, truss beams were
space with no columns for the cinema complex arranged in 2 directions to support them (Fig. 4).
CFT column
□-900×900
8,800
Buckling
3,200
restrained brace
Steel column
11,200
Support
□-750×750 structural steel
for folded façade
11,200 11,200
Oil dumper
5,600×12＝67,200
Slab Viscous
73,600
73,600
150mm Wall Dumper Steel column
□-600×600
11,200
Oil
8,800 11,200
dumper
3,200
Y 13,400 13,400 8,100 13,200 8,100 5,100 5,100

48,100 21,300 3,000
X Lower floor framing plan（3rd floor） Upper floor framing plan（20th floor）
Figure 3. Structural scheme plans

Active mass
dumper
▽ RFL
▽ 30FL
4,000
Buckling Oil
@3,200 × 21
restrained brace dumper

117,000
Columns
Transferring rising above
truss structure the beams
▽ 9FL
6,400
▽ 8FL
CFT
column
39,330
Ultra high strength

CFT column
Viscous wall
dumper
GL
▽ 1FL ▽
70
Piled raft
foundation
Figure 4. Structural framing elevation
759
Concrete filled steel tubular columns (CFT foundations consist of piles and raft foundations.
columns) are used for some of the columns in the This piled raft foundation system is to bear loads
low-rise part (indicated by ■ in Fig. 3), and the in accordance with their stiffness. The ground in
rest are structural steel columns. The main beams Shinjuku is good, so buildings can be supported
are structural steel beams. with direct foundations, but for this building a top
down basement construction method was
2.2 Structural scheme of below ground adopted in which the above ground part was
part and foundations constructed at the same time as the basement, in
order to shorten the construction period. As a
The structural form of the basement level is result in-situ concrete piles were necessary, so
structural reinforced concrete, with RC basement
these piles were used as foundations of the
external walls as seismic elements. The
building, for a rational structural scheme.
Table 2. Design criteria
Seismic motion level Level 1 Level 2
Static 3-dimensional analysis Time history response

Analysis method
Time history response analysis analysis
Main structural Short term allowable stress or

Ultimate strength or less*
members less
Story drift 1/200 or less 1/100 or less
Story plasticity ratio 1.0 or less 2.0 or less
* Transfer truss, transfer girder to be within elastic range.
P2F
P1F
RF
30F
25F
20F
Above
15F ground
Bending
part element
10F
Shear
8F element
7F
5F
Shear
1F element
B1F Basement
level
Figure 5. 34-lumped mass time-history response analysis model and full 3-dimensional analysis model
760
part, and by adjusting the stiffness balance of the

3 Seismic structural design building the horizontal displacements of the high-
The structural design criteria were set as shown in rise part in earthquakes are reduced.
Table 1. Here Level 1 represents a seismic motion In order to adopt the ultra high strength CFT
level that occurs rarely, and Level 2 represents a columns, it was necessary to set the allowable
seismic motion level that occurs extremely rarely. stresses taking into consideration the axial strains
The analysis models are shown in Fig. 5. of the high tensile steel and the concrete, and to
The 34-lumped mass time-history response analyze the CFT column cross-sections based on
analysis model was fixed at the B1 column base these. Therefore, creep tests were carried out on
level, the one floor was modeled as 1 mass, the the high strength concrete, and based on the
basement level as an equivalent shear element, results a CFT column cross-section design program
and the above ground stories were modeled with that takes into consideration the creep
equivalent bending and shear elements. The characteristics was newly produced, and used in
vibration control devices were modeled as the design of the ultra high strength CFT columns.
dashpots so that only the shear deformation Also, in CFT columns using a built-up box, it is
component contributed. For the story restoring necessary to integrate the structural steel and the
force characteristics, origin-oriented tri-linear type concrete so that there is no deviation between
elements were used for the basement level, and them, in order that stress is uniformly produced in
normal tri-linear type elements were used for the both the filled concrete part and the structural
above ground part. The internal viscous damping steel part. To deal with this, an internal diaphragm
was evaluated as proportional to the type beam to column joint is adopted, so that the
instantaneous story stiffness, a damping factor of diaphragm acts as a shear key when a load that
2% was used for the above ground part as it is tends to cause deviation between the structural
structural steel, and 3% was used for the steel and the concrete acts, thereby integrating
basement as it is reinforced concrete. the steel and the concrete. There was no
experience of internal diaphragm type columns
3.1 Design of ultra-high strength CFT with 780 N/mm2 class high tensile steel at that
columns time, so to ensure the quality of electroslag
The aspect ratio of the high-rise part of this welding, full size structural steel welding tests
building is large, so one issue was that horizontal were carried out (Fig. 6), and the construction
displacements of the high-rise part could become conditions that enable the required performance
too large during earthquakes. To solve this issue of a Charpy value of 27 J or higher to be obtained
braces were provided in the high-rise part to in the welds were confirmed.
increase the horizontal stiffness. In addition
control was necessary to ensure that the
horizontal stiffness of the low-rise part was not
excessive compared with the high-rise part. On
the other hand large axial forces act on the
columns of the low-rise part directly below the
high-rise part, so it was necessary to provide
sufficient column strength. In other words, for the
columns indicated by ■ in Fig. 3, it was required
that the load resistance is high and the stiffness is
not too high. In order to satisfy these 2 conflicting
targets, ultra high strength CFT columns using 780 Figure 6. Full size structural steel column
N/mm2 class high tensile steel and Fc 100 N/mm2 electroslag welding test being carried out
high strength concrete were adopted for the 1st
and 2nd story columns supporting the high-rise
761
Table 2. Design seismic motions
Level 1 Level 2
Vel. Acc. Vel. Acc.

2
[m/s] [m/s ] [m/s] [m/s2]
Notification law seismic wave; random phase 0.09 0.67 0.42 3.25
Notification law seismic wave; "Hachinohe" phase 0.08 0.69 0.39 3.31
Notification law seismic wave; "Kobe" phase 0.11 0.75 0.53 3.90
On-site seismic wave; Kanto earthquake - - 0.26 2.72
Observed seismic wave; EL CENTRO 1940NS 0.25 2.55 0.50 5.10
Observed seismic wave; TAFT 1952EW 0.25 2.48 0.50 4.93
Observed seismic wave; Hachinohe 1968NS 0.25 1.65 0.50 3.30
resisting structure with column spacing of 11.2 m,

3.2 Vibration control structural design
so the stiffness is smaller compared with the 21st
The fundamental natural period of the building is story and lower where the column spacing is 5.6
3.78 seconds in the X direction, and 3.10 seconds m, and the horizontal displacements are larger.
in the Y direction. Table 2 shows the design Therefore in the 22nd to 30th stories oil dampers
seismic motions. with a higher damping force were installed, for
concentrated energy absorption.
In order to reduce the story drift in the building
during earthquakes, vibration control devices P2F Random phase
were installed on each story to absorb the seismic Hachinohe phase

30F Kobe phase
energy. Viscous wall dampers and oil dampers On-site Kanto EQ
were adopted as the vibration control devices. Obs. EL CENTRO NS

Obs. TAFT EW
The characteristics of the oil dampers are that 25F
Obs. Hachinohe NS
they can efficiently absorb energy from the low
vibration amplitude range, and the characteristics 20F
of the viscous wall dampers are that the damping

capacity per unit is high, and their arrangement 15F
can be comparatively flexibly adjusted to suit the
architectural plan. The low-rise part is a
commercial facility, so the locations where
8F
Design criteria
vibration control devices could be installed were 1/100
7F
limited, therefore viscous wall dampers whose
size and position could be flexibly adjusted in
accordance with the plan were mainly adopted. 1F
B1F
The high-rise part is a hotel, so there are many 0 1/200 1/100
Story drift [rad]
1/67
room partition walls where vibration control

devices could be installed, so oil dampers were Figure 7. Maximum story drift in the X direction in
adopted. Also, in the Y direction, the structure Level 2 earthquakes
from the 22nd story upwards is a moment
762
10
As a result, on the 1st to 6th stories in the X
direction 2 No. viscous wall dampers were
Maximum Acc. at 30th floor（cm/s2）

installed per story and in the Y direction 4 No. 150
ton oil dampers were installed per story. On the
8th to 30th stories 2 No. or 4 No. 150 to 200 ton
oil dampers were installed.
H-90
Fig. 7 shows the response results during a Level 2 H-70
H-50
earthquake. It was confirmed that the design H-30
criteria shown in Table 1 are satisfied. H-10
X-dir
Y-dir
Torsion
4 Wind structural design 1
0.1 1
Frequency（Hz）
This building has a plate-like shape, so the wind
Figure 8. Results of habitability evaluation for wind
oscillations in the X direction and torsional
with a return period of 1 year
oscillations could be large. Therefore a total of 2
active mass dampers (AMD) each with a 50 ton
mass were installed on the roof top on the north
5 Beam to column joints
and south ends, to improve the habitability. To In ultra high-rise structural steel buildings, it is
resist the X direction and torsional oscillations the important to ensure the integrity of the beam to
AMDs are one-way type in the X direction. column joints during earthquakes. Prior to
An evaluation for habitability was carried out designing this building the new primary beam end
based on the Architectural Institute of Japan's detail "improved non-scallop method" had been
"Guidelines for the evaluation of habitability to developed and its high performance was
building vibration" for winds with a return period confirmed by tests, so this detail was adopted. Fig.
of 1 year. Fig. 8 shows the habitability evaluation 9 shows an outline of the improved non-scallop
results. Here H-10 to 90 are indices representing method.
the level of oscillation, and represent the The characteristic of this method is that the cross-
percentage of people that would notice that sectional performance of the beam end is
oscillation. improved by filling with weld the scallops that are
As shown in this graph, by installing the AMDs, it normally necessary in site welding the beam
was confirmed that the target performance of H- flange.
70 for wind oscillations was satisfied.
人工欠陥
Filled with site welding
（幅9㎜）
Column Small diameter scallop
13
Scallop hole filled

45
36
with site welding

7
Diaphragm Large beam flange

35 42
Figure 9. Improved non-scallop method
763
The deformation performance is reduced at the Underlying structural

site welds, so in ultra high-rise buildings normally steel frame
the width of the beam end is increased in order to
GRC finishing
improve the deformation performance of the
beam end. However when this is done the
fabrication efficiency of the structural steel beam
is poor, and this is a disadvantage of increasing
the beam width at the ends. In contrast with this
new method, the objective is to provide the same
deformation performance as when the width of Building structural
steel beams
the beam end is increased.
As a result of a deformation performance
verification test for the beam to column joint
using a full size T-shaped test piece fabricated
based on this method, it was confirmed that high
deformation performance could be obtained
under repeated stresses during an earthquake [1].
Therefore in this building the safety during
earthquakes was increased by adopting the
improved non-scallop method at locations where
the ends of the beams become plastic during large TM&ⒸTOHO CO., LTD.
earthquakes.
Figure 10. Structural outline of Godzilla’s head,
and external photograph
6 Godzilla’s head
One of the elements from which the characteristic 7 Conclusions
external appearance of the Shinjuku Toho Building
In the Shinjuku Toho Building, the structural
is composed is "Godzilla's Head". Godzilla's head is
framing scheme and the vibration control scheme
reproduced as full size, so a reinforcing lattice was
were designed in accordance with the vibration
installed as furring on the surface of the
properties of the building, and by using ultra high
underlying structural steel frame, and the head
strength CFTs and the improved non-scallop
was formed from about 4 cm thickness of
method; a plate-like ultrahigh-rise building has
glassfiber reinforced cement (GRC) on the
been realized.
reinforcing lattice. The structural steel frame is a
braced structure to increase the horizontal
stiffness, and the members were designed to 8 References
ensure safety in a large earthquake. A structural [1] Ishikawa T, Kaneko H, Hiroshige T, et al.
outline and external photograph of Godzilla's head Deformation Capacities of Beam-to-column
are shown in Fig. 10. Connections without Weld Access Holes for
The underlying structural steel frame is supported Field Welding. Summaries of technical
from the beams of the building, and the column papers of annual meeting of Architectural
bases are fixed by welding. The structural steel Institute of Japan; 2013.
members were designed so that when subjected
to 1.0 G horizontal motion and 1.0 G vertical
motion during an earthquake, the stresses in the
members are less than the short term allowable
stresses.
764
Mega High Rise Buildings – Strength and E-modulus limits for High
Performance Concrete in Malaysia.
Kribanandan Gurusamy Naidu

Abstract
In the early 1990s the Petronas Twin Towers Project in Kuala Lumpur, set the stage for the use of
high performance concretes of >C80/95 for high rise construction worldwide. In the intervening
years the rapid increase in the cost of land in cities due to urbanization accelerated the appetite
for mega high rise buildings, inevitably > 50 stories, having to be built on ever more constrained
spaces. In this context high performance concrete of Grades well in access of C80/95 is now
becoming commonly specified in design.
This paper explores the development of HPC in Malaysia from the time of the Petronas Twin
Tower project in the mid 90’s and the constraints and limitations which exist in the use of higher
grades of concrete for design. It also provides designers a theoretical basis for the selection of e-
modulus to undertake innovative design based on available local resources.
Keywords: High-rise buildings, High Performance Concrete, E-Modulus, Ground Granulated Blast
Furnace Slag, Pulverised Fuel Ash, BS EN 1992
1 Introduction
1.1 Background and Objectives In addition to achieving the required concrete
There are numerous projects in KL today where properties, specific needs in terms of concrete
high performance concrete is being specified. The pumpability, hot weather concreting and
highest grade concrete of 105MPa is proposed for construction sequencing require careful
the KL118 project which will be the tallest building examination prior to the start of construction.
in Malaysia when completed in 2020. In these Considering the very large structural element
structures the use of high strength concrete is sizes the need to improve the choice of
commonly required to provide safe levels of concrete to reduce the incidence of thermal
strength and stiffness with elastic modulus of ≥ 35 cracking is also critical. In this respect,
GPa. minimising the cement content is essential, in
combination with the use of mineral additions
such as ggbs (ground granulated blast-furnace
slag) and fly ash which generate lower heat of
hydration.
765
production of >G85 concrete is well beyond the

2 Review of concrete requirements current experience of the majority of ready-mix
concrete producers in Malaysia.
2.1 Concrete Requirements
The concrete specifications in any high rise It should also be noted that compliance to
project will encompass requirements in the concrete strength is based on water cured
following major areas: samples whereas the In-Situ strength within the
concrete elements is heat cycled due to the
 Fresh Concrete Properties hydration temperature rise in thick sections.
 Raw Materials for Concrete Under these conditions, the potential for the in
 Workability Requirements situ strength development to be impaired by the
 Temperature limits in concrete high curing temperature is well documented and
needs to be considered [1,2]. This is particularly
Under normal circumstances based on the BS important in relation to the effects on the elastic
8500 requirements (which has replaced BS 5328 modulus, as the usual relationships between
and is the complementary British Standard to strength and elastic modulus are generally based
EN206) the concrete would need to be supplied on laboratory cast specimens. As shortening is a
to a target strength of fc + 1.64 SD (i.e. a 95 critical aspect of design in tall buildings the
percentile characteristic value). With a typical elastic modulus derived from a laboratory
standard devition (SD) of 5 MPa the margin specimen may be higher than that achieved in
would therefore be about 8 MPa. However, for the structure, thus rendering any estimates
initial testing, EN206 requires a higher margin of based on modelling unsafe.
2 x SD. Depending upon the assumed SD (3-6
MPa), the margin may therefore range from 6-12 In this context the use of blended concrete
MPa, i.e. the Grade 105, 85 or 70 concrete (Cube mixes will be advantageous, and the normal
Strength) would need to meet a mean strength specification requirements to limit concrete
of 117, 97 and 82 MPa respectively. This is why peak temperature to 700C may be relaxed
in specifications, and as per normal practice depending on the mix design, the pozzolonic
locally, a 15 MPa initial margin is often required. replacement levels and the response of the
On this basis, target strengths of 120, 100 and 85 concrete to high early curing temperatures. If
MPa will need to be achieved during trials for the in situ strength in structural members is
Grade 105, 85 and 70 respectively. These targets significantly lower than assumed this may give
can be reviewed as the plant data becomes rise to a lower modulus of elasticity and higher
available confirming a reduced standard creep. These issues will require critical review on
deviation. It has been recognised for some time a project by project basis based on assessment
that achieving strength grades >85 MPa, is at the of in-situ cores extracted from representative
very limit of what can be obtained with granite elements in Mock up studies case which should
aggregates commonly used in local concrete form part of the specification provisions.
production. Further it should be noted that the
2.2 Concrete Modulus of Elasticity

The modulus of elasticity of concrete is closely
related to the properties of the cement paste, the
stiffness of aggregates, the relative volume of admixtures to achieve a very low water cement
these two components and also the test method. ratio. To take these differences into consideration
current expressions for Elastic Modulus have been
Mixes for High Performance Concrete (HPC) differ adjusted (e.g. by modifying coefficients) to
from low and medium strength concretes through account for the specific differences. No universal
extensive use of silica fume and chemical relationship between elastic modulus and
766
compressive strength exists and the design another significant milestone was the 55 Storey
expressions developed by different national codes Telekom Head Quarters which used a Grade 70
reflects the differences in local materials and in triple blend concrete i.e. OPC/PFA/Silica Fume [3].
particular the aggregates used. For grade 85 Other significant projects include the SMART
concrete, the E Modulus variation is from 37.8GPa tunnel project where although only a Grade 40
(Norwegian Code) to 45.3GPa based on Japanese concrete was used the development of the
experience [1]. The need to undertake concrete to be pumped up to 1 km into the tunnel
measurements when the value of elastic modulus during construction provided for challenges never
is critical to design is therefore obvious. The undertaken previously. Some data from the
relationship between strength and modulus for Airport Terminal expansion i.e. the LCCT project is
the proposed concreting materials should also reported. In the recent past there have been
therefore need to be developed as part of the trial several projects in Kuala Lumpur where higher
mix programme at the inception of a project. grades ie > 85 Mpa have been proposed and these
In the case of the KL118 project for instance [2] all include KL118, Lot 91 and Oxley Tower to name a
of the estimates used (based on US codes) few.
predicted an E modulus greater than the 37 GPa
for the C85 concrete and some by an appreciable 3.2 Concrete Strength Development
margin. This is further examined herewith based
The key project information for the Petronas Twin
on actual data available from local projects over a
Towers, Menara Telekom, and the SMART Tunnel
25 year period as a basis of realistic adoption of E-
projects have been obtained from the JTK
modulus.
Archives while the information from LCCT and
KLCC Lot 171 was obtained from interested
3 Overview of Local High Strength parties. This is summarised in Table 1.
Concrete Experience
The EN 1992 model has been used to provide a
3.1 Introduction best fit to the data. EN 1992-1-1 sub-clause
3.1.2(6) gives an equation for the development of
The information available on high strength
the mean compressive strength of concrete with
concrete in Malaysia is limited and among the
time at 20oC as follows;
highest grade supplied for superstructure
concrete previously was the supply of the Grade
fcm(t) = (βcc(t))fcm (1)
80 triple blend concrete (OPC/PFA/Silica Fume) for
the Petronas Twin Towers project [1,2]. In the 90s
Table 1. Local Project Data for Review of E-Modulus provisions in Eurocodes.
Project Year Complete Cementitous Grade

Petronas Twin Tower 1998 OPC 12.2% PFA + 6.2% Silica Fume G80
Menara Telekom (55 2001 OPC 25-28% PFA G55
Storey)
SMART tunnel 2007 25-28% PFA G40
LCC Terminal 2011 25-28% PFA G50
Note: All the PFA used in the above projects are inter-ground into cement at the Mill

   28   
0.5

βcc(t )  exp s 1      (2)
     
 t 
767
As different cement combinations have been The results are given in Figure 1. As PFA slows the
used the coefficients will vary. A best fit analysis rate of strength gain the coefficient S increases
has been undertaken to determine the coefficient with higher proportions of PFA. A relationship
S for each of the six concrete mixes for which developed for a particular combination of OPC
data is available. and PFA is shown in Figure 1.
LCCT
Coefficient s
Petronas Telekom
SMART
Percent pfa
Figure 1. The relationship between PFA content (%) and the coefficient S
It can be seen that three of the concretes yield

results which are broadly consistent with the Ecm(t) = (fcm(t)/fcm)0.3 Ecm (4)
relationship derived in EN1992. The exception is
the concrete used for the SMART tunnels. In this Where Ecm(t) and fcm(t) are the values at an
case the coefficient S is closer to that achieved with age of t days and Ecm and fcm are the values at
OPC (about 0.2), than to values typically achieved 28 days. EN1992 allows for the use of
with 25-28% PFA. The Cement used in this case was different aggregate types but used quartz as
a Masscrete LH, interground PFA cement with a 25 the default material. For limestone and
to 28% PFA replacement, and lower values of S sandstone aggregates, the value is reduced
could be a reflection of grinding to a finer Blaine. by 10% and 30% respectively and for basalt
This is potentially a problem with the inter-grinding aggregates, it is increased by 20%. No values
process and will need to be carefully assessed in the are indicated for granite aggregate.
selection of the cements and replacement materials
particularly where heat of hydration is a real Where measurements have been taken, the
concern. adjustment required to fit the EN1992 model
may be derived. Comparisons between
3.3 Overview of Historical Strength and E- measured and predicted E are shown in
Modulus Data as a Basis for Design Figure 2 for the SMART and Telekom tower
projects. The EN1992 model over estimates
3.3.1 Results from Previous Projects the early development of elastic modulus.
The combined results from the SMART
tunnel, the Menara Telekom and the Lot 171
The secant modulus, Ecm (in GPa) is derived from the
trial mix (Figure 3) are all broadly consistent
mean compressive cylinder strength, fcm (in MPa)
with EN1992 for the range of aggregates
from the equation:
typically used. Granite Aggregates are used
exclusively in West Malaysia, and the results
Ecm = 22[ fcm /10 ] 0,3 GPa (3)
given in Figure 3 indicates that the strength
has a greater effect on the elastic modulus
[It is assumed that the cylinder strength fcm =
than suggested using the relationship
cube strength, fcm.cube /1.23]
of EN1992.
The variation of modulus of elasticity with
time is estimated using the equation
768
Figure 2. Development of elastic modulus for the SMART and Menara Telekom projects
Figure 3: Elastic modulus in relation to strength class

With the 16 data points for concretes all using
the same aggregate, a best-fit relationship The difference between the two curves is
between compressive cube strength and elastic most significant for lower strength classes.
modulus may be determined as shown in Figure When the mean cube strength exceeds
5. This is expressed as follows: about 50 MPa, there is little difference
between the two curves. The expression
Ecm = 17.87[ (fcm,cube/1.23) /10 ] 0,417 GPa (5) for time dependent strength gain fits the
Also shown in Figure 5 is the curve generated by results for the various mixes provided that
the EN1992 expression, the coefficient S in equation 2 is adjusted
Ecm = 22[ (fcm,cube/1,23) /10 ] 0,3 GPa (6) to take account of the cement type.
These equations are of the same form, the only Based on these results it therefore appears
difference being the coefficients. acceptable to use the EN1992 relationship
when the mean cube strength exceeds 50
MPa.
769
The results in Figure 4 demonstrate that the however a need to derive a design
required values of elastic modulus up to 37 expression which provides a safe limit for E
GPa may be achieved, on average, using Modulus based on local experience and this is
locally available materials in concrete with discussed below, based on an actual test
cube strengths of > 80 MPa. There is programme and the associated data.
Figure 4: The relationship between cube strength and elastic modulus
3.3.2 Overview of Results from hot blocks, trial

piles and additional trials
A preliminary test programme was initiated to
consider if the best fit relationship in terms of b. Specimens cast during the casting of two
strength classes and E Modulus can be achieved and trial piles,
this included: c. Further test specimens cast to
investigate three additional mixes
a. Cores extracted from four ‘hot blocks’ cast
to simulate thick sections which undergo a Four blocks were cast using the mixes shown in
high initial curing temperature, Table 2, mixes 2 and 3 were used in trial piles.
Table 2 Mix proportions for the hot blocks

Material Mix1 Mix 2 Mix 3 Mix 4
PC 340 170 165 415
GGBS 85 255 245 105
Silica Fume 30
Total Aggregate 1755 1745 1750 1715
w/c 0.41 0.41 0.375 0.308
Retarder As required
Superplasticiser As required
The results obtained from the hot block and trial cast specimens. As values were not derived at
piles are shown in Figure 5. The 28-day and 56- 28 days, measurements at ages up to 90 days
day results are shown separately. enabled a 28-day value for the G75 concrete to
Additional mix trials were undertaken by two be interpolated. The results are shown in Figure
other ready mix suppliers for G75 and G80 and 5 compared with the results from the hot block
G90 respectively on three grades of concrete. In trials and trial pile mixes and the historical
this case the elastic modulus was measured on project data.
770
3.3.3 Deriving a compliant concrete based on the

requirements for elastic modulus Ec,min =0.92*22[fcm,cube /(1.23*10)]0.3
The strength required to achieve the minimum =20.24[fcm,cube/12.3]0.3 (7)
acceptable elastic modulus was then considered.
The relationship between the 28-day cube Assuming that there is a margin of 10 MPa added
strength and the elastic modulus measured both to the characteristic strength to achieve the
on cores extracted from the hot blocks and on target mean value then the required elastic
cast cylinders, is shown in Figure 6. modulus may be achieved with the grades of
concrete as shown in Table 3.
Using this data a lower bound curve has been
In considering the required elastic modulus it is
derived (ignoring obviously anomalous results)
generally the mean value that is used in design.
and this is proposed as a design curve. It
Based on the results in Figure 6 this would result
represents the EN1992-1-1 curve with a
in values about 8% higher than the estimated
multiplier of 0.92. Hence the minimum elastic
lower bound design values, offering a basis for
modulus may be derived from the mean
adoption of strength classes as shown in Table 3
compressive cube strength using the following
below.
expression:
Figure 6. The relationship between compressive Figure 5. The relationship between strength and
cube strength (or 1:1 core) and elastic modulus elastic modulus, including the additional test results
at 28 days at 28 days (interpolated) and at 56 days.
Table 3. Min and Max E Modulus for varying strength classes

Fcu (N/mm2) 50 60 70 80 85 100
Ec,min 32,560 34,100 35,490 36,770 37,370 39,050
Ec,mean 35,390 37,070 38,580 39,970 40,620 42,450
771
A target mean value can be obtained by

3.3.4 Other factors affecting elastic
assuming that there is a margin of 10 MPa
modulus
added to the characteristic strength. These
It can be seen from the relationship between values (see Table 3) can be used as a starting
strength and elastic modulus that for the higher point for design until actual data for any
strength concretes, there is little benefit from particular project is available.
trying to increase the elastic modulus by
[3] Further testing and compilation of data
increasing the strength. Increasing from G80 to
should be initiated, including measurement
G100 (a 24% increase) will only achieve an
of elastic modulus, creep and shrinkage, to
increase in E from 37 to 39 GPa, i.e. an increase of
confirm the overall conclusion drawn herein
little more than 5%.
particularly in relation to the adoption of the
proposed relationship between strength and
Two other factors are critical, the stiffness of the
elastic modulus.
aggregate and the volume of the cement paste.
As the aggregate is stiffer than the cement paste
(and also contributes insignificantly to creep) it is 5 References
prudent to minimise the paste volume as far as is [1] Kribanandan Gurusamy
practically possible. This can be done initially by
achieving a continuous grading of aggregate and “High Strength Concrete Usage in Malaysia,
sand to minimise the voids to be filled by the The Petronas Twin Tower Project and Future
cement paste. The use of PCE (polycarboxylate Prospect”, Concrete 95 - Trends, Innovation,
ether) superplasticising admixtures should also be Durability and Appraisal of High Performance
optimised to allow the water content to be Concrete, June 1995, Kuala Lumpur,
reduced and hence, at a fixed w/c ratio, to reduce Malaysia.
the paste content also. [2] Kribanandan Gurusamy & W F Price
“The Petronas Towers – Beneficial Use of
The most critical factor is the aggregate stiffness
High Strength Concrete”, 3rd International
and it is clear that if the E-Modulus requirement is
Conference – Concrete of Vertical Space in
to go beyond 37GPa that alternative sources of
the 21st Century – October 1997, Concrete
aggregate will need to be considered (ie) replacing
Society London, United Kingdom.
the granite for example with basalt aggregates.
[3] Kribanandan Gurusamy & Peter Gabor
4 Conclusions and “Design and Construction of Transfer
Recommendations Structures for the 77 Storey Telecom
[1] The production and delivery of HPC up to G85 Headquarters”, Seminar “Building Our
(characteristic cube strength) with locally Concrete Infrastructure”, October 1997,
available aggregates is considered achievable Concrete Institute of Australia, Perth
based on local project experience. Higher Australia.
concrete grades will require additional inputs [4] EN 1992 Eurocode 2: Design of concrete
including consideration for alternative structures - Part 1-1: General rules and rules
aggregate resources. for buildings
[2] A minimum elastic modulus for granite [5] EN 206-1 Concrete – Part 1: Specification,
concrete may be derived from the mean performance, production and conformity
compressive cube strength using the
following expression: [6] BS 8500-1:2015 Concrete - Complementary
British Standard to BS EN 206. Method of
Ec,min = 20.24[fcm,cube/12.3]0.3 specifying and guidance for the specifier.
772
Descending Order Reversely Constrained Optimal Design Method for

Tall Building Structures under Wind Loading and Earthquake action
Xin Zhao
Department of Structural Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, CHINA
Tongji Architectural Design(Group) Co., Shanghai, CHINA
Jianzhe Zhao
Zhuang Ma
Contact: 22zx@tjadri.com
Abstract
Optimal design of tall buildings is attracting increasing interests due to huge material consumption
and structural costs. Design constraints are related with the design criteria of structural optimal
design, and can be divided into several grades, say global constraints, assembly constraints,
component constraints, sectional constraints and detailing constraints. Forwardly constrained
optimal design (FCOD) method is widely applied in engineering practices. FCOD method begins with
conserved initial structural member sizes after the selection of structural system and member
layouts. FCOD method releases design constraints gradually with the descending order design
procedure from global constraints to detailing constraints, and the structural material fat of final
structural design is commonly high due to tight design schedule and limited resource input.
Descending order reversely constrained optimal design method (DO-RCOD) tightens design
constraints gradually in descending order, say global, assembly, sectional and detailing constraint
grades. The constant incremental sensitivity analysis (CISA) method is applied in structural design of
each constraint grade to compensate the under constrained design criteria with minimum material
premium, and thus the structural material wastes are effectively reduced with enough structural
safety required by the codes. A 10-storeys steel frame structure will be employed to illustrate the
effectiveness of the DO-RCOD method under wind loading and earthquake action. The advantages
of DO-RCOD method will be shown by comparing study between DO-RCOD results and DO-FCOD
results.
Keywords: design redundancy; optimal design method; tall buildings; design criteria; constraint
sensitivity
773
under constraints design criteria, is called reversely

1 Introduction constrained optimal design (RCOD) method. Zhao
The number of tall buildings are increasing rapidly [4] illustrate the advantages of the RCOD method
in the world. With the aid of continued compared with the FCOD method, and the RCOD
improvements in structural materials and method can reduce more global design redundancy
construction methods, many forward-thinking than the FCOD method. Hence, an advantage
structural engineers are proposing unique, method called descending order reversely
innovative, and efficient systems for tall buildings constrained optimal design (DO-RCOD) method is
in the future. [1] Because of the huge material applied for tall buildings’ optimal design. In this
consumption and structural costs, optimal design paper, the constant incremental sensitivity analysis
of tall buildings is attracting more interests. The (CISA) method [5] will be applied to make great
primitive design always has large redundancy to contribution in optimal design and A 10-storeys
ensure the satisfaction of design constraints. steel frame structure will be employed to illustrate
Structural redundancy can be reduced by the effectiveness of the DO-RCOD method under
investigate the sensitivities of design constraints. wind loading and earthquake action. The
Design constraints can be divided into driven advantages of DO-RCOD method will be shown by
constraints and validation constraints according to comparing study between DO-RCOD results and
the optimization modeling process. The design DO-FCOD results.
constraints considered in the mathematical model,
are called driven design constraints. Those design under properly over
RCOD FCOD
constraints introduced for the verification of design constrained constrained constrained
criteria are called the verification design
constraints. Constraints can be divided into several Figure 1. two optimization processes
grades: global constraints, assembly constraints,
component constraints, sectional constraints and 2 Descending order Constrained
detailing constraints. Descending order optimal
design method tightens design constraints Optimal Design Method
gradually in descending order, say global,
assembly, component, sectional and detailing 2.1 Theory of Descending Order
constraint grades. Ascending order design method Constrained Optimal Design Method
however starts from detailing constraints to global According to the order of design constraints, the
constraints. Descending order optimal design design constraints can be divided into driven
method is commonly applied for structures constraints and validation constraints. And
controlled by global constraints like tall buildings. constraints can be divided into several grades:
After the determination of constraints order, two global constraints, assembly constraints,
optimization processes can be obtained by the component constraints, sectional constraints and
redundancy state of the design constraints, which detailing constraints. The method starting from
are showed in Figure.1. The first optimization global constraints to detailing constraints is called
process, which begins with conserved initial descending order optimal design method and the
structural member sizes after the selection of opposite method is called ascending order design
structural system and member layouts, is called method. The two different optimal design methods
forwardly constrained optimal design (FCOD) can be illustrated by the Figure.2. Structures have
method. Dong [2] proposed an optimal design for some factors such as strength, stiffness and
structure lateral system of super tall buildings stability, and each one of these factors has relevant
under multiple constraints. Cao [3] developed a constraints. In the previous research, it is proved
multilevel constrained optimal structural design that tall building structures are controlled by whole
method for reinforced concrete tall buildings. The structure’s stiffness, which influences global
second optimization process, which begins with constraints. So, global constraints such as storey
774
drift will be driven constraints while other structure more “safe”. But this method has some
constraints are validation constraints in first round. disadvantages. The structural material
If one validation constraint of global constraints consumption of final structural design optimized by
doesn’t meet the requirement of code, it should be FCOD method is commonly high due to tight design
the driven constraints in next process. Then schedule and limited resource input. Using FCOD
assembly constraints will be the driven constraints method, engineers always focus on the maximal
in second round. And component constraints are design constraints in primitive design because
the third round. Sectional constraints and detailing primitive design has already met the requirement
constraints are driven constraints next. After of code. And the other parts of primitive design are
successive design development, the redundancy of ignored, which makes redundancy still unsatisfied.
the structure will be reduced greatly. In fact, the FCOD design method is only capable of
reducing the redundancy of the primitive structure
to a certain extent. If engineers want to reduce the
redundancy of the optimal design result to the
lowest extent, the design concept needs to be
reversed.
3.2 Theory of Descending Order Reversely

Constrained Optimal Design Method
Because of the disadvantages of the FCOD method,
we present another process called the reversely
Figure.2 The two different optimal design methods
constrained optimal design (RCOD) method. The
RCOD method starts with under constrained
2.2 Two Elements of Descending Order primitive design and ends with properly
Constrained Optimal Design Method constrained design. The under constrained
There are two elements of descending order primitive design will be effectively upgraded in
constrained optimal design method, which are successive optimization process using minimum
initial constraints release and constraints tightened structural material increments until the controlling
in descending order. Initial constraints release constraints are properly constrained. During the
means that constraints will be released at the upgrade, the constant incremental sensitivity
beginning of the optimal design. And one analysis (CISA) method is taken advantage of to
constraint will be chosen as driven constraint when make the optimal design process more target-
other constraints are not focused on. The oriented. Constant incremental sensitivity means
constraint which is chosen as driven constraint the variation of one constraint caused by the
should be selected from global constraints to constant addition of different component groups.
detailing constraints. So, it leads to a concept called Incremental sensitivity can be judged by the
constraints tightened in descending order, which variation of the constraint caused by the constant
means the optimal design starts from global addition of different component groups. If the
constraints to detailing constraints. absolute value of the variation of one constraint is
larger, the component group has more sensitivities
3 Descending Order Reversely of the constraint. On the contrary, the component
group has less sensitivities of the constraint.
Constrained Optimal Design Engineers can focus on the component groups with
Method great sensitivities, which accelerates the rate of
optimal design progress. The optimization
3.1 Forwardly Constrained Optimal Design strategies are presented in Figure.3 using the CISA
Method method. The up arrow means increase
The FCOD method is normal because traditional corresponding components and black down arrow
design always has over constraints which makes means decrease corresponding components. With
775
the Combination of descending order constrained

optimal design method and the RCOD method, we
get descending order reversely constrained
optimal design (DO-RCOD) method. And the CISA
method developed by the authors is applied in
structural design of each constraint grade to
compensate the under constrained design criteria
with minimum material premium, and thus the
structural material wastes are effectively reduced
with enough structural safety required by the
codes.
Figure.4 procedure of the DO-RCOD method
4 Case Study
The model in Figure.5 is a 10-storeys steel
structure, whose lateral force-resisting
components consist of I-shaped steel beams and
square tube steel columns. The span of the single
span steel structure is 6 meters and the height of
Figure.3 optimization strategies using the CISA each story is 4 meters. Ten storeys are divided into
method three zones, which are low zone (1-4), medium
zone (5-7) and high zone (8-10). To imitate wind
3.3 Procedure of Descending Order load and earthquake action, the lateral loads are
inverted triangular form and rectangular form,
Reversely Constrained Optimal Design
which are shown in Figure.6.
Method
The optimal design starts with a primitive structure
under constraints, and components should be
grouped. Secondly, constraints will be release and
one of global constraints will be chosen as driven
constraint. And the CISA method will be applied to
find the sensitive components and insensitive
components. Thirdly, engineers reversely optimize
driven constraint to meet the requirements. Then
constraints will be tightened in descending order.
Finally, the assembly constraints, component
constraints, sectional constraints and detailing
constraints will also be assessed to ensure the Figure.5 the 10-storeys steel structure model
satisfaction of code requirements with reduced
40KN 6KN
member sizes. The normal procedure of the DO-
RCOD method is showed in Figure.4.
776
Figure.6 lateral loads forms It is believed that tall buildings are controlled by
global constraints normally, so storey drift is
Two different optimal design methods will be
chosen as driven constraint first. And we assume
compared. The first one is the DO-RCOD method
the target of first natural vibration period is less
and the other one is the DO-FCOD method. The
than 1.5 seconds. To optimize the primitive design,
primitive redundancy of each method is different
the CISA method is applied to find the most
because of using different size components. Each
effective component group. By using the CISA
method’s effect of optimizing will be compared in
method, every component group’s sensitivity to
the end. As shown in Figure.7 and Figure.8, the
each storey drift can be calculated. In the DO-RCOD
primitive structure storey drifts of two methods are
method, the sizes of sensitive component groups
different and the structure is controlled by wind
are increased while the sizes of insensitive
load. The primitive design of descending order
component groups are decreased in the DO-FCOD
reversely constrained optimal design method is
method. The Figure.9 shows the first round of
under constraints and the primitive design of
sensitive analysis of the DO-RCOD method.
descending order forwardly constrained optimal
design method is over constraints.
Figure.7 primitive design of the DO-RCOD method Fig.9 the first round of sensitive analysis of the DO-
RCOD method
From Fig.9, we can see that medium zone beams
are the most sensitive component group to the 5th
to 8th storey drift. Hence, we enlarge medium zone
beams at present stage. The sensitive analysis
should be applied for several rounds, because the
most sensitive component may change after each
round structural change. When each storey drift
meets the requirement of code almost, we validate
the other global constraint like period. The first
natural vibration period of the structure is 1.4566
seconds，which meets the requirement that we
assumed. After optimal design for global
constraints, stress ratio should be validated as a
component constraint, and the requirement is 0.9.
Through analysis, some medium zone beams and
Fig.8 primitive design of the DO-FCOD method
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low zone beams haven’t meet the requirement yet,

which should be applied further optimal design.
The further optimal design of stress ratio is shown
in Table.1.
Table.1 further optimal design of stress ratio of the
DO-RCOD method
Before Optimization After Optimization
Storey Max Max Max

Stress Stress Stress
Ratio of Ratio of Ratio of Max Stress Ratio
Beams Columns Beams of Columns
1st 0.932 0.911 0.8 0.897
2nd 1.004 0.806 0.852 0.804
3rd 0.969 0.727 0.821 0.728

Figure.10 optimization process of the DO-RCOD
4th 0.907 0.66 0.777 0.663 method
5th 0.826 0.586 0.812 0.6
6th 0.731 0.506 0.727 0.508
7th 0.644 0.427 0.621 0.426
8th 1.105 0.516 0.598 0.481
9th 0.825 0.342 0.416 0.345
10th 0.427 0.279 0.193 0.24
Like the DO-RCOD method, the DO-FCOD method

can also use the CISA method. In contrast to the
DO-FCOD method, which focus on the part with
largest redundancy in primitive design, the DO-
RCOD method focus on the whole structure. The
Figure.10 and Figure.11 show the optimization Fig.11 optimization process of the DO-FCOD
process of two kinds of design method. In figures, method
1st and 2nd round optimal design processes focus
on storey drifts, while 3rd round focus on stress After further optimal design of components’ stress
ratios. ratios, we can compare the final results of two
methods. The Figure.12 and Figure.13 show the
final redundancy of storey drift optimized by two
methods. It is obvious that the final redundancy of
the DO-FCOD method is larger than it of the DO-
RCOD method, which causes more structural
material wastes. And the whole structural material
consumption is shown in Table.2.
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5 Conclusions
A 10-storeys steel frame structure is used to
compare the difference between the two methods,
namely descending order forwardly constrained
optimal design (DO-FCOD) method and descending
order reversely constrained optimal design (DO-
RCOD) method, we can arrive at following
conclusions:
(1) Descending order optimal design method is fit
for structures controlled by global constraints like
tall buildings.
(2) Two optimal design methods focus on different
points. The DO-RCOD method focuses on the whole
design constraints of the structure, while the DO-
FCOD method focuses on the maximal design
Figure.12 the final redundancy of storey drift constraints of the structure.
optimized by the DO-RCOD method (3) After optimal design, the structure optimized by
the DO-RCOD method has less redundancy than
the structure optimized by the DO-FCOD method.
The optimal design results optimized by the DO-
RCOD method show that the structure can satisfy
the requirements of code specified design criteria,
and the structural material consumption was
effectively reduced with enough structural safety.
6 References
[1] Ahmad K. Abdelrazaq, Robert C. Sinn,
Robustness and Redundancy Design for Tall
Buildings. Structures Congress 2000.
[2] Yaomin Dong, Optimal Design for Structure
Lateral System of Super Tall Buildings under
Multiple Constraints. Shanghai, Tongji
University, 2015.
Figure.13 the final redundancy of storey drift
[3] Benfeng Cao, Optimal Design for Reinforced
optimized by the DO-FCOD method
Concrete Structure of Tall Building under
Table.2 material consumption Multiple Constraints. Shanghai, Tongji
University, 2015.
down-grading forwardly down-grading reversely
Components constrained optimal constrained optimal [4] Xin Zhao, Zhuang Ma, Comparative Study
design method(kg) design method(kg) between Reversely and Forwardly
Constrained Optimal Design Method for Tall
beam 18755 20193
Building Structure
column 28524 20347 [5] Lang Qin, Constraint Sensitivity and Multiple
total costs 47279 40540
Constraint Optimal Design for Super Tall
Buildings. Shanghai, Tongji University, 2017.
difference 6739
779
High-rise Modular Buildings for Rapid Urbanisation
Yie Sue CHUA, J Y Richard LIEW
National University of Singapore, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Singapore
Contact: ceecysue@nus.edu.sg
Modular construction has been generally used worldwide for low-rise buildings due to its numerous
advantages: faster, more efficient, better quality control, reduced workforce, lesser site work, and
etc. In Singapore, as the challenges of shortage of workforce and limited land use becomes more
critical, the Building and Construction Authority (BCA) began to introduce incentives to increase the
use of innovative construction methods. This is to boost the productivity and efficiency of the
construction industry as well as making the buildings to go higher for land optimization purpose.
With these aims, prefabricated prefinished volumetric construction (PPVC), whereby free-standing
volumetric modules complete with finishes for walls, floors and ceilings are constructed off-site and
assembled on-site, has been fast evolving in Singapore recently. Nonetheless, to make high-rise
PPVC building, its robustness and structural integrity are very essential due to its relatively novel
structural form which are made of many interconnected modular units. It is different from
conventional system because there are numerous connections among PPVC modules for vertical
and horizontal tying, as well as effective transfer of lateral load to the lateral resisting system. The
continuity of the beam-column frame is uncertain and the reliance on lateral resisting system is
essential especially for high-rise buildings. To date, there are still less than 1% of high-rise building
implementing the PPVC technology despite of its potential for rapid construction, while the tallest
modular building in the world is 32 stories high. Therefore, to go for high-rise, the understanding on
the structural integrity and stability of PPVC building to resist lateral loading is essential. This paper
investigates the global behavior of high-rise PPVC building using a finite element software such as
ETABS. The challenges of modelling PPVC and the effects of connections between PPVC modules are
discussed.
A 40-storey residential building is selected in this study. The PPVC modules are arranged around
coupled core walls. Coupled core wall is selected due to its higher stiffness and strength resulting
from coupling effects. The horizontal forces are resisted through a combination of flexural action of
the walls and frame action between the coupling beams and the walls, resulting in better
performance than uncoupled walls that contribute their stiffness and strength separately. In this
design, it is assumed that the core walls resist most of the lateral load to ensure the stability of the
high-rise building, whereas PPVC modules take most of the gravity load. To promote standardization
of all the members and connections design, the columns remain the same size throughout the height
of the building, by varying their thickness in order to account for the increment of gravity loads along
the height of the building.
Current practice in PPVC involves on-site grouting of joints to ensure the slabs of adjacent modules
are tied together and to provide diaphragm action. In some PPVC projects, the core walls are
surrounded by cast in-situ walkway so that all the modules can be tied to the walkway and work as
single diaphragm to transfer lateral load to the core wall. However, the in-situ grouting may slow
780
down the construction and stacking up of the modules needs to be scheduled in parallel to the
construction of the cast in-situ walkway. Consequently, in some of the projects, PPVC only takes up
approximately 60% of the total floor area. This prevents the PPVC technology from maximizing the
construction efficiency and productivity. For this reason, this study investigates the structural
behavior of multiple diaphragms. The modules are connected at the joints only and each module
represents single rigid floor diaphragm. Ramaji et al. (2013) discussed about the importance of the
integrity of these discrete floor diaphragms to ensure the rigidity and stability of a module, as well
as to form parts of the entire building diaphragm to distribute lateral loads to core wall. It is also
suggested that additional diaphragm system such as crossed cable can be added.
There are two PPVC module systems with different types of load path. Load-bearing wall module
are commonly found in concrete building, whereby the concrete walls are used to transfer gravity
loads to the foundation, as well as resisting the lateral loads. On the other hand, corner-supported
module is generally made of steel or steel-concrete composite frame members, in which the gravity
loads are transferred to edge beams to the columns and foundations. The PPVC modules in this
study are made of steel beams connected to the corner columns and the modules are connected to
each other via corner joints. Generally, inter-modules connections consists of three types of
connections: (a) beam-to-column connection, (b) vertical tying between upper and lower modules,
and (c) horizontal tying between adjacent modules. The connections are designed to transfer
horizontal forces due to wind loads and vertical shear transfer resulting from uplifting by wind loads
or differential movement between modules, as well as accidental loads resulting from the loss of a
column. To ensure the robustness and stability of a module, particularly during transportation and
lifting, the beams must be rigidly connected to the columns within a module. It can be done
conveniently and in good quality by welding as the manufacturing of the modules are conducted in
factory.
To tie the adjacent modules (e.g. horizontal tying) as well as upper and lower modules (e.g. vertical
tying), past studies on several joining techniques such as plates, bolts, vertical reinforcement, and
etc. have been conducted. Typical steel PPVC joining technique in Singapore consists of vertical
reinforcement, shear key, and gusset. Vertical rebar is used to provide continuity between upper
and lower modules, whereas shear key is used for alignment during the modules stack-up, and also
to enhance shear resistance between upper and lower modules. For this type of connection, the
floor beams of upper module are not tied with the ceiling beams of lower module. To tie adjacent
modules together, gusset plate and shear key help to transfer horizontal forces via axial and shear
forces. This type of connection is commonly adopted on practice because PPVC modules are
completed with wall and finishes, resulting in more constraints in open space and less flexibility
during installation of modules.
Due to tolerances or slip between modules, additional moments might be induced, particularly in
the connections. Therefore, second-order elastic analysis is conducted to account for side sway
effect. Using the proposed 40 storey PPVC building, sensitivity study due to the effects of different
PPVC connection fixities and stiffness is conducted by simplifying the vertical and horizontal
connections as pin and rigid. The global structural performance of the building is assessed based on
maximum lateral displacement and inter-storey drift using second order analysis. Preliminary results
depict that the lateral drift of building with either pin or rigid PPVC vertical connections does not
vary significantly when the PPVC modules are fixed connected horizontally. This may be due to high
core wall utilization (e.g. ratio of bending moment at base of the core wall to total bending moment
781
at base of the building) which is at least 80%. These results show that the coupled core walls are
able to resist most of the lateral load while PPVC modules resist mainly the gravity load. It is also
pointed out that the rotational stiffness provided by vertical rebar can be eliminated in the analysis.
On the other hand, when the PPVC modules are pinned connected horizontally to each other, the
building experiences extremely high sway and lateral drift. This is because the gusset plate is
modelled using line element and it becomes too flexible when it is pinned connected to adjacent
modules. The design of horizontal connection should demonstrate the shear resistance of the shear
key and the gusset plate, which might not be modelled properly in current study. Lastly, these
results also show that multiple rigid diaphragms in each PPVC modules are able to transfer the
lateral load to the core walls effectively with proper design of connections.
In summary, the global behaviour of high-rise PPVC building using simplied connection modeling
with different fixities was investigated. Further studies on simplified connection modeling
incorparating all the stiffness parameters shall be carried out to better demostrate the mechanical
behaviour of local connection that affects the global behaviour of PPVC building.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to acknowledge the financial support by the National Research Foundation
(NRF) and SembCorp-NUS Corp Lab under project grant R-261-513-009-281.
References
[1] Ramaji, I. J. and Memari, A. M. Identification of structural issues in design and construction of
multi-story modular buildings. In Proceedings of the 1st Residential Building Design and
Construction Conference. 2013 (pp. 294-303).
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Intermediate seismic isolation ultra high－rise office building

integrated with historical building
Yuki Hamada, Masahiro Hoshino
Takenaka Corporation Tokyo, JAPAN
Contact: hamada.yuuki@takenaka.co.jp
Abstract
This project was a redevelopment of the Mitsubishi Logistics Corporation Edobashi Warehouse Building,
which was constructed in 1930. The following is a description of the requirements, an outline of the design,
and the response analysis results, from the detailed design of this project.
Keywords: Intermediate seismic isolation; Steel structure; high-rise buildings.
1 Outline of the Architectural

Scheme
Name :Nihonbashi Dia Building
Location : 1-19 Nihonbashi, Chuo-ku Tokyo
Total floor area : 30 012,31 m2
No. floors : B1 F18 P1
Building height : Av. Ground level +89,281 m
Structural form : Intermediate level seismic
isolation
Figure 1. Perspective view
Structure type : 7F to RF (upper structure)
Of the existing building with 6 floors above ground
- CFT columns S beams and 1 basement level, 2 spans were preserved on
B1 to 6F (lower structure) the east side and the west side except for the 6th
floor part. The rest (the center) of the existing
- SRC structure (in part RC)
building was demolished, and a new ultra high-rise
Structural form : 7F to RF(upper structure) part was constructed with 1 basement level, 18
- Braced moment resisting structure floors above ground, and 1 penthouse level,
integrating the design and function of the existing
B1 to 6F (lower structure) part and the new part. Therefore the new
-Moment resisting structure with seismic walls. construction and the existing parts were
structurally integrated, without providing an
expansion joint between them.
783
In order to ensure high seismic safety and dwelling spacing are 6,06 m in the 2 spans on the east and
comfort in this scheme, intermediate level seismic west sides where the existing building is preserved
isolation was adopted with the seismic isolation and refurbished. The floor heights are 3,84 m (3rd
layer between the 6th and 7th floors, between the story) to 4,58 m (5th story) for consistency with the
"lower structure" low-rise part including the existing preserved part. In addition Table 1 shows
existing part, and the "upper structure" high-rise the materials used.
part including the plant room containing the
hat truss
important equipment for maintaining function
during disasters. Fig. 2 shows the structural
system and standard floor framing plan.
New ultra
2 Outline of structural scheme high-rise part
2.1 Upper Structure (the part above the

seismic isolation layer) the seismic
isolation under truss
The upper structure of the building is a braced layer
moment resisting structure with mainly structural
steel columns (in part CFT columns) and structural
steel beams. The braces are provided to ensure
stiffness mainly in the core surrounding the West existing
elevator shaft, stairwell, and services duct space in preserved part
the center of the building.
East existing
New part preserved part
The upper structure is 47,2 m×29,2 m in plan, with
a maximum beam span of 20,3 m and beam
spacing of 7,2 m. In order to not directly load the
existing building part of the lower structure on 1
span on the east side, there is an overhang of a
maximum of 11,1 m over the existing building
part. To support this overhang an undertruss is
provided using the story height of the 7th floor
plant room, and a hat truss is provided at the top
at 3 grid lines Y2, Y3, Y4. The standard floor height
is 4,25m. Y
X
2.2 Lower Structure (the part below the

seismic isolation layer excluding the
foundations)
The low-rise part above ground (1st to 6th stories)
is provided with an SRC structure with seismic
walls arranged in a balanced manner around the
core and the outer periphery, in order to ensure
sufficient strength and stiffness as the support
structure for the upper structure above the
seismic isolation layer.
The lower structure is about 66,6 m×36,7 m, with Figure 2. Structural System and Standard floor
a maximum beam span of 12,2 m and beam framing plan
spacing of 7,2 m. However the beam span and
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A concrete strength of Fc = 20 N/mm2 and

reinforcement yield stress of 243 N/mm2 were
taken to correspond to the standard strength F.
Also, the existing preserved seismic walls were
strengthened by applying high elasticity carbon
fibers to enable a strengthening effect to be
exhibited from small displacement levels, without
increasing the stiffness.
2.3 Seismic isolation layer

Figure 3. Existing column support capitals
The seismic isolation members include 8 lead plug
Table 1. Materials used laminated rubber bearings (LRB) and 14 natural
Concrete strength rubber laminated bearings (RB), and to ensure
Structure
Location Story
type
CFT Structural stability of the seismic isolation layer under wind
filling frame
loading and dwelling comfort under small and
PH medium earthquakes and wind loading, 11 steel
Fc30
dampers were installed together with 2 oil
14-18
Upper S
Lc21
dampers each in the X and Y directions.
structure CFT
9-13 Fc45
The amount of damping and the types of dampers
7-8 Fc60 was confirmed by a parametric study in
preliminary response analysis with the ideal
Lower SRC
1-6 Fc60 Fc30 combination of the different dampers each with
structure RC, S
Below
SRC their own characteristics, taking steel damper
ground B1 Fc60 Fc30
structure
RC, S fatigue into consideration. The seismic members
Foundation
Foundations RC Fc30
were arranged so that the eccentricity of the
structure
seismic isolation layer is 0,3% or less. Fig. 4 shows
the seismic isolation member arrangement.
Main members
Columns Large beams
Location Story
Structural Reinforced Structural Reinforced
steel concrete steel concrete
PH
14-18 SN490B
Upper STKN490B SN400B
structure BCP325 TMCP325B
9-13 (t>40)
7-8
Lower
1-6 Main Main
structure SN490B
reinforcement: SM490A reinforcement:
Below STKN490B
SD345 SS400 SD345
ground B1 BCP325
Hoop: D295A Stirrups: SD295A M1 ： 700□ M2 ： 800□
structure
Square LRB M3 ： 850□ M4 ： 900□
Main
Foundation reinforcement: M5 ： 1300□ M6 ： 1400□
Foundations
structure SD490 M7 ： 700□ M8 ： 750□
Stirrups: SD295A
Square RB M9 ： 850□ M10： 900□
M11： 950□ M12： 1100□
The design material strengths for the existing part Seismic isolation MD1： (NSUD55×8)
were set based on various tests carried out in a U-type dampers
MD2： (NSUD55×4)
structurally integrity survey implemented in 2009- Oil dampers MD3： (BM250-4B)
2010, as well as the results of tests carried out in
the past (1980, 1997, 1999). Figure 4. Arrangement of seismic isolation
members
785
2.4 Foundation structure 2.5 Seismic design

The foundation structure is piled. The tips of the
2.5.1 Seismic design policy
piles are embedded in stiff ground with an N-value
of 60 or higher. For the new construction part the (1) The method of checking the seismic safety
piles are in-situ concrete piles with shaft diameter was to evaluate the building behavior under the
of 3 000ϕ and enlarged ends of 3 600ϕ to 4 200ϕ. envisaged level of seismic motions, and to confirm
The piles for the existing part are in-situ concrete that the set seismic performance targets are
piles with shaft diameter of 1 200ϕ to 1 500ϕ. satisfied.
Footing beams are introduced to the foundation, (2) Evaluation of the behavior of the building
combined with the mat slab format for the was by static elasto-plastic analysis (load
existing part. increment method) and lumped mass seismic
The existing part originally had direct foundations response analysis.
(combination of independent footings and (3) The seismic motion input directions were
continuous footings), on about 2 800 No. pine 2 orthogonal directions in plan (X, Y).
piles about 300 to 425 mm diameter and 12 m
long. The pine piles have maintained their (4) The allowable stress design method was
integrity to the present time, but in this scheme used for setting the members, from the stresses
the pine piles are not expected to maintain their under static seismic horizontal loads and normal
bearing strength into the future. Therefore new vertical loads, set based on the results of
in-situ concrete piles have been provided below preliminary response analysis.
the existing part, and the total mass of the existing
part is transferred onto the new piles via a newly 2.5.2 Seismic response analysis and seismic
constructed mat slab (t = 1 500 mm) using the safety targets
existing basement 1st floor part. The analysis model used in the seismic response
analysis was an equivalent shear lumped mass
model with the mass of the building concentrated
at the positions of each rigid floor. The seismic
safety targets for the seismic response analysis are
shown in Table 2.
Table 2. Seismic performance targets and design
conditions for the upper and the lower structure
Upper structure Lower structure
Load case Load summary Inter-story drift angle Inter-story drift angle
Story plasticity ratio Story plasticity ratio
Rarely Dynamic 1/200 1/1000
L1
occurring behavior
(level 1) 1,0 1,0
earthquake considered
Existing column
Extremely 1/100 1/250
Dynamic
Base protection L2 rarely
behavior
Used as services and (level 2) occurring
earthquake
considered 1,2 1,2
airconducting chamber
Upper structure Lower structure

Load case Load summary
New mat slab Member design Member design
Existing foundation Existing foundation Rarely Dynamic

L1 Short term allowable Short term allowable
occurring behavior
(level 1) stress or less stress or less
earthquake considered
New pile Extremely Maximum plasticity
Dynamic Maximum plasticity
L2 rarely ratio
Existing pine pile behavior ratio
(level 2) occurring μ 2,0,
(Retained as spare capacity) considered μ 1,5
earthquake  ultimate strength
Figure 5. Pile framing diagram and image of

structure below existing foundations
786
2.5.3 Seismic isolation members design axial forces on all the seismic isolation members)
conditions was a maximum of 1,36 (corresponding to a
downward vertical seismic intensity of 0,36), and a
The shear forces and deformations acting on the
minimum of 0,63 (corresponding to a upward
seismic isolation layer during an earthquake were
vertical seismic intensity of 0,37). Also, for each
evaluated using the maximum response values
laminated rubber bearing (LRB, RB) the maximum
from the seismic response analysis. The seismic
surface pressure and the maximum deformation
response analysis took into consideration the
were within the “performance guarantee
variation in the seismic isolation members. The
deformation range taking surface pressure into
design conditions for the seismic isolation
consideration”, and the minimum surface
members are shown in Table 3. The criterion for
pressure was within -1,0 N/mm2. It was confirmed
surface pressure on the tension side was -1,0
that the criteria were satisfied even when the
N/mm2.
fluctuation in surface pressure due to variation
Table 3. Seismic isolation members design was taken into consideration.
conditions
Seismic motion Item Design conditions
Surface pressure –
Stable deformation
shear strain of σ01-γ1
or less*1
Rarely occurring laminated rubber
seismic motion
Clearance of δmax（
350 mm*2 (γ: 200%)
movable parts mm）
Surface pressure –
Performance guarantee
shear strain of σ02-γ2
Extremely rarely deformation or less*1
laminated rubber
occurring
seismic motion Clearance of δmax（
350 mm*2(γ: 200%)
movable parts mm）
*1 Defined from the surface pressure and shear

strain relationship for each device diameter. Figure 6. 3D model for vertical motion response
*2 Determined by the allowable clearance of the analysis
seismic isolation elevator, etc.
3.2 Analysis of horizontal force
3 Outline of Structural Design transmission between new
construction and existing part in the
3.1 Analysis of the overhang lower structure
The hat truss and under truss members In this building, the new construction is integrated
supporting the overhang were designed to be with the existing part, so horizontal forces are
within the elastic range using the results of distributed in accordance with the stiffness of
member level 3-dimensional vertical response each part. Safety analysis of each part was carried
analysis, taking into consideration the vertical out in accordance with the stress in each part due
motions during the level 2 earthquake. to the distributed horizontal force.
In the analysis of the surface pressure on the [Analysis (1) New Construction] Safety analysis of
seismic isolation members, the response analysis the new construction when the stiffness and load
results for the axial forces on the seismic isolation resistance of the existing part is ignored
members under vertical motions and horizontal
When the stiffness and load resistance of the
motions were added by time history. The average
existing part is ignored, in other words when it is
vertical seismic intensity (the sum of the response
considered that the horizontal forces acting on the
axial forces on all the seismic isolation devices at
existing part are all acting on the new construction,
the same time divided by the sum of the long term
it was confirmed that the new construction is safe.
787
[Analysis (2) Existing Part] Analysis of the inherent [Analysis (3) Connection Part] Analysis of shear
horizontal load resistance with models with the force transmission between existing part and new
east and west sides of the existing part extracted construction
Using models with the west side and the east side It was confirmed that the story horizontal force
of the existing part independently extracted, the acting on each story at the inherent horizontal
inherent horizontal load resistance was analyzed. load resistance of the east and west side of the
It was confirmed that the horizontal load existing part obtained in analysis (2) above can be
resistance for the extracted east and west side of transmitted. The base model and the analysis
the existing part under analysis external horizontal models used in analyses (1) to (3) are shown in Fig.
loads with C0 = 1,0 and an external force 7.
distribution obtained based on the distribution of
Ai for each of the east and west sides, was 0,3 or
higher.
New construction Existing part model

Integrated model
model
Figure 7. Analysis models
Table 4. Story shear force coefficient for each load

4 Outline of the Seismic Response level
Analysis Story Load level X direction Y direction
Primary design 0,066 0,074
4.1 Static elasto-plastic analysis Seismic Response equivalent to
isolation layer an extremely rarely occurring 0,097 0,095
The magnitude of the shear force coefficient at
earthquake
each load level for the 1st story and the seismic
Primary design 0,245 0,234
isolation layer from the static elasto-plastic load Response equivalent to
1st story
increment analysis is shown in Table 4. The an extremely rarely occurring 0,523 0,431
maximum plasticity ratio of the members was, in earthquake
the upper structure less than 1,0 for the columns
and 1,09 for the large beams, and in the lower
structure 1,67 for the columns (columns on which 4.2 Outline of seismic response analysis
tensile axial force acted) and 1,20 for the large The time history response analysis model for
beams, so it was confirmed that the set criteria horizontal seismic motions was assumed to be
were satisfied. fixed at the position of the base of the columns at
the B1 level, and the mass at the positions of each
floor from the 1st to R level was concentrated to
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give a 20 node equivalent shear model. The seismic motions used in the seismic response
damping was set to be h = 2% for the upper analysis of this building are shown in Table 6.
structure (S structure), and h = 3% for the lower
Table 6. Maximum velocity and acceleration of
structure (RC structure).
design horizontal seismic motions
4.3 Eigenvalue analysis Name of seismic
Level 1 seismic motions
Type Velocity Acceleration
wave adopted
The natural periods obtained from eigenvalue (m/s) (m/s2)
Notification wave
analysis are shown in Table 5. The eigenvalue phase (random)
0,09 0,76
Notification
analysis was carried out for the upper structure spectrum Notification wave
0,11 0,87
and the lower structure by extracting the upper synthetic phase (Kobe)
seismic wave Notification wave
and lower structures at the boundary of the phase (Hachinohe)
0,08 0,76
seismic isolation members, and fixing the floor of EL CENTRO 1940NS 0,25 2,55
the lowest story (the 7th story in the case of the Measured
TAFT 1952EW 0,25 2,48
seismic waves
upper structure). For the overall system, the case HACHINOHE 1968NS 0,25 1,65
in which the stiffness of the seismic isolation
members have the equivalent stiffness as during Name of seismic
Level 2 seismic motions
Type Velocity Acceleration
the shear strain (γ = 150%) due to extremely rarely wave adopted
(m/s) (m/s2)
occurring seismic motions (during the level 2 Notification Notification wave
0,45 4,58
earthquake) is shown. spectrum phase (random)
synthetic Notification wave
0,64 5,11
Table 5. Natural periods seismic wave phase (Kobe)
Fault
Overall earthquake Site wave
Stiffness of the seismic 0,36 4,25
Order X direction Y direction mock seismic (Kanto earthquake)
isolation members
Natural period (sec) wave
1st 3,66 3,80 EL CENTRO 1940NS 0,50 5,10
Measured
During level 2 earthquake TAFT 1952EW 0,50 4,97
2nd 0,81 0,99 seismic waves
(γ: 150%) HACHINOHE 1968NS 0,50 3,30
3rd 0,40 0,50
Upper structure
Stiffness of the seismic
Order X direction Y direction 4.5 Seismic response analysis results
isolation members
Natural period (sec)
From the results of the level 1 and level 2 seismic
1st 1,41 1,80
During level 2 earthquake response analysis, it was confirmed that all the
2nd 0,48 0,61
(γ: 150%) target performance values were satisfied. The X
3rd 0,28 0,36
direction shear force coefficient and the inter-
EL CENTRO
HACHINOHE
TAFT
告示波神戸位相
Lower structure story drift angle are shown in Fig. 8.

告示波ランダム位相
設計用層せん断力係数
サイト波関東NS
Stiffness of the seismic 20

Order X direction Y direction 18階
18F
EL CENTRO
isolation members 19
17階
17F
Natural period (sec) 18 TAFT
17
1st 0,25 0,27 15階
15F
16
HACHINOHE
During level 2 earthquake Notification wave
2nd 0,11 0,12 15
Kobe phase
(γ: 150%) 13F
13階
14
3rd 0,07 0,08 13
Notification wave
11階
11F random phase
12
11
Site wave Kanto NS
9階
9F
10
4.4 Analysis seismic motions 9

7階
7F
8
Seismic
免震階
isolation layer
7
The horizontal seismic motions used in the seismic 6階

6F
6
response analysis were waves applying the 4階

5
4F
4
notification spectrum, taking into consideration 3

2F
2階
2
the seismicity of the area, the ground B1階
1
B1F
characteristics of the site, and past measurement 0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
層せん断力係数
records, as well as the 3 waves as follows. The Story shear force coefficient
789
EL CENTRO TAFT
HACHINOHE 告示波神戸位相
告示波ランダム位相サイト波関東NS
20
18階
18F
19
17F
17階
EL CENTRO response shear force during the level 2 wind
18 TAFT
17
HACHINOHE
loading is smaller than the level 2 seismic shear
15階
15F
16
15
Notification wave force, with a relative displacement of the seismic
Kobe phase
13階
13F
14
Notification wave
isolation layer of 16,5 cm in the X direction and
13
11階
11F
12
random phase 24,5 cm in the Y direction. Confirmation of the
Site wave Kanto NS
11
9F
9階
10
wind dwelling comfort was carried out using wind
7F
7階
9 loading with a return period of 1 year.
8
Seismic
免震階
isolation layer
7
6階
6F
6
5.2 Outline of the analysis model
5
4F
4階
4
3
The time history response analysis model was a
2F
2階
2
1
multi node model with the same masses and
B1F
B1階
0
0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0
stiffnesses as the model used in the seismic
層間変形角 [×10-3 rad] response analysis, to which multiple springs were
Inter-Story drift angle[x10-3rad]
provided having the equivalent stiffness and load
resistance at the positions of the seismic isolation
Figure 8. Response maximum shear force
bearings, in order to take into consideration the
coefficient and response maximum inter-story drift
rotational inertia and torsional stiffness at each
angle (X direction, level 2)
story, and the torsional stiffness of the seismic
Fig. 9 shows the proportions of energy absorption isolation layer due to the arrangement of seismic
of the seismic isolation members (notification isolation bearings.
Kobe L2). About 71% of the input seismic energy is
absorbed by the seismic isolation members (LRB, 5.3 Analysis of integrity of the seismic
steel dampers, oil dampers), and about 29% is isolation layer
absorbed by internal viscous damping, with a
breakdown of about 12% internal viscous damping The integrity of the seismic isolation devices was
of the upper structure, and 17% internal viscous confirmed against the action of external forces
damping of the lower structure. with repeated loading and long duration such as
wind loading, based on the results of the wind
25,000
入力エネルギー
Input energy time history response analysis. Safety was
運動エネルギー
Kinetic
履歴エネルギー
energy
Hysteretic energy
confirmed against fatigue of the steel dampers
20,000 Energy absorbed by
免震層吸収エネルギー
seismic isolation layer
Upper structure
上部減衰エネルギー
and heat generation in the oil dampers. Fatigue of
Energy(kN.m)
damping energy
エネルギー(kN･m)
15,000
Lower structure
下部減衰エネルギー
damping energy the structural dampers was evaluated with
respect to the cumulative fatigue due to seismic
10,000
motions envisaged during a 100 year service life.
5,000
下部構造減衰エネルギー
Lower structure damping energy
6 Conclusions
上部構造減衰エネルギー
Upper structure damping energy
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 The structural design of the Nihonbashi Dia
Time(s)
時刻(s)
Building was introduced focusing on (1) the
Figure 9. Seismic energy absorption overhang structure, (2) structural integration of
the existing part and the new construction, and (3)
5 Outline of Wind Design intermediate level seismic isolation.
Finally the authors wish to express their gratitude
5.1 Analysis policy to all those at Mitsubishi Logistics, Inc. and at
An external wind force time history was generated Mitsubishi Jisho Sekkei Inc., for their great
based on the statistical properties of the cooperation in the design of this building.
fluctuating wind pressure, with which time history
response analysis was carried out and the wind
safety and dwelling comfort were confirmed. The
790
KVMRT Challenges – Elevated Viaducts and Station Structures

ChongLing, Wong
Gamuda Engineering Sdn Bhd, Malaysia
Contact: clwong@gamuda.com.my / clwong@mgjv-kvmrt.com.my
Abstract
Malaysia’s capital city Kuala Lumpur has been experiencing urbanization growth spurts in the last
two decades, in tandem with her rapid economic expansion and progress towards a developed
nation. Trailing this economic trend is the need to improve and expand public transportation,
particularly in the railway sector. The Klang Valley Mass Rapid Transit (KVMRT) rail transit system
was conceived to meet that need and complement the existing public transportation network.
The first KVMRT metro line commonly known as the SBK line which connects Sg Buloh township in
the northern-west and Kajang in the southern-east, was delivered and fully opened to the public
ahead of schedule on 17 July 2017. The success of the project was achieved through significant
efforts in surmounting many challenges in different aspects. This paper shares the experiences from
the perspective of the Project Delivery Partner (PDP) in the planning, design and construction of the
viaducts and station structures.
Keywords: viaducts, stations, elevated, challenges, structures, standardization, prestressing
box girders. The remaining length comprises mainly

1 Introduction bored tunnels, and other miscellaneous structures
The KVMRT SSP line commences from Sg Buloh in like cut and cover tunnels, short span precast
the northern-west end of Kuala Lumpur city, and beams and pipe arch tunnels. Being an urban rail
travels eastward direction before intercepting with line, the alignment runs through densely
SBK line at Tun Razak Exchange station. From there, developed areas with major need to avoid and
it goes southbound towards the government’s coexist with many existing obstacles, constraints
administrative centre of Putrajaya. The line is and restrictions.
segmented into four (4) sections namely In the elevated sections, there are 26 stations; out
 Northern Elevated Segment (14km) of which, 2 are provisional stations. To maximize
 Underground Segment (13.5km) station space usage and improve passenger
 Southern Elevated Segment 1 (14.8km) movements, majority of these stations are of island
 Southern Elevated Segment 2 (9.9km) platform typology.
The SSP line will be integrated with existing LRT, The design and construction of the SSP line
KTM Komuter, Monorail, Express Rail Link (ERL) and comprising guideways, stations, underground
the proposed High Speed Rail (HSR). From the total tunnels, power supply and utility buildings, multi-
alignment length of 52.2km, 38.7km is elevated storey cark parks, ancillary roads and utility
and predominantly viaducts, made up of segmental upgrading, together with the rail systems
integration and rolling stocks, is scheduled to be
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completed and commission by year 2022 upon higher public transport ridership. In this context,
approval of the project by the Federal government passenger loads, network connectivity, park and
in March 2015. ride facility as well as accessibility to stations are
pertinent criteria.
2 KVMRT Challenges For better connectivity, the SSP line interchanges
The Project Delivery Partner (PDP) model was a with SBK line at Sg Buloh and also shares the
pioneer delivery system adopted in Malaysia’s first completed SBK line depot. The route mainly
Klang Valley MRT project under the large scale traverses through very densely developed areas
infrastructure project category. In this context, the and these are predominantly residential and
PDP entity ensures the benefits of cost and time commercial districts. Where possible, and to
control are achieved and the completion of SBK line minimize private land acquisition, some segments
within the predetermined costs and schedules is a of the alignment runs along the existing roadways
testimony to the successful model, for which the corridor. This, however, attracts challenges and
same model is implemented in SSP line. constraints like space congestion, traffic
interruption, utility relocations, safety risks,
The PDP roles as a single entity representing the headroom clearance, waterways and roadways
Malaysian Government bore the responsibility of crossing, overbridges, railway tracks and reserved
project conceptualisation, management of design, zone restrictions.
construction and commissioning as well as
mitigation of delivery risk, from time and budget The route option study was in-depth, including
overrun, amidst many challenges. having series of workshops with the all PDP
functional teams, KVMRT client as well as that of
In Malaysian context, the development in the rail the government enforcement bodies,
transportation industry is still at its early stages and stakeholders, the public and other related non-
a fast track project like the KVMRT metro transit government organizations. The SSP final alignment
certainly posed many challenges from alignment resulted in a variety range of design solutions and
routing and land use, public acceptance, requirements. Apart from those located in
stakeholder engagements, statutory compliance acquired private lots, the guideway structures run
and approvals, public safety, environment and along river banks, sandwiched within road
social impact including traffic congestion. In the medians, skirting the boundary of reserved zones,
midst of all these external factors, PDP’s other ducking below overbridges and even hovering over
challenges are procuring and managing expertise the fronts of buildings. With these, the final rail line
skills in design, planning, constructability, delivery structures are a combination of standard viaduct
schedules management, commercial and contracts spans, special long spans, special short spans,
management as well as safety training. The three underpasses, cut and cover tunnels, piled raft and
(3) challenges that directly impacts the delivery of at-grade embankments.
design are alignment and site context, design
options and constructability. Correspondingly, the viaduct piers are of varied
forms and heights. Pier columns locations and
2.1 Alignment and Site Context types were carefully evaluated and decided such
that they impose minimum visual impact, comply
The final alignment for the SSP line was established with road safety requirements, cause little or no
after having taken into consideration the effects impact to groundwork, utility lines or any
from land use, transportation network and permanent structures.
interchanges, construction and engineering, social
and environment impacts.
The route selection and station locations were
foremost premised on the potentials in achieving
792
This challenge is amplified by PDP’s commitment in

2.2 Planning & Design
producing tender drawings which are close to
The planning and design of the SSP line involves the construction stage readiness, save for a small
scheme, preliminary and detailed tender design proportions which are pending due to outstanding
before final review and issuance as construction decisions and unavailability of confirmed data.
stage drawings.
2.2.2 Gate Reviews
Scheme design involving evaluation of alignment
routes and establishing the key structural concepts In the quest to improve and deliver better design
and identity commenced in the year 2014, followed quality and drawings, gate reviews were
by the preliminary and detailed design in the implemented in SBK line as formal and systematic
following year, leading to the calling of the first design management controls. Each of the three (3)
tender contract in the last quarter of 2015. The stages of design drawings, namely preliminary,
challenge against tight timeline was overwhelming tender and construction, was subjected to
and within this period, all the viaduct structural stringent reviews by design review team and the
elements design were completed, including that of Gate Review panel members, comprising subject
the station main supporting structures. experts in each of the review criteria. These criteria
encompass meeting Client’s Requirements, Design
The principles forming the preliminary design was
for Safety and Maintenance, Risks Management,
peer-reviewed and endorsed by the Value
Coordination, Constructability, Affordability,
Management Workshop committees comprising
Quality and Approvals.
subject matter experts from various technical
disciplines and the key representatives from the 2.2.3 Elevated Viaduct and Station Work
local authorities and regulatory bodies, in early Packages
2015.
The SSP line civil works including all the elevated
2.2.1 Line-wide Identity & Standardization viaducts, was segmented into ten (10) civil works
packages to facilitate concurrent construction by
One of the key design improvement actions
the different Work Package Contractors (WPC). As
implemented in the SSP line is line-wide identity
the mainline guideway structures are mainly
and standardization for the viaduct structures
segmental box girders, these are sub-contracted to
across the fully length of the alignment. The target
two (2) specialist precast manufacturers, tasked to
to achieve standardized features commenced right
only supply and delivery of the completed
from the scheme design stage, carried out by a
segmental units to the above ten (10) civil work
single reference design consultant. The end targets
package contractors for span installation and
were first and foremost on achieving line-wide
completion of all the associated civil works.
common feature identity, functionality, design
optimization and construction friendliness. The Similarly, the twenty four (24) stations are
other accompanying benefits are improved cost distributed in ten (10) station packages in tandem
effectiveness from consolidation of design into with the ten (10) civil works packages. The station
standardized grouping, reduction in construction packages are awarded to ten (10) different station
variants and activities, repetitive use of machinery works contractors but they shall be nominated
and equipment, increase in workforce productivity, subcontractors to the civil works package
and even improved product quality. contractors. And, both parties are bound
contractually to cooperate to complete the works.
The efforts in managing the line-wide
standardization to control and streamline the full The journey to having a well-coordinated line-wide
design covering the initial conceptual details and standardized set of drawings for the early tender
extending up to the multidiscipline integration of packages was full of challenges when the design
details within the one year time frame, was a huge progress was not concurrent for all packages as
challenge. they were planned in accordance with tender
calling schedules. Due to this staggered deadlines,
793
issues like unconfirmed information, late decision, With the majority of the stations designed as Island
inter-discipline design changes were exacerbated Type, a sizeable portion of the guideway are single
by variances in design outputs from different rail track viaducts, against the common double
designers. It is a journey of continuous tracks viaducts. From the total 14600 precast units
determination as it involves multi-cycle correlation of segmental box girders (SBG) for the standard
between packages. spans supporting the track length of 44.4km, 60%
of the segments are the single track type.
At the peak of the design period, there were seven
(7) civil design consultants involved in the design of On top of the standard spans, continuous long span
long span crossings amidst the single line-wide crossings are necessary in overcoming obstacles
consultant designing the viaduct typical spans. and constraints. A total of thirty (30) long span
crossings formed using tapered segmental box
The stations, which are more complex, involve
girders sections, shall be constructed with
input from more than ten (10) architectural,
balanced cantilever method. All the long span
structural and E&M design consultants, on top of
crossings are constructed from precast segmental
the requirements in interfacing and integration
units, except for one, where the longest mid span
with the railway systems.
is 135m. These long spans are also controlled in its
2.2.4 Viaduct Structural Form outer form, consistent with the line-wide
standardization and identity. They are interspaced
The structural solution for viaducts shall impact within the standard spans but their outlines are
every aspect of the project. The SSP line viaducts neatly coordinated, giving a gentle transitions
are typically segmental box girders reinforced with between the two structure types.
external prestressing system.
From the line-wide standardization, the variance in
deck type are kept to minimally required, giving a
good advantage in design and construction
efficiency. The feature specific to SSP line on
viaduct superstructure applicable to all packages
are:
 All the elevated length of the tracks are
supported by concrete box girder viaducts,
except for some localized site specific
Figure 1. Outline of Segmental Box Girder constraints which require other solutions
Diaphragm with Tendon Anchorages  Standard spans are typically 39.8m or
(Single Track) shorter, applicable to both single and
double tracks.
Figure 2. Two Single Track merging into One

Double Track
794
 All decks are simply supported except for Two To counter risks from instability of segment
the long spans crossings spans during temporary stage, the single track
 The segmental box girder viaducts are viaduct bearings are now spaced at wider spacing
constructed pass through the stations resulting from the improved diaphragm segment
seamlessly, without breaks in structures. outlines and bearing seating articulation.
 Widened sections for crossover and In support of local rubber industry, use of natural
merging tracks are formed with similar box rubber as the main raw material for viaduct
girders except for the longer cantilever bearings has been in incorporated in the design. All
flanges, providing smooth transition the bearings for all standard span types and load
between deck types. variations were fully designed by the line-wide
 Pocket spans, are also formed with box consultant. The number of bearing types are
girders, in a series of single and double grouped and rationalized and that effort also
girders stitched together at the flanges. eliminates multiple design submission for approval
 The SBG sectional depth is 2.35m for by different works package contractors.
standard spans and 4.35m for crossing
spanning up to 120m Inter-discipline integration of services and rail
systems requirements were also key challenges
While the challenge on deadline is immense, that must be overcome early. With the civil
improvements against SBK line for the benefits of contracts conventional ‘build only’ and the Rail
the project involving technical foresights and Systems contracts ‘Design and Build’, the very
innovations did not take a back seat. nature of the contractual differences signals
One of the changes involving SSP line is the demand for strong inter-discipline coordination
reduction in the number of SBG units within the and interfacing.
standard spans. This change reduces the number of Substructures
segments to cast, including reduction in segment
storage handling at manufacturing plant as well as The choice of viaduct superstructure will also
delivery and site installation. predetermine the majority of substructure form
and type. In the context of segmental box girders,
In line with the target to achieve better cycle the inherent design for substructures will be
efficiency, the number of prestressed strands and individual columns supporting the deck with no
anchorages were carefully designed to achieve prominent crossbeams. The SSP line pier columns
better distribution and anchorage of forcing while were grouped in accordance with pier heights, deck
reducing the strand quantities. The deck tendons type, span types and loads, out of which a full range
are designed with a provisional pair of duct of standardized pier types were developed. The
anchorage space at the diaphragm when the need tallest pier extend up to 20m.
arises.
Complementing the standard pier column types
Also improved are the end diaphragm details are cantilevered piers which are offset up to 3.5m,
where there is a specific space proposed for T-shaped piers and portals. These parent pier types
placement of jacks needed during bearing all featured line-wide identity and are applicable
replacements. line-wide.
Figure 3. Single & T Piers

Outlines Figure 4. Portals & Cantilever Piers Outline
795
Below are the key standardized substructure

feature specific to SSP line :
The prestressed ones, covering the longer
 Standard Piers cantilever arms are predominantly
Standard pier columns are typically constructed as segmental units, more
rectangular in shape with vertically often for traffic congestion areas.
enhanced inset grooves. Piers exceeding
14 high will have its girth size increased  Portals
gradually by a pre-determined tapered Portal structures are not well preferred but
ratio. They are also categorized in their presence in the project are kept to a
accordance with its positioning at site, minimum low. They became necessary
determined by the alignment radii range of where all the other pier types could not be
that location. a substitute solution at these locations. It
is visually less pleasing. In spite of that,
 Cantilevered Piers efforts to standardize and having them
Cantilevered Piers are grouped in three (3) blended in with the familiar line-wide
categories, from the lower offset of 1.5m identity was no less. They are a mix of
up to 3.5m. Larger offsets are typically reinforced concrete and prestressed
accompanied by larger pier columns. These concrete structures.
are normally required to avoid major utility
relocations or sometimes to avoid need for 2.2.4 Station Typology and Structure Form
long span crossings. In the KVMRT lines, The SSP line stations embraces the ‘Serambi’
such need is inevitable. identity, directly translated in English as
‘Verandah’. The Serambi expresses the Malaysian
 T-shaped Piers ‘kampung’ (or village) heritage but at the same
T-shaped piers are a prominent pier type time exudes elements of modernity, styles and
featured in SSP line. These essentially simplicity. It connotes a welcoming open space for
support two separate SBG single tracks arrival and interactions. Its contemporary style
running parallel to each other, often at with emphasis on vertical lines and lourves,
locations approaching or departing from activates the play of lights and shadows while
stations. The shorter crossbeam extending inviting natural lighting and ventilation. The
up to 14.4m are designed as reinforced vernacular architecture is designed to correspond
concrete structures while the longer with the local culture, weather and availability of
crossbeam extending between 14.4m to construction materials.
22.75m are designed as prestressed
structures.
Figure 5. Artist Impression for Serambi Identity
796
Each of the elevated station structures is typically For some stations, the structures are supported on
120m long and twenty one (21) out of the twenty portal beams with two pier columns. The schematic
four (24) stations to be built in the current phase layout are as depicted below :
will be island platform typology.
Except for six (6) concourse at-grade stations, all
the other station concourses are elevated,
supported either by single columns with T-
crossbeams or by double columns forming portal
frames. Some piers within the stations, are
common supports to both the station and viaduct
structures.
Station columns are typically spaced at 15m and,
for stations located over existing roadway, this
minimalist structure support configuration,
facilitates the placement of piers within road
median. In this context, not only the foundation
footprint is negligible, any interruption to existing Figure 7. Double Pier Support Typology
road lane and traffic is also kept low.
The concourse for the stations are formed with
The main T-shaped pier crossbeams supporting the standardized precast rib beams, applicable to all
station concourses and platforms are constructed stations. These are seated on corbels extending
as precast segmental units, which are joined up from the main support crossbeams. The overall
with post-tensioning system at installation site. depth of beam is 1.2m. Where constrained by non-
standard loads and special floor layout which
The concourse for the stations are formed with
required non-standard design, pour in-place
standardized precast rib beams, applicable to all
solution is employed.
stations. These are seated on corbels extending
from the main support crossbeams. The overall Each station platform is supported by a pair of
depth of beam is 1.2m. Where constrained by non- parallel post-tensioned beam. The spans for these
standard loads and special floor layout which beams are typically spaced at 30m, running along
required non-standard design, pour in-place the length of the station.
solution is employed.
For better constructability, economical design and
consistency in contemporary styles, the station
roofs are simple portal structures of I sections with
metal decks. The portal width spans over 22m
against heights of 18m. These roof steel members
are harmoniously integrated with the station
facade steel frames. The structural solutions are
well aligned to keep up with that identity, and
structural frames of I beams and UC sections
dominate the project in entirety.
The seamless flow of architecture congruity are
replicated throughout all the main stations,
entrances, link bridges and pedestrian link-ways.
The specific need and inter-connectivity of these
structures are determined by passenger flow,
Figure 6. Single Pier Support Typology space availability, social and developmental
requirements of each station.
797
constructability and practicality around existing

utilities, structural obstructions, geographical
constraints and space accessibility.
Safety concerns also impacted the choice of
structural solutions where construction activities
over live traffics are best carried out overnight and
in the shortest time frame. Precast solutions were
implemented as far as possible for both the
viaducts and station structures, accompanied by
wide usage of steel works for station buildings and
link bridges.
Figure 8. Artist Impression of single pier support The design and splicing details for the station steel
station integrating with entrance & link bridge facade cladding had taken into the sequence of
installation. These were identified and outlined in
2.2.5 Constructability details early. To a more detailed extent, delivery
route for escalator to the completed building were
Constructability of the viaducts and stations had
also assessed and confirmed early.
huge impacts on the design options and viability of
solutions. In the context of viaducts, segmental box
girders were the obvious choice as the deck can be
3 Conclusions
delivered in short segments and lifted in position The completion and success of KVMRT SBK line was
using standard capacity cranes. The constraints not possible without the expertise and teamwork
from on-site congestion and delivery routes poses rendered by all parties, from the client to PDP and
challenges in the delivery and installation of full all participating work package contractors. The
span precast beams. challenges were intense but the resilience and
With a small exception, the whole length of the SSP determination displayed by all the working team
line viaducts shall be installed using overhead were exemplary, and that had contributed to the
launching gantries. This standardized method for early completion of SBK line.
all facilitates repetition of activities and thereof The end result from those grit and commitment is
retention of skills and valuable knowledge, the first ever MRT metro line in the city of Kuala
beneficial to the project. Lumpur, built with elements of modernity and
In a more specific context, long span crossings, excellent facilities. There were, however, no less of
which are also constructed as precast segmental lessons learnt which have become the backbone in
box units, shall be installed with use of segment the planning, design and construction of SSP line.
lifters or cranes where necessary.
4 Acknowledgements
Careful design thoughts were put in place for the
line-wide modular mould units to ensure On behalf of KVMRT PDP, I would like to express
consistency and repeatability in superstructures our gratitude to our Client, MRTC for the supports,
and substructures. input and advice on the contents and write-up of
this paper.
The constraints in planting the viaduct piers in busy
road medians resulted in optimized foundation
5 References
configuration that are able to fit within the existing
road medians. Where the foundations encroach The information included herewith are derived
into buildings proximity, large size hand-dug from direct working knowledge or internal work
caisson shall be deployed. Decision on foundation documents related to the project.
and substructure types were based also on their
798
Utilization of Existing Metro Rail Viaduct for Emergency and Personal

Rapid Transit
Prabu Raja
HSS Engineers Berhad, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Naresh Kumar
Rizzani De Eccher, Doha, QATAR
Contact: prabuproficient@gmail.com
Abstract
In the present decade, urban transportation need to satify the requirement of the commuter to
move faster and at the same time to achieve its affordability goal to the end user. In pursuit of this
exploration, infrastructure built to cater the existing transportation modes & network should be
utilised to provide a sustainable solution. Accordingly, it has been discussed a new ideology of
utilizing the emergency walkway of the existing metro rail elevated viaduct for providing services
named Emergency Rapid Transit (ERT) and Personal Rapid transit (PRT). This paper describes about
the requirements, pros and cons of implementing this ideology.
Keywords: Elevated viaduct, bridge, emergency walkway, personal rapid transit, emergency rapid
transit.
comfortable to them. For overcoming this
1 Introduction phsycological set back of individuals, in this paper,
Due to urbanisation every metro cities are facing it has been proposed to explore a PRT system that
huge traffic congestion, due to this people in can accelerate the usage of public transport.
medical emergency are find difficulties in getting Instead of constructing a separate infrastructure
medical attention at right time. To overcome this for implementing this PRT it is aimed to use
hurdle, implementing ERT ideology will help a existing metro rail viaduct’s emergency walkway
person with medical emergency to reach the for this purpose. To make this system viable, an
nearby hospital on time. This system can be made automated driverless vehicle has been
viable by using a specially equiped automated conceptualised as explained earlier for ERT.
vehicle which is capable to run over the
emergency walkway of existing metro rail 1.1 Existing infrastructure
elevated viaduct’s. Existing system of elevated metro rail viaduct
Even through there are several mass rapid transit made by either conventional system or precast
projects which has been implemented in metro box girders or precast beam or precast Utrough
cities to reduce the impact of the traffic with reinforced pier and foundation as shown in
congestion, still majority of people prefer to use Figure 1.
their own transportation as it provides
799
Figure 1. Elevated metro rail transit

The superstructure consist of emergency walkway nearest assembly area during emergency situation
which will run along the full extent of viaduct and it states the minimum width of the emergency
which may be used by the commuters during the walkway is 610/760mm and 400mm stepping
distance.
emergency situation to get down from the transit
and access the nearest assembly point. The
structural form of emergency walkway are of
different types, it may be combined as a hybrid
with the parapet or may be sometimes monolithic
with the main structure girder such as in case of
U-trough.
2 Requirements for implementation

This implementation of ERT/PRT is proposed to
utilize existing metro rail viaduct’s - emergency
walkway and hence it is necessary to check the
compliance of this new system to cater with the
existing elevated viaduct. In this section the
functional requirements, geometric requirement,
interfacing requirements and their constrains in
implementing the same is discused in detail.
2.1 Functional requirements
2.1.1 NFPA 130 Requirement

Figure 2. NFPA 130 requirement
As per requirement stated in NFPA 130 all the
fixed guideway transit and passenger rail systems Hence this 610mm minimum width criteria for
[1] are deemed to comply with minimum width emergency walkway sets the maximum width
requirement (as shown in Figure 2). For safety criteria for the proposed automated vehicle which
evacuation of passenger from the train to the are to be used to implement the ERT/PRT.
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Hence the vehicle size is proposed as shown in

Figure 3.
Figure 5. PRT Vehicle
2.2 Geometric and structural requirements

Figure 3. Vehicle sizing
The following geometric and structural criteria are
2.1.2 ERT Requirements studied in detail to implement the ERT/PRT sytem.
The proposed ERT is to serve the people in
2.2.1 Horizontal curvature
emergency and hence it requires multiple in-built
equipments to be preloaded in the vehicle. In practice the existing horizonal radius of
curvature of the metro rail alignment will be in the
range of 120m to straight. Hence this will be set as
criteria for the length, turning radius of
automated vehicle to be used for implementing
ERT/PRT.
2.2.2 Automated/Driverless
The proposed ERT/PRT vehicle is going to run over
a constrained walkway and hence it will be better
to implement automated vehicle with guard rail to
have a safe transit.
2.2.3 Restriction on Automated Vehicle Loading

Figure 4. ERT Vehicle The existing emergency walkway are usually
Hence as per the Ground vehicle standard for designed to resist the pedestrian loading and as
Ambulances[2] and NFPA 130[1] the functional usually as per the codal requirement it will be
requirement need to be considered. Since this is considered as 5.0 kN/m2. Hence the gross weight
not core important for the present discussion and of this proposed automated vehicle shall be within
hence those details has not been discussed. this 5.0 kN/m2.
2.1.3 PRT Requirements 2.3 ERT/PRT vehicle design

The PRT system is mostly similar to the ERT 2.3.1 Maximum speed of PRT/ERT
system but the difference is on the requirement of
modifying the interiors seating arrangement and An aerodynamic analysis is performed to arrive
to be detailed to have a sofisticated transit. the efficient design to have less energy
consumption and at the same time to reach
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maximum speed with all the above mentioned

geometric constrains.
Figure 7. Passage through ERT/PRT
2.4.2 Interchange
Figure 6. Aerodynamic analysis
The proposed system requires interchanges to
From the analysis the achieved design speed with
have access to the other mode of transport or to
the proposed shape is 60kmph. Hence the
have crossover between tracks.
operating speed of 50kmph can be implemented
for the ERT/PRT system. Figure 8 and Figure 9 shows the two viable options
for interchanges which can be implemented.
2.3.2 ERT/PRT Power source
The proposed ERT/PRT vehicle is automated and
hence it is recommended to use battery powered
with induction motor system and charging sources
can be accessed from nearest station or parking
bay.
2.4 Interfacing requirements
2.4.1 Access for mainline emergency walkway

users
The proposed system will intend to break the
access for the people who are getting down from
the mainline transit during emergency situation. Figure 8. Interchange to At grade – Option 1
To overcome this scenario the automated vehicle The existing elevated station platform will not able
can be customized by giving through access door to cater the additional width required to take
on front/rear of the vehicle, so that the people in through the proposed ERT/PRT and hence it is
emergency in mainline can pass through it, recommended to propose additional service loop
without any disruption at its parked state on the as shown in Figure 10.
walkway.
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To enhance the operation and maintenance it is

recommended to implement automated vehicle
parking and loading.
Automated vehicle cant able to utilize the existing
mainline depot, which requires many system
interface issues and hence it is recommended to
have a exclusive parking bay as shown in Figure 11
and Figure 12.
Figure 9. Interchange between tracks – Option 2
Figure 12. Parking bay

Parking bay shall include space for the depot
equiped with the maintenance facilities.
2.4.4 Ensuring ERT/PRT Vehicle stability and

Figure 10. Service loop at station location safety
The proposed ERT/PRT is going to run over a
2.4.3 Parking bay for ERT/PRT constrained emergency walkway and hence
The proposed system requires provision for additional safety future is required to have a safe
parking the ERT/PRT automated vehicle on non- transit.
peak hour (or) during night time. The proposed ERT/PRT is going to run over a
guided rail and hence a derailment kerb is
required to restrain the ERT/PRT movement in
transverse direction and this will help in avoiding
the fall of the vehicle on the underneath traffic.
The existing emergency walkway will have a
preinstalled hand rail to safeguard the pedestrain
over the emergency walkway and that hand rail
will not be sufficient enough to safe guard the
present system implementation and hence a
raised hand rail gripping and an additional rail
gripping can be proposed as shown in Figure 13
and Figure 14.
Figure 11. Parking bay
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Hence to comply with this requirement a feeder

loop can be proposed as shown in Figure 15.
Figure 13. Raised hand rail

This proposed ERT/PRT system shall be fully
integrated with mainline control room / BMS to Figure 15. Raised hand rail
avoid issues of clashes during evacuation.
2.5 Discussions
2.5.1 Advantages
The following are the advantages on
implementing this ideology,
1) The proposed ERT/PRT system is going to
utilize the existing infrastructure of metro
rail viaduct and hence can help in
reduction of major CAPEX cost.
2) The proposed ERT system will serve the
people in emergency by without having
any obstruction due to traffic as in case of
present road transport.
Figure 14. Raised hand rail 3) The proposed PRT system may help to
Priority on evacuation shall be given first to improve the mentality of people to utilize
mainline commuters as it carry approximately the public transport rather than their own
around 750 commuter life compared to ERT/PRT vehicle. This will ultimately help in
sytem. This can be accessed with low probability reducing the carbon foot print index.
of mainline evacuation based on risk/safety
analysis. 2.5.2 Limitation on implementing ERT/PRT
Signal light shall need to be installed for The following are the limitation on implementing
communication and connectivity with ERT/PRT the ERT/PRT system,
system track to detect it occupancy. 1) Due to lesser emergency walkway width in
the tunnel section this proposed ideology
2.4.5 Requirement of feeder track can’t be implemented in metro rail tunnel.
In case of ERT system it may not be sufficient 2) In some metro rail projects where there
enough to have Entry/Exit at only the existing are tight geometric constrain on platform
metro station, it also requires additional access to width of the station, where this proposed
the nearest hospital along the alignment of the ideology requires additional service loops
metro viaduct. as shown in figure 10.
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3 Conclusions
In this paper it has been discussed about the
implementation of ERT/PRT system on the existing
metro rail viaduct and discussed about the
geometric, structural and sytem requirements.
The proposed system has many value added
advantage as explained in the previous section.
This proposed ideology has its own limitation and
those which could be solved through additional
and integrated detailing of the system with the
BMS/Control room of Metro System. This ERT/PRT
system can be proposed during initial stage of any
new metro rail project which can served as a
hybrid transit and this can be helpful in avoiding
all the limitaion as mentioned above.
4 References
[1] NFPA 130; Standard for fixed guideway
transit and passenger rail systems.
[2] Ground vehicle standard for ambulances;
V1.0: Established and maintained by CAAS.
805
Klang Valley MRT Viaduct Structural Design Development

Nigel Hewson,
H&T Associates, Malaysia and Hewson Consulting, UK
Ir Teh Tzyy Wooi

H&T Associates, Malaysia
Contact: nrh@hcel.co.uk
Abstract
The Klang Valley Mass Rapid Transit (KVMRT) rail system is a central part of the development of the
Kuala Lumpur public transportation network with MRTC the project owner and MMC Gamuda
KVMRT (PDP SSP) the Project Delivery Partner. The first MRT line stretches from Sungai Buloh to
Kajang (SBK) with a length of 51km, while the second line from Sungai Buloh to Serdang to Putrajaya
(SSP) has a length of 52km. The majority of both lines is supported on viaducts which weave their
way through the urban environment. This paper presents the development of the viaduct design for
the SBK Line and the lessons learnt that were incorporated into the SSP Line viaduct design. The
process of optimising the design to meet the requirements for both the SBK and SSP Lines will be
discussed while some key technical aspects of the viaduct design will be highlighted.
Keywords: bridges, viaducts, rail, concrete, box-girder, external post-tensioning, precast,
segmental, dry-joints
multiple pile arrangements. The designs were
1 Introduction developed to be cost effective with rapid
The KV MRT viaduct structural design development construction and minimum disruption to the
started in 2009, with the foundation, substructure surrounding environment as key factors.
and superstructure solutions honed to the specific
requirements of the SBK Line which partially 2 SBK Line
opened in 2016. The viaduct designs were again
This first line of the MRT is shown in Figure 1, with
developed and refined in 2014 for the SSP Line
the project split into a series of underground and
which is currently under construction.
elevated sections. The viaducts extended through
The Malaysian Government established MRTCorp sections E1 to E4 to the north west and E5 to E8 to
in 2011 to develop and own the MRT projects in the south east of central Kuala Lumpur.
Kuala Lumpur. They were assisted by MMC-
The viaduct structural designs were split into the
Gamuda KVMRT (PDP) Sdn Bhd as its Project
eight sections noted above, with at least five
Delivery Partner who have procured the design and
different design consultants involved. A common
construction of the first two lines, known as the
arrangement was developed for the standard
SBK and SSP Lines.
viaduct spans, with each consultant developing
The design of the superstructure was based on the their own non-standard and special structural
extensive use of precast concrete box girder arrangements.
segments with optimised span arrangement, dry
joints and external prestressing tendons. The
substructure included shaped aesthetic piers, while
the foundations adopted a mix of single and
806
arrangements were considered, some of which are

shown in Figure 2 and summarised as follows;
a. Concrete Box Girder
b. Concrete Double T-girders
c. Concrete U-trough deck
d. Concrete beam and slab
e. Steel beam and concrete slab
Figure 1. Layout of SBK Line

The viaducts were standardised as much as
possible throughout its complete length, with
typical simply supported spans of up to 39.8m,
reducing in 3.0m steps to match the segment
lengths and suit local requirements. Where longer
special spans were needed these were constructed
as continuous balanced cantilever arrangements,
using precast segmental construction for spans up
to 80m and in-situ construction beyond that.
Various offset pier and portal arrangements were
adopted to enable standard spans to be used as
much as possible along the route.
The typical span arrangements were adapted to
cater for turnouts, crossover and pocket track Figure 2. Deck types considered
requirements along the route. This involved linking
The variations considered with the above included:
the spans together, either longitudinally, or
transversely where boxes were placed side-by- i. In-situ and precast options
side, to cater for the track configurations present. ii. Continuous and simply supported
iii. Segmental and full span units
The viaducts were mainly aligned along existing iv. Internal and external tendons
highways or through congested urban areas, v. Epoxy or Dry Joints with segmental
creating challenges for both the design and the vi. Depth of deck
construction.
Although each of the different types of deck form
2.1 Typical Span General Arrangement and construction had its advantages and
disadvantages, the simply supported concrete box
Most of the viaduct length consists of typical spans, girder deck, using precast segmental construction
comprising of simply supported decks, reinforced was chosen as the preferred choice due to a
concrete piers and piled foundations. combination of economics, speed of construction
Standardisation with maximum repetition in the and familiarity with this type of structure in
construction was achieved by the use of the Malaysia.
precast segment box units for the deck with a
standard pierhead and column arrangement. The optimum span length was also investigated,
with the costs of the superstructure and
2.1.1 Deck types and span considered substructure combined to derive the most
economic span length as shown in Figure 3. This
At the start of the project development phase, a indicated that a span of about 37m provided the
range of different forms of deck construction and least cost per metre of structure. However, a
typical span of 39.8m was chosen to reduce the
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number of foundations. Shorter spans were

avoided where possible to improve overall
aesthetics and minimise the potential clashes with
any utilities below ground, the cost of which were
not considered in the initial cost investigations.
2.2m Double Track – External tendons with Epoxy
2.35m Double Track – External Tendons no epoxy

2.2m Double Track – Internal Tendons
2.2m Double Track – External Tendon No Epoxy
2.0m Double Track – Internal Tendons
Figure 3. Span length v Cost for box girder Figure 4. Double track deck layout
The deck was arranged as simply supported, built
2.1.2 Box girder deck details with precast segments on a span-by-span basis,
The deck and pier top arrangement for the double- utilising dry-joints between the segments and
track typical spans are shown in Figure 4. The 9.8m external tendons for the longitudinal prestressing.
width of the top slab for the double track deck was Typical segment lengths were 3m, with typical
governed by the track, walkway and parapet segments removed to create shorter spans while all
configurations, with a central walkway adopted to other segments remained the same.
minimise the overall width. A narrower box and top
slab were adopted where single-track decks were The prestressing had a simply draped profile, being
used. Investigations into the optimum deck depth anchored on the end diaphragms and with
resulted in a 2.35m deep box being adopted. deviators at quarter points and mid-span as
indicated in Figure 5. The external tendons were
encased in HDPE ducts continuous along their
complete length and filled with cement grout to
provide durability.
Figure 5. Deck and prestress longitudinal arrangement
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The top slab was sloped inwards towards the box

centre as seen in Figure 4, to facilitate the drainage
arrangement, with drainage gullies provided at 6m
centres along the centre of the deck. These are
connected to longitudinal carrier pipes inside the
box which removed any rainwater to the piers and
down to the ground. The expansion joint detail at
the ends of the deck incorporated an upstand to
channel the water back to the nearest gulley.
To prevent water from penetrating through the
deck slab, an epoxy seal was placed in a groove
created across the full width of the deck over the
top surface of the joint, as shown on Figure 6.
Figure 7. Pier arrangement
Figure 6. Detail of epoxy seal across deck

Elastomeric bearings were used for all typical
simply supported spans, while two designs were
developed for all typical spans, one with noise
barriers present and one without noise barriers,
with the appropriate one chosen to suit the
environmental requirements.
2.1.3 Piers
Standard piers consisted of a fluted and tapered Figure 8. Cantilever pierhead
column stem with a flared pierhead as shown in
This arrangement was used with the column to
Figure 7. The same column shape was used for all
pierhead offsets of up to 3m and was adopted to
column heights, which extended up to 20m. For the
shorter columns, the lower sections of the enable typical deck spans to be utilised in these
standard column shutters were omitted, allowing areas.
the same shutters to be used for all standard pier
2.1.4 Portals
heights.
Where the viaduct had a skew alignment across
Drainage from the deck was taken down through
existing highways or rivers, either a long span
pipes inside the columns, with a flexible pipe
arrangement was adopted, or portals were used to
connection at the top of the column to cater for any
enable typical deck span arrangements to be
deck movements.
utilised. The portals typically consisted of 2
At locations where the pier columns needed to be columns with a crossbeam between, as seen in
offset from the deck to avoid at-grade Figure 9. The portal crossbeams were either
obstructions, a cantilever pierhead was adopted as reinforced or prestressed, depending on the span
shown in Figure 8. length.
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2.2.2 Crossovers
At crossovers between the tracks, the deck slab
width was increased to cater for the wider
clearance required to the tracks. These were easily
catered for by widening the top slab of the typical
span box girder and increasing the reinforcement
and prestress to cater for the additional loads.
2.2.3 Pocket tracks

Figure 9. Portal under construction A third track was required at specified locations
along the alignment to allow trains to be parked
2.1.5 Foundations without disrupting other passing trains. This was
The foundations were predominately piled, using achieved by using three individual typical single-
multiple bored concrete piles ranging in diameter track deck sections over the length required, with
from 1.0m to 1.5m to suit the loads and ground merging arrangements at each end where the
conditions. In some locations where restraints tracks met.
limited the space available, large diameter caissons
2.2.4 Long Span Crossing
were used to minimise the footprint.
Where at-grade obstructions prevented the use of
2.2 Special Span Arrangements typical spans, offset piers or portals, long span
structures were used. These were typically 3-span
Although the typical spans catered for most of the
arrangements using prestressed concrete box
viaducts length, special span arrangements were
girder construction build by balanced cantilever, as
required to cater for the rail alignment and layout
seen in Figure 11, although in some locations
as well as longer spans to cross at-grade
multiple long spans were required.
obstructions.
2.2.1 Merging and turnouts

Where the tracks merged, or turnouts were
required, the typical span arrangement was
modified to cater for the required track layout. In
these areas, a twin box arrangement was adopted,
with the typical span arrangement used for each
box. The top slabs of the boxes were then joined
together using in-situ stitches both longitudinal
between the box cantilevers and transversely
above the piers to create a continuous deck slab Figure 11. Long Span Crossing
structure to support the trackwork as shown in Precast segmental construction was used for spans
Figure 10. up to 80m with in-situ construction inside form
travellers used for longer spans. The 80m limit for
using precast segmental construction was due to
the limit of 3.8m for the depth of segments being
transported on the existing highway network.
Where the box depth was greater than this, cast in-
situ construction was adopted.
2.3 Design
The viaducts were designed to the current
Figure 10. Merging track area
Malaysian Standards, which for the viaduct design
is based on BS5400[1]. Reference was also made to
the UIC codes[2] and Eurocodes[3] for aspects not
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covered by BS5400. 11, although some spans were erected on

falsework where gantries could not gain access or
The train load adopted was based on a four-car
when gantries were not available.
train, with each car having four 160kN axle loads,
along with a maintenance vehicle with 190kN axle
loads. The wind loading adopted was based on a
mean hourly basic wind speed of 30m/s at 10m
above ground level, while the temperature was
based on a mean temperature of 30°C with a
variation of +/-10°C. The seismic loading
considered was an equivalent horizontal force of
0.03g using a static load analysis.
The design did not encounter any specific problems
with the form of structure and construction being
well established in the region.
Figure 11. Typical span erection
2.3.1 Deck box girder shear design After erecting the decks, precast parapets were
installed along both sides of the deck before the
The use of dry joints and external prestressing
trackwork, walkway and rail systems were placed.
tendons for precast segmental construction is not
A length of the completed viaduct is shown in
covered by BS5400 and for the shear design of the
Figure 12.
typical simply supported deck spans reference was
made to Eurocode 2. The design included checks
for the shear resistance when decompression
occurs in any part of the dry joints, although with
the draped tendon profile adopted the shear
design was found not to be critical apart from the
longer spans.
The segment joints were designed to the criteria
given in Eurocode 2, with cohesion and friction
coefficients of 0.5 and 0.9 respectively for the shear
keys and 0.25 and 0.5 over the remaining area.
Figure 12. Merging track area
2.3.2 Deck ultimate moment design
With dry joints and external tendons, the 3 Feedback from SBK Line
longitudinal prestress requirements were Before starting the design of the viaducts for the
governed by the ULS moment capacity. To optimise SSP Line, a review of the SBK Line viaducts was
the design, a 3D FEA analysis of the complete span carried out to identify where improvements could
was carried out to determine the ULS moment be made for both the design and construction.
capacity of the span at failure and the associated
increase in stress in the prestressing strands, which 3.1.1 Deck development
was found to average 200MPa.
a) Noise barrier connection
2.4 Construction On the SBK Line the noise barrier was
supported off the top of the parapet, but
Construction of the viaducts started in 2012 and the thin parapet outline had made the
was completed in 2017. Two precast yards were set construction difficult. For the SSP Line a
up to supply all the precast segments, one for the different arrangement for fixing the
northern portion and one for the southern portion parapet was developed, as shown in Figure
of the project, the precasters providing the 12. This improved the constructability and
segments to the package contractors for the deck detailing of the connection.
erection. For the typical spans, the deck was
erected using overhead gantries as shown in Figure
811
Figure 12. Revised Noise barrier connection

b) Single-track deck diaphragm Figure 14. SBK Line long span example
For the single-track deck on the SBK Line
uplift in the bearings was found for some 3.1.2 Substructure development
span configurations which necessitated a) Shape standardisation of piers
anti-uplift bearings. To eliminate the need Although the typical piers had been
for these the diaphragm arrangement was standardised there was a lot of variation in
modified on the SSP Line with outstands as non-standard columns and pierheads, as
shown in Figure 13 so that the bearings seen in Figure 15. To overcome this a more
could be moved further apart to eliminate inclusive family of typical columns and
any uplift from occurring. pierheads were developed to improve
both the constructability and the aesthetic
appearance as indicated in Figure 16.
Figure 13. Single track modified diaphragm

c) Increased diaphragm width
On the SBK Line the diaphragm were
heavily reinforced to carry the high loads Figure 15. SBK Line pier variation
from the external tendon anchorages,
creating congested areas with clashes
between the reinforcement and tendon
anchorage as well as some cracking in the
highly stresses areas. To alleviate these
problems a diaphragm with a width of
1350mm was adopted on the SSP Line.
d) Deck depth for long spans
Some of the long spans, as seen in Figure
14, were observed to have relatively deep
deck depths. For the SSP Line, long span Figure 16. Pierhead standardisation
arrangements were developed with a
b) Pier size
reduced deck depth for the different span
The size of the SBK piers was considered
length encountered.
large compared to similar project. This was
found to be due to the high wind loads that
were generated due to the allowance for a
full noise enclosure on the deck preventing
a reduction in the column dimensions.
c) Foundation piling
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Although bored concrete piles were

generally used, a wide variation in piling
size and foundation configuration was
observed in the SBK Line while contractors
asked for changes to smaller diameter piles
to suit equipment available. For the SSP
Line standard solutions using four piles and
pile diameters of 1.5m or less were
adopted. However, some non-standard
solutions using large diameter caissons or
smaller diameter precast piles were
considered where local conditions made
these preferable.
4 SSP Line
The SSP Line connects with the SBK Line at the
north end and extends down to Putrajaya in the
south, as indicated in Figure 17.
The project was again split up into separate
packages (V1 to V10) for the viaduct construction,
but the typical viaducts design was done for the
complete length by the Line Wide Designer, H&T
Consulting. This enabled a higher level of
standardisation along the full length of the viaduct.
H&T also carried out the preliminary design of all Figure 17. SSP Line alignment
the long span crossings, again to standardise their
arrangement and details. However, by careful 6 Acknowledgements
consideration of the railway alignment it was The authors wish to thank MRTC as the project
possible to minimise the number of long spans that owner and MMC Gamuda KVMRT (PDP SSP) as the
were needed, while the number of portals were Project Delivery Partner for permission to present
also minimised at the same time. this paper and for their help and assistance during
The viaducts for the SSP Line were based on the the design of both the SBK and SSP Lines.
designs used in the SBK Line, but with the
modifications outlined in section 3 above. 7 References
[1] British Standards Institution, BS 5400: Steel,
5 Conclusions Concrete and Composite Bridges,
The SBK Line was successfully partially opened in 1988~2006.
2016 and fully opened in 2017. The lessons learnt [2] International Union of Railways, UIC 774-3R
during the SBK Line have been implemented into Track/Bridge Interaction: Recommendations
the viaduct design of the SSP Line which is currently for Calculations (2nd Edition), 2001.
under construction.
[3] British Standards Institution, BS EN 1992-2:
Eurocode 2 Design of Concrete Structures,
Part 2: Concrete Bridges – Design and
Detailing Rules, 2005.
813
Optimizing structure and mitigating risks for lead rubber bearings:

application on Jakarta Light Rail Transit (LRT)
Georges Mauris, Ivan Wouts, Eduardo Nischiguti, Arezki Touat
Systra
Contact: gmauris@systra.com
Abstract
The use of lead rubber bearing becomes popular in moderate to high seismic zones in the case of
highway bridges. It has the benefits to reduce the demand significantly compared to typical
structures, for which seismic restrainers are considered. LRB may have a significant impact on the
quantities, on the construction and also on the maintenance.
To be efficient, the LRB yielding force should be small enough to generate large damping in case of
seismic event. For railway project such as Jakarta LRT, this yielding force should also be calibrated
smartly in order to avoid daily yielding in the case of braking/traction and temperature. This yielding
force was calibrated in different zones of the project by carrying out rail structure interaction
analysis.
Another aspect of typical metro designs is that the restrainer usually prevents lateral differential
displacements between adjacent spans, and prevent then significant cyclic increment of stresses in
rails and fatigue failures. In the case of LRB, there is no question to use restrainers. Even before
reaching its yielding force, the LRB has a certain flexibility transversally. We implemented keys
connecting adjacent decks transversally. Those connections were designed with a special analysis
taking into account deck, bearing characteristics, continuous rail, connections keys between decks,
fastening system design and mechanical characteristics (longitudinal restrain, transversal stiffness
etc…) . This provides a good understanding on the overstress generated in the rail and the fastening
system.
Keywords: Lead Rubber Bearings, LRB, seismic, rail structure interaction, RSI, LRT
contract. Systra developed the U girder option to

1 Introduction be able to meet the tight schedule of the
Jakarta has a population of 10 million people and is construction of 40km of typical viaducts with more
the capital city of Indonesia. Including greater than 2km of balanced cantilever structures. The
Jakarta DKI, the huge metropolis of 28 million prefabrication scheme was pushed to a large scale
people, is the second largest in the world after in a congested environment, with precast U shaped
Tokyo. There is no metro so far, and the average full spans, precast piercaps, and for long spans
commute is 4 hours per day. The local government match cast segmental bridges (typical box or U box)
lay the basis of a massive change while attributing when possible.
to PT Adhi Karya (Persero) Tb the construction of 3 The substructures were optimized by the
elevated LRT lines (phase 1A/1B) in design and built implementations of lead rubber bearings (LRB) on
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all typical spans with considering all the particular

issues related to railway structures for which they
are very rarely implemented.
Figure 3. 5% response spectrum and LRB benefits
The two first benefits of this bearing type are the

period shift and the damping shift. Once the
bearing yields, its effective stiffness becomes small,
increasing then the vibration period of the
structure. The yielding and the hysteretic
behaviour of this bearing generates a higher
damping (20 to 30%) than typical concrete
substructures (5%).
The cost and maintenance of these bearings are
relatively small compared to more sophisticated
Figure 1. Jakarta LRT plan with phases 1A and 1B dampers. Another benefit is the repair works in
case of major seismic events. For plastic hinges
2 Seismic benefits of lead rubber designed with a response modification factor of 2
or even 3, the structure may experience significant
bearings (LRB) spalling and cracking. LRB does not have perfect
return to zero, some of them might have to be
2.1 LRB general benefits replaced but the magnitude of the two works
LRB are now more and more used in moderate to cannot be compared.
even high seismic zones like Jakarta, as you can see
from the base response spectrum in Figure 2.
Bending moment on pier bottom

25000
20000
15000
10000
5000
My [kNm]
0 LRB nTHA
0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 14.0 16.0 18.0 20.0 Standard THA
-5000
Standard RSA
-10000
-15000
-20000
-25000
Time [s]
Figure 2. Flexural demand comparison at pier bottom standard design versus LRB design
815
2.2 Sample case 8000

Top pile efforts
6000
2.2.1 Pier demand

4000
Here above in Figure 2 is given the comparison of 2000
demand at pier bottom between the two possible 0
N [kN]
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
designs, standard bearing with shear keys -2000
(standard THA) versus non-linear bearings (LRB -4000
nTHA). Dot red lines are the results of the response -6000
spectrum analysis (standard RSA) given for the sake

-8000
of consistency of the results. The ratio between the
-10000
two demands is about 3. Most of the metro MYMZ [kNm]
Capacity Design RSA Average nTHA

substructures are designed with a response
modification factor of 2. This makes the LRB even Figure 5. Demand N-M comparison in piles
more efficient for the pier itself. But in our case, it standard design versus LRB design
was mostly efficient for the pile design.
As seen in Figure 5, axial net tensile force (tension
is positive) is reduced by a factor of 5 whereas
2.2.2 Pile demand reduction
flexural demand is almost reduced by a factor of 3.
Implementing these bearings helped to use This is considering a comparison with a standard
standard “spun” piles: small diameters 0.8 to 1m design with a response modification factor of 1 in
hollow prestressed piles with a solid connection at piles. But the picture remains similar for a capacity
the top with standard reinforcement (transverse design made on a substructure whose pier
and longitudinal) in the “potential” plastic hinge reinforcement would have been initially sized with
region. Even in the case of isolation we considered a R factor of 3. In that particular case, we can
pile top sections with a specific detailing as a reduce the initial reinforcement in the pier
contingency. This type of prefabricated piles are (compared to R=2) but the reinforcement there
very efficient in terms of cost and time and could cannot drop as much as the R factor is increasing.
be implemented thanks to the reduced demand The governing case becomes the service case. At
through LRB. the top of that there is also the overstrength factor
Hysteresis cycles on LRB to be considered. Then the pier capacity remains
100
high and at the end capacity design will help to
80
reduce the demand (compared to R=1 in piles) but
60
there is still a factor of 2 on the flexural demand
40 and 4 on the axial net tension compared to
Horizontal Force [kN]
20 isolation design with LRB.

0
-150 -100 -50 0 50 100 150
-20 3 Installation of LRB for standard full

-40
spans
-60
U girders are full spans concreted in casting beds.

-80
Displacement [mm] At bearing location is installed a steel plate with
Figure 4. Cycles of the LRB during one time history anchors embedded in the U girder. The steel plate
surface is matching with the concrete surface to
When comparing the demand in piles you can see avoid any problem when releasing the strands.
that the benefits is mainly there as flexural demand
and concomitant net tensile force are significantly At piercap locations, bottom pedestals height is
reduced. adjusted. At dowel locations, on piercap side are
provided sufficient tolerance (larger hole) for
bearing installation.
816
Bearings are bolted at site to the U girder and compatibility with the track system to ensure
bottom dowels are grouted in the piercap pedestal. bearing durability and avoid excessive stresses on
the rails and fastening system in service operation.
This process consists of four parts:
 Mitigation of horizontal loads on LRB in
service conditions under temperature and
braking/traction loads using rail structure
interaction analysis.
 Ensuring that the selected LRB and its
mechanical characteristics are compatible
with track operation and maintenance
requirements. Keys connecting adjacent
decks transversally are implemented to
limit stresses on rail and fastening system
 Mitigation of horizontal transverse loads
Figure 6. Lead rubber bearing bolted to U girder
on LRB in service conditions by distributing
before final installation
evenly the transverse loads at beam’s ends
One of the mandatory condition for LRB on the LRB.
implementation was that it should not reduce the  Ensuring that horizontal loads on LRB in
quick installation of U girder full spans: 4 to 6 service conditions for fatigue checks
girders per night (2 to 3 spans). remain below the LRB characteristic force
Qd.
4.1 LRB mechanical characteristics and

4 Selection of LRB considering
design requirements for service
service conditions and design of conditions
keys connecting adjacent decks
As shown on the figure below, lead core bearings
transversally have a linear behavior under service loads until a
To maximize deck structure isolation and energy threshold level is reached (characteristic force Qd).
dissipation during earthquake, the characteristic Above this level, distortion of the bearing increases
force Qd of LRB is selected at a low level. dramatically with additional applied loads. This is a
key advantage for earthquake design to mitigate
Nevertheless, it is also necessary to check the loads on substructure and dissipate energy.
durability of the LRB under fatigue loading and its
Figure 7. U girder spans after installation (Line 1-Courtesy of Adhi Karya)
817
Bearing shearing force

Yield stiffness
Characteristic
force Qd Force deflection curve
for short term loads
Elastic stiffness
Induced thermal
force Force deflection curve
for long term loads
Imposed thermal Seismic

displacement displacement
Figure 9. Rail stresses under combination of bridge
Figure 8. Typical horizontal force displacement temperature variation, braking/traction and train
relation for LRB bearings vertical load combination
Under service loads such as braking, centrifugal Bearing reactions under train braking/traction are
force and wind, it is necessary to ensure that the calculated under different cases considering pier
bearing remains in the elastic part of the curve to: and bearing stiffness. Braking and traction loads
 Avoid large relative displacements between are assumed as 25% of the vertical static load of
adjacent structure that may lead to excessive one train, applied at the rail level. For typical case
stress on rails and fastening system. of succession of 30m spans, rail structure
 Avoid early fatigue on the LRB due to repeated interaction analysis shows that only 12% of the
yielding of the lead core. vertical static load of one train are transferred to
the bridge structure located directly below the
Therefore, the characteristics force Qd needs to be train. This value is approximately half of the
selected at a level higher than the applied forces on braking/traction loads without considering rail
bearings under service conditions. But, for the LRB structure interaction.
to remain efficient under seismic condition, these
forces shall be accurately defined and not be over- Therefore, Lead Core Bearing characteristic force
estimated. Qd can be optimized using Rail Structure
Interaction, leading to higher seismic energy
This is primarily done by carrying out rail structure
dissipation and lower earthquake loads on
interaction analysis to accurately assess the service
bearings, piers and foundations.
loads and fatigue loads on LRB bearings and ensure
the track integrity under service conditions. 4.3 Ensuring track integrity in service using
keys connecting adjacent decks
4.2 Mitigation of horizontal loads on LRB
transversally
using Rail Structure Interaction analysis
To ensure LRB energy dissipation under
Rail structure interaction are carried out to assess
earthquake, the deck cannot be restrained
track integrity and bearing reactions under
transversally directly to the pier cap. Therefore, in
temperature, braking/traction and train loads. The
service operation, relative displacements are
analysis is based on the UIC 774-3. Due to the very
expected between two adjacent decks at bridge
low variation of temperature in Jakarta (minimum
expansion joint under transverse forces such as
and maximum air temperatures are only 23°C and
centrifugal force, hunting force or wind load.
37°C), results show that rail stresses remain in the
allowable ranges for typical cases. Because of the relative rigidity of the ballastless
track system compared to the bearing stiffness,
part of these transverse forces at one deck end are
transferred to the adjacent deck through the rails
and fastening system. To reduce stresses in rails
and fastening system and ensure track integrity in
818
service operation, it is necessary to design keys 5 Conclusions and discussion

connecting two adjacent decks transversally.
Transverse forces are then transferred through The implementation of lead rubber bearing to such
keys instead of the rails and fastening system. a scale, 40 km of metro viaducts, is a major
achievement. It required non-linear time histories
calculation, rail structure interaction analysis and
calculations modelling link beams, track and
viaduct.
In terms of discussion, there are different uses for
taking in to account the demand in LRB due to long
terms effects (creep and shrinkage and
temperature). Some designers consider that as
long term stiffness, we should consider the post
yielding stiffness of the bearing (Kr). Other would
take half of the initial stiffness (Klp). In the reality
when looking to the test results, it shows that the
stiffness provided by suppliers are corresponding
to those for high velocities test. When reducing the
velocity of the test to match “long terms”
conditions, the stiffness happens to be very
different from the above mentioned ones.
On a different topic, the most complicated aspect
for the link beam is its practical implementation.
There are different systems possible but mostly the
Figure 10. Cross section and profile at bridge ends link beam will take benefits of the track plinth.
showing keys connecting two adjacent decks There should be then close cooperation between
transversally track designers/bridge designers and also civil and
Another beneficial property of the link beam is the track contractors.
even distribution of the transverse forces at one
deck ends on the 4 bearings (two bearings on each 6 References
deck) instead of only 2 bearings at one deck end, [1] Priestley M. Seismic design and retrofit of
reducing the maximum transverse force in service bridges. New York: John Wiley And Sons;
on each LRB by up to 30% for typical structure 1996.
compare to a system without transverse
connection. [2] CEREMA Ponts en zone sismique-Conception
et dimensionnement selon l’Eurocode 8.
The LRB characteristic force Qd can then be CEREMA August 2015
selected at a low level, but remains in an elastic
state under service load combinations. [3] Chauhan Kalpesh M. and Dr.B.J.Shah. Excel
spreadsheet for design of lead rubber
The combination of LRB and keys connected deck bearing uses for seismic isolation of bridge.
transversally is therefore beneficial to the track International Journal of Advanced
system by limiting rail and fastening stresses in Engineering Research and Studies. Vol. II/
service operation, to the LRB by preventing Issue III/April-June, 2013/60-62.
repeated yielding in service and to the bridge
structures by mitigating seismic loads.
819
Statistical Investigation of Design Live Load by Applying WIM Data

with Different Degree of Compliance with Truck Weight Limit
Inyeol Paik
Gachon University, Seongnam, Gyeonggi-Do, Korea
Kilhwan Jeong
Yooshin Engineering Corporation, Seoul, Korea
Contact: pinyeol@gachon.ac.kr
Abstract
The live load model applied to the design of the bridge should be defined so that a target safety level
can be secured in the actual traffic environment. In this paper, it is presented that the live load could be
greatly affected by the measurement data used for the statistical estimation process. For this purpose,
a statistical analysis is performed on WIM (weigh-in-motion) data measured during different periods in
terms of the overload control at the same spot of an expressway in Korea. The effects by a single vehicle,
the back-to-back series vehicles and the side-by-side parallel vehicles are obtained and compared.
Keywords: design live load; truck weight limit; WIM data; statistical estimation; overcharge control;
single truck effect; multiple truck effect.
1 Introduction 2 Statistical estimation of live load

In this paper, the statistical characteristics of the The data show that the number of trucks that
bridge design live load, KL-510 [1] which was exceed the weight limit is significantly different
recently introduced in Korea are analysed. The from the point at which the overload control is
bridge design live load is a notional model initiated. In particular, it was confirmed that the
introduced for design purpose in order to vehicle exceeding 120% of the weight limitation
represent the possible maximum load effect almost disappeared after 2 months of the weight
according to the running of the actual trucks. The control.
measured data of the actual trucks running in
In this paper, the data measured before the
Korea are used for the statistical analysis [2].
crackdown, in the early stage of the crackdown,
Currently, the weight limitation of a single vehicle
and after a sufficient period of time are called data
is 40tonf (392.4kN) according to the road law in
1, 2 and 3, respectively. By applying the statistical
Korea. The weights of vehicles were measured
analysis method to the measured WIM data, the
before and after overload crackdown by using a
load effect for 100 years of design life was
high-speed WIM (weigh in motion) system. The
calculated and compared with KL-510. The
effect of the load control is considered in this study.
statistical method applied is the interpolation
method using the probability paper which was
used in the development of the live load model of
AASHTO LRFD and Korean highway bridge design
820
code (KHBDC) [3][4]. Also, the same probability of 3 Conclusions

multiple presence of trucks is assumed in this
study. As truck traffic volume increases, the live load
model of the Korean highway bridge design code
Figure 1 shows the moments due to single truck was developed to reflect the load effects on
and two, three and four trucks in series of which bridges when multiple heavy vehicles are driven.
the weight is statistically estimated from data 2 by
applying the multiple presence probability. The As a result of statistical analysis of the data of
moment is shown as a ratio to the KL-510 moment. different weight of trucks, KL-510 almost coincided
with the load effect of the trucks estimated from
statistical data measured at the beginning of
overload control.
4 Acknowledgements
This study and presentation were supported by
grants (18SCIP-B119960-03) from the Ministry of
Land, Infrastructure and Transport of the Korean
Government.
5 References
[1] MLTM. Highway Bridge Design Code (Limit
State Design Method). Seoul: Korea Ministry
Figure 1. Ratio of the moment applied by the serial of Land, Transportation and Maritime
trucks and the design live load Affairs; 2015.
The maximum envelope of the figure above is [2] KECRI. Improvement of Enforcement System
shown in Figure 2 for all 3 data. More for Restricted Access Vehicles in Expressway
comprehensive results can be found in [5]. The using the Automatic Measuring Equipment.
average moment ratios of data 1, 2, and 3 Hwaseong: Korea Expressway Corporation
compared to KL-510 are 1.10, 0.98, and 0.93, Research Institute; 2013.
respectively. In other words, the moment [3] Nowak A.S. Calibration of LRFD Bridge
estimated from data 2 is consistent with the Design Code, NCHRP Report 368.
moment by KL 510. Washington D.C: Transportation Research
Board; 1999.
[4] Hwang E.-S. Development of Live Load Model
for Reliability-based Bridge Design code,
Technical Report Series 034. Seoul: Korea
Bridge Design & Engineering Research
Center; 2008.
[5] Paik I., and Jeong K. Analysis of Moment
Effect of Bridge Design Live Load KL-510 by
Statistical Analysis of WIM Data of
Expressway. Journal of Korean Society of
Figure 2. Envelop of the moment ratio of the three Steel Construction. 2017; 29(6): 467-477.
different data from overcharge control
821
Challenge in Tunnelling for Kolkata East West Metro – Passage of

underground twin tunnels in the vicinity of Brabourne Road Flyover
Biswanath Dewanjee
Kolkata Metro Rail Corporation, Kolkata,
India
Contact: biswanath_dewanjee@hotmail.com
Abstract
The global trend of development of underground urban infrastructural facilities have come across
in India too as majority of MRTS corridor projects involves tunnelling in busy districts of the city. In
the context of the city of Kolkata, which is developed over a span of more than 300 years in changing
regime with heterogeneous development authorities and policies, planning for an underground
metro corridor encompasses diverse administrative & technological challenges. A major challenge
of crossing of underground tunnel of East West Metro corridor in close vicinity of pile foundation of
an extremely busy flyover viaduct structure is showcased in this paper to demonstrate the
successful mitigation of this criticality by adopting systematic analysis & procedures. In this context,
the paper covers Geomorphology & Geotechnical investigation & its impact on choice of tunnel
boring machine, building condition survey and structural impact assessment and mitigative planning
adopted. The theoretical prediction of tunnelling impact is compared with actual settlement and
other tunnelling parameters.
Keywords: Kolkata, Geotechnical investigation, Tunnelling, Building Condition Survey, Impact
assessment, Settlement, Mitigation
1 Introduction
Our World is fast urbanizing and futuristic design comes as major priority. Great success of
of cities should aim to accommodate mega transportation tunnelling projects all around the
population while creating high quality of urban life world have changed the perception of travel in
sustainable to the society. In a densely populated several cities and ushered new horizons in city life.
built up urban set up, tunnels can often provide
The 1st Metro line in Kolkata was commissioned
the best transportation solution, carrying vehicles
since 1984 in North-South direction which was
and materials directly below earth surface with
eventually the 1st rapid transit system in India
minimal impact to the natural and social
being successfully operated over last three
environment at surface level.
decades. The 2nd Metro line in East- West
Out of the challenges faced in an urban tunnelling direction has been undertaken with project cost of
project, upkeeping the existing city infrastructure 1.5 billion USD. 65% of this metro corridor runs
as well as creating minimum obstruction to underground through densely populated and built
livelihood of the citizens and city environment up part of the city including crossing of a major
822
river Ganges. In this present case study of passage tunnelling horizon as well as surface settlement
of underground tunnels in vicinity of Brabourne restrictions dictated proper choice of tunnel
Road Flyover, it is demonstrated that this boring machine. Detailed building conditioning
underground project involving meticulous survey and structural impact assessment for
planning and investigation challenges in view of structures in tunnel influence zone has been
prevalent juvenile alluvial geology in this Ganga- undertaken and mitigation measures are planned
Brahmaputra deltaic region. The sub-soil in accordingly.
2 Geomorphology of Kolkata & Geotechnical Investigation

The South Bengal Basin is characterized by Delta Below the clay typically a layer of fine sand is
deposits. Sedimentation in the Bengal Basin has encountered extending to a depth of 30m to 35m
occurred after the outpouring of Rajmahal trap in BGL. A dark brown to grayish brown clay typically
the Cretaceous period at different stages. Kolkata occurs up to a depth of 60 to 100m BGL. Sand and
is located in the lower deltaic plain of the Ganga- gravel beds are encountered below 100m depth
Padma river system at an elevation ranging interbedded amongst clay layers.
between 1.5m and 9m above sea level. The city is
Detailed Geotechnical investigation has been done
spread along the banks of the Hooghly River from
in tunnel alignment preferably at 50m spacing
north to south. The topography of the ground
using land cable percussion in tunnel alignment in
surface slopes slightly away from the Hooghly
land portion and marine cable percussion in
River to the east and south east towards the saline
riverine section. The sub-soil engineering
lakes or East Kolkata wetlands . The Gangetic
characteristics in the tunnel zone is put up in Table
alluvial plain generally consists of several hundred-
1 and geotechnical profile shown in Figure 1. The
meter-thick alluvium. The alluvial deposits consist
Brabourne Road Flyover falls in Tunnel Alignment
of silts, clays, sands and peats. The superficial
Section 3.
deposits consist of clay and clay loam that extends
up to a depth of 10m to 25m below ground level.
823
3 Tunnelling for Kolkata East West Metro Corridor

3.1 Selection of Tunnel Boring Machine
Tunnelling in this stretch is considered as a water inflows into the tunnel excavation. The final
continuous drive from Howrah Maidan to selection of an appropriate closed face TBM also
Esplanade ( Distance of 3.8 Km ) including crossing depends upon a number of factors, including grain
of river Ganges. So the selection of the Tunnel size distribution of the soil, presence of gas,
Boring Machine must encompass the technical presence of boulders, hydrostatic pressures, area
requirement of the entire tunneling scope . The available for a mining site, spoil disposal and
soil profile encountered in the tunneling horizon is power requirements. Considering all aspects,
shown in Figure 2 It is observed that 50% of the Earth pressure balance machine of Herrenknecht
stretch the tunnel is passing through unit 2 ( Firm AG has been used .
to stiff clayey silt), i.e. soft ground. Closed face
TBMs namely Earth pressure balancing ( EPB) and
Slurry Shield are effectively sealed from the full
ground & hydrostatic pressures and those are
usually demanded for soft ground due to their
ability to maintain control of the ground
particularly at the face of the excavation and their
effectiveness at minimizing ground loss These
TBMs provide positive support to the ground and
minimize the potential for problematic ground
824
3.2 Details of Tunnelling Scheme

The daily ridership projection of Kolkata East West rolling stock, internal diameter of the circular
Metro line in the year 2035 is about 1 million tunnel is chosen as 5.55 m for each line of this two
passenger/day with PHPDT figure of 38286 track Metro system. The tunneling scheme is RCC
passenger. Standard Gauge Rolling Stock with segmental lined tunnel ( 5 main segments & 1 key
Third Rail current collection system is adopted for segments for a complete ring) with 275mm liner
this line with design minimum headway of 2.5 thickness. The length of one segmental ring along
minute. Considering the kinematic envelop of the alignment of tunnel is 1.4m.
4. Engineering Challenge to Cross the Tunnels below Brabourne Road Flyover

4.1 The Bridge Structure
Brabourne Road fly over is the main entrance to and there is elastomeric slab-seal type expansion
the city of Kolkata linking Howrah Bridge over river joint in deck slab. The building condition survey
Ganges with central part of the city. The revealed that there are several spalling and cracks
Engineering challenge is to cross the twin Metro in parapets and under-croft of the structure due to
tunnels in the vicinity of the Flyover without any aging and weather action. There are some
impact on the structure. Detailed building secondary structures and offices built up
condition survey has been conducted to subsequently in under carriage of the bridge. The
determine the details of the structure as well as bridge is maintained by Kolkata Port Trust and
the structural health. The bridge was constructed general maintenance of the steel members of the
about 35 years ago. The superstructure of the structure appeared to be average.
bridge is dual carriageway of width 7.40m each.
4.2 The Scheme of Tunnel Crossing
The spans are 16.347m to 16.595m long simply
supported composite girders consisting of 125mm The tunnelling geometry in the vicinity of flyover is
thick RCC deck slab and 6 numbers of 600mm shown in Table 2. The tunnels cross in the vicinity
depth Isostatic steel beams in each carriageway. of the deep foundation of the flyover in between
The sub-structure consists of RCC Pier cap and pier pier no E1W1 to pier no E7W7 along Brabourne
supporting each carriageway which are founded Road side viaduct. The passage of tunnels is mostly
by 525 mm diameter concrete piles of 18m to 21 parallel to the longitudinal alignment of the
m depth. The RCC pile caps are of 1.2m thickness Flyover as depicted in Figure 3. For the sake of
located at 0.45m below ground level. The bridge analysis, line sections 1-1 to 5-5 are considered in
structure in tunnel crossing zone is in 1 in 27 grade. respective pier positions. The positions of the
The wearing course is 25mm thick mastic asphalt tunnels vis-à-vis the pile foundations are
825
represented in Figure 4 and the respective

distances are shown in Table 3.
826
5. Structural Impact Assessment

The construction of a shield tunnel inevitably leads o Piles are cast with estimated load which is
to a larger amount of soil to be excavated than to followed by a consolidation stage to simulate
be replaced by the volume of the tunnel. The the load transfer mechanism of pile.
amount of over excavation is quantified by the o East bound tunnel is constructed considering
volume loss which is the ratio of the (difference volume loss of 1.5% due to tunnelling followed
between excavated soil and tunnel outer volume) by installation of lining.
and tunnel outer volume. This volume loss is the o Consolidation stage is modelled to dissipate
extent of the total ground disturbance. the excess pore pressures due to construction
of tunnel.
5.1. Reduction in pile capacity due to tunnel
o West bound tunnel is constructed considering
proximity
volume loss of 1.5% due to tunnelling followed
Due to relaxation of pressure around the pile, by installation of lining.
effective normal stresses changes which reduces o Consolidation stage is modelled to dissipate
the pile capacity. However, this reduction in pile the excess pore pressures.
capacity is temporary and regains the strength as As per this conservative approach, settlement
soon as tunnelling process is completed in this is about 48 mm after passage of both tunnels
region. Possible loss of pile capacity due to the considering 1.5% volume loss which is subject
presence of the tunnel has been derived in this to correction if volume loss can be further
case considering volume loss due to bored reduced through effective tunnelling. Again,
tunnelling as a determining factor [1] which shows there are 6 piles in a group, the settlement of
a reduction of 16.5% only. the pier due to settlement of pile group should
5.2 Settlement Analysis of Piles by Finite Element be much less than maximum pile settlement
Method predicted. In analysis stage, there was a case
reference of a similar passage of tunnelling in
Detailed FEM analysis is done to assess the impact the vicinity of pile group in Bankim Setu Road
of tunnelling on pile foundations of flyover. Plaxis Over Bridge. The conservative predicted
2D software is used for this purpose and analysis settlement of single pile in that case was
is done in all five sections 1-1 to 5-5. Construction estimated through Plaxis analysis as 19mm and
stages modelled in Plaxis ( HSS Model) are as the actual settlement of the pier was found
below: 3mm after passage of the tunnels [2].
o A uniform surcharge of 20 kPa is applied on Considering all these aspects and practical
ground and pile groups loaded to 80% of references, Vertical displacements of pier in
capacity. case of Brabourne Road Flyover is predicted as
40% of maximum pile settlement, i.e. 20 mm.
827
5.3. Differential Settlement between Piers 5.4. Additional Safety by closure of Fly over
and Passage of Tunnels below Flyover
Settlements in the longitudinal direction in
open faced machines can be assessed following o Closure of Flyover for all vehicular movement
principles of Attewell and Woodman [3]. As the during passage of the TBMs.
tunnelling progresses, settlement at the face of o Removal of all street markets and hawkers
the TBM is estimated to be half the maximum below the Flyover & Closure of both side
anticipated settlement (Attewell and service roads
Woodman) and some settlement also occurs o As the buildings adjacent to flyover were itself
ahead of the TBM. For closed faced machines,
in precarious condition, mitigation measures
the settlement at the face is estimated as 25%
were taken in those buildings to arrest any
of maximum settlement [4]. Therefore, the
differential settlement between piers spaced damage and residents in those buildings were
about 16.5 m center to center [approx.] shall be temporarily evacuated.
5 to 12mm.
6. Analysis of actual impact due to tunneling

The comparison of predicted settlement versus settlement also attains stabilization after the
actual settlements are depicted in Table 4 which passage of TBM.
shows that predicted settlement through PLAXIS
The progressive settlement record for ground as
analysis was on conservative side as actual
well as pier has been plotted against position of
settlement ranges from 13.23 % to 33.94% of
tunnel face as representatively shown for section
predicted settlement.
5-5 in Figure 6 and following observations are
Differential settlement in between piers have made:
been plotted in Figure 5 for North Viaduct during
o The pier settlements are 80% to 130% of
East Bound line crossing and maximum value of
ground settlement
differential settlement in the viaduct is only 6mm.
o The tunnel face settlement ranges from 25 %
It is also found that the value of differential
to 30 % of final settlement after passage of
tunnel.
7. Conclusion
828
In the foregoing study, the systematic approach differential settlement of the superstructure
for analysis and monitoring of existing structures during passage of tunnelling is meagre to create
in the vicinity of an urban tunnelling project is
any distress to the superstructure. Thus, it is
highlighted in the context of crossing of a highly
concluded that effective analysis, adoption of
populated flyover resting on bored pile appropriate tunnelling methodology and proper
foundation. It is shown that settlement prediction monitoring and instrumentation can restrict the
through Finite Element Analysis by Plaxis structural impact within appreciable limits and
modelling are on conservative side compared to such tunnelling projects can be effectively
actual settlement results. It is also depicted that undertaken in city environment.
8. References
[1] Poulos, H.G. (2006), “Pile Settlement Zones [4] Mair R.J. & Taylor R.N.(1997) “ Theme Lecture:
above and around tunnelling operations”, Bored tunneling in the Urban Environment” 14th
Australian Geo-mechanics, Vol. 41 No.1 Intl, Conference on SMFB, Hamburg,
[2] Dewanjee, B, (2017) : “Analytic Solution for
Tunneling in Close vicinity of pile foundation “ ,
CECR, March 2017 .
[3] Attewell P.B. & Woodman, J.P. (1982) :
“Predicting the dynamics of ground settlement
and its derivatives caused by tunneling in soil ”
Ground Engineering, Vol 15, No 8, pp 13-22
829
emissions exceeding 500 000 tonnes of CO2, which
Making the world’s longest subsea is equivalent to 1% of Norway’s total annual GHG
tunnel sustainable emissions, mainly due to the large quantities of
GHG-intensive materials used. Energy usage (20
mill kwh annually), e.g. in ventilating traffic areas,
Ketil Søyland, Christer Wolden, is also significant in the operation-phase.
Christopher Garmann
The project has a high potential to reduce the CO2
Norconsult AS, Oslo, Norway footprint over its life cycle. A sustainability goal has
been set, based on Norwegian government targets:
the project shall become a “plus project”. That is,
Debbie Harrison the project will be energy efficient, reduce
BI Norwegian Business School, Oslo, materials use, and harvest energy. The project
Norway team has identified actions that reduce CO2
emissions by more than 25%.
This has required changes to inter-organisational
engineering practices on both the client’s and the
Contact author: Ketil.soyland@norconsult.com consultant’s side. An innovative program specially
designed for the project was put in place to find,
evaluate and implement ideas to reduce the project
Abstract CO2 footprint. Currently, the project is in the final
How can large-scale infrastructure projects be stages of preparing bid packages for the contractors.
sustainable? The purpose of this paper is to discuss The contract will include incentives for suppliers to
how engineering practices were changed in order act sustainably, not least in terms of their choices
to reduce the carbon footprint of the E39 Rogfast of materials to be used. This requires us to place a
project, the world’s longest roadway sub-sea value on sustainability.
tunnel. The project will generate greenhouse gas This paper will discuss the process, the results and
(GHG)-emissions exceeding 1% of Norway’s total some of the challenges to overcome in order for
annual GHG-emissions. The paper covers the Rogfast to become a more sustainable project.
project process, including some of the challenges to
be overcome. 2. Background
Keywords: tunnels, sustainability, projects,
innovation, infrastructure, carbon footprint 2.1 The Rogfast project
After several years of planning, the Norwegian
1. Introduction Parliament approved the Rogfast project on the
The purpose of this paper is to discuss how 23th May 2017. This marked the final start of this
world record breaking project. E39 Rogfast will be
engineering practices need to change in order to
the world’s longest and deepest sub-sea road-
reduce the carbon footprint of large infrastructure
tunnel. When E39 Rogfast is completed, the
projects. The Rogfast project will become the
journey time between Stavanger and Haugesund
world longest roadway sub-sea tunnel. It is located
will be reduced from more than 2 hours to 1 hour
along the west coast of Norway. It will be 27 km and 20 minutes. At the same time, it will facilitate
long and will reach 392 metres below sea level, an expansion in the housing and labor markets in
with an approximate cost of 1.9 billion euro (US $22 the region, which will strengthen important
billion). The construction and maintenance of the business clusters in the region.
project will generate greenhouse gas (GHG)
830
Figure 1. Tunnel overview
Figures 2 and 3. Intersection under island Kvitsøy
831
all work regarding reducing the projects carbon
Construction started in January 2018, with
footprint described in this paper, was performed
opening for traffic late 2025 or early 2026. The
in the detailed engineering phase and now in the
project has an estimated cost of around 16.8
contract phase.
billion Norwegian kroner (2 billion US dollars). The
state's share of the funding has increased
3.1 The starting point
considerably from the original proposal of
approximately 2.5 billion kroner, to funding Since the project did not have any specific goals
totaling approximately 5.1 billion. Of this 1.6 regarding reducing the carbon footprint and
billion kroner comes from the government's energy usage of the project, Norconsult addressed
scheme to reduce the toll level. In addition, the this at the start of the detailed design phase. The
government proposes that the state raise up to a team members were at the time uncertain about
further 1.3 billion if there are cost overruns, in how to proceed to find the best path toward
order to avoid increased toll fees. Toll fees will be implementing actions towards the goal of
in place for 20 years, with a fee of 350 kroner (42 reducing the carbon footprint and the energy
dollars) per passage for light vehicles. consumption.
The normal contract scheme on this type of tunnel As the observant reader will see, the effort was
work is unit-price contract. This is also the case at given a name. “Rogfast Pluss”. The initial idea was
E39 Rogfast. The project is divided into 3 major to investigate if there were any possibilities to
and several other smaller contracts. make the project self-sufficient with energy and at
the same time reduce the usage of CO2 to a
2.2 Sustainability minimum.
Norconsult AS was awarded the engineering The name also gives a clue to the first goal
contract for assisting the Norwegian Public Roads regarding sustainability. The project was to
Administration (NPRA) in preparing bid- become the first project to harvest its own clean
documents for the subsea tunnel, the portals and energy to an extent that it could call itself ‘carbon
immediate roads leading to the tunnel, in 2014. At neutral’ and ‘plus’. Since Norconsult did not have
that time no special efforts regarding sustainability any experience in sustainability for a project of this
were required. There was however a requirement magnitude, a special process was designed to
in the contract regarding esthetic qualities at the identify all the actions.
day of opening. When Norconsult started the
At the time, there was no official goal at the NPRA.
detailed design phase in 2014, the design team
The Paris agreement had not been agreed to, but
asked themselves “How can we predict what is
there were expectations to the process. It was
modern and good esthetic quality at the time of
unclear how much each project should be
opening in 2026, and for the years to come?” The
required to reduce. Throughout 2017 The
design team consisting of architects, landscape
“Norwegian National Transport Plan”
architects, an artist and structural engineers
(http://www.ntp.dep.no/English) specified
started this task and identified that sustainability,
project level goals to save at least 40% of CO2
in and particular reduced carbon footprint and
emissions compared to 1990.
energy usage as the most important answer to this
challenge. A goal was therefore set: “E39 Rogfast will be a
leading transportation related project in the areas
3. The process of reducing energy consumption, effective
material usage and harvesting of energy in order
E39 Rogfast was already past the regulatory to become a sustainable project”. Although not a
process when Norconsult started their contract in very precise goal, it gave some direction.
2014. The zoning plan was practically finished, and
all road alignments, tunnel geometry and
construction zone limitations were set. Therefore,
3
832
3.2 Identifying possible climate gas expensive and some not possible to construct. But
reductions among all the “hopeless ideas”, it was possible to
find some “gold”.
Norconsult has in-house environmental and
innovation departments. These departments
assisted the project from 2 different directions.
The innovation department developed a process
to find, sort and evaluate ideas from bottom-up.
The environmental department
assisted the project in looking at
the project from top-down by
calculating a baseline for the
projects CO2-emissions.
Looking at the goal both from a
bottom-up and top-down
proved to be useful. From top-
Figure 4. The Innovation Methodology
down, the project found that
the CO2 emissions could be as high as 500 000
tonnes, which is the same as 1% of yearly
Norwegian yearly CO2 emissions, a significant
number. Bottom-up, hundreds of ideas to help
lower the use of energy and CO2 emissions were
identified.
3.2.1 Bottom-up
The Norconsult in-house Innovation Programme
was used to assess whether it was possible to have
a “plus project” for E39 Rogfast. The Norconsult
Innovation Programme was adapted with a
specific focus area, sustainability, thereby forming
the “plus-process”. Put another way, sustainability
was just an area of application for our innovation
methodology. The Innovation Methodology is
structured as shown in Figure 5. Figure 5. Thematic areas within the project
The process consisted of 10 workshops and

involved more than 100 people, from both
Norconsult and NPRA. Specifically, there was one 3.2.2 Top down
focus workshop, 7 idea generation workshops and “Environmental budgets” can describe various
2 idea assessment workshops. The process was approaches to estimating and quantifying the
quoted as “always about thinking new. We have a environmental impact of a project at various
free hand to think…there is no binding mandate”. planning stages. Usually, a Life Cycle Analysis
Pre-structuring of focus areas – who and how? (LCA)-based approach is used. A number of
Balance between constricting themes and ideas appropriate impact categories can be evaluated.
and the need to gather the right people. The focus Usually, the greenhouse gas (GHG) “footprint” is
of the different workshops is illustrated in figure 6. calculated, but methods exist to estimate other
More than 500 ideas were collected during the impacts including material and energy use,
workshops. Some of the ideas were similar to eutrophication, human toxicity, eco-toxicity in
others, some quite unrealistic, some very various forms, etc.
4
833
Estimating the full range of impacts can require limit greenhouse gas emissions) etc. This was done
extensive work in data gathering and modelling. through a sensitivity analysis approach where
As many of the impacts are analysed and handled conditions were altered one by one to quantify the
through legislation, environmental risk analyses effect on the overall result.
and permits, and in order to limit the extent of the
The carbon footprint calculations at the pre-
assessment, the analysis for Rogfast focused on
project stage identified the following main
GHG emissions. In that respect, it constituted a contributors to GHG emissions:
Carbon Footprint calculation, and the term
“Climate budget” was used. A climate budget was
calculated for construction, maintenance and Table 1: Carbon footprint calculations
operations, and included energy use throughout
Phase Total over Annualised Share
the life of the tunnel system. GHG emissions from
100 year (t CO2-e)
decommissioning were excluded due to (t CO2-e)
uncertainties regarding end-of-life options after Construction 321.000 3.210 42 %
the technical lifetime of 100 years.
Major 206.000 2.060 27 %
There are many guidelines for environmental maintenance
budgets and greenhouse gas emission calculations
Energy use 232.000 2.320 31 %
for infrastructure. These range from Product
(electricity)
Category Rules (PRCs) for Environmental Product
Declarations (EPDs) for infrastructure, PCRs for Sum 759.000 7.590
construction materials, ISO-standards related to
sustainability and Life Cycle Assessments, and
industry standards. Of particular interest for E39 Construction
Rogfast is a Handbook from the Norwegian Society Injection Other Fuel for transportation
cement 3% and machinery 7%
for Rock Blasting Technique: Technical Report no. 3%
16, Recommended guidelines for preparing Tarmac 6%
environmental budgets and environmental Steel, incl
accounts for tunnels. This guideline has been reinforcement Electro-
prepared throughout several rail and road 23% components
tunnelling projects, and can be applied to several 5%
planning, construction and commissioning phases. Concrete,
all types Blasting 14%
39%
At this stage, the main cost elements with
associated estimates of material use were Construction and major
available as a basis for GHG calculations. It was maintenance
necessary to make certain assumptions in order to Injection Other Fuel for transportation
make the estimates as complete as possible. This cement 3% and machinery 4%
includes assumptions on structural layouts, 7%
Tarmac 14%
structural thicknesses, material use per unit length
of tunnel or unit area (for instance tarmac Steel, incl
Electro-
reinforcement
thickness), lifetime (again, for instance tarmac), components
23%
energy use, transportation distances and so on. 12%
The resulting estimate was of medium reliability Concrete,
and completeness, but sufficient to identify the all types Blasting
main contributors to GHG emissions and to 29% 8%
estimate the effects of actions such as changing
material lifetimes, use of low carbon concrete Figures 6 and 7. Main contributors to GHG
(concrete where measures have been taken to emissions
5
834
cost, technical feasibility, regulatory
From this, a number of actions were suggested: requirements, framework for the project given by
- Reduce the amount of steel the governmental authorities, risk, etc.
(reinforcement) and concrete through
optimisation of cross sections The key output was a list of 33 ‘plus’ ideas which
- Use low carbon concrete where possible were approved to be implemented in the main
- Use recycled steel for reinforcement E39 Rogfast project. In relation to the focus areas
- Reduce the need for blasting through described earlier, 4 were related to ventilation, 9
more accurate profiling to drainage and pumping systems, 3 to technical
- Optimise tunnel wall elements systems, 5 to the tunnel, 6 to the daylight zones,
- Maximize lifetime of electrical and 6 were related to material and facility
components logistics. All 33 ideas were given an id number as
- Maximize lifetime of tarmac a plus action and put into a feedback/follow up
- Reduce fuel consumption through route system. The ideas needed further technical
planning and loading optimisation development, in cooperation with the client.
Moreover, an additional 21 ideas were evaluated

as having a good potential, but scored weaker
3.3 Evaluate ideas against the additional ‘project coupling’ criteria.
The next phase of the bottom-up process was idea They were taken further into the project as
evaluation, the technical evaluation of the ideas possibilities. More work would be needed before
generated. It sorted the ideas into two categories, a re-evaluation was possible.
‘could be integrated into the project’, and ‘not
possible’ (e.g. too early, outside the project scope,
etc). The idea evaluation was underpinned by a The 33 ideas were then evaluated for their
simple scoring method using a set of criteria technical feasibility. An Excel-based system was
developed by the internal project leaders, project established to track the progress of idea
management in NPRA, and internal experts within development, being certain about the cost-benefit
Norconsult. The “plus thinking” was central to the equation for each idea. Put simply, alongside
generation of the criteria. The five criteria were: technical and political feasibility, what was the
 cost/security cost per emissions unit saved.
 use of energy
 vulnerability The ideas that successfully passed the cost-benefit
 amount of and type of material criterias were then ready to be incorporated into
 environment in the tunnel the contract. This involved working through
It was the first time that sustainability criteria where in the contract to place specific
were a part of the evaluation at this stage of the requirements for emissions-saving solutions,
Innovation Programme phases. Each idea was alongside research efforts to be able to write in
scored against the five criteria from 1 (worst) to 6 the new requirements.
(best), giving x number of points per idea. The
ideas were then termed ‘plus actions’.
3.4. How did ideas live or die?
Using the scores given to each idea, a top list of We suggest there are three main ways in which
ideas could be further evaluated by the project ideas for sustainable solutions can ‘die’ or be later
management. The overriding issue for the second disregarded even after being accepted in the
set of evaluation criteria was ‘can this idea actually innovation programme.
be integrated in full into the ongoing project work
for E39 Rogfast?’. The criteria’s included Firstly, one of the 33 ideas might be “lost along the
investment cost, building cost, use/maintenance way” – or at least modified - when it meets normal
6
835
cost, safety, build time and materials availability anchored from the ‘bottom up’ rather than top-
criteria. This is relevant in terms of the iterations down.
involved in doing background research and then
writing in ideas into the existing contractual
framework. For example, although an idea can 4. What did the project achieve?
score well in terms of sustainability, but if it can At the time of writing, the final conclusion and a
only be achieved by one or a limited number of calculation on how much CO2 and energy saved by
contractors, it will limit fair competition, which is making E39 Rogfast a sustainable project is
against procurement regulations and the project’s unclear. However, we do know that there are
cost objective. The idea would therefore need to significant reductions built in to the first contracts.
be either modified or rejected. The need to
specify low carbon concrete class B rather than For example, we have documented special
class A is pertinent here. Moreover, climate gas requirements which necessitate the use of ‘low
reduction and energy saving/generating ideas carbon concrete’. The project will also require
must meet the goals or requirements for other use of construction steel based on a minimum of
environmental issues. For example, the trade-off 70% recycled material, and reinforcement
for emission saving from material transport of containing at least 90% recycled steel. The two
spoil rock can conflict with goals or requirements materials alone should substantially reduce the
for spoil rock fill. The absence of clear evaluation whole project’s carbon emissions, not least due to
criteria makes this latter issue especially difficult, the sheer amount of concrete and steel required
and goal conflicts occur frequently. by such a huge tunnel. Savings due to these two
materials alone amounts to 24% on the entire
Secondly, an idea can turn out to be too different projects carbon emissions.
from the norm, and clashing with the normal
‘ways of doing things’ means that an idea is then Moreover, the contract contains changes to the
rejected. Sustainability ideas often conflict with design of bridges, tunnel portals, tunnel
the traditional solutions as documented within lining/elements, change in technical rooms, etc,
the client’s handbooks, national or European changes which are motivated by the need to
codes. New solutions can introduce uncertainties achieve emissions reductions.
in time or cost. In some instances, changes can be
applied for, but not in all. In the words of one It is also fair to say that the project is a pioneer in
project participant, “we are on the side of normal terms of sustainability in the Norwegian
solutions…there are road standards, then there is infrastructure sector. Thus, it can also be claimed
this environmental stuff in addition…”. that the project has had a positive effect on other
public infrastructure projects launched in its wake,
Thirdly, when incorporating sustainability into a by introducing sustainability as a key criterion.
project is new for the client, there is a maturation
process to selling in ideas to decision makers.
Experiences from the Rogfast plus project are that
there are many iterations in which more 5. A rapidly changing engineering
information and documentation needs to be community
provided to the client. This is in particular to
decision makers outside of the immediate project
Projects such as E39 Rogfast have a long lifetime.
organisation which are involved in the client
From inception to the day of opening, the project
acceptance or turning down of ideas. In these
will become more than 20 years old. At the start,
process iterations, management commitment
there was obviously no sustainability goals. In fact,
from both sides of the project – client and
the client organisation still has no official unified
engineering consultancy – is essential. This is
goal for all their projects. They are now rapidly
especially the case when it is the first sustainability
working with setting such goals.
project for the client, and that the project is
7
836
Materials and products will also improve during sustainability in those contracts is still “work in
the construction phase. Using ‘Environmental progress”.
Product Declarations’ (EPDs) will be even more
important as suppliers compete to improve the The energy plus-objective of E39 Rogfast “died”
sustainability of their products and production mostly due to politics and the fact that NPRA does
facilities. not have in their business-model to generate
electricity. We believe, that in the future, all
Furthermore, engineering tools for analysis, projects must collect and utilize available
calculations and modelling are constantly resources where they are available, and systems
improving. This provides new opportunities to must be in place to allow infrastructure owners
better implement sustainability as part of the and operators to tie in surplus energy to the main
design process. Building information modelling grid.
could be used in calculating the CO2 emissions, by
introducing emission factors on specific materials And lastly, every project must collect data,
and elements in the model. Thus, it will improve evaluate ideas, try out new and more sustainable
the accuracy on emission calculations and make it materials in order to gain experience that new
easier to keep account of emissions within projects can use in the future. We also believe it is
projects. important that all large public builders, like the
NPRA, BaneNor (Railroad), Statsbygg (Public
buildings) and Norwegian Defence Estates Agency
6. Discussion and Conclusions: all requires their consultants, contractors, and
learning to take forward to the their operations and maintenance organisations
next project to strive towards more sustainable projects.
Goal setting is one key area in terms of
sustainability. Our experience suggests that
sustainability goals should be ambitious and
introduce healthy competition. Modest goals may
easily become outdated / obsolete throughout the
span of the project. As a result, contracts need a
mechanism for adjusting requirements, for
example, annual revisions.
We have found that the traditional method of

calculating a climate gas budget and finding
actions from “top down” will not give enough
climate gas reductions. A project must go from
“bottom up” and identify all the small and large
ideas to reach the new, external goal of 40%
reductions in the climate gas emissions.
Sustainability can only be achieved if all parts in

the project takes ownership into the projects
sustainability goal. Sustainability must be
evaluated and given weight in developing the
project, but if the contractor does not have any
incentives or requirements only parts of the goal
can be achieved. In Norway it is now more
common to use design-build contracts in large
infrastructure projects, and how to specify
8
837
The Vertical and Horizontal Displacements of Cross-river Twin-tunnels
Surroundings Induced by Tunneling

Lin Wu, Xiedong Zhang , Zhihua Zhang, Fajin Lin
School of Transportation, Wuhan University of Technology, Hubei, Wuhan, 430063, China
Contact: wl256724@whut.edu.cn
Abstract
Twin-tunnels are widely constructed in large cities because of their many advantages. The first
tunnel (named tunnel_1) constructed before a period time than the second tunnel (named
tunnel_2) which is to reduce the disturbance between twin-tunnels. In this paper, a
three-dimensional scale model of twin-tunnels is established utilizing the discrete element method
(DEM) with PFC3D, this model aims to investigate the difference of the vertical displacements and
the horizontal displacements of the surroundings in construction process. The numerical results
indicate that the peak vertical and horizontal displacements of the surroundings around tunnel_2
are larger than those around tunnel_1. The vertical and horizontal displacements of particles
decrease with the distance from the out edge of the twin-tunnels shield lining increases. The
existence and evolution of soil arching during tunneling process exert great influence on the stress
state and deformation of twin-tunnels surroundings. The peak horizontal displacements are larger
in the lateral points of twin-tunnels, while the peak vertical displacements are larger in the vault
and bottom points, the tunnel excavation leads the particles around the twin-tunnels move to new
location to achieve new equilibrium state. The peak vertical and horizontal displacements occur in
own tunnel excavation process, whereas the adjacent tunnel construction affects the displacements
as well. The excavation and existence of tunnel_1 have magnified effect on the vertical and
horizontal displacements of tunnel_2.
Keywords: Twin-tunnels; surroundings; PFC3D; Vertical displacement; Horizontal displacement
and the complicated geology condition bring

1 Introduction
serious challenges for twin-tunnels excavation. In
The additional vertical and horizontal the twin-tunnels construction process, the
displacements in cross section of twin-tunnels excavation of the second tunnel (named tunnel_2)
caused by the tunneling are the major concerns in will fall behind about one month than the
urban underground projects. Especially for the excavation of the first tunnel (named tunnel_1). The
cross-river twin-tunnels, the high water pressure influence of the tunneling
838
on the twin-tunnels surroundings has been the Flow Code 3D(short for PFC3D), this model aims to
urgent problem which should be paid more investigate the different vertical displacements and
attention. horizontal displacements of the surroundings in
tunneling process. The purposes of this study are to
Mirhabibi[1] investigated the difference of
obtain the different peak values of the vertical and
two-dimensional (2D) model and three-dimensional
horizontal displacements of the surroundings and
(3D) models about the influence of the twin-tunnels
to investigate the variation of the vertical and
excavation on the nearby buildings. Outcomes of
horizontal displacements of the surroundings in
the studies showed that 3D modeling has great
tunneling process of the twin-tunnels.
influence on the results and equivalent surface
beam, which is used in common practice of 2D 2 Model setup
plane strain models, over-estimates the stiffness of
Among the different research methods, numerical
building and leads to less settlement prediction in
simulations are increasingly used because of the
comparison with 3D simulation. Zhang[2] evaluated
complexity of twin-tunnels interaction and the
the heave of underlying tunnel induced by the
stability of numerical results [1]. The longitudinal
excavation of the adjacent tunnel. The soil-tunnel
section and transverse section profiles of the
interaction behavior was analyzed based on the
cross-river twin-tunnels are shown in Fig. 1. The
displacement coupling condition by assuming the
micro parameters of the twin-tunnels surroundings
tunnel as an elastic beam. Hamdy[3] found that the
and the C60 shield lining are shown in Table 1 and
construction procedure of the twin-tunnels affects
Table 2, respectively. The macro parameters in this
the soil displacement and internal forces.
model are shown in Table 2. Scale model [5] are
Construction of the bottom tunnel at first reduces
adopted in this paper, supposing the geometry size
bending moment in top tunnel lining and results in
reduced the 20 times and the value of gravity
small changes in bending moment in the bottom
remains unchanged. The similarity ratios of the
tunnel lining after the construction of top tunnel.
vertical displacement and horizontal displacement
Ratan[4] explored the stability of asymmetric
should be expanded of 20 times. The steps to setup
parallel tunnels in moderately jointed rock mass
this model are as follows:
using numerical simulation and highlight the
Step 1: Create a cubic and generate small particles
influences of surface topography, tunnel geometry
inside it.
and dimension on surface settlement.
Step 2: Consolidating the assembly with the
In view of the aforementioned issues, there is still calculated constant water pressure by the
limited knowledge on the displacements response servo-system, and then applying the gravity and
of twin-tunnels surroundings induced by tunneling buoyancy for each particle [6].
process, especially for cross-river twin-tunnels. In Step 3: Applying the microscopic parameters which
this paper, a three-dimensional scale model of are shown in Table 1-2, and then executing a
cross-river twin-tunnels is established by Particle certain cycle for reaching a quasi-static state.
Step 4: Locating several measurement points in the Step 5: Cycling the model for a stable condition
model and excavating the tunnel_1 by reducing the when there is no deformation of the surroundings
stiffness and cohesive bond of the particles in the around the tunnel_1, and then excavating the
excavation area to be zero in limited cycles. Then tunnel_2 with the same method in step 4. The
installing the concrete lining. constructed model is shown in Fig. 1. The 32
measurement points shown in Fig. 2.
839
Fig.1. The geology of the cross-river twin-tunnels, (a) The longitudinal section profile (b) The transverse
section profile (B is Coarse sand and contained with some gravel. D is Coarse sand and contained with some
cobble. T1 is tunnel_1, T2 is tunnel_2.)
Table 1 Micro parameters of the twin-tunnels surroundings
Parameters A B C D
Density（kN/m3） 1670 2010 2780 2070
Frictional angle（°） 10.5 42 40 40
Porosity 0.4 0.44 0.40 0.51
Modulus of compression（MPa） 2.17 35.4 80 38.1
Moisture content (%) 49.5 16.1 — 18.0
Friction coefficient 0.185 0.9 0.84 0.84
Normal stiffness (N/m) 1.45×104 2.34×105 5.36×105 2.5×105
Shear stiffness (N/m) 5.8×103 9.36×104 2.144×105 1×105
Normal strength of contact bond 67 0 2.5×103 0
(N)
Shear strength of contact bond (N) 67 0 2.5×103 0
Table 2 Micro parameters the macro parameters of the model

Parameters of shield lining Values Macro parameters of the model Values
Friction coefficient 1.98 Length × Width × Height (m3) 36×1.2×30
Weight of soil（kN/m3） 2180 The thickness of tunnel lining (m) 0.51
Parallel bond radius multiplier 1.0 The external diameter of tunnel (m) 6.52
The Young’s modulus of each parallel 36 The radius of particle in the 0.007-0.012
bond (GPa) surroundings (m)
Normal stiffness of parallel bond 1.8×1011 The radius of particles in segment (m) 0.003
(N/m)
Shear stiffness of parallel bond (N/m) 7.2×1010 Water pressure (Pa) 2.94×105
Normal strength of parallel bond (Pa) 1×108 Lateral pressure (Pa) 2.94×105
Shear strength of parallel bond (Pa) 1×108 The number of particles 48091
the deformation characteristics around the
3 Numerical results
twin-tunnels. The peak value and the variation of
The vertical displacement and the horizontal the displacements are identically important.
displacement are two important indexes to reflect
840
Fig. 2 The distribution of the measurement points in the surroundings of the twin-tunnels
vertical displacements of the particles near the
3.1 The peak vertical displacement excavation situation are larger, the peak vertical
displacements of the particles far from the
The peak vertical displacements of twin-tunnels excavation situation are smaller. It's worth noting
surroundings are shown in Fig. 3. The peak vertical that the monitoring particles around the
displacement can reflect the maximum vertical twin-tunnels in angles of 0°, 90° and 180° move
disturbance in excavation face caused by tunneling. downward in the excavation process, while the
monitoring particles in angles of 270° move upward.
The balance state of twin-tunnels particles is
destroyed, therefore the particles in the θ=270°
have a trend to move up to achieve equilibrium
state. Comparing the measurement points in
θ=270° and θ=90°, these points have different peak
vertical displacements while have the same
distance to the tunneling area. The points in
θ=270 ° which are located very close to the
underlying bedrock. The bedrock restricts the
vertical displacement of the twin-tunnels
surroundings when θ=270 °, what’s more, the peak
vertical displacements in 270° come to smaller with
the distance to the underlying bedrock decreases.
As illustrated in Fig. 3, the change of peak vertical
displacement in θ=270° are larger than that of the
particles in other angles. The reason may be that
the existence and evolution of soil arching in
Fig. 3. The peak vertical displacement of tunneling process exert great influence on the stress
surroundings versus the distance of the state and the deformation of the surroundings
measurement points from the lining of (a) tunnel_1 which has been studied by Rui[7]. Comparing the
(b) tunnel_2 peak vertical displacements in the same angle of
tunnel_1 and tunnel_2 that the values of the
As depicted in Fig. 3, the peak vertical
displacements around tunnel_2 is larger 10%-20%
displacements decrease with the distance from the
than that around the tunnel_1. That means, the
out edge of the lining increases. In general, the peak
construction and existence of tunnel_1 produce
841
influence on the peak vertical displacement of

tunnel_2 and lead larger vertical deformation for
tunnel_2 consequently.
3.2 The peak horizontal displacement
The peak horizontal displacements of particles in

the surroundings around tunnel_1 and tunnel_2 are
presented in Fig. 4. The variation of peak horizontal
displacements, is similar to the peak vertical
displacements, however still shows some different
features as follows:
First, the peak horizontal displacements are larger

when θ=0° and 180°, while the peak horizontal
displacements are nearly equal to zero when θ=90°
and 270°. Comparing the Fig. 3 and Fig. 4, the peak
vertical displacements of the twin-tunnels
surroundings are larger when θ=90° and 270°,
Fig. 4. The peak horizontal displacement of
whereas the peak vertical displacements are
surroundings versus the distance of the
relatively small when θ=90° and 270°. The
measurement points from the lining of (a) tunnel_1
phenomenon illustrates that the horizontal
(b) tunnel_2
displacement response is larger in the horizontal
sides of the twin-tunnels, simultaneously, the Third, the vertical displacement in the vault and
vertical sides of the twin-tunnels have strong bottom of the twin-tunnels leads the vertical
response of vertical displacement. The stress diameter of the tunnels to become shorter, the
redistribution caused by tunnel excavation leads the horizontal displacements in left and right lateral
particles around the twin-tunnels to move to new sides lead horizontal diameter of the twin-tunnels
location to achieve new balance. to become shorter, therefore, the cross section of
twin-tunnels turns smaller in the tunneling process
Second, comparing Fig. 4 (a) and (b), for the points
and the change of the cross section of the tunnel_2
of θ=90° and 270°, the peak horizontal
is slightly larger than that of the tunnel_1.
displacements have very small change. For the
points of θ=0° and 180°, the peak horizontal
3.3 The variation process of vertical and
displacements magnify 20% -30% around tunnel_2
horizontal displacements
than those values around tunnel_1. It indicated that
the construction and existence of tunnel_1 have
Through previous analysis, the maximum horizontal
influence on the peak horizontal displacement in
displacements appear in the angle of 0° and 180°.
lateral points of tunnel_2. The deformation of
The maximum vertical displacements appear in the
tunnel_2 is larger than that of tunnel_1 in the
angle of 90° and 270°. For the purpose to explore
horizontal direction caused by tunnel_1 excavation
the varying law of displacements around
disturbance.
twin-tunnels in the tunneling process, Fig. 5
illustrates the variation process of the vertical and
842
horizontal displacements in specific points. The excavation is 3.6 mm shown in Fig. 5(a) of
peak horizontal and vertical displacements of the T1_i3_270° and the maximum variation of vertical
tunnel_1 occur in the excavation process of the displacement during the tunnel_2 excavation is 6
tunnel_1, and the peak horizontal and vertical mm shown in Fig. 5(b) of T2_i3_270°. This
displacements of the tunnel_2 occur in the phenomenon appears maybe the tunnel_1
excavation process of the tunnel_2. Nevertheless, excavation weaken the restrict of underlying
the tunnel_2 construction has influence on the bedrock, the tunnel_2 excavation produce larger
surroundings deformation of the tunnel_1. The vertical displacement in θ=270° than that of
peak and final displacements around tunnel_2 are tunnel_1.
generally larger than those around tunnel_1.
Notably, the peak vertical displacements take place
4 Conclusions
in the time points of the tunnel_2 excavation is
finished both for tunnel_1 and tunnel_2 in the vault (1) The peak vertical and horizontal
of twin-tunnels’ measurement points. Because the displacements decrease with the distance
gravity and tunneling disturbance have the identical from the out edge of the lining increase. The
effect for the particles when θ=90°. peak horizontal displacements are larger in
the lateral points, while the peak vertical
displacements are larger in the vault and
bottom of twin-tunnels, the existence and
evolution of soil arching in tunneling process
exert great influence on the stress state and
deformation of twin-tunnels surroundings.
(2) The peak horizontal and vertical
displacements occur in own tunnel
excavation, whereas the adjacent tunnel
construction will influence the horizontal and
vertical displacements as well. Comparing
the vertical displacements of the
surroundings around the tunnel_1 and
tunnel_2, the peak vertical displacements
magnify 10%-20% around tunnel_2 than that
around tunnel_1. Comparing the horizontal
displacements, the peak horizontal
displacements magnify 20% -30% of the vault
and bottom points around tunnel_2 than the
values around tunnel_1.
Fig. 5. The variation of horizontal and vertical 5 References

displacements of the surroundings with the distance
[1] Mirhabibi A., Soroush A. Effects of building
of 2.8 m, (a) around tunnel_1, (b) around tunnel_2
three-dimensional modeling type on twin
For the case of θ=270°, the maximum variation of tunneling-induced ground settlement.
vertical displacement during the tunnel_1 Tunnelling and Underground Space
843
Technology. 38(2013):224-234. [5] Fang Y., Xu C., Cui G., Bernadette K. Scale
model test of highway tunnel construction
[2] Zhang J.F., Chen J.J., Wang J.H., Zhu Y.F.
underlying mined-out thin coal seam.
Prediction of tunnel displacement induced by
Tunnelling and Underground Space
adjacent excavation in soft soil. Tunneling and
Technology. 56(2016):105-116.
Underground Space Technology.
36(2013):24-33. [6] Zhang Z.H., Zhang X.D., Qiu H.S., Daddow M.
Dynamic characteristics of track-ballast-silty
[3] Hamdy H.A. Abd-el. R., Mahmoud E., Ahmed
clay with irregular vibration levels generated
A.K., Abdou S.H. Ahmed. Twin tunnel
by high-speed train based on DEM.
configuration for Greater Cairo metro line
Construction and Building Materials
No.4. Computers and Geotechnics.
125(2016):564-73.
68(2015):66-77.
[7] Rui R., Frits V.T., Xia X.L., Suzanne V.E., Hu G.,
[4] Ratan D., Singh P.K., Ashutosh K., Suman P.,
Xia Y.Y., Evolution of soil arching; 2D DEM
Singh T.N. Numerical analysis of surface
simulations. Computers and Geotechnics.
subsidence in asymmetric parallel highway
73(2016):199-209.
tunnels. Journal of Rock Mechanics and
Geotechnical Engineering. 9(2017):170-179.
844
The application of steel-concrete-steel composite structures in

immersed tunnels
Yu-Tao Guo, Jian-guo Nie, Jian-Sheng Fan
Key Lab. of Civil Engineering Safety and Durability of China Education Ministry, Dept. of Civil
Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China 100084
Guo-ping Xu, Liang Tang

Highway Bridges National Engineering Research Centre, CCCC Highway Consultants Co., Ltd., Beijing,
China 100088
Shen-you Song
Administration of Shenzhen-Zhongshan Passage, Guangzhou, China, 510600
Contact: guoyutao11@foxmail.com
Abstract
The compartment steel-concrete-steel (CSCS) composite structures with longitudinal and transverse
diaphragms and ribs own superiorities over traditional structural types and becomes a trend for
mega immersed tunnels in the future. However, the investigations on the mechanisms of the out-
of-plane performances of CSCS composite structures are rather limited. 3 bending tests and 3 shear
tests were conducted and it is found that the current design method of bending has enough
accuracy but the restrictions of rib spacing due to local buckling could be further relaxed. However,
the current design method of shear cannot predict the shear resistance satisfactorily. Through
theoretical analysis, a shear design method considering the combination of steel-concrete
composite anti-shear mechanism and steel web anti-shear mechanism is proposed and verified, this
method agrees well with the test and is suggested to be used in application.
Keywords: steel-concrete-steel composite structure; immersed tunnel; mega structure; out-of-
plane performance; bending capacity; shear capacity
while casting, and preventing leakage in the
1 Introduction working stage; the concrete core is the main
The steel-concrete-steel (SCS) composite structure, compression component, offering supports to the
also called double skin composite structure (DSC), steel plate to prevent local buckling. By combining
consists of two outer steel plates and a filled-in the advantages of the steel and concrete, it shows
concrete core, and shear connectors such as mechanic characteristics of high capacity, rigidity,
headed studs, channel steel and rebar are used in ductility, blast and impact resistance, and has a
the interface to achieve the composite action of good performance in constructional efficiency and
the steel and the concrete [1]. There are usually no leakage prevention, which leading to a versatile
reinforcements in the concrete core, the steel application in protect structures, offshore
plates are the main tension components, offering structures, building cores, basements, bridge decks
confinement to the concrete, acting as frameworks and immersed tunnels [2-3].
845
Since the 1980s, SCS composite structures began to difficult to ensure the precise distance between the
be used in immersed tunnels [4]. Compared with two steel plates, and welding bolts one by one
the traditional reinforced concrete structure, the would cost a lot of time and manpower, as a result,
SCS composite structure has the advantages of high this concept was not adopted in the project [7].
capacity, leakage prevention, low requirements of
prefabricating sites, construction efficiency, etc.,
making it more suitable for mega immersed
tunnels.
In this paper, the development of immersed
tunnels and the application of SCS composite
structures are summarized. Based on the previous
researches and engineering practices, 6 specimens
of the SCS composite structures were tested,
including 3 bending tests and 3 shear tests. The size
of the specimens were designed to resemble one Figure 1. Overlapped headed studs SCS composite
half of the structures that are used in practical structure
application in an immersed tunnel. The test results
In order to simplify the welding work of the studs,
are compared with the existing method, and
as shown in Figure 2, the Corus corporation in the
suggestions are proposed for the practical design.
UK proposed a new concept of Bi-steel sandwich
composite structure, of which the outer steel
2 The development of immersed plates are connected by steel bars simultaneously
tunnels friction welded at both ends [8]. The equipment to
In 1910, the first immersed tunnel in the world fabricate Bi-steel structures was of efficiency but
used in transportation, the Detroit River Railway limited the depth of the structure within a range of
tunnel in the U.S., was a double steel shell structure, 200-700mm [9]. The Bi-Steel composite structure
but at that time the shear connectors were not had been widely used in nuclear walls, shear walls,
used in the structure and the steel shell was not etc., and the design standards had been published
taken into structural consideration but only used as [10]. However, the application in immersed tunnels
constructional frameworks and for leakage is still not reported, mainly due to that the
prevention [5]. Later, connectors such as J-hooks manufacturing equipment limits the size of the
were used in the interface to enhance the structure, which is too small to be used in mega
connection between the steel shell and concrete, tunnels.
but the concrete core was still reinforced and was Almost at the same time as the overlapped headed
considered as the main load-bearing structure studs SCS composite structure was proposed in
while the steel shell was very thin [6]. Wales, in 1988, as shown in Figure 3, Japan
In 1930, for the first time, the Maas Tunnel in developed a steel structure consisting of a new
Netherlands presented a reinforced concrete type of compartment SCS composite structure with
structure with a multi-box rectangular cross- longitudinal and transverse diaphragms and ribs
section; the structure was prefabricated in [4]. During the construction stage, the outer steel
factories in several sections; this concept of plates are connected by the diaphragms, and the L-
immersed tunnels had been used in Europe shape steel acts as stiffeners. During the operation
exclusively ever since [6]. stage, the diaphragms and the outer steel plates
act cooperatively to carry load, and the L-shape
In 1986, in the Conwy River immersed tunnel in steel serves as shear connectors for steel-concrete
Wales, UK, the Tomlinson Corporation proposed a composition. The capacity of the steel has been
SCS composite structure with overlapped headed fully used both in the construction and operation
studs (as seen in Figure 1). However, this concept stage, saving a lot of cost. Compared to the
was inconvenient for construction because it was previous steel shell structure, the CSCS composite
846
structure has removed the reinforcements, which efficiency, the CSCS composite structure had been
reduces the usage of steel and simplifies the used in several projects in Japan and a design code
construction. Due to its superiorities in both had been published [11].
structural performance and constructional
(a) Manufacturing equipment (b) Detail of the structure
Figure 2. Bi-steel SCS composite structure
L Steel+I Steel Ribs

Concrete
Outer Steel Plates Pouring Hole
Air pore
Concrete Core
Steel Diaphragms Outer Steel Plates Steel Diaphragms
(a) In a immersed tunnel (b) Detailed structure
Figure 3. The CSCS composite structure
For bending design, the code suggests that using

3 The current design method plastic theory as reinforced concrete beams,
Despite the massive research works done on SCS however, two factors of reduction should be
composite structures, however, the studies on the further considered. The first factor is the reduction
CSCS composite structure with diaphragms and ribs of the strength of the compression steel plate due
are rather limited. The major study works [12] to local buckling:
finished in Japan had been summarized into the
design code [11], which was mainly an adaption of 𝑓yd ′ = 𝑡f /𝑠h √𝐸s 𝑓y ′ (1)
JSCE guideline for concrete [13].
847
where 𝑓yd ′ is the strength considering local

𝑉u3d = sin 𝛼2 (cot 𝜃 + cot 𝛼2 )𝐴z 𝑓y /𝑠wz (8)
buckling; 𝑡f is the thickness of the compression
plate; 𝑠h is the spacing of the ribs in the where 𝑉uz is the shear capacity when there are only
compression direction; 𝐸s is the elasticity modulus longitudinal diaphragms; 𝑉u3d is the shear capacity
of the steel; 𝑓y ′is the compression strength of the when the steel tension strut fails; 𝛼2 is the angle
steel. The second factor is the reduction of the between the longitudinal diaphragm and the axial
strength of the steel diaphragm considering shear: direction, usually equals to 90°; 𝐴z is the area of
the longitudinal diaphragm; 𝑠wz is the spacing of
𝑓wyd = 𝑓wy (1 − 𝜎w /𝑓wy ) (2) the longitudinal diaphragms.
where 𝑓wyd is the strength of the diaphragm The CSCS design code is mainly an adaption of JSCE
considering the influence of shear stress; 𝑓wy is code for concrete, considering that the transverse
the strength of the steel; 𝜎w is the shear stress. diaphragm as stirrups in 60° direction and the
longitudinal diaphragm as stirrup in 90° direction.
For shear the code categorizes the structure into The code states there are few studies on CSCS
two cases: only with the transverse or longitudinal structures with bidirectional diaphragms and the
diaphragms; the minor value should be taken when current method is conservative.
there are bidirectional diaphragms. When there
are only transverse diaphragms: 4 Experimentation
𝑉uh = min(𝑉u1d , 𝑉u2d ) (3) The CSCS composite structure with diaphragms and
ribs suits well in mega immersed tunnels, but the
𝑉u1d = 𝑓vud 𝐵ℎc (4) researches on its mechanisms are rather limited.
The current design method is an adaption of
𝑉u2d = sin2 𝛼1 (cot 𝜃 + cot 𝛼1 )𝑡wh 𝑧𝑓y (5) guideline for concrete structure. To verify the
reliability of the current method and to investigate
𝑓vud =1.25𝑓c ′1/2 (6) the mechanisms of bending and shear, 3 bending
specimens and 3 shear specimens were tested, the
where 𝑉uh is the shear capacity when there are parameters of the specimens are shown in Table 1,
only transverse diaphragms; 𝑉u1d is the shear all the specimens have a beam height of 800 mm.
capacity when the concrete diagonal compression In Table 1, B1 is the basic bending specimen; B2
strut fails; 𝑉u2d is the shear capacity when the steel considers the influence of the spacing of the ribs on
diagonal tension strut fails; 𝑓vud is the strength of the local buckling of the compression flange; B3
the concrete when it fails in diagonal compression; considers the effect of the possible gap in the top
𝐵 is the width of the member; ℎc is the height of due to the insufficient air venting while concrete
the concrete; 𝛼1 is the angle between the steel casting, the thickness of the gap is set to be 5 mm
diagonal tension strut and the axial direction, set by EVA material along the whole specimen,
equals to 60° ; 𝜃 is the angle between the concrete which is conservative; S1 is the basic shear
diagonal compression strut and the axial direction, specimen; S2, S3 are with thicker flanges in order
equals to 30°; 𝑡wh is the thickness of the transverse to investigate the boundary of the failure mode
diaphragms; 𝑧 is the distance between the bending between the bending and shear. The webs of B1-B3
compression centre in the concrete and the centre in the shear span are thickened to avoid possible
of the tension flange; 𝑓y is the yield strength of the shear failure. The loading device and the
steel; 𝑓c ′ is the compressive concrete strength. arrangement of the test are shown in Figure 4, in
When there are only longitudinal diaphragms: which it could be seen that the bending members
are subjected to four-point loading and the shear
𝑉uz = min(𝑉u1d , 𝑉u3d ) (7) members are subjected to three-point loading.
848
Table 1. Parameters of the specimens (unit: mm, MPa)

Type No. Variable l B sh tt tb twh twz gap 𝑓c ′
B1 Basic 6000 600 250 6 10 10 6 0 36,8
Bending B2 s1 6000 600 100 6 10 10 6 0 36,8
B3 gap 6000 600 250 6 10 10 6 5 36,8
S1 Basic 3000 600 300 6 10 10 6 0 36,8
Shear S2 tt & tb 3000 400 300 25 25 10 6 0 36,8
S3 tt & tb 3000 400 100 40 40 10 6 0 36,8
Notes: l is the span; B is the width; sh is the spacing of the transverse rib; tt is the thickness of the top flange; tb is the
thickness of the bottom flange; twh is the thickness of the transverse diaphragm; twz is the thickness of the longitudinal
diaphragm; 𝑓c ′ is the cylinder compressive concrete strength.
Actuator
Longitudinal Longitudinal Longitudinal Actuator Transverse

diaphragm rib diaphragm diaphragm
800
4×375=1500 4×375=1500
LVDT LVDT LVDT Transverse

rib
200 5×300=1500 5×300=1500 5×300=1500 5×300=1500 200 200 5×300=1500 5×300=1500 200
6400 3400 B
Figure 4. The arrangement of the test
(a) Diaphragms (b) Connectors (c) Concrete casting (d) EVA
Figure 5. Details of the specimens
In Table 1, the cylinder compressive concrete A number of strain gauges are arranged on the
strength is according to 150×150×150mm standard surface of the steel plates. The strain gauges are
test block, 0,76 times of the cubic compressive arranged in the upper flanges of the bending
strength is used. The steel properties in different members to measure the possible local buckling;
thickness are shown in Table 2, the elastic modulus axially and transversely along the flanges to
of the steel is about 2,06 × 105MPa, the strain range consider possible stress concentration and shear
of the plastic platform after yielding is within a lag effect; along the height of the web to examine
range of about 0,002-0,02, showing good ductility. the plane section assumption of the bending
849
members and the distribution of the stress of the on the flexural performance. Both B1 and B3
shear members. During the test, load control showed visible buckling when the deflection is
technique is used in the elastic phase, and about 90mm, then the buckling developed and the
displacement control technique is used when members achieved similar ultimate capacities. It
approaching yielding. can be seen from Table 3 that the local buckling of
the flexural members occurred after the yielding
Table 2. Properties of the steel (unit: mm, MPa)
point, that is, the spacing of the ribs in the test
Thickness fy fu Elongation could meet the demand of local buckling
6 401 536 16.70% preventing. Analysis of the web strain of the pure
10 363 494 15.30% bending section B1 verifies plane section
25 376 545 22.70% assumption. S3 showed typical shear failure mode
40 305 506 28.70% denoted by diagonal concrete cracks and diagonal
Notes: fy is the yield strength; fu is the tensile strength. crushes of the concrete at the ultimate state. The
failure mode of S1 was different from S3, in which
The summarized test results are shown in Table 3, vertical bending cracks were found. S2 showed a
and the load-deflection curves are shown in Figure coupling failure pattern of bending and shear. The
6, in which the yield point is based on the energy different failure modes of the shear specimens are
theory and obtained using the graphic method [14]. due different thickness of the flanges.
Typical failure patterns are shown in Error!
Reference source not found.. Table 3. Main results of test (unit: mm, kN)
Failure
The spacing of the transverse ribs has some No. 𝛿y Py 𝛿u Pu
mode
influence on the flexural performance. For B1,
B1 Bending 50,2 3859 171,8 4558
when it was loaded to 90mm, visible buckling
occurred on the upper flange; loaded to 120mm, B2 Bending 55,1 4888 182,8 5747
the upper concrete began to fall off; loaded to B3 Bending 45,7 3958 153,2 4567
180mm, the buckling was more obvious and the S1 Bending 21,8 4995 69,9 5899
concrete crushed. For B2, when it was loaded to S2 B. & S. 18,6 6291 34,7 7194
180mm, visible buckling occurred; loaded to S3 Shear 17,8 7318 50,6 8249
200mm, the buckling became more obvious and Notes: 𝛿 y is the yield deflection; Py is the yield load; 𝛿 u is
the concrete crushed. The gap has little influence the deflection of the peak point; Pu is the peak load.
6000 10000
5000
8000
4000
Load (kN)
Load (kN)
6000
3000
4000
2000 B1
S1
B2
S2
B3 2000
1000 S3
0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 0 30 60 90 120 150
Deflection (mm) Deflection (mm)
(a) Bending (a) Shear
Figure 6. Load-deflection curves
850
(a) Bending specimen B1 and the local buckling of the top flange
(a) Shear specimen S3 and the buckling of the transverse diaphragm

Figure 7. Typical failure patterns
design code, this paper suggests the shear capacity
5 Suggestions for the design should be calculated as follows:
The predicted results by the current method are
listed and compared with the test in Table 4 and 𝑉 = 𝑉c + 𝑉s (9)
Table 5. For bending, the method considering
reduction in the code and the method not 𝑉c = 1.25𝑓c ′1/2 𝐵ℎc (10)
considering reduction both give satisfactory results,
proving that the ratio of spacing of ribs to thickness 𝑉s = 0.58𝜅𝑡wh 𝑧𝑓y (11)
of the compression plates sh/tt=250/6=41.7
1.25𝑓c ′1/2 𝐵ℎc
could be used in application. 𝜅 = 1 − sin2 𝛼 (12)
1 (cot 𝜃+cot 𝛼1 )𝑡wh 𝑧𝑓y
For shear, the method in the design code is much
more conservative since it does not considering the Table 5 shows the results predicted by the
pure shear mechanism of web when the transverse proposed method, which agree well with the test
diaphragm is thick enough. By modifying the CSCS and could be utilized in the application.
Table 4. Predicted results of bending tests based on theoretical method (unit: kN)
The CSCS code No Reduction
No. Failure mode Test
Cal. Err. Cal. Err.
B1 Bending 3859 3688 -4,4% 3805 -1,4%
B2 Bending 4888 4243 -13,2% 4241 -13,2%
B3 Bending 3958 3980 0,6% 4120 4,1%
Notes: “No reduction” shows the calculating result that does not considering the reduction of local buckling.
Table 5. Predicted results of shear tests based on theoretical method (unit: kN)
The CSCS code Proposed
No. Failure mode Test
Cal. Err. Cal. Err.
S1 Bending 4995 7019 - 8393 -
S2 B. & S. 6291 4438 -29,4% 6282 -0,1%
S3 Shear 7318 4261 -41,8% 6031 -17,6%
851
[5] Gursoy A. Immersed steel tube tunnels: An

6 Conclusion American experience. Tunnelling &
1) The novel CSCS composite structure shows Underground Space Technology, 1995,
superiorities in structural performance and 10(4):439-453.
constructional efficiency and is suitable for the [6] Walter C. Grantz. Steel-shell immersed
mega immersed tunnels in the future. tunnels—Forty years of experience.
2) 6 beam tests of CSCS composite structures Tunnelling & Underground Space
were carried out, including 3 bending tests and Technology, 1997, 12(1):23-31.
3 shear tests. The test results are analysed and
the recommendations for design are [7] Tomlinson M, Tomlinson A, Chapman ML, et
proposed. al. Shell composite construction for shallow
3) The research shows that the existing design draft immersed tube tunnels. In: Proceedings
method can predict the flexural capacity of the ICE international conference on
satisfactorily, but the prediction of the shear immersed tube tunnel techniques.
capacity is too conservative. The method Manchester (UK): Thomas Telford; 1989.
proposed in this paper considering different [8] Bowerman H, Chapman J C. Bi-Steel Steel-
mechanisms is in good consistency with the Concrete-Steel Sandwich Construction.
test, which could be utilized in the application. Composite Construction in Steel and
Concrete IV Conference. 2014:656-667.
7 Acknowledgements [9] Xie M, Chapman J C. Developments in
The writers gratefully acknowledge the financial sandwich construction. J. Constr. Steel Res.,
support provided by the National Natural Science 2006, 62(11):1123-1133.
Foundation of China (grant number 51725803),
[10] Bowerman HG, Gough MS, King CM. Bi-Steel
and the support of the Administration of Shenzhen-
design and construction guide. Scunthorpe:
Zhongshan Passage, Guangzhou, China.
British Steel Ltd; 1999.
8 References [11] Research Subcommittee on Steel-Concrete

sandwich Structures, Concrete Committee.
[1] Roberts TM, Edwards DN, Narayanan R. Design code of steel-concrete sandwich
Testing and analysis of steel-concrete-steel structures. Concrete Library No.73, JSCE,
sandwich beams. J. Constr. Steel Res., 1996, 1992. (in Japanese)
38(3):257-279.
[12] Setsuo I, Yoichi H. On the strength of
[2] Liew JYR, Sohel KMA, Koh CG. Impact tests composite steel-concrete structures of
on steel–concrete–steel sandwich beams sandwich system (6th report: ultimate
with lightweight concrete core. Eng. Struct. toughness under shear and bending model).
2009, 31(9):2045-2059. Journal of the Society of Naval Architects of
[3] Yan JB, Liew JYR, Zhang MH, et al. Japan, 1994(175):281-289 (in Japanese).
Experimental and analytical study on [13] Concrete Committee. Standard Specification
ultimate strength behavior of steel– for Design and Construction of Concrete
concrete–steel sandwich composite beam Structures. JSCE, 1991.
structures. Mater. Struct., 2015, 48(5):1523-
1544. [14] Nie J G, Hu H S, Fan J S, et al. Experimental
study on seismic behavior of high-strength
[4] Akimoto K, Hashidate Y, Kitayama H, et al. concrete filled double-steel-plate composite
Immersed tunnels in Japan: recent walls. J. Constr. Steel Res., 2013, 88(9):206-
technological trends. International 219.
Symposium on Underwater Technology.
IEEE, 2002:81-86.
852
Tunneling Works for East Coast Rail Link Project, Malaysia

Mohamed Kamal
Malaysia Rail Link Sdn. Bhd., Malaysia
Bai Yinzhan, Liu Zhaohui

China Communications Construction (ECRL) Sdn. Bhd., Malaysia
Contact: kamal@mrl.com.my
Abstract
The Malaysian Government, as part of its overall transport plan, proposes to connect Kuala
Lumpur and Port Klang to the East Coast through a strategic railway network. The project planned
by the East Coast Economic Region (ECER) is the East Coast Rail Link (ECRL) which is envisaged to
comprehensively serve all the main centres of the East Coast Region. With the estimated total length
of approximately 628km for Phase 1 and Phase 2, part of the alignment traverses through the hilly
Titiwangsa Range at Genting Sempah, Bukit Tinggi. At this location a twin bored tunnel, which will
be the longest tunnel in South East Asia, approximately 16.4km in length will be constructed. This
paper focuses on te tunnel safety concept which will be designed and constructed based on the
Chinese Code.
Keywords: Tunnels; safety concept.
1 Introduction In November 2016, the Government of Malaysia

The Government is committed towards the had signed an Engineering, Procurement,
development of the East Coast Economic Region Construction and Commissioning Contract (EPCC)
(ECER) and the aspiration is stipulated in several with China Communications Construction
development plan documents for the region, Company Ltd and China Communications
including the ECER Master Plan, National Physical Construction (M) Sdn Bhd to build Phase 1 of the
Plan (NPP), State Structure Plans, and ECER Special ECRL from Wakaf Baru to ITT Gombak. Under Phase
Economic Zone (SEZ) Framework Plan. These 2 of the project, the line will be extended from
documents call for the inclusiveness and regional Wakaf Baru to Pengkalan Kubur in Kelantan and
balance in the ECER and have outlined the need for from Gombak North to Port Klang via Serendah in
an integrated transport infrastructure as the Selangor.
catalyst for growth and development in the region.
Several feasibility studies have been conducted to The ECRL line traverses across mountainous and
ascertain the viability of establishing a railway hilly area of Titiwangsa Range from Selangor to
network, such as the ECRL, in the region to Pahang where the ruling railway gradient of 0.9%
complement the existing road/expressway necessitates for the longest railway tunnel in South
infrastructure such as the Lebuhraya Pantai Timur East Asia. The tunnel is of a twin bored type and it
(LPT) and the existing KTMB East Coast Line. is approximately 16.4km in length.
853
This paper gives some information on the relevant twin track, the longer Berapit tunnel is a double
guidelines for the tunnel safety and the approach bored single track.
for the development of a tunnel safety concept.
2 Railway Tunnels in Malaysia

The tunnel construction in Malaysia was initially
constructed by the British before Malaysia was
independent and the lines were operated by
Federated Malay States Railway (now, Keretapi
Tanah Melayu Berhad or KTMB). Not much
emphasis was put in the safety aspect then since
the tunnels were short in length. While a few the
tunnels have been abandoned or reconstructed,
tunnels along the East Coast Line in Kelantan at Figure 2. Double Bored Berapit Tunnel
Sungai Mengkuang, Ulu Temiang, Dabong and
Kuala Geris are still in service.
Fig 3 Single Bored Larut Tunnel
3 Code of Practice
Figure 1. KTMB’s old tunnel Malaysia is yet to have a Code of Practice or
Standard about railway tunnels, although the
The first modern rail transit tunnel was for the designs for such tunnels in the country are based
Putra Kelana Jaya LRT line constructed between on International Standard such as NFPA 130 for
1996 and 1998 was commissioned in 1999. The LRT/MRT and Italian Decree for mixed passenger
tunnel was constructed using Full Face and Open and freight traffics heavy rail system.
Face tunnel boring machines depending on where
the alignment passes through. The tunnel safety The safety requirements in the Italian Decree are
concept was purely based on NFPA 130 as a guide broadly categorised into two main categories i.e.
in the design for tunnel safety. Minimal requirements and Supplementary
requirements. Minimal requirements are to be met
As the Government embarked on the for tunnel length not more than 2km, train
modernisation and double tracking of heavy rail frequency not more 220 trips/day and for tunnel
line, two tunnels were constructed at Bukit Berapit with single gradient. The minimal requirements
and Larut for KTMB line in 2008, and the line was were further relaxed for tunnel length between
commissioned 6 years later. Measuring 3.3km in 500m and 1000m. For tunnel length more than
length for Berapit and 330m for Larut, these 5km, risk analysis need to be conducted based on
tunnels were designed based on Italian Decree the guidelines in the Decree. A straight forward
which follows Tunnel Specification for requirement cannot be concluded from the Decree
Interoperability for Safety in Rail Tunnel (TSI SRT). requirement and is subject to the outcome of risks
While the shorter Larut tunnel is a single bored analysis.
854
The tunnel safety design for ECRL tunnels is based tunnel alignment traverses through the hard
on Chinese Codes. Three main Codes that have granite material of Titiwangsa Range with the
been referred to are: deepest depth of 350m below the ground level and
terminate at Lentang in Pahang.
a. TB 10003-2016 Code for Design of Tunnel
for Railway.
b. TB 10020-2017 Code for Design of Rescue
Engineering for Disaster Prevention and
Evacuation of Railway Tunnel.
c. TB 10068-2010 Code for Design of
Operation Ventilation of Railway Tunnel.
The decision to adopt the Chinese Code was made

after China Communications Construction
Company and its consultants have made
comparison study on several International
Standards, meetings and workshop held between
MRL and consultation with Fire & Rescue
Department of Malaysia (Bomba). Contrary to our
initial understanding, the Chinese Code is a set of Figure 4 Alignment of Genting Tunnel
Code developed by the Railway Authority of China
and it was found that the requirements are similar The following are the general information about
or if not more stringent than any other the tunnel:
International Codes or Standards. The rapid
development of railway industry in China had Table 1. General Information of Genting Tunnel
necessitates for the authorities to regulate and
Characteristics Specification
enforced a Standard that is equivalent with other
parts of the world.
Tunnel length Approximately 16.4 km
As of 2008, there were 6,102 number of railway Combination of Drill &
tunnels in service in Mainland China (excluding Method of Construction Blast and Tunnel Boring
Hong Kong and Taiwan), including 183 over 3 Machine
kilometers and seven over 10 kilometers with total Operation Speed 160 km/hr
length reaches 3,938,913 meters. The longest
Track Gradient 0.76% and 0.3%
single tunnel was completed in 2016 with a length
of 38.8 km. Track-bed Ballast-less
The authority continues to update the Code based

The dimension of the tunnel has been designed to
on domestic and overseas research to meet the
take into consideration the structure gauge and
construction and developments needs and to
construction tolerances with minimum cross-
improve the design level. For example, TB10020-
sectional area of 42mm2 based on the requirement
2012 has been updated in year 2017 and similarly
of relevant Chinese Codes. For tunnel section
TB 1003-2016 had superseded TB 10003-2005.
adopting a tunnel boring machine method of
construction, the inner contour of the lining has
4 Overview of Genting Tunnel been adjusted accordingly to suite with circular
Genting tunnel is a double bored-single track shape of the TBM cutter face.
tunnel approximately 16.4km in length. The tunnel
portal in Selangor located near the Gombak river
downstream of the Karak Highway crossing. The
855
5.1 ‘Hot’ Incidents (such as a fire or

explosion)
Fire could start in a passenger train or power-unit
and could become fully developed within 15-20
minutes after ignition. Whenever possible the train
should leave the tunnel. If the train comes to a
stop, passengers will be evacuated, directed by the
train crew, or by self-rescue, to a safe area.
5.2 ‘Cold’ Incidents (such as a collision or

derailment)
The relevant mitigation measures concentrate on
access/egress facilities to support evacuation and
the intervention of rescue forces. The difference
with the hot scenarios is that there is no time
constraint due to the presence of a hostile
Figure 5 Genting Tunnel Typical Cross Section (Drill environment created by a fire.
and Blast)
5.3 Prolonged Stop
A prolonged stop (an unplanned stop in a tunnel,
without a fire on board, for longer than 10-15
minutes) is not, by itself, a threat to passengers and
staff. However, it may lead to panic and to
spontaneous, uncontrolled evacuation that
exposes people to dangers presence in a tunnel
environment. Measures should be provided to
keep such a situation under control.
6.0 Tunnel Design Safety Concept

Although in the tunnel projects, major focus is put
on the infrastructural safety measures, it must be
pointed out that tunnel safety depends not only on
infrastructural measures but on a bigger number of
Figure 6 Genting Tunnel Typical Cross Section sub-systems. Figure 7 gives an overview over these
(Tunnel Boring Machine) sub-systems. All of them are equally important and
must be considered in the development of a tunnel
5 Hazards safety concept.AR NAME LOCATION I
The main incidents that could disrupt the normal
operation of the train in the tunnels are expected
to be:
 Collisions;
 Derailment;
 Fires;
 Explosions;
 Structural collapse
In terms of the consequences, three types of rail

incidents can be identified:
856
It is important to note that measures preventing an

Health & incident in the tunnel (e.g. emergency brake
Safety
Conditions neutralisation during a tunnel passage) are much
Maintenance more effective than measures which improve the
Infrastructure
Rules self-rescue (facilitation of escape) of passengers or
measures which support the rescue services
Tunnel Safety (facilitation of rescue). The strength of railway
safety lies in the prevention of accidents.
Operation Energy
Rules A safety concept generally consists of a
combination of infrastructure (civil and technical),
Rolling Stock operations and rolling stock measures, which
should be combined in a manner to achieve an
optimised concept. The definition of specific safety
measures in a project should be based on an
Figure 7. Sub-system Relevant for Railway Tunnel assessment of the risk (risk-based safety concept).
Safety
6.1 Safety Measures
Although there is no generally accepted state-of- In the early phase of the project, the infrastructural
the-art for tunnel safety, some generally agreed safety measures shall be defined as a basis for the
principles do exist. So, the design of a tunnel must planning of the tunnels. The most important
allow the self-rescue and evacuation of train measures are:
passengers and staff. Furthermore, provisions for
the rescue services to rescue people in the event of 6.1.1 Tunnel System
an incident in a tunnel shall be provided.  Single track tunnels: All tunnels are single
Appropriate safety measures should be considered track depending on the length, so that
when a tunnel safety concept is developed. there are no switches in the tunnels. The
risks associate with train crossings and
The order in which these categories are listed derailment are thus reduced.
reflect their decreasing effectiveness to reduce the
risk in a railway tunnel (see Figure 8).
Risk in Tunnel
Prevention
Mitigation
Evacuation
Rescue
Figure 8. Hierarchy of Safety Measures
857
 Escape routes: Special lateral escape 6.1.4 Ventilation

passages in longer tunnels will be built. Whilst longer road tunnels are generally equipped
Cross passages that links the two tunnels with a mechanical ventilation system, railway
for means of escape at every 500 m has tunnels are normally do not have a mechanical
been planned. On one side of the tunnel ventilation system because there is no exhaust
adjacent to the other tunnel, a lateral from combustion engines which must be removed
walkway that links all the cross passages is from the tunnel. If railway tunnels are equipped
available. The width of the lateral walkway with ventilation system, the primary goal is to
is 0.75m. guarantee smoke free areas. This is normally
 Fire protection for structures: The tunnel achieved by a positive pressure compared to the
lining design has considered the stability of incident tube. It must be noted, however, that it is
the tunnel a sufficient time in the case of a not state-of-the-art to use the ventilation in rail
fire in the tunnel. tunnels to control the smoke movement in the
incident tunnel itself.
6.1.2 Drive through strategy
The probability that a burning train cannot reach In the Genting tunnel, the cross passages will be
the portal (safe area) increases with the increasing pressurised using jet fan systems located in the
of tunnel length. A rescue station within the tunnel main tunnel. In the event of a fire emergency,
must be provided if the length of the tunnel is more passengers will evacuate through the cross
than 20km in length. This is based on the principle passages into the non-incident tunnel. The jet fan
of “When a train is on fire in the tunnel, it is system will blow air into the cross passages via air
necessary to move the train out of the tunnel for ducts situated above the cross-passage emergency
evacuation; when the train cannot be moved out exits.
of the tunnel, it is necessary to control the train to
stop at the emergency rescue station for The dampers will automatically open during a fire
evacuation and rescue.” emergency. This will create an over pressurisation
zone in the cross passages connected to the
This principle has been internationally accepted, incident zone which will avoid smoke spread into
based on case studies and simulations, a passenger the non-incident tunnel and cross passages.
train is able to maintain its movement capability for
15 minutes at the reduced speed and thus can 6.2 Summary of safety features
travel up to 20km. The following tables summarizes the fire and life
safety features of the Genting Tunnel. At the time
Since the tunnel length in Genting is less than of the report was prepared, the design proposal
20km, emergency rescue station in the tunnel is was still under discussion with Fire & Rescue
not provided. Department and the Contractor, and there could
be additional features or changes to the proposal.
6.1.3 Access to Tunnels
Tunnel portal accessibility by roads to facilitate Table 2. Prevention of Incidents
evacuation during emergency is important during
rescue operation. These roads must be accessible Prevention of Incidents Design Proposal
by Fire & Rescue Department fire engines,
ambulances and other rescue teams. At the portal, Rolling stock material
a suitable assembly area will be provided. Portals Material selection of to be constructed with
will be fenced to prevent unauthorised entry by the rolling stock adequate fire
public to prevent vandalism of equipment in the resistance.
tunnel. Provide fire
extinguishing Part of rolling stock
provisions within design.
carriages
858
Fire and smoke Cross passages at

detection system Part of rolling stock every 500m leading to
within carriages and design. non-incident tunnel.
undercarriages Lighting will be
Public address/Voice Emergency lighting provided along the
Part of rolling stock
alarm system walkway.
design.
throughout carriages Signage Directional signage
Emergency procedures indicating the nearest
defined by driver with Part of fire safety cross passages and
the aid of Operations management plan portal in the tunnel.
Control Centre. Structural integrity to Structural integrity
Operational be maintained during provided in
Appropriate signalling
procedures to mitigate fire accordance with
and train time table to
measures of mixed use emergency tunnel design.
avoid freight and
operation (freight and
passenger trains to be
passenger trains Mechanical ventilation Tunnel to be provided
in service within the
within the same system with tunnel ventilation
same tunnel.
tunnel) system.
Table 3. Mitigation of accidents

Table 5. Facilitation of Rescue
Mitigation of Incidents Design Proposal
Facilitation of Rescue Design Proposal
Procedure to prevent
Override measures for
train on fire Adequate access to the Access will be provided
braking system
immobilised in the tunnels via tunnel portal ends
tunnel. Provision of rescue Provision of fire hose
Communication Direct communication equipment. reels at each tunnel
system between train driver, portal.
OCC and PA system Reliable Fire Command Centres
within train communication to be provided with
Signalling system Control train devices communication
movement into the devices linked to OCC
tunnel. and cross passages.
Firefighting systems Water reservoir tanks
Table 4. Facilitation of Escape at each portal.
Tunnel ventilation Tunnel to be provided
Facilitation of Escape Design proposal with tunnel ventilation
system during fire
Rolling stock to be PA system linked
emergency.
designed for self- between OCC and
rescue trains.
Evacuation plan within Evacuation procedure
7 Conclusion
rolling stock. plans to be provided in With the implementation of ECRL project, there
every car. will be substantial length of railway tunnels to be
built and the safety aspect of it cannot be
0.75m clear width of
neglected. Although there are so many Standards
walkway on one side of
Emergency walkway available such as UIC Codex, Swiss Standard, Italian
the tunnel leading to
Decree, TSI and Chinese Code, etc., it is important
safe areas.
to understand the safety concept and its
859
acceptance by the local authorities before it can be

applied to Malaysian industry. The discussion with
Fire & Rescue Department to finalise the tunnel
safety concept is still ongoing and hope that it can
be finalised soon. Unlike the MRT or the LRT
tunnels, the concept design for the railway with
mixed freight and passenger traffic are less
stringent due to less train frequency.
At the time of this paper being prepared,

Suruhanjaya Pengangkutan Awam Darat (SPAD)
has taken the initiative to develop tunnel safety
standard to be used by all railway systems in
Malaysia with inputs from the various
stakeholders. The Standard shall be applicable for
railway tunnels associated with:
 trams;
 monorails;
 urban metros;
 suburban passenger lines;
 mainline passenger lines; and
 freight railway.
The objective of the Standard is to provide
guidelines on the design, construction and
operation for all future railway tunnels in Malaysia
and it is still in a draft form. With the finalisation
and implementation of the Standard, it is hopes
that it shall be used by all design consultants,
railway operators, asset owners and authorities to
design, operate and regulate the railway industry in
the future.
8 References
[1] Syed Rajah, Dr Rini Asnida Abdullah, Ir
Frankie Cheah. Localising Tunnelling Talent.
Monthly Bulletin of the Institution of
Engineers, Malaysia; May 2017.
[2] Yatin Munnsad, Fire Safety Design
Philosophy for Genting Tunnel. Report
submitted to Fire & Rescue Department; Nov
2017.
860
Hong Kong Underground Space Development and Its Enlightenment for the
Mainland
Zhang Dexiang
CCECC Fuzhou Survey and Design Institute Co. Ltd., Fuzhou, Fujian 350013
Abstract
First, introduce the background of Hong Kong’s underground development and utilization, then,
illustrate the ways on planning and utilizing underground space to meet the increasing demand in
transit, commercial and pedestrian activities on the one hand, and the accommodation of
environmentally-unfriendly public utilities on the other, specifically focusing on such aspects as
cavern development, mass transit railway, tunnels, underground pedestrian walkways, shopping
malls, new urban structure, special-purpose underground facilities (refuse transfer station, sewage
treatment plant, explosives magazines). Also, highlight the planning issues and challenges faced in
crowded and compact urban environment, including, e.g., adverse effect on environment,
construction constraints, interference to existing underground facilities, limitations on
construction methods, search for a consensus or compromise, planning and construction
procedures, geotechnical engineer’s risk. Finally, sum up some points of enlightenment for the
mainland to develop and utilize underground space as per Hong Kong experiences, namely,
developing rock cavern with reference to Hong Kong experience; achieving sustainable
development by initiating planning first; enhancing integrated development by making two good
drawings; building combined utility gallery to satisfy development demands; the last but not the
least, applying state-of-the-art technology to guide the planning and development.
Keywords: Underground space; development; planning; utilization; enlightenment
Development (TOD) in Hong Kong is in fact a

1 Introduction consequence of environmental restriction and
Hong Kong is one of the most densely populated constraint of an artificially created dense habitat.
cities in the world, with over 7.23 million Land use control, together with narrow streets
inhabitants crowding into an area of slightly over and a strict policy on vehicle control, discourages
1104 km², of which 40% is reserved as protected private car use. More than 91% of the 11 million
green areas known as “country parks”. To date, daily non-walking commuting trips rely on a wide
the built up area is only about 280 km², which range and extensive network of public transport
yields a density of 25,357 persons per built up options. Mass transit is the backbone of the public
km²[1]. transport system, which is supported with a range
The city core is located on both sides of Victoria of public transport services - bus, minibus, light
Harbour (Figure 1). The crowded environment is a rails, trams, ferries, taxis and speedwalks or
result of the intensive land use planning strategies passenger conveyors. The advanced underground
adopted since the colonial era. The successful space development in the city is partly a result of
implementation of a Transit Oriented
861
this well-developed public transport system, and development. The government argues that
partly a response to the lack of urban space. relocation of the never-in-my –backyard (NIMBY)
facilities away from inhabited areas releases
valuable land. In a city starved of land, to remove
unfriendly public facilities away from inhabited
areas enhances the land value in the vicinity.
Further, the excavated materials from cavern
engineering are useful construction aggregates,
especially for land reclamation purposes.
Due to the increasing emphasis on environmental
protection and the upholding of the public
interest in Hong Kong, it has been a challenge for
the government to find suitable sites for certain
“vital but unfriendly” public facilities within the
densely populated area.
2.2 Metro system

The Mass Transit Railway Corporation (MTRC) is
Fig. 1 Location of Hong Kong responsible for all investment and construction of
Special Administrative Region the rail system. Presently, the MTR is a system of
175km with 82 stations. The corporation took over
2 Urban Planning and Underground the operation management of the Kowloon
Canton heavy rail in 2007 under a 50-year
Space Usage franchise. The MTRC also manages similar facilities
The need to explore underground usage Increase in London, Stockholm, Melbourne and a few other
in urban population in many cities has led to a Chinese cities. Other on-surface fixed tracks
high demand for more urban space to include the tramway and the Peak Tram which
accommodate the ever-increasing activities runs from the city centre to the peak of Hong
associated with it. Underground space, however, Kong Island. Most of the MTR tracks run in
provides a new frontier mostly untapped in many tunnels. The high speed express rail link that is
cities. Similar to other cities, most of the existing presently being constructed to connect Hong Kong
underground space in Hong Kong is reserved for with the mainland, will house the world’s largest
the development of transport facilities, including contemporary underground station (430,000 m²)
pedestrian underpasses and parking areas, and with 15 tracks in central Hong Kong. The high
shopping malls. speed rail is expected to be in service in 2017. An
Cavern development, however, is a more recent underground road system is attached to the
emphasis in Hong Kong. At present, there are a terminus.
number of purpose-built government facilities in One of the major considerations in the Hong Kong
rock caverns in Hong Kong, including, for example, MTR development is related to the maximization
a refuse transfer station, a sewage treatment of traffic and land use coordination. Each station
plant, explosive depots and salt-water service serves as a major traffic and business hub. This
reservoirs. allows the development of large shopping malls
Details are discussed as follows: on the upper deck of most of the MTR stations,
which in turn are surrounded with housing blocks
2.1 Cavern development forming a cohesive commercial-cum-residential
neighborhood as shown in Figure 2. Pedestrian
In Hong Kong’s cavern development, property paths, either above or below ground, are provided
development enjoys priority among the land to link the MTR hub.
862
east of the Central District, to relieve the

pedestrian pressure on the streets.
2.5 Shopping center

As a major shopping centre in Asia, Hong Kong has
many large shopping malls, several of which are
located underground, either on top or in the close
vicinity of MTR stations. MTR stations are
provided with ample retail space. With shops and
restaurants lined up along the underground space
in and around the station, it becomes one of the
focus points of social activities in the city.
2.6 New urban structure

The extension of the mass transit system
Fig. 2: International Commercial Centre Complex, inevitably rearranged the land use and activities of
Hong Kong. the urban sphere in such a way that those
activities that require interpersonal contact came
2.3 Tunnels to be gradually grouped on top or close to mass
Tunnels normally refer to underground passages transit lines. With the implementation of a highly
constructed for the purpose of transportation successful metro system and the concept of
connection between two points, although tunnels adopting a HOPSCA (hotel, office, parking,
for other purposes do exist. A variety of tunnels shopping mall, convention, and apartment) urban
exist in Hong Kong, ranging from tunnels for the architecture design on and around the mass
railway and metro system, for highway and transit hubs, Hong Kong has evidently reshaped its
pedestrian walkways, for water and sewage urban structure, highlighted with the emergence
transport, as well as for storage and services. of a linear cityscape with the transit terminals
Tunnels are constructed in different locations, serving as a string of focus points of social and
such as submerged in water, under rock and earth economic interaction.
surfaces. Tunnels that are submerged under water
include, for example the three Cross Harbour 2.7 Special-purpose cavern
Tunnels (7.06 km in length in total) for vehicle development[4]
transport, the tubes for the mass transit railway, In addition to acquiring land from the sea and the
the waste water discharge sewage tunnels[2], and expansion of underground space, the city is now
the fresh water supply facilities, among others. extending its planning in cavern development as
well to meet the increasing demand for space to
2.4 Underground pedestrian walkways house especially public utility facilities. There are
One of the significant planning strategies in Hong several public facilities in Hong Kong located
Kong is the application of pedestrian walkways, inside caverns, such as the Island West refuse
either elevated or submerged underground, to transfer plant, Stanley sewage treatment plant,
avoid direct conflict between vehicle and and the Kau Shat Wan Government Explosives
pedestrian traffic. Pedestrian underpasses in Hong Depot.
Kong are brightly-lit and with direct access to
underground shopping facilities or the mass
transit railway stations. A large scale pedestrian
walkway is being constructed in Causeway Bay[3],
a major shopping area on Hong Kong Island to the
863
Fig. 3: Stanley Sewage Treatment Plant

Fig. 5: Kau Shat Wan Explosive Depot
The Island West refuse transfer plant, which was
Higher education institutions have also in recent
built inside Mt. Davis[5], has been in service since
years begun to promote the use of underground
1997 under a design-build-operate contract
space for the provision of public utility facilities
(Cheng 1997). It has the capacity to handle 1000
(Zhao 2000). Other than car parks, the University
tons of refuse per day. It is a modern facility with
of Hong Kong, for example, in order to
a computerized weighbridge system, exhaust
accommodate the development of their
ventilation system with odour removal unit, waste
Centennial Campus[6], relocated two Water
water treatment plant and vehicle wash system,
Supplies Department (WSD) salt water service
among others. The plant confines all waste
reservoirs (12,000 m³ capacity) within rock
handling operations within the cavern, away from
caverns, according to the Civil Engineering
the main urban areas. Even the road leading to
Development Department (CEDD) as reported in
the entrance of the plant is carefully designed to
(Li 2014).
avoid visual blight.
Fig. 6: Public Salt Water Service Reservoirs in HKU

Fig. 4: Island West Refuse Transfer Station
The Kau Shat Wan Government Explosives Depot 3 Underground cavern development
is located on the south-eastern shore of Lantau
challenges
Island. It has 18 magazines for a notional storage
capacity of 500 tons of blasting explosives, and When dealing with the use of underground space,
explosives accessories. All imported explosives it is important to first of all determine the
and explosive accessories must first be kept in the functions and facilities which are best suitable for
depot under the Hong Kong Protected Place locating underground. This is followed by
Ordinance (Cap. 260). Safety precaution in fact exploring how to maximize the potential use of
remains a major consideration in all underground underground space, and how to blend the
facilities. underground facilities with the surface
environment. In some cases, a total blocking of
the negative environmental interference of the
underground facilities from the surface
environment may be required.
864
3.1 Construction constraints any. The nearest West Rail Tai Lam tunnels in this
case are more than 150m shallower. The
Being one of the most crowded built-up areas in
construction of the high speed rail terminus also
Asia, executing engineering construction works in
faced similar rock excavation challenges.
downtown Hong Kong is a serious challenge. The
narrow streets restrict the movement of
3.4 Need to search for a consensus or
construction equipment, the built-up area
compromise
restricts shaft access to the underground works,
and special care must be taken to minimize the When dealing with the location of underground
impact of construction on the hydro-geological space, several factors need to be considered (Nishi
regime and the buildings on the surface, let alone et al. 2000). For example, it is difficult to locate
any negative traffic and noise externalities. new urban underground facilities in a densely
Selected buildings or facilities may need to be populated area as the space may involve a
relocated to create temporary works sites. The number of stakeholders. The willingness of people
removal of tunnel spoil requires an alternative to pay for the location, socially or otherwise,
solution to the normal transport on streets, due to remains the key issue in their response to project
traffic and environmental considerations. The proposal. In addition to the NIMBY site syndrome,
location of temporary underground explosives the interior and exterior value of the underground
magazines must be specially selected within the space is also essential to the residents in general,
urban area close to the tunnel access points. The for aesthetic reasons at least, and to the
use of explosives also has to ensure maximum developers and contractors in particular. It is also
safety. essential to synergize above and underground
developments to avoid unnecessary spatial and
3.2 Interference to existing facilities social conflicts in public utility allocation as well as
in traffic and environmental management. On the
An extensive part of the urban area in Hong Kong
other hand, developers may tend to keep
is built on land reclaimed in phases since the
construction costs low. Experience in Hong Kong
1930s. In certain parts of the city, buildings stand
proves that the search for a consensus or
on soft ground. This means that the preferred
compromise among stakeholders is always a
tunnel would have to avoid being too close to the
challenge to the decision makers.
buildings on the surface on one hand, and
prevailing underground facilities including existing
3.5 Planning and construction procedures
rail tunnels on the other. Detailed analysis needs
to be undertaken to assess any impacts of the new required
construction on the existing facilities, including Other than issues related to public opinion and
existing tunnels and train operations. public participation, there remain difficulties in
Groundwater inflow and ground settlement need project implementation as well. For example,
to be avoided. existing laws and regulations may not necessarily
allow a smooth planning and engineering
3.3 Limitations on construction methods operation. Cavern development may require a
For much of the length of the tunnel, drill-and- more detailed/comprehensive set of planning and
blast excavation methods are normally applied construction procedures than the normal
where rock conditions allow. Nevertheless, deep engineering projects to ensure a higher standard
rock tunnelling may provide additional challenges. of safety, operation and cost efficiency than
For example the tunnelling of the rapid rail link otherwise, among others.
has to be carried out 680m beneath ground level
under the Tai Mo Shan, the highest mountain in 3.6 Geotechnical engineer’s nightmare
Hong Kong. This does not allow the use of closely Unexpected geotechnical consequences may also
spaced boreholes and the ground conditions could emerge during underground construction.
only be inferred from existing parallel tunnels, if According to the prevailing practice in Hong Kong,
865
the risk lies with the contractor and not the utilize rock caverns in a diversified manner like
government or the MTRC. When submitting a bid Hong Kong.
for the project, the contractor is assumed “to be With reference to Hong Kong experience, the
experienced, to have foreseen a particular mainland cities shall put refuse landfill, explosives
condition or obstruction ” even if “ the magazine and sewage treatment plant into rock
contractor was misled by insufficient and cavern. Currently, many mainland cities build
inaccurate information given to him by refuse landfills instead of utilizing underground
Government” (Longbottom 2011:2). He further rock cavern, causing waste of resources; putting
argues that the Geotechnical Baseline Reports explosives magazines into rock cavern is rather
(GBR) introduced into the contract, ostensibly to recommendable, because the underground
alleviate some of the confusion, actually serve no granite strata is very hard, meanwhile, it
purposes as the baseline parameters do not possesses a natural cooling effect, saving land,
always reflect the anticipated ground conditions electricity, water and manpower; it is also wise to
and are not measurable. Thus the bidding price in put the sewage system and sewage treatment
most of the construction projects does not plant into the rock cavern; some of the mainland
necessarily reflect the actual business decision on cities face insufficient capacity in underground
costing, and furthermore, a contractor may face drainage system, giving rise to urban water
serious losses if the ground conditions are not in logging frequently; many mainland cities see a
his favour. Richards and Nilsen (2007) discuss world of waters when there are storm rains just
some of the critical risks in tunnel construction because: in the urban planning and construction,
which must be taken into consideration and emphasis is put on the ground but not on the
properly evaluated, as such risks may significantly underground, and in the municipal administration,
affect the cost estimate, which always remains a attention is paid to construction rather than
difficult issue in tunneling costing (Efron and Read, maintenance. Hong Kong is always subject to
2012). typhoon and storm rains, but rarely suffers urban
water logging or sees a world of waters in the city,
4 Enlightenment for the mainland to this is what the mainland cities shall think deeply
develop and utilize underground and seriously.
space as per Hong Kong
4.2 Achieving sustainable development by
experiences initiating planning first
Under the background of currently rapid Since1980s, Hong Kong started planning of
urbanization in China, enlightenment for the underground space, and worked out related
mainland to develop and utilize underground standards and criteria, design guidelines and long-
space can be may be obtained as per Hong Kong term strategies.
experiences as follows:
Currently, the underground space development is
4.1 Developing rock cavern with reference is growing rapidly in the mainland cities, emerging
to Hong Kong experiences more and more underground projects. However,
due to the shortage of the step of initiating
China is mountainous, with a mountain area over planning first, it fails to work out corresponding
2/3 of its territory. The typical mountain cities standards and criteria, consequently, the division
include Chongqing, Qingdao, Panzhihua, Yan’an, of underground space is not so rational, causing
Nanjing, Hangzhou, Kunming, Guiyang, etc, which lots of conflicts. This makes it necessitate that
are all characterized by complicated mountain underground space be divided ahead of time as
landform. The mountain bodies around the cities per the functional use in accordance with the
can be utilized as underground space. So far, future urban development planning so as to avoid
however, very few mainland cities are able to contradictions. Meanwhile, during the overall
urban planning, the underground space
866
development shall be combined with civil air- etc classified into different construction stages,
defense construction or other engineering which are very unfavorable for the integral
functions so that individual underground spaces development. So is the metro construction in the
can be networked into a system, which, in such a mainland. The communication is insufficient
manner, can closely link the public system with among the metro client, the urban planning
the non-public system as well as public land with department and others related to underground
non-public land, consequently, more benefit can space development. There are so many
be created for the city, and a sustainable organizations involved in underground space
development can be maintained in the urban development, such as fuel gas, thermal power,
underground space utilization. water and waste water, electric power supply,
communication, etc, which are all stakeholders of
Only an holistic consideration and overall and
underground space utilization. The underground
scientific planning is available can the benefit be
space will be broken into pieces if each of them
maximized from resources above ground and
makes an independent development and
underground; with reference to the Hong Kong
utilization. That is what the mainland should learn
experience, in terms of environment, the adverse
from Hong Kong experience. In the future, the
effect on the urban ground shall be controlled or
development and planning above ground shall be
mitigated from the underground space planning;
combined with those of underground, making two
in terms of economy, economic benefit for the city
good drawings[7], one for the above-ground and
shall be tapped from the underground space
the other, underground so as to achieve a holistic
development; and in terms of society, urban
planning and development of both above-ground
management and decision-making capacity shall
and underground.
be highlighted in the underground space planning,
meanwhile, enhancing the general public
4.4 Building combined utility gallery to
involvement in the process of underground space
planning. Only by doing in this way, can we really satisfy development demands
achieve a sustainable development in Underground combined utility gallery refers to
underground space utilization. integrate the following municipal pipelines into
one, i.e. urban underground communication,
4.3 Enhancing integrated development by electric power supply, thermal power, fuel gas,
making two good drawings water and waste water, broadcasting & TV, so as
In the construction of metro stations in Hong to achieve the purpose of “unified planning,
Kong, a holistic and careful consideration is made unified construction and unified management”
for both above ground and underground as well as comprehensive utilization and resource
structures at the same time. For example, each sharing of the underground space.
railway station serves as a major traffic and Hong Kong ’ s practice in underground space
business hub, allowing the development of large utilization is: having put numerous waste water
shopping malls on the upper deck of most of the pipelines into underground and rock cavern,
MTR stations, which in turn are surrounded with having planned unified municipal public system,
housing blocks forming a cohesive commercial- with other pipelines such natural gas or
cum-residential neighborhood. communication cables integrated together to
In the practice of the mainland, there is still some form common pipeline ditch so as to facilitate the
inconsiderateness in the future underground unified management and maintenance. In this
space utilization, usually within the planning regard, the mainland cities is far away behind
period, the underground space development is Hong Kong, currently only in some developed
classified as short term, mid term and perspective; cities or economic development zones, pilot
and others make the underground traffic, construction is under way for the underground
underground municipal works, underground combined utility galleries. The mainland cities are
complex, underground disaster prevention space, scanty in design code, approach, construction
867
management experience, etc. Underground urban underground space become new place
combined utility gallery construction is the beneficial to human activity and sustainable
important infrastructure for the future urban development.
sustainable development. Efforts shall be
intensified to absorb advanced experience from 5 Concluding remarks
Hong Kong and elsewhere to push forward the
combined utility gallery construction actively and Hong Kong makes great achievements in urban
steadily to meet the demands of the modern city planning and infrastructure construction, and
development. continues to pay great attention to underground
space planning development and utilization study,
4.5 Applying state-of-the-art technology to meanwhile, it puts the environmental-unfriendly
urban public facilities into underground, with an
guide the planning and development
aim to better utilize the land resource and create
Due to the constraint of technical conditions, the better living environment for the citizens.
conventional 2-dimensional management method
Although there is a long history worldwide in
is hard to accurately and straightforwardly show
underground space utilization, still, in the
the spatial relationship of various pipelines
mainland, there is a long way to go; Hong Kong’s
crossing each other, and the planning technique
mainly focuses on the local plane layout as well as practice is of great significance for the mainland
paperwork procedures. Even if in Hong Kong, the and elsewhere in terms of underground space
actual location of the underground space already planning development and utilization study.
built as per the planning may possibly be different
from that of the design. 6 References
The rapidly developing informatization and [1] http://sanwen.net/a/osaesoo.html (in
digitization technology, such as Geographical Chinese)
Information System (GIS) technology, data-bank [2] http://www.jacobssf.com/images/uploads/
technology, 3-dimension animation technology, Hong_Kong_SSDS.pdf
etc, is able to display the spatial levels and [3] http://www.td.gov.hk/filemanager/en/publi
location of underground pipelines, and reveal cation/td181-2008_exe%20summary_eng-
vividly the embedment depth, texture, shape, 20100906.pdf
strike, cable well structure and periphery [4] Arup. Executive summary of enhanced use
environment in a simulation way. of underground space in Hong Kong
feasibility study [R]. Geotechnical
In comparison with the previous plans of various Engineering Office of Civil Engineering and
pipelines, the means of informatization and Development Department (CEDD), 2011
intelligentization greatly facilitates the [5] http://www.epd.gov.hk/epd/misc/ehk97/ch
information searching for pipeline arrangement, 5/release4.html
cable well occupancy, location, etc., and in a [6] http://www.ecns.cn/2014/02-
manner of accuracy and straightforwardness and 14/100834.shtml
high efficiency, provides the reference for the [7] 2016 Vol.31, No.3: 119-124 (Li Wei, Chen
overall utilization, scientific arrangement as well Zhilong, Guo Dongjun. Study on Urban
as review and submittal for approval of future Underground Space Plan Abroad: The
pipeline resources. By means of informatization- Practice and Experience of Helsinki [J].
based urban underground space planning, it is Urban Planning International, 2016 Vol.31,
able to better grasp the underground system No.3: 119-124 (in Chinese))
running state and the law, and regulate and
control the relation among underground facilities,
achieve the optimization of the system and the
scientific planning and development of the
underground space, and consequently, make the
868
Precast Industry Contributed toward Green Construction

Ekasit Limsuwan
Professor Emeritus, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, THAILAND
Pitcha Jongvivatsakul
Assistant Professor, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, THAILAND
Contact: ekasit.l@chula.ac.th
Abstract
Current construction industries have developed toward sustainable development as which the
technologies are intended to optimum use of natural resources, minimize energy consumption,
reduce waste and enchorage possible recycle. Precast construction would be an alternative for civil
infrastructure projects this paper will introduce the building process for project execution in
planning, design, construction, operation and maintenance. Some examples of precast construction
of elevated highways and highrise buildings in Thailand will be presented. Some aspects toward
green technologies to demonstrate improvement in quality control to accelerate speed of
construction, to reduce energy consumption and to minimize environment impact assessment. The
life cycle management will also be synthesized for green rating as far as the low carbon strategy can
be implemented toward sustainable engineering.
environmental planning, traffic and transportation

1 Introduction system, energy areas and the management.
It is apparently evidence that global warming have Balancing the variety of metrics and goals across
been induced from accumulative discharge of the three spectra requires a departure from purely
carbon dioxide into the environment , then it has quantitative metrics as used in life cycle
been deteriorated ozone layer of atmosphere by assessments, then green construction concept
means of green house effect. Low Carbon Model, would take the major role for newly construction
(LCM) have been studied by various organizations buildings this paper has introduced the criteria of
to quantify investigations in order to reduce carbon green construction on planning phase, in execution
dioxide emission in practical use stage of buildings phase and in-use phase during operation and
with definite scenarios showing the possibility to maintenance.
actualize of large volume reduction in 2050. Green Some research work has conducted a life cycle
concept is another approach for carbon dioxide assessment of an office building and found that the
reduction as for buildings, industries, and town or operational phase of the building accounted for
city. For buildings and industries, emphasis should 52% of global warming potential, 71% of photo-
be made of energy sources of the materials oxidant potential, and 66% of total acidification
process, out-come products; while town or city potential. The report also showed that for the
should have concentrated on city planning, embodied impacts concrete and steel were
869
responsible for 74% and 24% of global warming

potential, 30% and 41% of photo-oxidant
formation potential, and 42% and 37% of
acidification potential, respectively. A similar study
in Japan, the carbon dioxide emission in building
stage by construction materials as shown in Figure
1 to indicate at about the same amount. The
carbon dioxide discharge in construction stage is
said to be about half of the practical use stage,
anyway in concerning with this subject,
quantitative investigation and the presentation of
definite scenario is yet to be done. A systematic
approach for carbon dioxide reduction can be done
through sustainable engineering of which the
concept of sustainability focused on ecological
issues environmental degradation dangerous
depletion of resources and in conflict with
Figure 1. Carbon dioxide emission in building stage
economic growth. However the new concept of
by construction materials[1]
sustainability shall be as the interaction of
environmental, economic and social domains with Sustainable
Engineering
a positive outcome for all three as shown in Figure
2. Measurement of sustainability objectives within Green
Low Carbon
the construction industry is increasingly achieved Concept Construction
through green rating system. The system has

offered a framework to evaluate built structures Figure 2 Inter-relation of sustainability low carbon
based on numerous environmental, social, and concept and green construction
economic criteria.
It is often said that buildings are responsible for 2 Green Construction
carbon dioxide emission to about half of the total Green construction may involved materials,
emission of most developed countries. A holistic manufacturing, distribution, equipment,
view of the emission from the whole life cycle of techniques, and miscellaneous. However, it would
building process has shown significant attribution require green technology in development and
along the building process of planning, design, application of products, equipment and system
construction, operation and maintenance. used to conserve the natural environment and
However, the prefabricated construction especially resources, which minimize and reduces the
concentrated at precast industries should have negative impact of human activities. The green
been remarkably significant for carbon dioxide construction then should be satisfied to the
reduction and greatly contribute toward green following criteria :
construction. This paper will give some  Minimize the degradation of the environment
implementation examples to demonstrate the  Zero or low greenhouse gas emission (safe for
environmental friendly approach for green use, promote healthy and improve
construction in Thailand emphasis on the precast environment)
industries.  Conserve the use of energy and natural
resource
 Promote the use of renewable resources and
reduce waste disposal
 Energy efficient, cost effective and low
maintenance
870
Green construction may be categorized into 3

major groups of buildings of residential,
commercial or industrial and infra-structure. The
process will also concern with planning, execution
and in-use as shown in Figure 3. In planning phase
; some legal requirements of Environmental Impact
Assessment (EIA) and Environmental Management
Plan, (EMP) have to be carried out for approval by Figure 3. Green construction concept
the Environmental Commission. Then the
developer or the owner by means of the project 3 Precast Industry
management should emphasis their planning Prefabricated construction becomes a more
toward sustainable design concepts and strategic important factor in building industry every day.
engagement with engineer architect consultants With cost of labor and materials constantly rising,
for design, construction, and supervision. In precast construction can probably are considered
execution phase ; the green building design can be an evolutionary development especially toward
an environment friendly approach for design work, green construction and sustainable development.
tender document, specification and costing in The method requires less forming and placing
tender bid. Green construction in this phase should material than conventional building methods. It
have concentrated in construction materials, permits strong contemporary architectural
manufacturing, equipments, construction expression and is becoming more versatile in this
techniques and some other associated facilities for area. The most important tasks for precast
the design. For construction, the green building industry go into planning, close co-ordination and
index (GBI) and the environment management timing in advance. Actual on-site construction
system (EMS) should be considered along the proceeds with remarkable speed and efficiency.
process. Some alternatives for materials, Achievement of precast construction shall be filling
manufacturing, equipment and the techniques as provision for
may be changed for better performance. On-site  Sound structures
environmental management practices, would also
 Ease construction
be very important index for green construction as
site plan, on-site housekeeping, waste  Fast operation
management, dust and mud control, noise and  Economic execution
vibration control, workforce management, energy  Quality assurance and high performance
efficiency, and water efficiency. Project construction
environment plan and project monitoring have to  Environmental friendly approach
be carried out during construction prior to the
 Development toward green construction for
completion and handover sequence. In operation
and maintenance (in-use) phase ; the green rating sustainability
would have been as the monitoring sequence to In dealing with precast industry, key factors should
conceived some key performance of building have been considered not only for technological
management, water and energy conservation, development but also some professional practices
indoor environmental quality and some such as :
environmental protections. It should be noticed  Loads, weigh, actions
that the good planning would result on satisfactory  Structural system
conditions of which green construction have  Formwork technology
served the sustainable development as the whole.
 Concrete technology
 Prefabrication, lifting, handling, transportation
 Construction sequences and erections
871
 Structural performance in strength, innovation to support the concept of green

serviceability, and durability construction.
Even now, code of practice in this area may not
applicable in all cases. But best practice learned
from past experiences and some execution or
operation skills can be leaded toward green
construction and as the whole of sustainable
development.
The high strength and high performance concrete
can contribute a great deal for precast construction
of having remarkably perceived by ready mixed
industry as which they can supply for precast or
prefabricated industry as well as the prestressed
concrete especially for segmental construction Figure 4. Precast and prestressed structure
with post-tensioning on the job site. Concrete
strength of these types normally be higher than 30 4 Implementation Example
Mpa at 18 – 24 hrs. of age, and the characteristic
strength would be higher than 60 Mpa. In many Some mega-projects of precast industry for
cases, the characteristic strengths would be building construction and infra-structure projects.
expected at 90 – 100 Mpa. However, initial There is no detail for analytical evaluation of green
strength at stripping the formwork or prior to rating and further study still be made especially
stressing sequence should be at least 50% of those during operation and maintenance thru-out their
specified strengths. Constructivity of prefabricated service life of the projects. However, the planning
components or precast members may concentrate phase have been done for project financing and
flowability in placing, but high early strength may budgeting approval. The execution phase for
be requiring to enhance strengths and stiffness for design and construction should be done along with
removing shutters, lifting and handling prior to the the bidding and evaluation process which should
erection and fabrication. Key parameters of thus be made corresponding to the same green rating.
concrete such as flowability, stripping strength, Anyway the official records still not be in the same
dimension stability and surface texture can take an criteria, and still be anchoraged to integrate in the
important role for precast member. system for complete life cycle management.
I. Building Construction Projects. Some examples
The prestressing beams and girders can be as shown in Figure 5 always involved large
significantly improved by means of strengths and
building and highrise building where structural
stiffnesses. Pretensioning or postensioning precast
components have been developed to accomplish system and typical components can be implied
the most benefit to the structural behaviors for to utilize precast construction to the most
strength, serviceability and durability. The key benefit. The projects should be concerned with
performance indicator shall be monitored and public building, highrise building, and industrial
accomudated the design service life. The building.
composite members of high performance concrete II. Infrastructure Projects. Precast construction in
or structural steel can be advantages in
mega projects of civil infra-structure as shown
combination actions of high strengths in
compression, tension, shear, bond and some in Figure 6 may have been applied for bridge or
others. Some other means of composite actions of elevated highways, tunneling construction and
high performance concrete with prestressing mass rapid transit system.
tendons or fiber reinforcement may be categorized These projects can be categorized to contribute
as mixed structures of thus specific application and sustainable engineering and green construction as
872
which life cycle assessment and public utilization

can be achieved.
a) Public building
a) Bridges and via-duct
b) Highrise building
b) tunneling construction
c) Industrial Building
Figure 5. Building construction projects
c) Mass rapid transit system
Figure 6. Infrastructure projects
873
5 Conclusion Structural Engineering Documents – Design

for Sustainability.
In accordance with some development in precast
industry, the contribution toward green [4] Kofoworola OF, Gheewala SH.,
construction can be concluded as follow : “Environmental Life Cycle Assessment of a
1) Precast construction have been exercised for Commerical Office Building in Thailand”,
construction industry in Thailand as the benefit International Journal of Life Cycle
of time consuming and economic point of views. Assessment. 2008: p. 498-511.
It required sustainability consciousness and [5] TGBI TREES – NC, “Thai’s Rating of Energy
take into action in all individual concerns. and Environmental Sustainability for New
2) Green construction in Thailand still be slightly Construction and Major Renovation” January
pre-mature for construction industry. It 2010.
requires a national agenda to advocate for need
of changing laws and regulations with related to
energy conservation and environmental
management are implied only for residential
buildings, industrial buildings and the infra-
structures emphasized only on planning phase.
3) In execution and in-use phases still be as
voluntary basis, then the quantitative
investigations of carbon dioxide reduction
cannot be estimated along life cycle
assessment.
4) Green construction by means of green
technology in construction stage concentrated
on materials, manufacturing, equipments, and
techniques as which monitoring and supervising
to be assessed.
5) Professional institution may need for
development of policy by sharing best practice,
advising on effective and risk of putative plans
on green construction.
6 References
[1] Tatsuo Inada., “A Study concerning the way
building construction should be in the era of
Low Carbon Emission”, Sustainable
Infrastructure Environment Friendly, Safe
and Resources Efficient, IABSE Symposium,
Bangkok 2009.
[2] John Anderson, “Measuring Sustainability
and Life-cycle Assessment”, IABSE Working
Commission 7 – Sustainable Engineering,
Structural Engineering Documents – Design
for Sustainability.
[3] Ekasit Limsuwan, “Integration Concept of
Sustainable Engineering”, IABSE Working
Commission 7 – Sustainable Engineering,
874
Bridging the gap: enabling lower carbon footprint and creating

economic value from application of modern high strength niobium
steels
Jitendra Patel
International Metallurgy, Oxford, UK
Contact: jp@imetallurgy.co.uk
Abstract
This paper presents examples from a bridge and tall-building structure to demonstrate how
important it is from the outset that engineers select the correct type of steels (beyond just grade
selection), its alloy design and manufacturing route is in bringing about a combination of
environmental (savings of >1,000t of CO2) and economic value (savings of >$100,000s) that is felt
throughout the supply chain. It will discuss the advantages niobium micro-alloyed steel systems
bring and highlights how to extract maximum contribution from them. Attention is given to the
individual and distinct metallurgical role it plays and how judicious additions, only costing a few
dollars per tonne of steel, can leverage significant value.
The paper concludes, that in today’s market driven environment it is of growing necessity that
engineers do take in consideration the advantages that modern niobium micro-alloyed high strength
steels can bring through their correct selection at the very start of the design process.
Keywords: high-strength steels; niobium; carbon footprint; value creation; weight-savings.
availability of, steel product types, capability of

1 Introduction fabricators, experience of structural engineers etc.
Nearly all engineers will have encountered high In both scenarios, there are on-going efforts within
strength steels (HSS) in some shape or form, and the structural engineering community to use more
depending on country location will assume it to be higher strengths to gain benefits by using less steel
steels with a minimum yield strength of (by weight) and/or to meet greater structural
approximately 350MPa, or higher. For example, in requirements (e.g. greater load bearing capability,
mainland Europe the most commonly applied longer spans etc.). These are indeed positive steps.
grade of steel used in the design of building
structures is S355 (minimum yield strength of After structural analysis, most engineers will select
355MPa), or equivalent, for hot-rolled structural the steel grade based on the Country/Regional
sections, plate and hollow sections, and this is Standards and grade designation (e.g. EN
considered the “norm” and not a high strength 10025:2004 and S355) that meet the required
steel. mechanical properties such as yield strength,
tensile strength, uniform and total elongation and
However, in some parts of the world steel grades Charpy V-notch (low temperature impact).
such as S275 (minimum yield strength of 275MPa), However, what is not considered is the alloy design
or equivalent, are still widely used and S355 is and manufacturing (rolling) route of the product.
considered a HSS. This is in part due to local
875
Whilst it can be debated as to whether this should

form part of the selection process for structural
engineers, it is beneficial to the structural engineer
to gain an appreciation to the importance such
factors play in bringing about an additional
contribution to environmental (savings in CO2) and
economic value that is felt throughout the supply
chain when selecting steel and high strength steel
grades.
2 High strength structural steels

It is well established that the use of HSS can afford
several advantages resulting in significant cost
savings. Primarily they allow a reduction in the
steel thickness, which would directly lead to lower
Figure 1. Weight saving potential when
material costs, less fabrication and welding costs as
moving to higher strength steels
well as reduced transportation costs. For example,
Figure 1 highlights the expected weight reduction
2.1 Metallurgical considerations
from the use of S460 in comparison to S355,
assuming an axial load only, would be Today, modern mills are easily equipped to
approximately 23% which is of significance. producing steels with yield strengths of 460MPa at
thicknesses ≥120mm. These high strength steels
For the non-metallurgist, the key concepts to
are classed as fine-grained weldable micro-alloyed
appreciate are that the steel properties are
steels, which exhibit excellent toughness both
determined by its microstructure. In turn, the
within the base metal and the heat-affected zone
component parts of this microstructure (i.e. phases
(HAZ) of the welded joint. Typically, these steels are
of ferrite, pearlite, bainite, martensite etc.) are
made via the thermo-mechanically controlled
determined by the steel chemical composition
processed (TMCP) route coupled with accelerated
(often referred to as, the steel chemistry) and the
cooling and generally do not require any pre-
processing route of hot-rolling. Whilst this is
heating prior to welding. Standards such as EN
reasonably straightforward, complexities arise
10025-4 covers TMCP steel grades with minimum
from the fact that, for example to make S355,
specified yield strengths of 355, 420 and 460MPa
different combinations of these phases can be
and minimum impact toughness down to -20ºC
used. So, there is no set rule. Furthermore, no one
(designated M) or -50ºC (designated ML).
steel mill is alike; different processing technologies
and operating conditions. This means that whilst Steelmakers know well that by increasing the
achieving the designated grade (e.g. S355) carbon content of the steel is the quickest and
according to the applied standard, the steel cheapest way to increase the strength. However,
chemistry and component phases in the steel will this also significantly reduces other key properties
be different depending on the maker. such as toughness, weldability and cold formability
Consequently, these differences will have a direct which are important for structural building
impact on fabricating costs, performance and components. Furthermore, there are major
environmental impact. drawbacks in adopting this strategy in particular if
J0, J2 and K2 specifications (lower service
The following sections will aim to highlight this and
temperatures) are being targeted: (1) increasing
provide some background such that the structural
the carbon content will increase the volume (area)
engineer can make a better informative decision
fraction of pearlite second phase microstructure.
when selecting steel grades and their origins.
Although the increase in pearlite will increase the
strength, it is very detrimental to the notch
876
toughness; (2) a higher carbon content will also microstructure, but the consequence of this is to
increase the susceptibility to cold cracking during reduce the strength of the steel. To compensate for
weldability (see Figure 2) and thus will require this loss in strength very small micro-alloying
additional measures by the fabricator to avoid this, additions of niobium (Nb) can be made.
such as preheating which means additional costs
Although additional strength can be derived,
and time. This preheat temperature is calculated
sometimes misguidedly considered inexpensive, by
from methods described in procedures such as
increasing the manganese (Mn) and/or the
EN1011 or AWSD1.1., and; (3) the higher carbon
addition of a combination of copper (Cu),
content will also mean a greater increase in the
chromium (Cr) and nickel (Ni) this will again
chance for defects to be generated in the
increase the CE value and greatly increase the
soundness of the material (through increased
overall alloying and steelmaking costs, so is not the
levels of macro segregation and also surface quality
most prudent approach to take.
issues from the generation of macro and surface
cracks.
2.2 Niobium metallurgy
The primary reason for the addition of niobium is
due to its unique beneficial effect as a grain refiner
(to develop higher strengths and improve low
temperature toughness), thus enabling a reduction
in carbon and other alloying content. Furthermore,
depending on the additions made, a degree of
precipitation strengthening in the final
microstructure can also be observed further
enhancing the yield strength. In comparison, the
addition of other micro-alloys such as vanadium
will predominately contribute towards the strength
only by means of precipitation strengthening but
not provide any significant grain refinement.
Figure 2. Susceptibility to cold cracking
in the heat affected zone (HAZ)
Therefore, it is in the interest of not only
steelmakers but those using the steel that they
adopt a lower carbon practice (ideally ≤0.10%C)
which will significantly improve the weldability of
the structural steel as well as improving low
temperature impact toughness. To note; cold
cracking arises from poor ductility in the HAZ and is
enhanced by any free hydrogen derived from the
welding consumable. To describe the influence of
the steel chemistry on the cold cracking
susceptibility, the carbon equivalent (CE) is often
applied and is referenced in most standards: Figure 3. Austenite microstructure 0.08%C steel +
additions of Nb, after 20sec holding at 1,000°C
𝑀𝑛 𝐶𝑟+𝑀𝑜+𝑉 𝐶𝑢+𝑁𝑖
𝐶𝐸 = 𝐶 + 6
+ 5
+ 15
(1) followed by water quenching [1,2]
In general, for the main types of structural steels, it
As eluded to earlier, when trying to guarantee can be considered that niobium will make a
impact requirements of 27J at -20 to -50ºC a low meaningful metallurgical contribution mainly
carbon content will help by reduce the volume during rolling and partly during transformation of
(area) fraction of pearlite in the final
877
the austenite to ferrite or lower temperature in terms of material weight and less welding
transformation microstructures. consumable but also time.
Depending on the steel alloy design, niobium can
also aid to limit the size of the austenite grain at the
exit of reheating but also help limit the overall grain
size distribution after reheating (this is beneficial to
ensure that any bi-modal grain sizes developed is
minimised as this will result in a mixed final grain
size that will be detrimental to the notch
toughness). The powerful effect of very small
niobium additions on the prior austenite grain size
for a range of carbon contents is shown in Figure 3
[1,2]. This demonstrates that even very dilute
additions of niobium (<0.005%Nb) can have a
noticeable effect in controlling the as-reheated Figure 4. CVN for a conventional normalised
prior austenite grain size (beneficial). and a TMCP steel (both 350MPa) [3]
2.3 Alloy design strategies
To highlight the outcome of using different alloy
systems, Table 1 shows typical chemical
compositions for commercially sold plates, either
heat-treated or thermo-mechanically rolled, with
the carbon equivalents indicating the necessary
conditions for welding and also the approximate
alloy cost per tonne (normalized) in comparison to
a 25mm thick S355ML plate steel. Note the plate
thicknesses are either 25 or 50mm.
As shown in Table 1, Thermo-mechanically
Controlled Processed (TMCP) steels have a lower
CEV than normalized steel grades of the same yield Figure 5. Calculated pre-heat temperatures as a
stress which results in them having excellent low function of plate thickness – moderate restraint [3]
temperature impact toughness behavior, as
illustrated in figure 4 [3] where the brittle and 2.4 Wider considerations
fracture toughness behavior is significantly
In a wider context the decision to use a given alloy
reduced by niobium micro-alloying and the use of
design can be heavily influenced by the cost of key
TMCP rolling. With conventional steels, due to the
ferro-alloys at the time of manufacture and any
higher carbon content there is an added risk of
downstream process step. This is because other
hydrogen induced cracking at heavier gauges
major cost elements such as: iron ore, coking coal,
(>30mm) and therefore such steels are pre-heated
metallurgical coke, energy, scrap, labour and
prior to welding. Due to their lower carbon content
overheads, operating costs and capital charges are
TMCP rolled steels do not require any preheating.
accounted for over medium-to-longer timeframes.
As shown in figure 5 [3] even a S460M rolled steel
Consequently, to improve operating margins per
does not require any preheating at 30mm,
tonne, attention is often drawn to the alloying
therefore allowing for significant cost savings both
addition where the ‘extra raw material input costs’
are required to make the ordered steel grade.
Table 1. Chemical composition of S355 and higher strength steel grades
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Grade S355ML S355G8+N S355J2G3 355EMZ S460N S460ML 450EMZ S690Q

Type TMCP N N TMCP N TMCP TMCP QT
Thickness 25mm 50mm 25mm 25mm 50mm 50mm 25mm 25mm
C 0.08 0.14 0.16 0.08 0.15 0.07 0.08 0.09
Si 0.35 0.20 0.41 0.35 0.40 0.25 0.29 0.41
Mn 1.53 1.47 1.36 1.45 1.50 1.55 1.24 1.42
P 0.012 0.014 0.012 0.009 0.012 0.012 0.015 0.015
S 0.005 0.004 0.007 0.003 0.004 0.004 0.002 0.002
Nb 0.025 0.025 0.030 0.023 0.040 0.040 0.020 0.035
V -- -- -- -- 0.12 0.04 0.020 0.050
Ti -- -- -- -- 0.012 0.015 -- 0.038
Mo -- -- -- -- -- -- 0.140 ---
Ni -- -- -- 0.40 0.55 0.25 0.40 0.020
Cu -- -- -- <0.02 0.55 -- <0.02 0.012
Cr -- -- 0.010 <0.02 -- -- 0.020 0.023
CEV 0.335 0.395 0.410 0.354 0.497 0.353 0.349 0.351

YS (MPa) 395 >355 380 431 >460 >460 478 789
UTS (MPa) 555 555 555 523 >560 >560 566 834
YS/UTS 0.712 -- 0.685 0.824 -- -- 0.845 0.946
Est. ALLOY cost vs.
-- +31% +21% +145% +430% +140% +230% +90%
S355ML
By only examining the basic cost of the alloy design

Table 1 highlights that, as to be expected, the alloys 3 Bridge Structure
cost of higher strength steels is more, principally Taking the example of the Millau Viaduct, the use
due to the increased alloy design. However, the of such HSS allowed for a maximum deck height of
alloy cost of TMCP produced steels are on the only 4.20m at a width of 32m and weighing in total
whole are less than normalized high strength only 36,000t (deck sections weighing only 90t
equivalent (not taking into consideration the extra each). If the deck had been made from reinforced
heat-treatment costs due to the normalizing concrete it would have been 7m deep and weighed
process step) and therefore steelmakers should in at a colossal 200,000t (5.5 times heavier and
also take this into consideration. Furthermore, in deck sections weighing 120t each!). More
selecting higher strengths steels less steel is importantly, it would have been physically
required to be melted, cast, rolled, handled etc. impossible to have used the incremental launch
Additionally, this also creates new value as now method during the launch, as the concrete deck
more capacity is made available having rolled less would have been susceptible to cracking under its
steel. Therefore, it is only right that all of these key own weight as it spanned out the 171m to the
factors must be taken into consideration when temporary piers. In addition, the concrete deck
selecting which steel grade to produce and sell into would have required at least 28 days for curing
the market. before it could have been used [4].
The following examples aim to highlight this from The use of HSS for the deck components not only
the savings made possible through to the wider allowed for a lighter system, but also a slimmer
benefits experienced in the supply chain by the profile to be achieved meeting the architectural
correct selection of a higher strength steel for key design. In total 2,078 deck elements were
components of bridge structure and tall-building. produced and off-site and transported to the
location for welding and assembly. In total 75
welders were required (split into two teams) and
used nearly 150t of welding consumables. By using
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steel and performing a substantial proportion of perspective, the estimated savings in carbon
construction off-site the number of truck round- emission is estimated to be in the region of 5,300t
trips was reduced by more than 5,000 if the deck of CO2 equivalent.
had used concrete. The lighter deck also meant the
total dead weight of the bridge was reduced and 4 Tall-building Structure
thus allowed a reduction to the total number of
stay cables required and the size of foundations. Taking an example of a tall-building project
(evaluated in a study with ARUP [5]); Reforma 509,
Table 2: Steels used in the Millau Viaduct [4] is a high-rise building that sits at the junction of
Stay Temp. Tele. Paseo de la Reforma and Calz Melchor Ocampo in
Deck Pylons the heart of the Central Business District of Mexico
Cables Piers Cage
S355 23,500t 3,200t 3,200t City. The tower is founded on a 64m deep
basement box and rises to a height of 238m from
S460 12,500t 1,400t 3,200t ground level. It comprises of conventional
N/A 1,500t 400t composite steel floors spanning onto either
internal columns or the perimeter frame of
TOTAL 36,000t 4,600t 1,500t 6,400t 400t
columns. The perimeter columns are braced
The deck used a mixture of rolled plate (majority) together to provide resistance to both lateral
and hollow sections of grade S355 K2G3, S355 N/NL seismic and wind forces and design assumes that
and S460ML. The core of the deck, the central box, columns are restrained at node floors which is
used S460ML at thicknesses from 10-80m. Table 2 typically every third floor. Finally, internal and
summarises the type and quantity of HSS used [4]. perimeter bracings provide a shear load path for all
the lateral forces imposed on the structure. In
The use of HSS allowed significant weight savings total, the original design of the building comprised
to be made enabling all of the engineering, of 11,865 tonnes of structural steel including
architectural and economic advantages that the connections.
project needed to be successful. Earlier Figure 1
highlighted that the expected weight reduction by Analysis of the Elemental system indicated that HSS
the use of S460 in comparison to S355, assuming an could provide a significant increase in capacity for
axial load only, would be approximately 23%. By many of the elements and hence a significant
taking a conservative assumption of 15% savings to saving in steel tonnage and associated costs.
account for any torsional loading, then the project However, conversely as the steel areas reduces, so
would have required approximately 20,120t of does their self-weight and stiffness – which in turn
S355 equivalent in comparison to the 17,100t of result in reductions in seismic loads. Therefore, a
S460 actually used. Based on the same low redesigned structure was required to be analysed
temperature property specification and using keeping this in mind and also maintaining certain
commercially available plate prices, application of stipulated requirements for minimum steel areas in
a lower strength S350 grade would have cost columns. The redesign of Reforma 509 in HSS
€2.115 million more in plate costs and a further showed that it is possible to economically construct
estimated €0.546 million more in transportation the building in a mix of steel grades. Table 3
and handling costs to site. Furthermore, due to the summarises the steel savings that are possible for
reduced thickness of the plate applied at S460 the different elements. It is clear that it is possible
when compared to S355 additional savings to achieve significant steel savings in the elements
approaching 20-25% would be achieved on the by adopting HSS and that these savings are further
quantity of welding electrode consumption. improved through the addition of an internal
Consequently, project savings made from the braced core. By restraining the columns at each
steelmaker through to the fabricator and on-site floor and therefore reducing the column area, the
welding would have amounted to an estimated building’s stiffness was reduced and as such slightly
€2.75 million in the first instance. Although not changed the building dynamic properties.
considered in its entirety, from an environmental
880
By restraining the columns at each floor and criteria. Although connection design did not
therefore reducing the column area, the building’s formed part of the study, it is reasonable to assume
stiffness was reduced and as such slightly changed that should HSS be used for the connections then
the building dynamic properties. Whilst the the savings would be in proportion to the elements
changes are small they generate a reasonable that they connect since they are all generally
reduction on the global forces imposed on the strength governed designs.
building during a seismic event. This benefit was
The study also indicated that it might be possible to
incorporated into the redesign exercise. Seismic
further decrease the Grade 70 steel tonnages by
drifts (deflections) were checked for each of the
adjusting the SRC column sizes such that less of
design proposals and shown to be largely
them are subject to minimum steel requirements.
unchanged by the variation in steel grade (i.e. the
distribution of ductility within the building is largely
4.1 Environmental benefits
unchanged between Grades 50 and 70 designs).
Regarding the environmental benefits, it is self-
The use of Grade 70 steel with a triple and single
evident that where deemed beneficial adopting
storey effective length design approach allowed a
HSS will require less tonnages to be used. This will
reduction in mass of some elements of up to 35%
reduce the project’s carbon footprint in a number
and 45% respectively (compared to their weight in
of ways, qualitatively: (1) reduction in the amount
the Grade 50 design). It was found that the columns
of raw-material usage required and thus for
savings are distributed throughout the building but
transportation to the steelmaker; (2) reduction in
with a significant proportion coming from the
the amount of water and energy usage required in
columns near the base (that are less susceptible to
making the steel at the steelmaker (and
buckling) and those that form part of the primary
corresponding lower CO2 emissions); (3) reduction
lateral load resisting system (which benefit from
in the energy and CO2 emissions in transporting the
reduction in seismic load). Further investigation of
steel to the project site or fabricator; (4) less risk at
some elements that failed to generate expected
site handling heavier sections; (5) reduced
savings highlighted that this is primarily due to
construction time due to less welding or bolting by
them being controlled by minimum steel limits
virtue of a “lighter” section; (6) reduced surface
imposed by code and also due to the rationalisation
area for fire-protection coating for exposed beams,
of the columns to suit architectural and buildability
Table 3. Details of steel elements by tonnage with original design and re-design with HSS [5]
Restraint at node floors only Restraint at every floor
High Strength Steel Savings % High Strength Savings %
Element Original
Design (t) (t) Savings Steel Design (t) (t) Savings
SRC Columns 2,633 2,264 369 14% 1,503 370 20%
Megaframe Edge
1,620 1,616 4 0% 1,600 0 0%
Beams
Bracing 1,367 1,361 6 0% 1,322 0 0%
Floor Beams 2,146 2,146 0 0% 2,146 0 0%
Transfer Structures 448 402 46 10% 400 36 8%
Hanging Columns 253 195 58 23% 184 59 24%
Helipad 85 85 0 0% 85 0 0%
Ramp Support 247 247 0 0% 226 -8 -4%
Core 68 55 13 19% 247 0 0%
TOTAL 8,867 8,345 522 6% 7,802 457 6%
and; (7) where applied in SRCs less concrete is Although further quantification of this is required,
required (and thus similar reduced CO2 foot print). there are numerous examples within the literature
881
highlighting the sustainability benefits of a steel and consequently freeing up valuable capacity in
intensive structure. the fabrication yard to taken on other project work
and thus generate addition revenue. For example,
Working on the assumption that the steel sections
the additions of detailing on sections would require
will be supplied via a conventional blast-furnace
thinner connection plates of a higher strength
steelmaking route, then CO2 savings for the SRC
which if welded would require less weld-metal
beams would amount to 730t of CO2. Furthermore,
consumable
when considering all the other transportation
issues from shipping through to road
transportation to site etc., and coupled with other 5 Final remarks
reduced tonnages expected by using HSS in other All parts of the supply chain from the client through
identified elements total CO2 savings for Reforma to steelmaker should consider from the outset the
509 would easily amount to 1,000t. benefits high strength steels bring about not only
to the total cost of the project, but also the wider
4.2 Economic benefits economic and social value addition that is created.
Based on the final steel library calculations it was Furthermore, better appreciation to the role of the
seen that savings of nearly 370t was possible in the steel chemistry and how judicious additions of
SRCs and this amount to either 14% or 20% savings niobium, only costing a few dollars per tonne of
in weight for the SRC depending on whether the steel, can leverage significant wider economic and
floors are restrained at node floors or every floor environmental value. In today’s market driven
respectively. Naturally, such value-adding higher environment, it is of growing necessity that
strength steels is expected to command a price engineers do take into consideration the
premium (USD$ per tonne) in comparison to a advantages that such high strength steels can bring
standard commodity Grade 50 (355MPa) steel. through their correct selection at the very start of
However, in this case 370t less steel is required. the design process.
From actual 2014 (when the purchasing of the steel
took place) market availability and prices, this 6 References
would have amounted in direct savings of [1] Patel J. – Private Communications.
USD$600-650k for the cost of the SRC steel sections [2] Cui Z. et al., Thermomechanical processing
landed in Mexico. Furthermore, it is estimated that of structural steels with dilute niobium
the use HSS within the SRCs would also permit a additions in HSLA Steels 2015, Microalloying
reduction in the SRC (pillar) dimensions from the 2015 & Offshore Engineering Steels 2015.
current 800x800cm to nearer 740x740cm and this
[3] Hanus F. Weldability aspects of offshore
could be further rationalised if higher strength
steels. In Proceedings of International
reinforcement bar (Grade 80 or above) is applied Dillinger Offshore Colloquium, Apr 28-30,
with high-strength concrete. For the owner a 2008, Dillingen, Germany.
reduction in the SRCs would allow a greater follow [4] Martin J.P. et al., The design of the Millau
space index (i.e. carpet area) and this is estimated
Viaduct, In Concrete Structures: the
at anything between 3-5% in overall floor area and Challenge of Creativity Symposium 20-4,
thus has the opportunity to actually provide April 26-28, Avignon, France.
additional annual income margin for leased-space. [5] Smith S. et al., Design of Reforma 509 with
The benefit to the steelmaker is not only being able high strength niobium steel, In IABSE
to sell a higher margin product (Grade 70 vs. Grade Symposium Report, IABSE Conference Nara,
50), but also simultaneously freeing up the 2015: Elegance in Structures pp.1-8(8).
availability of an addition 370t of liquid or cast
product - which conservatively can be valued in the
region of USD$100k in today’s operating market.
For the fabricator and/or erector, the benefits are
to be found reducing the tonnage being processed
882
Photobioreactor Facade Elements -

From Concept to Prototype
Elisabeth Aßmus, Bernhard Weller
Technische Universität Dresden, Institute of Building Construction, Dresden, Germany
Frank Walter
ARUP Deutschland GmbH, Berlin, Germany
Contact: elisabeth.assmus@tu-dresden.de
Abstract
The research project FABIG pursues a comprehensive approach in developing facades with photobioreactors
made of glass. The story-high reactor elements generate biomass that can either be processed for the
pharmaceutical and food industry or used for the building energy supply. In consequence, the joint project
partners Technische Universität Dresden, ADCO Technik GmbH, Arup Deutschland GmbH und SSC GmbH
contribute their expertise in facade systems, adhesives, technical building systems and manufacturing.
This paper introduces microalgae, their industrial applications and different production plants for cultivation.
The main section traces the development starting from the constructive concept to the realization of a prime
prototype in operation. This development includes composition and function of essential constructive
elements and specific load assumptions in a photobioreactor. The researchers gave significant attention to
load-bearing adhesives inside the reactor exceeding current state of technology. Previous experimental tests
on the adhesive and a study on the inner joint composition are presented. The study considers two joint
variations and rates them according to their mechanical behavior, processing and assembly characteristics.
Finally, the paper concludes with a future façade concept as flexible modular system.
Keywords: glass, facade, photobioreactor, structural adhesives, facade integration
module, structural adhesives where introduced

1 Idea and Challenge inside the space cavity bearing hydrostatic and
A flat aquarium for microalgae, that is in short the dynamic loads. Since inner load-bearing adhesives
topic of the research project Fassaden aus Algen – are not state of technology, they play a key role
PhotoBioReaktoren aus Glas (FABIG). Experts during research.
describe these flat aquariums as flat plate This article introduces microalgae and presents the
photobioreactors. Previous pilot modules have construction of the flat panel photobioreactor. The
already been installed as external shading main section describes stages to realize a
elements at the BIQ Algenhaus in Hamburg, prototype from experimental studies to the final
Germany [1]. The research team FABIG pushes the assembly with special emphasis on load-bearing
development of photobioreactor elements further: adhesives. Finally, the paper concludes with a
From external shading elements towards storey- future façade concept.
high façade components for an integrated building
skin technology. To enlarge the photoactive
883
2 Green food and green facades material house BIQ Algenhaus features
photoactive panels at the southern building skin as
an external shading system. The residential
building utilizes the products for warm water
supply and transfers the raw microalgae output for
further processing. [1]
3 Construction and Loads

The advanced FABIG-module has a size of
1350 x 3000 mm². Figure 2 illustrates the principle
design including two laminated safety glass panes
on the front and back (A), a circumferential edge
sealing system interrupted only by port
connections and outlets for pressure
compensation (B) and an inner adhesive system
(C).
Similar to an insulated glass unit, a laminated safety
Figure 1. Examples of microalgae products glass on the front and a back encases an inner
available in common supermarkets or drugstores space cavity. Within a width of only 10 mm, the
Usually, common supermarkets offers cheese, space cavity hosts the significant green algae
meat and milk at the self-service counter. As of medium as a liquid mix of water, algae culture and
late, the assortment of conventional goods has nutrients.
expanded to include innovative microalgae
products in smoothies, crackers or dietary
supplement. Besides the food industry microalgae
goods find their way into pharmaceutical and
cosmetic industry or even attracted the attention
of aerospace business.
All over the world enterprises cultivate microalgae
species. The US-American company Earthrise
Nutritionals, LLC for example harvests Spirulina
microalgae from open raceway-ponds. The site in
California’s Southeastern desert processes
37 ponds with an area of 5000 m² in total. In
Germany, the Roquettes Klötze GmbH & Co. KG
runs an industrial microalgae production in a
500 km long glass tube system. The closed system
with a capacity of 600.000 l provides all essential
nutrients for Chlorella algae using an internal
supply technology and therefore prevents any
contamination from outside. [2],[3]
Besides open basins and closed tube systems, flat Figure 2. FABIG photobioreactor prototype filled
plate photobioreactors represent a promising with significant green microalgae medium on the
approach for microalgae cultivation. A pilot project test facility in Hamburg, Germany
realized flat plate photobioreactor during the
A circumferential edge sealant system restricts the
International Building Exibition (IBA) 2013 in
algae medium at the flanks, ensures liquid
Hamburg, Germany. The conceptional smart
tightness and guarantees a stable connection of
884
the composed module. The circumferential edge the glass construction. A water column of 3.00 m
sealant is interrupted twice. First, outlets at the top results in a pressure of 29.43 N/mm² at the bottom
guarantee the pressure equalization. Second, the of the reactor.
edge sealant is interfered at the bottom for
To bear the hydrostatic and dynamic loads, linear
technical installation. The port connection enable a
adhesives joints were arranged in the space cavity.
microalgae harvest and at the same time introduce
Three vertical running structural adhesives with a
nutrients and compressed air.
length of 2500 mm and a width of 40 mm divide
The port connections introduce compressed air in the reactor into four separate inner zones, called
time intervals of 5.0 to 8.0 seconds into the space flow channels. Compressed air is introduced
cavity. This periodic airlift activates horizontal and alternatingly into the flow channels, rises up as an
vertical circulation of the algae medium, transports air bubble and mixes the neighboring liquid algae
the cells to a light surface area and thereby medium. When inner loads resulting from airlift
contributes to a good photosynthesis rate. Besides, and hydrostatic pressure expand the glass units,
the turbulences prevent sedimentation and fouling the inner structural adhesives connect the front
processes inside the reactor. Yet, introducing and back pane. They bear the loads over tensile
compressed air arouses mechanical challenges. stresses inside into the adhesive. The connection
The airlift causes mechanical loads, which lead to reduces deformation and stresses inside the glass
stresses and deflections inside the glass construction. [4],[5]
construction. Additionally to the dynamic airlift,
hydrostatic pressure introduces static loads into
see detail right

outlets for pressure compensation
in edge sealant system 2 x 5 mm
Front and back glass pane (A)

as laminated safety glass
Edge sealant system (B)

as circumferential silicone sealing system
Inner sealant system (C)
linear load-bearing adhesive joints
inside the space cavity
Algae culture medium
3000
port connections introducing algae culture

medium, nutrients and compressed air
1350 All dimensions in [mm]
Figure 3. Construction of flat panel photobioreactor as facade element
silicone and hybrid base were analyzed. The

4 Experimental studies on adhesives selection depends on datasheet information and
For the application in the photobioreactor, ten manufacturers’ recommendation. The adesive
different adhesives with epoxy, polyurethan,
885
Young’s modulus according to DIN EN ISO 527 silicone adhesive Sikasil AS-785 from Sika were
varies from 1 to 1751 N/mm². favored for an application inside the
photobioreactor. Figure 4 (right) gives the stress-
The adhesives were tested according to
strain behavior of the bulk material tests.
DIN EN 15434 “Glass in building – Product standard
for structural and/or ultra-violet resistant sealant The epoxy features a Young’s modulus
(for use with structural sealant glazing and/or of 1750N/mm² and a maximum tensile strength of
insulating glass units with exposed seals)” 31 N/mm². After aging in acid, base and hydrogen
supplemented by specific chemical loads occurring peroxide solution, the tensile strength and Young’s
inside the reactor like aging in acid, base and modulus drop to a minimum of 79 % compared to
hydrogen peroxide solution. Figure 4 illustrates the the reference value.
testing program including bulk material tests,
The silicone shows reference values of E = 6 N/mm²
adhesive tests and prototype tests. The results of
and σ = 0,4 N/mm². Although the Young’s modulus
experimental studies so far are published in [6].
seems prone to chemical aging, the maximum
According to the tests, the two-component epoxy tensile strength remains at 87 % compared to the
adhesive DP460 from 3M and the two-component reference value.
Figure 4. Test Program and stress strain behavior of favored epoxy and silicone adhesives
spacer defining the cavity width of 10 mm. The

5 Realizing a Prototype epoxy adhesive possesses sufficient strength to
The inner joints exceed acknowledged state of bear permanent loads due to hydrostatic pressure.
technology. In conventional facade systems the However, it is not capable to absorb the dynamic
structural adhesive is applied at the circumferential loads due to airlift.
edge sealant system and can be introduced and
skimmed sidelong. Unlike conventional adhesive
joints, the adhesive joint inside the space cavity is
not accessible for post-processing after assembly.
Therefore, the Technische Universität Dresden
adapted the joint composition to the special
requirements inside the reactor.
Figure 5 shows the two layouts of inner load-
bearing joints for an epoxy and a silicone adhesive
system. The epoxy connection consists of two inner
epoxy joints of 1.00 mm thickness and a stainless
886
First, glass does not corrode in contact with water

nor in base solutions, like aluminum would.
Second, the join partners back-pane, front-pane
and spacer feature the same materiality and hence
the same adhesive behavior. Third, when ambient
temperature rises or drops, the longitudinal
extension is equal with all join partners.
Considering an adhesive joint length of 2500 mm,
this prevents internal stresses due to temperature
variation.
The POM Balls guarantee a defined joint thickness
of 2 mm and spare additional outer spacer
elements. In the result, a simple smooth surface
area is created. That turned out to be important,
because any materials bordering the culture
medium are exposed to immense microalgae
covering. The microorganisms settle in narrow
gaps, thin cracks or rough surfaces. As a
consequence, the bio-covering clogs connectors,
destroys materials and derogates the outward
appearance.
Figure 5. Inner linear load-bearing adhesive joints
In 2017 the project partner ADCO Technik GmbH
assembled the first prototype in Rostock, Germany.
Figure 5 shows the silicone joint. The connection The partners began preparing the back glass with
consists of two inner silicone joints of 2.00 mm the circumferential edge sealant and the inner
thickness and a glass spacer defining the cavity joints. Second, they aligned the front pane with the
width of 10 mm. The glue line is applied with a help of a vacuum system, merged the panes and
defined cross-section of 2 x 40 mm. Additionally, pressed them together. Then, the edge was sealed
polyoxymethylene (POM) balls with a diameter of and the connection construction attached.
2 mm assure a precise joint thickness of 2 mm. Since August, the prototype has been tested at the
Despite its low tensile strength, the silicone joint test facility in Hamburg, Germany. On an
withstands hydrostatic pressure and due to its high installation area of 40 m² the unit provides the
elasticity is able to absorb dynamic loads. module with relevant nutrients and monitors
The preferred option considers manageable temperature and solar radiation.
processing of adhesive material, time
requirements during the assembly process and a
high quality interface between adhesives and
culture medium.
The chosen silicone is inherently stable during
operation and at the same time easy to handle. It
features a potlife of 15 minutes, which requires a
speedy working progress. The joint thickness of
2 mm guarantees high stiffness, strength and low
deformations. To meet geometry requirements of
a space cavity width of 10 mm a spacer made of Figure 6. Assembly of a photobioreactor element
glass was inserted. The material glass offers crucial
benefits compared to metal or plastic spacers.
887
Figure 7. Facade integration
required temperature level for algae performance

6 Future Facade Concept throughout the year and reduces heat loss in
In comparison to the BIQ Algenhaus, elements winter. Alternatively, the outer shell is designed as
which are installed as ventilated construction in a transparent or opaque panel. According to
front of the solid external wall, the FABIG modules anticipated user requirements, a shading system
are an integral part of the building skin. inside the space area between the inner and outer
shell reduces solar radiation. To avoid
The size of the module complies with the common condensation the space cavity is slightly ventilated.
façade grid pattern of office and administration
buildings with a width of 1.35 m and a clear ceiling Figure 7 demonstrats three façade designs of the
height of 3.00 m. Considering the installation and aluminum-element-façade construction. Design 1
supply area underneath the façade element, the features a transparent inner thermal shell and a
total height is 3.50 m. photobioreactor element. Both internal user and
external audience experience the microalgae
The team developed a multi-layered façade as a building skin processing. Design 2 substitutes the
modular system offering clients flexibility in inner shell with an opaque panel making the
function and design. The system avoids cost- microalgae module only visibly from outside.
intensive planning processes and custom-made Design 3 shows a complete transparent façade
solutions. module without any reactor element.
An inner and an outer building shell represent the
main façade elements. The inner shell serves as 7 Conclusion
thermal insulation of the building envelope. It is
The FABIG team developed a constructional
implemented either as transparent or translucid
concept for photobioreactors of glass. To construct
triple-glazed insulating glass unit or as an opaque
a prototype, essential information were provided
panel infill. The inner thermal shell fulfills further
by studies on the flow characteristics, the
requirements like heat protection in summer and
structural design and experimental tests on the
winter, fire protection, airtightness, resistance to
load-bearing adhesive behavior. Despite its low
driving rain and fall protection.
tensile strength, the silicone adhesive proved to
The outer shell is realized as photobioreactor and withstand hydrostatic pressure as well as dynamic
improves the energetic quality of the façade. An loads due to airlift. The composition and the
additional external glazing element maintains the
888
assembly process of the load-bearing adhesive

joint were optimized. Finally, the paper proposed a
façade concept as a flexible modular system
offering planners and clients a system with
transparent, translucid, opaque and/or
photobioreactor elements.
The assembly of the prototype built a foundation
for future studies on full-scale elements and an
exposition mock-up
8 Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial
support of the Federal Ministry for Economic
Affairs and Energy (BMWi) of Germany. Adhesives
were provided free of charge by the
manufacturers.
9 References
[1] Wurm J. Die bio-adaptive Fassade, The bio-
responsive facade. Detail Green. 2013; 01:
62-65.
[2] http://earthrise.com/about/our-farm/,
accessed October 21, 2016
[3] http://www.algomed.de/index.php?op=alg
enfarm, accessed August 31, 2016.
[4] Aßmus E., Weller B., Haskell J and
Sengewald T, Intelligent Future Building
Skins – Studies on a Flat Plate
Photobioreactor Prototype. 39th IABSE
Symposium – Engineering the future.
Vancouver, 2017; 1138-1144.
[5] Haskell, J. Analysis and Optimization of Two-
Phase Algae-Air System in Façade Integrated
Bioreactors with Numerical Flow
Simulations. Masters Thesis, Technical
University Berlin; 2016.
[6] Aßmus E., Weller B. and Kerner M. Adhesive
Joints in Photobiogenerators - Preliminary
Studies on Adhesive Materials. Engineered
Transparency 2016 – Glass in Architecture
and Structural Engineering. Düsseldorf,
2016; 119-128.
889
Way Forward for Construction Industry with Active Participation in

Carbon Footprint Reduction for Sustainable Development using
Geosynthetics
Saravanan Mariappan, Fauziah Hanis Hood
Nexus EC Sdn. Bhd., Puchong, Selangor
Contact: vanan.nexus@gmail.com
Abstract
Building green and sustainable for buildings and cities have become an important aspect to safe
guard the environment and future generation. Opening up new land for townships with road and
railway networks are vital for the nation along with government commitment for development
and well being of ever growing population. In the past, mother nature’s well balanced ecosystem
were compromised due to rapid industrialization and world wide development. Today, we are
facing serious environmental deterioration with rising global temperature, sea levels, lost of rain
forest, natural resources, extinction of species all at unprecedented levels, never seen before
world wide. As we are heading towards uncharted environmental impact with mega scale of
flooding, rainfall, typhoon wind velocity, prolong drought, early seasonal changes, it has become
an immediate need for every citizen of the planet to safe guard the environment by reducing their
carbon footprint. As the first step for carbon foot print reduction, we need to reduce carbon
consumption in every aspect of our daily life starting with the building that houses us, cities that
we works and live in and reduction in construction industries especially areas related to
infrastructure and highway construction works. This paper will discuss the usage of alternative
materials in construction industry, which can reduce carbon footprints and at the same time blend
with the nature. New changes with adoption of technologies can be in cooperated as Green
Highway and Infrastructure Index (GHII).
Keywords: Geosynthetics; Carbon Footprint; Green House Gases; Green Highway and
Infrastructure Index (GHII)
transportation. The secondary carbon footprint is

1 Introduction the indirect emission from manufacture and
Carbon footprint is an indicator of the breakdown carbon usage in order to produce the
environmental impact of a particular individual or product for individual and commercial
organization's operation in units of carbon dioxide consumption. The carbon footprint of
release to atmosphere. The primary carbon construction industry originates from raw material
footprint is measurement of direct carbon dioxide, from mining resources to the concrete usage at
CO2 emissions such as fossil fuels burning, site, emphasizing the progress involved from raw
domestic energy consumption usages and material, transportation, processing, storage,
handling, installation, to heat released to
890
complete the construction work. It is similar Embodied carbon is the amount of embodied
process involved for steel and various other energy consumed to extract, refine, process,
construction materials. transport and fabricate a material or product. The
embodied carbon calculation need an
Carbon footprint in construction industry,
understanding of all the materials or ingredients
especially in the area of manufacturing is not
within the product and all activities related to
taken into consideration seriously during design
those materials. The measurement is from cradle
and also implementation. Infrastructure
to (factory) gate, cradle to site (of use) or cradle to
development consume tonnes of carbon in order
grave (end of life). The embodied carbon footprint
to perform earthwork activities related to cut and
is the amount of carbon (CO2 and CO2e emission)
fill, in situ replacement with sand, building of
to produce a material (kgCO2/kg). Table 1 is
concrete walls, use of excessive raw material in
represent the inventory of embodied carbon,
the form of earth and sand to build embankment
embodied energy in relation to carbon dioxide
and platforms, consume large quantity of rocks
emission. Polyethylene, PVC Pipe and steel are the
aggregate for foundation to improve bearing
material with high emission due to the
capacity and many more functions. All these
manufacture processing (Table 1).
activities release large amount of heat and carbon
dioxide to the atmosphere. Table 1. Inventory of carbon and energy summary
(adopted from ICE V2.0 database)
Malaysia has participated in Kyoto Protocol and
Paris Agreement to reduce global emission. The Embodied Embodied
Emissions
local agencies had undertaken numerous Materials energy carbon
[kgCO2e/kg]
[MJ/kg] [kgCO2/kg]
mitigation and strategies approach to prevent
climate change. Malaysia has achieved about 33% Aggregate 0,0830 0,0049 0,0052
reduction of carbon emission intensity per unit of
Asphalt 2,8500 0,0590 0,0660
GDP by considering the land use, land use change
-
and forestry (LULUCF) approach through National PET 106,5000 5,5600
Policy on Climate Change and National Green
PP 95,4000 4,9800 -
Technology Policy (Begum, 2017). However,
creating awareness by adopting modern and PU 72,1000 3,7600 -
innovative approaches is another challenge for Portland
authorities required to undertake. Hence it is best 5,5000 0,9300 0,9500
cement
for new Green Highway and Infrastructure Index Concrete 4,500 0,7300 0,7400
(GHII) required to be implement together with
Green Building Index (GBI). HDPE 76,7000 1,5700 1,9300
LDPE 78,1000 1,6900 2,0800

2 Embodied carbon in construction
PVC pipe 67,5000 2,5600 3,2300
industry
Sand 0,0081 0,0048 0,0051
The construction activities have contributed
approximately 25% of global carbon emissions to Steel 20,1000 1,3700 1,4600
the world. The industry have received an immense Remarks: PET - Polyethterethalate; PP - Polypropylene; PU -
pressure to advance the operation efficiency, Polyurethane; HDPE- High Density Polyethylene; LDPE - Low Density
Polyethylene
economical operation and wise resources
utilization (O’Riordan et al., 2011). A lot of studies
2.3 Comparison embodied carbon of
on carbon footprint have been done by the
researchers and policy practitioners to improve
gabion and geogrid wall
the industry by computing the embodied carbon Niall et al. (2011) and Raja et al, (2015) have
and to control the carbon dioxide emission by studied the carbon embodied in construction
exercising the practical operation work in the material, specifically for gabion, geogrid and
construction site. geotextile. The utilization of gabion will
891
contributes more carbon dioxide emission than With diesel consumption rate per mile of 1.76
geogrid and geotextile usage. Both gabion mesh mil/ℓ;
and gabion fill emitted more carbon dioxide than
geogrid and geotextile due to the manufacturing Travel and return trip, n= 12 x2= 24 miles (1)
and transportation process (refer Table 2 and
Table 3). The total travel for a day of 5 trip;
An example of carbon dioxide emission calculation 5

is written as following. [1] The total weight of steel  n =24+24+24+24+24 =120 miles
k 1
(2)
wire (Fe) and galvanized coating of 95% Zinc (Zn)
and 5% Aluminium (Al) were 1890,00 g/m2, 232,75
g/m2 and 12,25 g/m2 respectively as calculated by The total consumption of diesel per day as
Niall et al. (2011). [2] The total weight of each following;
material were converted into unit of kilogram per
Total diesel = 120 miles/ 1.76 miles/ℓ
meter cubic (kg/m2) with value of 1,89 kg/m2,
consumption (3)
0,233 kg/m2 and 0,012 kg/m2. [3] Each value will (liter,ℓ) = 68,18 ℓ
be multiplied with the embodied carbon as
tabulated in Table 2 which resulted total The total amount of carbon dioxide emission
embodied carbon for each steel, galvanized Zinc during transportation;
and Aluminium with 5,35 kgCO2/m2, 0,90
kgCO2/m2 and 0,140 kgCO2/m2, respectively with Total = 68,18 x2,63 (adopted from Richard
total sum of 6,39 kgCO2/m2. emission
of CO2
et al., 2011 (4)
Table 2. Embodied carbon of gabion (adopted
= 179,3 kgCO2
from Niall et al., 2010)
Product Materials (% weight)

Embodied carbon The total carbon release is summarized as rate per
(tCO2e/t) mile;
Gabion mesh
Fe 80,9 2,830
(PVC)
Total = 179,3 kgCO2 / 120 miles
Zn (10,0) 3,860 emission (5)
of CO2 = 1,49 kgCO2 / miles
Gabion fill Al (0,5) 11,460
PVC (8,6l) 2,410 Raja et al. (2015) has studied the emission
released by manufactured geosynthetic material.
Aggregate Aggregate 0,005
Relatively the embodied carbon value is higher
Granular (Table 3) than raw material in Table 2 as end
Aggregate 0,005
backfill
product. However, the reinforced geosynthetic
material reduces raw material utilization at site
A complete carbon dioxide emission shall include and reduce the carbon emission effectively. The
the emission by transportation. The method of operational cost, total overall project and
calculation is adopted from Richard et al. (2011). estimation budget will be reduced subsequently
1,76 miles/ liter is a diesel consumption per trip with significant practise of design and operation
with the distance of 24 miles travel- return trip work on site (O’Riordan et al., 2011).
and 5 times frequency per day (Eq. 1 and 2). Thus,
the total diesel used per mile is 68,18 liter for the
whole trip (Eq. 3). With the embodied carbon of
2,63 kgCO2/kg, resulted 179,31 kgCO2 (Eq. 4) for
carbon release in a day with the rate of 1.49
kgCO2/mile (Eq 5).
892
Table 3. Embodied carbon of geogrid and 3.1 Strength enhancement of well

geotextile (adopted from Raja et al., 2015) compacted earth fill with geogrids
Manufacturing Total
Embodied
carbon embodied
Based on Figure 2, the vertical stress, ϭzload in
Type carbon embankment is described by the following
emissions carbon
(tCO2e/t)
(tCO2e/t) (tCO2e/t) equation,
needle
Non 1,983 0,053 2.280
woven
punched ϭz = γ.z (6)
geotextile Thermally
- 0,189 2,420
bounded
Geogrid (extruded) - 0,987 2,970
Geogrid (woven) - - 2,360
3 Typical case for carbon reduction

by alternative approach for
embankment construction
The conventional design of road embankment will
applied sand fill as remove and replace approach
to increase bearing capacity of embankment
foundation and to facilitate drainage (Figure 1a).
The sand fill layer can be replaced with well Figure 2. Soil reinforcement of the embankment
compacted earth fill, strengthened by using construction
geosynthetic reinforcement and geosynthetic
drainage layer to minimize the usage of sand as The unit weight of standard well compacted
infill or replacement raw material (Figure 1b). The embankment soil, say γ is 18,5kN/m3 and the
performance of bearing capacity and drainage depth of the soil embankment soil, z is 4,5m at
capacity, derived from sand blanket required to be point A and 5,5m at point B were designated with
retained when sand is replaced with well parameter to be used in the following
compacted earth fill. Following are the calculations. The vertical stress is 76,0kN/m2. The
comparative calculations. total stress, ϭztotal is added with surcharge load,
ϭzload of 20kN/m2.
ϭztotal = ϭz +ϭzpointA (7a)
ϭztotal = (18,5kN/m3 x 4,5m)+20kN/m2
= 103,25 kN/m2
ϭztotal = ϭz + ϭzpointB (7b)
ϭztotal = (18,5kN/m3 x 5,5m)+20kN/m2
= 121,75 kN/m2
Figure 1. Alternative design for sand fill with earth

fill reinforced for bearing capacity and drainage The resistance force of sand fill, Ps with designated
enhancement friction angle, øs of 34º at point A and B;
893
Thus, it is recommended to use geogrid of 40 kN

Ps = ϭztotal .tan øs (8a)
and 60kN/m strength for point A and B,
= 103,25 kN/m2.tan 34 respectively. (Table 4).
Table 4. Typical Geogrid data sheet
= 69,64 kN/m2
Geogrid strength
Ps = ϭztotal .tan øs (8b) minimum in machine 40 60 80 100 150
direction, MD (kN/m)
Creep Reduction Factor 1,51 1,51 1,51 1,51 1,51
= 121,75 kN/m2.tan 34
Partial Factor: Installation
1,07 1,07 1,07 1,07 1,07
= 82,12 kN/m2 Damage
Partial Factor:
1,10 1,10 1,10 1,10 1,10
Environmental Impact
The resistance force of residual soil or well
Long-term strength (LTDS) 22,5 33,8 45,0 56,2 84,4
compacted earth fill, Pe with designated friction
angle, øe of 26º at point A and B;
Pe = ϭztotal .tan øe (9a)

3.2 Drainage enhancement of well
= 103,25 kN/m2.tan 26 compacted earth fill
The permeability of well graded gravel- sand
= 50,36 kN/m2 without finer material about 10-4m/s. With refer
to Figure 1b, 2m thick and 1m wide of sand
Pe = ϭztotal .tan øe (9a) blanket to have the following following discharge
capacity;
= 121,75 kN/m2.tan 26
Q = A.ū (11)
= 59,38 kN/m2
= (1,0m x 2,0m).10-4m/s
With reduction of resistance force between sand
fill and well compacted earth fill, the material = 2,0 x 10-4m3/s
(soil) used for well compacted earth fill required
to be reinforced, Pr at Point A and Point B; Where, Q is the discharge rate, A is the equivalent
cross sectional area and ū denoted as average
Ps = Pe + Pr (sin θ+cosθ.tan ø) (10a) flow velocity rate. Thus, the discharge capacity of
geosynthetic drainage network required to be
Pr = (Ps - Pe )/(sin θ+cosθ.tanø)
higher than given 2,0 x 10-4 m3/s (Eq. 11).
=69,64-50,36 The discharge capacity capacity of geosynthetic
drainage layer of 2.500 cm3/s (Table 5), the
= 19,28 kN/m2 , use 40 kN/m geogrid discharge rate will be 2,5 x 10-3m3/s. The total
with LTDS of 22.5kN/m number of geosynthetic drains required per meter
length of sand blanket as an alternative were as
Ps = Pe + Pr (sin θ+cosθ.tan ø) (10b) follows;
Pr = (Ps - Pe )/(sin θ+cosθ.tanø) Nos = discharge capacity of sand blanket

(Eq. 11) / discharge capacity of (12)
=82,12-59,38 geosynthetic horizontal drain
= 22,74 kN/m2, use 60 kN/m geogrid = (2,0 x 10-4m3/s).(2,5 x 10-3/s)
with LTDS of 33,8kN/m = 0,08 ~ 0.1 in 1m width
894
Say, to improve efficiency, the total number of Table 7.Carbon released in materials for
geosynthetic drain is recommended to be conventional and alternative design for typical
provided at 1,5m centers. road embankment work per meter square
Table 5. Typical geosynthetic drain data sheet Total Mass x Carbon
Conventional Vol.
Mass Embodied released
design (m3)
(ton) Carbon (tCO2)
Core material Polypropylene Imported
2,0 4,0 4,0 x 1,0 4,0
sand
Width 200±10 mm
TOTAL 4,0
Thickness ≥ 8,0 mm Total Mass x Carbon
Alternative
Area/Vol Mass Embodied released
Tensile Strength ≥ 6,0 kN design
Carbon (tCO2)
Discharge capacity, 300kPa 1,06 1,06E-3 X
Geogrid 2,0m2 0,0025
≥2.500 cm3/s kg/m2 2,36
(i=0.1, 1 Day)
Geotextile 1,29 1,29E-3 X
1,0m2 0,0030
separator kg/m2 2,35
3.3 Computational of carbon footprint In situ Earth 2,0m3 3,6 ton 3,6 X 0,50 1,8000
reduction
TOTAL 1,8055
The summary of embodied carbon of each
material are represented in Table 6 in per meter Total saving 54,86%
cubic. The geosynthetic materials contained

higher embodied carbon than raw material as the
material undergone manufacturing and
transportation process longer than raw material.
However, this is contradict to the cost and carbon
released by geosynthetic material which are lower
than carbon required for mining and utilization of
raw material (Table 7).
The carbon released were compared between
sand fill and remove-replace method and the use
of well compacted earth fill reinforced with
geogrids. Carbon footprint or carbon released will
be computed of per meter square area and for 2m Figure 3. Typical layers of geogrid as soil
depth of ground improvement works. reinforcement to replace sand fill
Table 6. The embodied carbon in raw material With the comparison between sand fill and earth
with relation to geosynthetic material reinforced fill, carbon footprint can be reduced by
Embodied carbon
54,86% (Table 7). The cost reduction is about
Material Mass/ density 52,22% as shown in Table 8. Such massive
(tCO2/t)
Imported sand 2 ton/ m3 1,00
reduction in carbon and cost can make major
changes in construction industry and contribute
Geogrid 0,53 kg/ m2 2,36 for environmental friendly construction method
for infrastructure works. With carbon reduction,
Geotextile 0,642 kg/ m2 2,35
construction cost can also be reduced
In situ Earth 1,8 ton/ m3 0,50 substantially.
895
Table 8. Cost reduction for conventional and 5 References

alternative design for typical road embankment
work per meter square [1] Begum R. A. Tackling climate change and
Malaysia’s Emission Reduction Target.
Environment & Climate Edition. Scientific
Conventional Malaysian. 2017; 13: 15-22.
Usage Cost Total cost
design [2] Niall C., Patrick C., Sophie N. and Andrew T.,
Imported sand 4,0 ton RM 90,00/ ton RM 360,00 2010, Sustainable Geosystems in Civil
Engineering Applications. WARP
TOTAL RM 360,00
Geosystems Report: MRF116-001, 2010.
Alternative [3] O’ Riordan N., Nicholson D., Hughes L. and
Usage Cost Total cost
design
Phear A. Examining the carbon footprint
Geogrid 2,0 m2 RM 12,00/ m2 RM 24,00
and reducing the environmental impact of
Geotextile slope engineering options. Ground
1,0m2 RM 4,00/ m2 RM 4,00
separator
Engineering. 2011:28-30
Insitu Earth 4,0 ton RM 36,00/ ton RM 144,00
[4] Raja J., Dixon N., Fowmes G., Frost M. and
TOTAL RM 172,00 Assinder P. Obtaining reliable embodied
carbon values for geosynthetics.
Total saving 52,22%
Geosynthetics International. 2015; 22(5):
393-401.
[5] Richard A.G. A Comparison of sustainability
for three levee armoring alternatives. In:
4 Conclusion George R. K., Hsuan Y.G, Robert M. K.,
The environmental impact in the construction site Marilyn V., and Jamie R. K. (eds.) GRI-24:
is closely linked to the type of material used and Optimizing Sustainability Using
method of placement. Old and inefficient method Geosynthetics: The 24th Annual GRI
of construction required to be revisited and Conference Proceedings, 13-16 March 2011,
improved with adaptation of modern technology Dallas, Texas. Pennsylvania: Geosynthetic
in order to be environmental friendly. Thus, Institute; 2011. p.40-49.
energy infrastructure projects are required to [6] The Inventory of Carbon and Energy (ICE
have an carbon footprint reduction audit, which database). Available from:
would be best practice to control environmental http://www.circularecology.com/embodied
impact and produce an efficient operation work at -energy-and-carbon-footprint-
construction site. It is a wise move to practice, database.html#.WjRjelWnGpo. [Accessed
carbon footprint reduction approach for 20th May 2017].
development and implementation of Green
Highway and Infrastructure Index (GHII). A minor
change in infrastructure industry will have huge
support for nations effort to reduce the global
emission successfully. This is a task for all
engineers to perform engineering works with
mother nature in mind.
896
Large bridges recently built in Poland

Jan Biliszczuk, Marco Teichgraeber
Wrocław University of Science and Technology, Wrocław, Poland
Robert Toczkiewicz
Research & Design Office Mosty-Wrocław, Wrocław, Poland
Contact: jan.biliszczuk@pwr.edu.pl
Abstract
The road and railway infrastructure in Poland has been intensively developed and modernized for
the last years. Around 300 new bridges are built annually. Among the new structures there is a
group of modern long span bridges.
This paper presents examples of selected, most interesting large road bridges built in recent years
in Poland. The following structures are described:
– two largest extradosed bridges in Europe – with spans exceeding 200 m;
– the largest arch bridge in Poland with 270 m long fixed arches and an expressway bridge with
200 m long arch span;
– two cable-stayed bridges.
Structural configuration and construction technology of the above mentioned bridges are
described.
Keywords: long span; extradosed bridge; arch bridge; cable-stayed bridge; construction
technology.
– two extradosed bridges,

1 Introduction – three arch bridges.
For the last years an intense road network All of them were built in this century. To be
development programme has been carried out in among the 25 Polish bridges with the longest
Poland. More the 2500 new bridges including long span, one need to design a bridge with a span of
span and multi-span structures were built along more than 140 m. In 2017 there were 24 multi-
the main roads and highways during the last span bridges with a total length greater than 1000
decade. m in Poland.
In 2017 there were 11 bridges with span longer This paper presents selected examples of recently
than 200 m in Poland (Table 1), including: built long-span arch bridges, extradosed bridges
– six cable-stayed bridges, and cable-stayed bridges.
897
Table 1. List of bridges with 200 m or longer span built in Poland
Material
Rank Bridge name Span [m] Bridge type Completed
Arch (Pylon) / Deck
Solidarity Bridge
1 375.0 cable-stayed steel / steel 2005
over the Vistula River in Płock
Gen. Elżbieta Zawacka Bridge
2* 270.0 arch steel / steel 2013
over the Vistula River in Toruń
Rędziński Bridge
3 256.0 cable-stayed concrete / concrete 2011
over the Odra River in Wrocław
Siekierkowski Bridge over concrete / steel-
4 250.0 cable-stayed 2002
the Vistula River in Warsaw concrete
Tadeusz Mazowiecki Bridge concrete / steel-
5* 240.0 cable-stayed 2015
in Rzeszów concrete
Third Millennium John Paul II concrete / steel-
6 230.0 cable-stayed 2001
Bridge in Gdańsk concrete
John Paul II Bridge
7 212.0 arch steel / steel-concrete 2008
over the Vistula River in Puławy
Bridge along DK16 road
8* 206.0 extradosed concrete / concrete 2017
near Ostróda
Bridge over the Vistula River
9* 204.0 extradosed concrete / concrete 2013
in Kwidzyn
Franciszek Macharski Bridge concrete / steel-
10* 200.0 cable-stayed 2017
over the Vistula River in Cracow concrete
Bridge over the Pauzneński
11* 200.0 arch steel / steel-concrete 2017
Canal in Ostróda
* bridge described in the paper
crossing the riverbed is a six-span extradosed
2 Extradosed bridges continuous beam with spans of 70.0 + 130.0 + 2 ×
In recent years Poland has become the leading 204.0 + 130.0 + 70.0 m (Fig. 2). Design and
country in the field of design and construction of construction of such long-span extradosed bridge
extradosed bridges [1]. More than 20 bridges of was a pioneering undertaking in Europe.
this type were built to date. Among them are the
two largest extradosed bridges in Europe: the 15.90 m
4.60 9.00 2.30
bridge in Kwidzyn with spans of 204 m and the
bridge near Ostróda with spans of 206 m.
0.80
0.80
2.1 Bridge in Kwidzyn 0.40 3.50
Construction of the bridge over the Vistula River in

Kwidzyn, located along the new section of the
national road DK90, was one of the most Figure 1. Bridge in Kwidzyn – span cross section
important investments in the transportation The superstructure is a single-cell concrete box
network of Pomerania region (northern Poland). girder with inclined webs and a constant height of
This bridge consists of five structures with a total 3.50 m (Fig. 1). External stays are anchored in the
length of 1867 m. The main 808 m long bridge edge beams stiffened by transverse diaphragms.
The webs with a typical width of 0.40 m are locally
898
widened in the support zones to 0.60 m and the cross-section of the span. The strands are
thickness of the bottom plate is increased to deflected in steel saddles (VSL SSI 2000 type)
0.80 m. The small structural height of the box placed in the pylons and are anchored in concrete
girder constant along the whole length of the blocks in the edge beams of the deck.
bridge, which is untypical for such long spans [2],
The spans of the bridge in Kwidzyn were
required to use high strength concrete (C70/80).
constructed section-by-section using underslung
Short concrete pylons acting as deviators of movable scaffolding. The superstructure was
external stays are fixed in the superstructure and divided into 12 sections, each 50 m long. For this
are made of the same high strength concrete. purpose it was necessary to build 13 temporary
Each pylon has a shape of two inclined columns concrete supports, six of which were located in
with the height of 17.2 m above the deck level, the river current [3].
which is only about 1/12th of the span. The post-
The bridge was designed by Transprojekt Gdański
tensioning system consists of internal cables and
and constructed by Budimex.
external cables and stays. External stays consisting
of 75 7-wire strands are conducted outside the
17.2 3.0
3.5
Vistula River
70.0 130.0 204.0 204.0 130.0 70.0

808.0 m
Figure 2. Bridge in Kwidzyn – side view (photo: Budimex)

strength steel strands in a single stay varies from
2.2 Bridge near Ostróda
135 up to 167. The stays are deviated in VSL SSI
The bridge near Ostróda carries the southern ring 2000 type steel saddles installed inside the low
road of the city which is a new section of the pylons. Height of the pylons is only 22.9 m above
national road DK16. It is a four-span structure with the deck level.
a total length of 677 m and spans of 132.5 + 2 ×
28.60 m
206.0 + 132.5 m (Fig. 4). Construction of such long
1.80 0.50 9.50 1.00 3.00 1.00 9.50 0.50 1.80
spans resulted from the nature protection
requirements.
The superstructure is a prestressed concrete (class 4.04
C60/75) three-cell box girder with a width of 6.04
28.6 m (Fig. 3). Height of the girder varies from

4.04 m in the span to 6.04 m in the support zone.
5.20 2.50 13.00 / 2 9.92 / 2 4.04 5.20
The girder is stiffened every 8.0 m by transverse 28.40
diagonal prestressed concrete struts [4]. External
stays are arranged in a single vertical plane in the Figure 3. Bridge near Ostróda – cross section in
axis of the girder. The number of 7-wire high span and over support
899
Due to the obstacle configuration (a deep valley is girder at a distance of 42 m from the pylon axis.
crossed), the bridge was cantilevered with The cantilevers reached the length of 102 m
simultaneous use of six sets of travellers. In the before casting the closure segments [4]. The
first stage a 15.2 m long starting segments were extradosed bridge near Ostróda was founded on
cast on scaffoldings. Four initial cantilevered precast reinforced concrete piles.
segments with variable height were 3.6 m long
The bridge was designed by Transprojekt Gdański
and the remaining segments were 4.0 m long. The
and constructed by Budimex.
shortest external stays were anchored in the
54.0 62.0 22.9 53.5
4.0
40.0 6 x 8.0 6.0
132.5 206.0 206.0 132.5

677.0 m
Figure 4. Extradosed bridge near Ostróda – main dimensions and view during construction (photo: Budimex)
– arch bridge with a length of 540.0 m;
3 Arch bridges – left riverside flyovers with a length of 435.3 m
At present (2017) in Poland there are 10 arch + 394.9 m.
bridges with spans longer than 100 m and three 2.70
arch bridges with spans greater than 200 m. Two
3.50
of them, erected during the last five years, are
briefly described below. 24.07 m
2.40 0.86 7.00 3.00 7.00 0.86 2.40
3.1 Bridge in Toruń

The bridge over the Vistula River in Toruń is 2.80
situated along the new section of the national

4.33 2.88 3.60 3.02 3.02 3.60 2.88 4.33
road DK1. It consists of the following structures
27.67
[5]:
– right riverside flyovers with a length of 221.7 m Figure 5. Bridge in Toruń – span cross section
+ 279.5 m;
900
The main bridge is a half-through fixed arch The arch spans were constructed in the following
structure with two spans of 270.0 m (Fig. 6). stages [5]:
Central support is situated on an artificial island in
– construction of foundations including central
the middle of the riverbed.
support located on the artificial island;
The bridge, apart from concrete bases of the – erection of concrete arch bases;
arches, is a steel structure. Arch girders, designed – assembly of arch segments on the construction
as hexagonal box section with dimension of 2.70 × site located on the river bank;
3.50 m, are inclined to the axis of the bridge and – water transport of assembled arches of approx.
braced by six struts. The deck with a height of 3.00 weight of 3000 tons each;
m is a steel orthotropic plate consisting of closed – placing the arches on the concrete bases of
ribs under the road pavement, open ribs under supports and welding the joints (the arches are
the sidewalks, longitudinal beams and transverse fixed in the supports);
cross-beams suspended to the arches (Fig. 5). – assembly of 30 m long deck segments in the
Total width of the deck carrying two carriageways direction from the supports towards the center
and sidewalks is 24.1 m. The bridge is founded on of the span.
prefabricated reinforced concrete piles.
The bridge in Toruń was designed by Pont-Projekt,
Gdańsk and built by Strabag.
41.9
2.8 Vistula River
25.0 22 x 10.0 25.0 25.0 22 x 10.0 25.0

270.0 m 270.0
Figure 6. Main dimensions and side view of the bridge in Toruń

girders interacting with a concrete slab (class
3.2 Bridge in Ostróda
C50/60). The decks are connected transversally by
The bridge carries new section of the S7 truss cross-beams suspended to three steel arch
expressway over the Pauzeńskie Lake basin and box girders (Fig. 8b). The hangers are arranged in
the Ostróda - Elbląg canal. The superstructure three vertical planes: two external (12L15.7 type
consists of steel girders composite with a hangers – each hanger consisting of 12 7-wire high
reinforced concrete slab. In the central span the strength steel strands) and one internal (19L15.7
deck is suspended to a steel arch (Fig. 8a). The type hangers) [4]. The arches, X-type arch lateral
span lengths are 70.0 + 200.0 + 70.0 m and the bracings and steel truss cross-beams are grade
total length of the bridge is 365 m [4]. S355J. The main plate girders acting as a tie-beam
are grade S460NL. Concrete deck slab is
The decks carrying each of the two carriageways
additionally prestressed with longitudinal cables.
are separated. Each of them consists of two plate
901
The superstructure was erected by means of were lifted and assembled using temporary
longitudinal launching with use of five temporary supports.
supports. The longest span during the launching
The arch bridge in Ostróda was constructed by
was 50 m. After the launching the arch segments
Budimex.
36.02 m
a) b) 17.35 1.32 17.35
2.21 14.10 1.04 1.04 14.10 2.21
33.0
Pauzneñski Canal
2.90
70.0 200.0 70.0
340.0 m 2.90 13.80 2.20 2.20 13.80 2.90
37.80
c)
Figure 8. Bridge in Ostróda: a) side view, b) deck cross-section, c) aerial view (photo: Budimex)
Bridge [6]. The pylon is founded on reinforced
4 Cable-stayed bridges concrete prefabricated piles.
In the last few years several large cable-stayed 108.5
bridges were built in Poland, including the most a)
impressive structures in Płock and Wrocław
(Table 1). This group has recently been joined by
two interesting bridges – the bridge over the
Wisłok River in Rzeszów and the bridge over the Wis³ok River
30.0 15 x 12.0 30.0
Vistula River in Cracow. 3 x 30.0 150.0 240.0
Total length L=480.0 m
4.1 Bridge in Rzeszów 63.0
b)
The bridge in Rzeszów was erected over the
Wisłok River and the water reservoir of the
municipal heat and power plant. The total length Vistula River
of the bridge is 480 m, the span lengths are 3 x 45.0 50.0 200.0 50.0 45.0
Flyover Flyover
30.0 +150.0 +240.0 m (Fig. 9a). L=155.0 Main bridge: L=392.0 L=157.0
Total length L=704.0 m
The longest spans are suspended to a reinforced
concrete pylon shaped as inverted Y (Fig. 11a). Figure 9. Side views: a) bridge in Rzeszów, b)
Inside the concrete shell of the upper part of the bridge in Cracow
pylon there is a steel core where the stays are
anchored. Total height of the pylon is 108.5 m, The longest spans are suspended by 32 pairs of
which ranks it second in Poland after the Rędziński stays with a length varying from 74 m to almost
902
231 m. The stays have a fan arrangement. Spacing The bridge in Rzeszów was erected using the
of the active anchorages in the pylon is 1.7 m. longitudinal launching of the deck and
Passive anchorages are spaced in the deck every simultaneous construction of the pylon using self-
12.0 m. The deck is a steel structure interacting climbing formwork.
with a reinforced concrete slab with a width of
The bridge was designed by Mosty Gdańsk and
28.5 m. The steel grillage consists of two box
constructed by PORR Polska Infrastructure.
girders with a fixed height of 2.0 m and a wide
spacing of 20.2 m, braced every 4.0 m with plate
cross-beams.
Figure 10. Night view of the bridge in Rzeszów

for the first time in Poland in a large cable-stayed
4.2 Bridge in Cracow
bridge.
Cardinal Macharski Bridge over the Vistula River in
Cracow is a part of the east section of the city's
4th ringroad. It is also part of the S7 expressway.
a) b)
The main part of the bridge is a cable-stayed
structure with 200.0 m long span over the river
bed (Fig. 9b). The bridge consists of two separate
parallel structures with a length of 706.0 m
(western carriageway) and 695.5 m (eastern 108.50
carriageway).
63.0
The main spans are suspended to four identical
(two for each structure) A-shaped pylons, 63 m
high (Fig. 11b). Legs of the pylon are fixed in a
massive prestressed concrete beam connected
28.50
with a cylindrical base of the support.
The stays are not anchored in the pylons. Instead
they are conducted through the steel saddles
installed in the upper part of the pylon legs. This Figure 11. Front view of the pylons: a) bridge in
solution, common in extradosed bridges, was used Rzeszów, b) bridge in Cracow
903
The main span has a steel-concrete deck The steel structure of the main span was
consisting of two widely spaced box girders, longitudinally launched with use of temporary
braced by plate cross-beams interacting with the supports located in the river's current. The side
reinforced concrete slab. The side spans are made spans were erected on scaffolding.
of prestressed concrete.
The cable-stayed bridge in Cracow was
constructed by Strabag.
Figure 12. View of the bridge in Cracow

[2] Collings D., Gonzalez A.S. Extradosed and
5 Conclusions cable-stayed bridges, exploring the
A rapid development of road infrastructure in boundaries. Bridge Engineering. 2013;
recent years, especially after 2004 when Poland 166(BE4): 231-239.
accessed the European Union, has resulted in [3] Zawiła P. Construction of the extradosed
construction of many new bridges. bridge over the Vistula River in Kwidzyn.
During the last years several bridges with a span Inżynieria i Budownictwo. 2014; 1: 6-12 (in
greater than 200 m were built. Most of the new Polish).
large-span structures cross the major rivers. [4] Kaczyński M., Zawiła P. Bridge structures
Bridges built in cities have a chance to become and methods of erection used within the
their distinctive trademark and be recognized contract “Construction of expressway S7
both by city dwellers and visitors. Ostróda North – Ostróda South and
construction of Ostróda bypass in the route
This paper presents selected examples of recently of the national road no. 16”. Proc. of
built large-span bridges. Among them are the two symposium Wrocławskie Dni Mostowe
largest extradosed bridges in Europie. At the 2017, Wrocław, 28-29 November 2017: 181-
moment they can be considered the greatest 196 (in Polish).
achievements of Polish civil engineering. [5] Wąchalski K., Cywiński Z. Die neue
Straßenbrücke in Toruń, Polen – Teil 1:
6 References Planung und Bau. Stahlbau. 2015; 84(4):
[1] Biliszczuk J., Onysyk J., Barcik W., 267-274.
Toczkiewicz R. and Tukendorf A. Extradosed [6] Biliszczuk J., Onysyk J., Barcik W.,
Bridges in Poland – Design and Toczkiewicz R. and Tukendorf A. The two
Construction. Front. Built Environ. 2017; largest Polish concrete bridges – design and
2:37. Available from: www.frontiersin.org. construction. Bridge Engineering. 2016;
169(BE4): 298-308.
904
Kampala Flyovers – Structural Technical Review

Lukasz Wojnarski
Senior, Arup Solihull, UK
Kulvinder Rayat
Associate Director, Arup Solihull, UK
Contact: lukasz.wojnarski@arup.com
Abstract
The Kampala Flyovers Project is a major infrastructural scheme in Uganda, which will relieve congestion in
the City’s Metropolitan Area, allowing for the ease of traffic flow through the International Corridor linking
Kenya with the land-locked central African countries. The conceptual and detailed structural design for the
Project is independently reviewed and checked to assure the quality, feasibility and maintenance objectives
are achieved. The value of the independent technical review and check is presented in this publication.
Keywords: structural technical review, post-tensioned concrete, viaduct, steel, footbridges.
1 Introduction 2 Structural technical review

The Kampala Flyovers Project (Project) in Uganda The objectives of the independent structural
will allow to mitigate congestion within the Greater technical review are to ensure that feasibility,
Kampala Metropolitan Area. The Project consists of durability and structural design complies with the
construction of the two major flyovers and multi- Ugandan Design Standards and Eurocodes and
level crossings at Kitgum House and Clock Tower
follow the “good engineering practice”. This is to
Junctions, construction of two landmark
footbridges, widening of Mukwano Road and give assurance that the design that is going to be
improvements of interfacing roads and junctions. constructed is best value for the Client.
The Project is founded by the Japan International The detailed design and the structural technical
Cooperation Agency (JICA) and the detailed design review to date have been undertaken for the
works are carried out by the Joint Venture Package 1 of the Project as shown in Figure 2.
comprising Nippon Koei and ICS Engineering &
Environment (Designer). The Ultimate Client
(Client) Uganda National Roads Authority (UNRA)
commissioned Arup (Reviewer) to undertake the
structural technical review of the Project.
Figure 1. International Corridor through Kampala. Figure 2. Plan view of Kampala Flyovers Project.
905
2.1 Scope  Extension of the design life of the Flyover from

100 years to 120 years.
The scope for the independent structural technical
 No-tension limit for the service design of pre-
review of the Package 1 includes:
stressed concrete.
Clock Tower Flyover: 366m long, curved in-plane,  Consideration of the ease of construction and
post-tensioned concrete, multi-span viaduct, the lower maintenance ribbed post-tensioned
comprising of three decks with the spans ranging deck as oppose to the voided slab deck.
from 24m to 30m.  Reconsideration of the use of steel screw piles.
 Adaptation of the higher to what assumed for
peak ground acceleration in the seismic design.
 Improvement of the dynamic response of
footbridges and increase of the comfort criteria.
 Trial construction testing for the geometrically
complex footbridges.
2.3 Benefits
Figure 3. Road view on the Clock Tower Flyover. The comments and recommendations from the
structural technical review, have been handed over
Clock Tower Footbridge: 238m long, circular in- to the Designer and the Client, during the series of
plane, steel, multi-span, lightweight footbridge, technical workshops and presentations.
with the spans ranging from 29m to 40m and
associated ramps. The Client recognised the value of the inputs
provided from the Reviewer, especially in the areas
where the long-term objectives for the low
maintenance and robustness have been addressed.
The Designer valued the inputs, which have
allowed to correct and improve the efficiency of
the design, or contributed to the potentially easier
and safer construction of the Project.
3 Conclusion
The Kampala Flyovers is an ambitious scheme in
Figure 4. Aerial view of the Clock Tower Footbridge
the heart of Kampala, Uganda. This fast-track
and the Clock Tower Flyover.
Project imposes various challenges, which shall be
Shoprite Footbridge: “triskelion” in-plane addressed in the design and construction.
geometry, steel, with the single centrally located
In the structural technical review of the Project, the
column supporting three independent spans,
Reviewer empathised on the key issues, relating to
spanning radially from the central support.
durability, robustness and long-term maintenance,
which shall be considered by the Designer and
2.2 Key findings
Client to achieve the quality product.
The structural technical review for the Package 1
The design and review process imposed by the
consisted of a high level conceptual and value
Client and delivered in the collaborative manner by
engineering review, as well as detailed appraisal of
the Designer and Reviewer, allows to develop the
the proposed scheme including analytical studies.
scheme, which meets the short-term and long-
The example comments and recommendations
term objectives of the Project.
proposed by the Reviewer (out of the 140 similar
findings) included:
906
A Case Study of Failure of Pile Bore at Bridge Construction Project,

Agra-Lucknow Expressway, India
Kadbhane Digambar J, Mahendrakar Avinash Y
Engineering Design and Research Center Department (EDRCD), Transportation Infrastructure
Independent Company, Larson & Toubro Ltd, Mumbai, India
Contact: digambar@lntecc.com , aym@lntecc.com
Abstract
The Agra-Lucknow Expressway Project extends the connectivity of the state capital with the
national capital with High-Speed Corridor. The proposed expressway starts on the Agra Ring Road
near village Madra, and ends on SH-40 (Lucknow – Mohan- Hasanganj – Rasulabad road) outskirts
of Lucknow. A Major bridge structure of total length 90 m is built for the physical obstacles
without closing the way underneath a body of water for the purpose of providing passage over the
obstacle on the SAI River. The project area is covered by a deep layer of alluvium spread range
from sandy to the clayey loam by the slow-moving rivers of the Ganges system. Well foundations
are generally preferred in such type of strata which are prone to collapse. Since construction of
well foundation is time consuming, pile foundation were proposed to complete project within
time.
In this case study, the collapse of the pile bore in liquefiable soil has been observed at abutment
‘A2’of the major bridge, at scheduled chainage 265+300. The bores in pile group collapse loose
clayey sandy strata. This paper discusses the reasons of bore failure and the phenomenon of
actual failure at liquefiable deposits. After studying the actual failure pattern some significant
remarks are find out and accordingly the new pile group arrangement is suggested. The new
design considering dead load, earth pressure, superimposed dead load, Live load, wind and
seismic loading is based on rivet theory. Accordingly the numbers of pile are increased in the
foundation to satisfy the design requirement
Keywords: Expressway, pile bore, liquefiable deposits, High-Speed Corridor, Ganges system
Lucknow Expressway on Public Private Partnership

1 Introduction mode (PPP) by the Government of Uttar Pradesh
Good transportation systems are the lifeline to the (UP), India. The Agra-Lucknow Expressway Project
area they serve. Roads bring about all-round will extend the connectivity of the State Capital
development in the region. A good road network with National capital with High-Speed Corridor.
helps in the success of all development activities, The proposed expressway starts on the Agra Ring
be it in the sphere of movement of people and Road near the village Madra and ends on the SH-
goods, agriculture, commerce, education, health, 40 (Lucknow – Mohan- Hasanganj – Rasulabad
and social welfare, or even the maintenance of road) outskirts of Lucknow.
law and order and security. To keep pace with the The topography of the project area is almost plain
forthcoming economic development within the and the general slope is from north-west to south-
State the Uttar Pradesh Expressways Industrial east. Predominant geological formations in the
Development Authority (UPEIDA) had been project districts are quaternary alluvium consisting
entrusted to develop access controlled Agra
907
of the main sands of various grades silts, clays and turbulence in water during the pile boring
fine sand. Soils of the project districts are typical operation. To support the soil vertical face of such
of those in the Ganga alluvial plain. The diversity is borehole, in view of achieving the good concrete
mainly due to the influence of various drainage, shaft in pile, steel casings/liners may be used.
canals and partially due to the presence of the When a soil is cohesive or partially non-cohesive,
Yamuna and Ganga Rivers. The main soil types are for stabilization of vertical soil inside the pile
sandy loam and clay, locally classified as Bhur, borehole, bentonite solution is used.
Matiyar, Dumat and Pillia. The project districts is
This paper discusses the reasons of a collapse of
covered by ravines since the rivers flow through
the pile bore at abutment ‘A2’of the major bridge,
the winding channel. Most of these rivers have
at scheduled chainage 265+300, understand the
braided characteristics that make the banks
phenomenon of failure actual at liquefiable
unstable and variable soil condition exist across
deposits and remedies carried out during the
the crossings. Geotechnical conditions for
abutment construction.
foundation construction for bridges has been
challenging for many reasons. Distribution of soils
across crossings was complex and was usually
2 The project information
heterogeneous both in vertical and horizontal The Agra Lucknow expressway was the dream
direction. Soils consist of wide varieties of project of Uttar Pradesh state Government. The
material ranging from poorly graded sand to silt Sai River crosses the expressway alignment at
and clay. In general, there is a predominance of scheduled chainage 265+300. The major bridge
silt-sized materials and most often sandy soils was proposed over the SAI River at chainage
containing the significant percentage of mica. The 265+300 near Auras village to cross
presence of mica itself provides some unique
characteristics of these soils that have been little
studied in the geotechnical literature.
Most of the older bridges built in this region were
founded on well or caisson foundations. There
have been frequent problems of undesirable
sinking or difficulty in the sinking of these caissons
that delayed the construction time. With the
development of bored pile construction in this
country, the current tendency is to build bridge
foundation on large diameter bored pile. Driven Figure 1. Bridge location
piles are seldom used for bridges in India except
for very small brides where scouring is not Sai River has several meandering at the close the
significant and driving is not a problem. location as shown in figure 1. The river is perineal
and water flows throughout the year. The velocity
The most common and largely recognized of flow during the flood time is observed to be
methods for executing RCC bored Piles Cast-in- 2.67m/ s. The Major Bridge was located near to
Situ are Direct Mud Circulation (DMC), Reverse meandering. The good engineering practice is not
Mud Circulation (RMC), Bailor (Sludge Pump) to propose the structure of meandering. But, it
Boring method & Rotary / Auger method. In all the was not possible to shift the alignment due to
methods, boring is done using heavy chopping or villages on both side.
cutting tools. The method of taking out the
dredged soil from the hole differs in different The proposed major bridge was 3span of 30m as
methods. In all the methods, stabilization of soil in shown in figure2.The total length of the bridge
the dredge hole is very important to maintain the within the limit of a contract was 90m.The PSC
quality of the pile. In case of absolute non- girder with a cast in situ deck slab were supported
cohesive soil, stabilization of vertical cut earth in over a pier and abutment cap. The circular pier
pile borehole may be very difficult owing to and wall type abutment were proposed.
908
authority. The working pile of LHS abutment A2 on

LHS was started. As shown in figure 3. The pile
near to the median side, the first column and
second row were executed first.
Figure 2. Span arrangement Bridge location

The geotechnical investigation was carried out at
the bride location.
Table 1. Soil type and N value
Depth “N” Log Soil type
below Value
groun
d level Figure 3. The Location of the first working pile
(m)
1 Nil CSCP The pile boring rig was used to bore the pile as
3 Nil CSCP shown in figure 4
6 28 CSCP
9 37 CSCP
12 46 CSCP
15 57 CSCP
18 64 CSCP
21 76 CSCP
24 89 CSCP
27 98 CSCP
30 100 CSCP
33 Refusal FS
36 Refusal FS
39 Refusal FS
42 Refusal FS
Figure 4. Boring Machine
45 Refusal FS
The casing was lower up to the 4m below the
As shown in Table 1, the Silty soil with clay original ground levels. The pile boring was started
particles(CSCP) was encountered up to the 27m and successfully bored to full 35m length. The
below ground level and fine sand (FS) was found minimum time of 8 hr were required to complete
between 27m to 45m.The N Value increases with the bore. The Bentonite was used to stabilize the
the increase in depth of the bore with refusal at unsupported wall of the bore. The pile bore was
27m below ground levels. washed and all the mud removed and cage was
lower as shown in figure 5.
2.1 Construction of the working pile
The Well foundation was more popular in the
state of Uttar Pradesh. To save the construction
time the pile foundation was proposed.Based on
soil investigation the 1m diameter and the 35m
length pile were proposed to support the 3000KN
vertical load. The construction of the test pile was
carried out and successfully tested tested which
gave confidence to the construction team and
909
a) The duration of boring and concreting was

long.
b) The bridge is situated at meandering and
there were chance of aquifer.
c) The water table was at shallow depth.
d) The density of bentonite not maintained.
e) Base on bore hole the collapsing may have
occurred at depth between 8m and 27m.
f) The reinforcement cage extra load push
the casing down.
g) The depth of water flow near river has
increased the pore pressure.
2.2.2 Proposed Remedies

Figure 5. Reinforcement cage lowering Following remedies was suggested by contractor
The cage after fully lowering was supported on engineer
the casing for time being as shown in figure 5. The a) The boring duration of 7 hr should be
steel casing started sinking due to weight of cage reduce.
and was settled by around 1m. Due to which, the b) Time between boring and concrete poring
steel cage got stuck inside the pile bore get. should be reduce.
Authorities had to stop the work and issued notice c) Reinforcement cage, concrete pump and
to not to proceed. concrete Millar should ready at the time
of bore completion.
d) The bentonite density should be
maintained throughout.
e) The depth of casing should be increased
up to 10m below OGL to protect the bore
from water pressure and collapse.
f) Reinforcement cage should not be
supported on casing.
g) The pile arrangement should be revised
and should be approved by authority
before starting the work
The authority agreed to remedies suggested
Figure 6. The pile bore collapse by contractor’s engineer.
2.2 Consultant observation and remedies 2.3 Revised pile design

A technical meeting was held between the It was challenges to the design engineer to
contractor design engineer and consultant rearrange the pile in pile group. As shown in figure
(professional engineer engaged by authority) to 4 the pile bore near median side had collapsed.
discuss, clarify the cause of failure and confirm Design engineer tried two possible option.
technical aspects of design and discrepancies to
provide the solution. The pile shall be checked for all the possible load
mention in the table 1.The Rivet theory was used
2.2.1 Consultant observation to distribute the load over all pile in pile group.
The detailed design was carried out according to
Consultants observation after the site visit, are as Indian road congress (IRC) latest code. The
follows
910
maximum load coming over the individual pile The new arrangement was checked for the
compared with the original proposal. possible load listed in the table 2 and found this
pile was not safe. The vertical load was coming on
Table 2. Summary of load
the new pile is more than it loads carrying
Sr.no Load capacity. The proposed pile is exactly under the
1 DLSUP - Dead Load of Superstructure center of the abutment and pile cap. As per Rivet
+Super Imposed Dead Load theory, the center pile will only take the vertical
2 SW - Dead Load of Substructure (Dry load and not bend. It will only take very under the
Condition)
abutment increased the pile.
3 SL - Surface Load (Load due to Wearing
Coat) One Span Design Engineer was tried option 2 as shown in
4 BL - Buoyancy load of Substructure figure8. The two pile were added at outer side and
5 TS - Load due to Temp./Shrinkage/Creep pile cap was increased. New arrangement was
6 LL1 - Live Load checked for possible load listed in table 1 and
7 LL2 - Longitudinal Force found this pile arrangement was safe .The vertical
8 CF - Centrifugal load coming on new pile were less than its load
9 LLS - Live Load Surcharge carrying capacity. The proposed pile are
10 EP - Active Earth Pressure
maintained at same distance without changing
11 EPS - Active Earth Pressure in HFL case
centre of abutment and pile cap. As per the rivet
12 WP - Water Pressure
theory, this pile contributed to carry in vertical
13 LLS - Live Load Surcharge in HFL case
14 WL1 - Wind Load (Dry Condition)
load and moment.
15 WL2 - Wind Load (HFL Condition)
16 EPQ - Active Earth Pressure in Seismic
Condition
17 EPQS -Active Earth Pressure in HFL +
Seismic
18 LLSQ -Live Load Surcharge in Seismic
case
19 LLSQ -Live Load Surcharge in Seismic
case
20 EQ - Longi. + Vertical
21 EQ - Longi. - Vertical
22 EQ - Trans. + Vertical
23 EQ - Trans. - Vertical Figure 8. The additional pile at outer side
24 EQ - +ve Vertical
The force summary of the original proposal and
25 EQ - -ve Vertical
the second option is summarized in the table no 2.
Design Engineer tried option 1 as shown in figure
Table 3. The maximum load on pile
7. One pile was added in fourth column in second
row. Original Option 2
Case
Max vertical Normal 2174 2061
load on pile (KN) Seismic 2234 2110
Horizontal load
on the pile in Normal 627 597
longitudinal
direction (KN) Seismic 711 678
Horizontal load
Normal 282 269
on the pile in
transverse
Seismic 408 388
direction (KN)
Figure 7. The additional pile at center
911
3 Conclusions supported me at every bit and without whom it

was impossible to accomplish the end task.
Before execution of cast in situ bored pile, the
study of soil investigation report is very important. 5 References
The probability factors of soil collapse inside the
borehole of the pile have to be judged before start [1] MoRT&H – 2013: Specifications for Road
the pile bore. The pile installation method can and Bridge Works (5th rev.), Ministry of
decide on the basis of soil parameter. The Road Transport & Highways.
selection of pile boring machines depends upon [2] IRC:78-2014 : Standard specifications and
the soil variable. To stabilization of soil in a pile code of practice for road bridges – Sec. vii
bore Bentonite suspension is used. The good – Foundations and substructures (Second
quality of bentonite and right quantity of revision)
bentonite suspension are given the required [3] IS : 2911 (Part I / Sec 2) – 2010 : Indian
result. The properties of bentonite are to be Standard code of practice for design and
verified. The appropriate use of bentonite is help construction of pile foundations / Part I :
to save time and achieve economy. Concrete Piles / Sec 2 : Bored Cast in-situ
Type of Stabilisation of soil depends on soil Piles, Bureau of Indian Standards, New
characteristics. The liner is provided in pile bore to Delhi.
prevent soil-collapse in the non-cohesive soil. The [4] CAPPER, P. L and CASSIE, W. F, (1961) “
liner also prevents the collapse due to pore The Mechanics of Engineering Soils”.
pressure. The stabilization of soil depends mainly [5] JUMIKIS, A. R, (1965) “Soil Mechanics”,
on the angle of friction and cohesive factor in pp. 179-226; pp. 549-592; pp. 681-711.
cohesive soil. Stabilisation of vertical cut cohesive [6] OZA, H. P, (1969) “Soil Mechanics and
soil in pile bore also depends on the boring Foundation Engineering”, pp. 678-691.
duration, type of boring machine, type of liquid in [7] SCOTT, R. F, (1965) “Principles of Soil
the borehole and depth of the. The soil character Mechanics”, pp. 33-59; pp. 398-466.
being very uncertain and no one predicts it [8] SING, ALAM, (1975) “Soil Engineering in
exactly. Theory and Practice: Vol. I: Fundamentals
The soil has the capacity to withstand vertically for and General Principles”, pp. 394-479; pp.
certain period based on soil parameter.it is good 654-667.
practice to compete for the boring, cage lowering [9] TERZAGHI, K and PECK, R. B, (1948) “Soil
and placing the concrete within that period. Avoid Mechanics in Engineering practice”,
the additional load on the casing. The piling work pp.100-126 ; pp. 137-151 ; pp. 232-254 ;
or any major activity near to the bored pile will pp. 525-555.
disturb stability of bore.
Address the issue to design engineer and authority
to avoid further complication.
4 Acknowledgements
Agra-Lucknow expressway site team of Larson and
Toubro Ltd are given physical support to collect
the data and information from the site. Their
effort highly appreciable. Without their care and
support, it was impossible to reach the goal. I
thanks, UPEIDA & AYESA engineer for their
technical guidance and support during the
experiment. I would like to show my warm thank
to EDRC team of Larson & Toubro Ltd. who
912
Design & Construction of the Prai Swing Bridge

Ir. Sashi Kumar
Gamuda Engineering Sdn Bhd, Malaysia
Contact: sashi@gamuda.com.my
Abstract
This paper highlights the design and construction of the Prai Swing Bridge, a key component of the
328km long Electrified Double-Track project between Ipoh and Padang Besar in Malaysia. The bridge
was built under a design & build contract completed by MMC-Gamuda JV under the purview of
Keretapi Tanah Melayu Berhad (KTMB). It represents a milestone in the upgrading of the railway
infrastructure network within Malaysia as part of the national push for development.
Keywords: swing bridge, centre pivot, bridge lock, rail lock, vessel protection, hydraulic slewing
cylinders
navigation is 30m wide on both sides as per the

1 Introduction requirement of the Prai Port Authority.
The Prai Swing Bridge is an iconic bridge located The centre pivot Pier P5 was designed as a hollow
within the 328 km long Electrified Double Track reinforced concrete column with the dual intention
project from Ipoh – Padang Besar. The bridge was of housing the necessary machinery as well as to
designed to replace the existing Single Track Swing reduce the dead load onto the foundations. The
Bridge with a new configuration of 2 x 45 m (total pier design included special access provisions for
length = 90 m) steel swing spans with 192 m of future maintenance and replacement of the
approach structures consisting of prestressed T- hydraulic machinery.
beams. The new bridge was constructed to expand
the rail network capability as well as to provide a
larger waterway navigational channel and was
commissioned in 2014. The overall layout is
indicated in Figure 1.
2 Structural Form
The Swing Bridge is primarily a steel structure, with
steel shaped sails forming the primary
superstructure form supported by a steel deck. The
sail shape was selected as an iconic aesthetic
measure to blend in with the Prai River setting. The
main swing spans consists of 2 X 45m spans which
constitute the main waterway navigation channels.
With a skew angle of 72°, the resultant waterway
Figure 1. Prai Swing Bridge – Overall layout
913
The superimposed dead load was further reduced number of challenges such as the temporary
by utilising specially fabricated resin rail sleepers waterway navigation, Pier P5 cofferdam, cable
which were lightweight and highly durable as well, diversion works as well as the assembly of the steel
limiting the need for future replacement over a sail.
sustained period of time.
The construction of the new Swing Bridge had a
The approach structure was designed as a direct impact on the existing waterway channel,
conventional T-beam beam and slab concrete and as such, a temporary waterway channel of 20m
structure to minimise cost and for ease of had to be consistently maintained throughout the
construction. The complete bridge is highlighted in construction period, with waterway navigation
Figure 2. management fully active due to heavy river vessel
traffic.
Pier P5 was a complex structure, and required a
large double-walled cofferdam during construction
which proved challenging due to heavy river vessel
traffic. Major utility cables were required to be
diverted which resulted in the installation of masts
along the bridge which supported the cables while
works were underway.
The steel sails, which formed the heart of the
bridge, were prefabricated and installed on site,
with each sail installed with high precision to avoid
Figure 2. Completed Prai Swing Bridge warping or deformation of the steel element.
3 Mechanical Operations
The major mechanical components for the
operation of the bridge are housed within Pier P5.
The main mechanical components housed within
Pier P5 are the centre pivot shaft, turning cylinders
and the hydraulic power unit as shown in Figure 3.
The bridge and rail locks are located at the
connection points to the approach structure to
ensure proper locking and levelling prior to
approval for trains to pass through the bridge.
A number of failsafe provisions have been included
in the design, namely redundancy in the form of
back-up hydraulic power units, turning cylinders Figure 3. Centre pivot shaft
and diesel generators in the event of a total
hydraulic power failure.
5 Conclusion
The mechanical system has been designed to turn
The Prai Swing is a complicated structure which
the bridge to fully open within 5 minutes and vice
required major interfacing between numerous
versa.
disciplines of engineering, including Systems.
MMC – Gamuda JV is proud to have lead the design
4 Construction Challenges and construction of this iconic bridge, which
The Prai Swing Bridge design was highly formed an integral component of the Ipoh –
complicated, and this extended to the construction Padang Besar double tracking project.
as well. The construction of the bridge presented a
914
Evaluation of the innovative Bridge Concepts for the Extreme

Norwegian Fjord Crossings
Parthasarathi Jena, Mathias Egeland Eidem, Bruno Villoria
Norwegian Public Roads Administration (NPRA)
Contact: mathias.eidem@vegvesen.no
Abstract
Since the ferry free E39 project was initiated, the feasibility of different Long-Span Bridge concepts have been
investigated for some of the most challenging fjord crossings (Bjørnafjorden, Sulafjorden, Halsafjorden). All
studied concepts exceed 2 km in length and are faced with depths of the seabed ranging from 400 m to
1200 m, rendering conventional support solutions inadequate. The bridge concepts referred to in the present
paper are Single Span Suspension Bridges, Multi-Span Suspension Bridges on floating foundations,
Submerged Floating Tube Bridges (SFTB), Side Anchored Floating Bridges and End Anchored Floating Bridges.
The purpose of the present paper is to highlight the main alternatives that have been studied at the time of
writing and to provide the reader with an overview of the realm of application of the different concepts.
1 Introduction
In 2009 the Norwegian Public Roads Administration
was commissioned to initiate the Coastal Highway
Route E39 project whose objective to replace all
ferry connections between Kristiansand and
Trondheim with fixed connections. The fjords in
Norway present considerable challenges both in
terms of distances and depths to be spanned and
the environmental conditions the bridge is
Figure 1. Side Anchored Bridge
subjected to. Under the auspices of the project
various innovative and non-conventional concepts 2.1.2 End Anchored floating bridge
were studied, which use technologies borrowed
from other engineering fields.
2 Description of the concepts

2.1 Floating Bridge
Two variants of the floating bridge were considered
and have been presented briefly below.
2.1.1 Side Anchored floating bridge Figure 2. End Anchored Bridge

In the straight bridge alternative (see Figure 1), the In the End Anchored bridge alternative (Figure 2),
steel bridge girder rests on floating pontoon the bridge girder is formed as an inclined arch
support. Mooring lines take up the large lateral whose highest point will be the centre of the
loads due to the wind, waves and current navigation channel. No mooring line is required in
conditions expected in the fjord. [1] the curved bridge alternative. Its arch shape
ensures the side stiffness of the structure. [1]
915
2.2 Suspension Bridge on floating supports with cross braces, to guarantee the necessary
horizontal stiffness. The SFTB can be vertically
The proposed solution consists of a three spans
stabilized with floating pontoons or with tethers
suspension bridge whose two central pylons rest
connecting the structure with the seabed.[2]
on floaters.
Figure 4. SFTB (tethers or pontoons)
Figure 3. Suspension Bridge on floating supports 3 Conclusions

The floaters are inspired by the Tension-leg The studies performed show extreme crossings in
platform(TLP) technology commonly used in the terms of span, depth and environmental loads can
offshore industry in areas of extreme depths. The be bridged with judicious use of available
floaters are anchored to the seabed by means of technologies. The table below provides an
vertical tethers. Different floater geometries, both overview of the suitability of the concepts for
in concrete and steel, have been considered. A top particular design areas and limitations.
cable has been introduced between the top pylons
in order to provide the system with sufficient
4 Referance
longitudinal stiffness to accommodate the
asymmetric traffic load situations that would, 1. NPRA: Bjørnafjorden Design summery
otherwise, lead to large deflections in the loaded report: End anchored, Side anchored and
spans. [1]. A single spanned suspension bridge was Supension Bridge - 2017
also considered feasible for Sognefjord. [3] 2. NPRA: Bjørnafjorden Submerged floating
tunnel Technical report - 2016
2.3 Submerged floating tunnels 3. NPRA: Sognefjorden Feasibility study
Single span Suspension bridge 2013
The SFTB is a twin tube bridge submerged at a
specific depth in the sea. The tubes are connected
Span/Total Depth (2) Dominant Sensitivity to

Bridge type Variant
Length (1) (m) (m) Environmental loads (3) Ship traffic
On TLP foundation 1000-1400/5000 300-1500 Aero/ Hydro Low

Suspension
Single span 3700/3700 - Aero No interaction
Side Anchored 100-200/5000 300-500 Aero/Hydro High
Floating
End Anchored 100-200/5000 - Aero/Hydro High
On floating pontoon 150-250/6000 - Hydro -Large Swell High
SFTB
Anchored on seabed 150-250/6000 70-600 Hydro -Large Swell Negligible
Notes
1. Span lengths: distance between supports (eg. towers, pontoon support). Lengths show the spans which have been shown to be
Feasible. Longer spans might be feasible and further study is required. Total length is the length of the crossing.
2. Water depths for which the solution has been checked.
3. Environmental loads which dominate design choices. Aerodynamics includes static, dynamic loads and aerodynamic stability issues.
Hydrodynamic loads include loads from swell, sea and current loads.
916
The Scheme Design of ‘Bi-Speed Bicycle Viaduct’ Demonstration Line

Wei He, Keli Xiao, Aijia Zou, Lin Li, Yanjun Jin
Contact: harveyhe@vip.163.com
Abstract
The bicycle viaduct is an effective method to solve the contradiction between the rapid
development of urbanization and low carbon. In this paper, a 4.8km long viaduct was designed
between the Happy Valley and Phoenix Peak park of Chengdu, China. The standard sections of the
whole viaduct adopt steel box girder and Ultra High Performance Concrete (UHPC) precast beam
with 30m spans and 5.5m widths of bridge deck (single). And the UHPC connection plate is used to
replace the traditional mechanical telescopic device to realize the continuous bridge deck between
the ends of the simple beam, which embodies the concept of ‘green bridge’. This line focuses on the
design of three nodes, which includes the five towers cable-stayed bridge, the double deck arch
bridge across the Fu River and the continuous beam bridge in leisure area. The three bridges enrich
the bridge modelling, reflecting the application of aesthetics in the bridge. The whole traffic is based
on bicycle, which adopts separation traffic with double speed of fast and slow speed and can be
used for sightseeing and travel. This design highlights the people-oriented, can ensure traffic safety
and achieve a ‘safe travel, green travel’. Therefore, the viaduct is an effective means to solve the
disharmony between the urban development and the environment.
Keywords: Viaduct, Green, UHPC, jointless bridge, precast assembly, bi-speed.
(1) The traffic environment was deteriorated and

1 Introduction the conflict between motor vehicles and non-
In recent years, with the continuous development motorized vehicles was serious.
of social economy, people's living standards have (2) The passenger traffic was unreasonable.
been constantly improving. But the increasing urban
traffic has hindered the development of the city. To solve these problems, many countries have
Such as traffic congestion, traffic accidents, noise adopted corresponding measures. For example,
pollution and air pollution caused by automobile restrictions on the rapid development of private
exhaust emissions, and so on. cars, including purchase, limit line and a series of
methods. And advocate ‘green transportation,
Urban problem is the surface of various green travel’, to take public bus, subway, light rail
contradictions in the process of urban and tram, and so on.
development. It has various forms, or inappropriate
combination of elements, or structural imbalance, Bicycle traffic is a kind of ‘green traffic’, which has
or poor functioning. [1] The following are two main the characteristics of convenience, flexibility, no
aspects of the characteristics: energy consumption, no pollution, strong
917
adaptability, health benefits and so on. It's parking platform is provided at each exit to park the
necessary to build a bicycle lane. bicycle.
‘Bicycle highways’ have been built in many countries
and regions in the world. Britain [2]~[3], Holland
[4]~[5], Denmark [6]~[7], Germany [8]~[9], Xiamen,
China [10]~[12], and other countries and regions
have made some progress in the study of bicycle
traffic.
17 years ago, the slow traffic accounted for 70% of
the entire traffic system, bicycle accounted for 30%
in Chengdu, China. Chengdu is worthy of the name
of ‘the Kingdom of Riding’. However, there is almost
no exclusive lane of bicycle in Chengdu, and the
existing ground roads cannot meet the demand of
bicycle travel. In 2017, the plan for planning and Figure 1. The route plan of bicycle viaduct
construction of Chengdu Tianfu green road was The viaduct was designed by bi-directional and four
officially released. The Tianfu green road is lane with a mixed speed traffic (Figure 2). The inner
composed of three stages of greenway, with a total lane can be used for rapid cycling, and the design
length of nearly 17000 km. The longest city green speed is 40km/h. While the outer lane is a slow lane,
road in the country is going to build in Chengdu. So the design speed is 20km/h, at the same time
we're going to build a bicycle viaduct. pedestrian walking is also available. The design load
This paper will focus on the design of Chengdu is 2.4kN/m2 according to the technical standard
bicycle viaduct as an example, and it will provide [13].
some enlightenment for the development of urban S F F S
bicycle viaduct in the future.
2 Scheme design
S: Slow lane
A mixed speed bicycle viaduct between Chengdu
Happy Valley and Phoenix Peak Park was designed F: Fast lane
base on the idea of green environment and low
carbon travel. The bicycle viaduct will be the first air
bicycle lane in Chengdu. The overall landscape of
the whole bicycle viaduct is designed according to
the following strategies:
Figure 2. The lane layout
(1) Continuous transfixion
Basic design concepts include:
(2) Space communion
(1) Safety (2) Application (3) Beauty (4) Endurance
(3) Compound function
(5) Green (6) Constructability (7) Maintenance
(4) Rich waterscape
2.2 Design of entrance
2.1 Brief introduction of scheme
Add sketch design in the viaduct entrance position,
The bicycle viaduct, a distance of about 4.8km, via including:
the Shahe ecological area and North Lake verdant
(1) Landscape design
Park and so on (The route plan is shown in figure 1).
It has many entrances and exits and connects with The entrances and exits of the viaduct can be set up
bus stations and subway stations. In addition, a in the park. The landscape design can also be carried
918
out at the entrance and exit to enrich the bridge

environment and lead people into the Viaduct with
cheerful mood. The figure 3 shows the design of the
entrance environment.
Figure 4. The bicycle wall

(3) Connection point design
The viaduct can be connected with bus rapid transit
and subway. This allows us to make the best use of
the last 1km and make it easier for us to travel.
Figure 3. Hand painted entrance environment 2.3 Bridge design cross the line
design
Urban roads are often interlaced, and various
(2) Bicycle parking point design viaducts are complex. For the design of a cross line
Partitioning shared bicycles and private bicycles at bridge, there are several key points:
entrances and exits. Landscape design can be done (1) Select the appropriate line type according to the
for parking spots. For example, bicycle wall and characteristics of the line
stacked parking can be used for bicycle parking.
Bicycles can be layered and hung on both sides of (2) Adapt to local conditions and respond to the
the wall. Thus they can reduce parking space environment
occupancy and improve parking efficiency. The According to the characteristics of line and Happy
bicycle wall is shown in figure 4. Valley, a five tower cable-stayed bridge was
designed across the main road, which was named
‘Wind-like Wheel’. Figure 5 shows the design
concept of the bridge.
Ferris wheel Bicycle Elevation

Figure 5. The Design concept of ‘Wind-like Wheel’
The span length of the bridge is 39m, and the total gradually collapsed rings, which are integrated into
length is 195m. The tower is composed of five the bicycle hub elements. The angle between the
919
tower and the horizontal line is 105°, 75°, 65°, needs of the force and enriches the bridge shape.
55°and 45°. The length of the short axis of the Thus it can enrich the visual experience of the riders.
elliptical bridge tower is 27m, while the long axis Figure 7 shows the artistic style of ‘Wind-like
changes from 35m to 58.5m. The leaning towers Wheel’.
break the static state of the bridge. And the bridge
is given a sense of motion. It symbolizes the
continuous progress and the exploration of the
unknown.
The plane of the main girder is designed in
accordance with the curve, and the radius of the
plane curve is 700m. The width of the bridge is 12m
to 20m. Therefore, the widened cantilever beam
provides space for the rider to rest. The design
sketch of ‘Wind-like Wheel’ is shown in figure 6. Figure 7. The artistic style of ‘Wind-like Wheel’
2.4 Bridge design cross the river

For cross-river bridges, the following aspects should
be considered:
(1) Recreational function
(2) Light and elegant
(3) Integrate into the environment
This line across the Fu River. According to the local
environment and the characteristics of rivers and
trees, the plane shape of the bridge is designed to
be a green leaf. So the bridge is named ‘Water-like
Figure 6. The design sketch of ‘Wind-like Wheel’ Leaf’. Figure 8 shows the design concept of the
bridge.
The stay cables are composed of space dense
cables. And the distance between cables is 1.5m.
The stay cable plane with spatial torsion meets the
Leaf Leaf Plan

Figure 8. The design concept of ‘Water-like Leaf’
The bridge type is a Mid-Supported steel box arch span is 1/6. The cross section is asymmetrically
bridge with a length of 112m. It consists of three designed, as shown in Figure 9. The diameter of the
arch ribs. The clear span of the main arch rib is 90m, middle arch rib is 80cm, and the diameter of the side
the net sagittal height is 15m and the ratio of rise to arch rib is 60cm. The arch ribs are connected by the
920
beam and the membrane structure to form a

cooperative force system. The membrane structure
is composed of PTFE film, which has the advantages
of high tensile strength, good self-cleaning, high
light transmittance and long service life and so on.
Figure 10. The design sketch of ‘Water-like Leaf’
Figure 9. Cross section

The bridge decks are arranged in layers, and the
clearance of the lower deck is 3m, as shown in
Figure 9. The upper deck (5m-width) is for fast lane,
while the lower deck (11m-width) is for slow lane.
Meanwhile, people can rest, sightseeing and watch
the river scenery on the lower deck.
For the design of the bridge, the Midas Civil 2015 is
also used to calculate the finite element model. The Figure 11. The artistic style of ‘Water-like Leaf’
calculation results show that the stiffness of the
edge arch rib is smaller. Therefore, in the design, the 2.5 Facilities on bridge
stiffness of the beam can be improved to reduce the
2.5.1 Rest platform
deflection of the side arch ribs.
Because of the long line, the rest area and
The inner side of the upper girder and the middle
sightseeing platform can be set up in the middle
part of the lower girder are connected with the
area. For example, in the rest area, we can integrate
main arch rib by the flexible suspension rod.
the elements of the curve of the vines winding and
Overlooking the bridge from the air, the film like a
set up a step type rest platform. You can lie on the
leaf falling in the river. Riding on the bridge, in the
top and rest, and you can park the bicycle on the
space of the rhythm and the full sense of quality,
steps. Figure 12 shows the idea of one of the rest
people will enjoy the extraordinary experience.The
platforms. According to the features of the bridge,
design sketch of ‘Water-like Leaf’ is shown in figure
we can call it ‘Twilight-like Vine’.
10. And figure 11 shows the artistic style of ‘Water-
like Leaf’.
921
Vine Branch Axonometric drawing

Figure 12. The design concept of ‘Twilight-like Vine’
The wooden steps and half shade shed, can not only (2) Construct cruise system and promote the night
enrich the bridge shape, but also provide a place for economy
sunshade and rest. The Design sketch is shown in
You can set up a light Festival and a light show to
figure 13.
increase the influence of urban culture and promote
the urban tourism economy.
(3) Intelligent lighting system
Free Wi-Fi can be provided on the road and
information is pushed in real time. A sound system
can be installed to provide music for tourists and to
broadcast the event.
(4) Lighting combined with operation to ensure
sustainability
Unified use of 3000k warm light to illuminate the
road. So the green axis (bicycle viaduct) will be
marked from urban space. It also provides
Figure 13. The Design sketch of rest area conditions for citizens and tourists to travel. Lighting
system provides functional lighting and monitoring
2.5.2 Lighting design system provides security guarantee. At the same
time, the charging device is possible for green
Because of the beauty of the surrounding travel.
environment and the bridge itself, riding on a
viaduct in the daytime will not be boring. But for 2.5.3 The design of auxiliary road
people riding and walking at night, it is more
necessary to enjoy a visual feast. For the design of For a limited place in the auxiliary lane, a power
night view lighting, the following aspects can be assist device and a damping device can be installed
considered: on the ramp. They can help people go up and down.
This can effectively shorten the length of the ramp
(1) Multi scene design and rich tour experience and save the area of land.
Neon lights and small lanterns can be arranged on
both sides of the viaduct. The glittering visual 2.6 Other structures
effects of the stars after the lights are lit, which can
agree with the lights of the street lamps. They 2.6.1 The UHPC connection plate
interweave together and form a colorful city With the continuous emergence and development
landscape corridor. of new materials, especially in recent years, the
922
research and application of Engineered Physical isolation is a measure, which uses external
Cementitious Composites (ECC) materials have devices and equipment, or use the structure to set
played a very good role in promoting the up a barrier to achieve fast and slow lane separation
development of the connection plate. UHPC and not to interfere with each other.
material is similar to ECC material in that it has good
For example, it can be separated by an object, such
durability and small elastic modulus. Under uniaxial
as a railing, a flower bed, etc. Figure 15 shows the
tension, its ultimate strain is as high as 3%, which is
separation of fast and slow lanes by the structure
30~300 times of ordinary fiber concrete and
itself by raising (reducing) the slow lane (fast lane).
150~300 times of ordinary concrete. At the same
time, its bending, compression and shear properties
Pavement sinking (5cm~10cm)
are also very good [14]. Therefore, the use of UHPC
materials in the connection plate can give full play Slow lane Slow lane
to the various properties. Fast lane
Therefore, the UHPC bridge deck connection plate
is ideal for new bridges and old bridges to replace Figure 15. A kind of physical isolation
expansion devices. The production and the use of
UHPC connection plate provide new choices for (2) Non-physical isolation
bridge management, service quality improvement Non-physical isolation is a measure, which uses a
and reducing noise pollution. It has very good social method of nonmaterial or unstructured structure to
benefits and considerable economic benefits. achieve fast and slow lane separation from human
The whole viaduct was designed by precast steel subjective consciousness.
box girder and UHPC girder. The UHPC connection For example, traffic marking can be used to separate
plate is used to replace the traditional mechanical fast and slow lanes. Intelligent induction traffic
telescopic device to realize the continuous bridge marking can also be used at night. And the traffic
deck between the ends of the simple beam, which marking will emerge gradually with the rider
embodies the concept of ‘green bridge’. This can forward.
effectively reduce the noise pollution and improve
efficiency of construction. The structural map of 3 Discussion
UHPC link slab is shown in figure 14.
(1) In Chengdu, electric cars have a large number of
users because they are convenient, but it will bring
a lot of security risks. How to effectively avoid the
electric vehicle through the viaduct or effectively
organize, and make it safe through the viaduct?
(2) In the viaduct, how to effectively realize the
mixed pedestrian and bicycle to avoid accidents?
How to combine fast and slow, organize orderly,
and realize physical isolation or non-physical
Figure 14. The structural map of UHPC link slab isolation?
2.6.2 The Isolation device (3) How to build a bicycle lane in the existing urban
bridge or in the limited space, so as not to affect the
The whole bicycle viaduct was designed with bi- existing traffic, not hinder space and traffic?
speed. So in order to ensure the efficiency and
safety of traffic, it is necessary to set the isolator on
4 Conclusions
the bridge. There are following two ways to divide
the lane: Through this Scheme Design, for the future
development of the city and the characteristics of
(1) Physical isolation
923
the bicycle viaduct, we can draw the following [8] Li Z. D. Germany is Working Hard to Build a
enlightenment: ‘Bicycle Country’ [J]. China bicycle, 2015, (03): 96-99.
(1) Mixed traffic is a new idea and plan to realize [9] Germany Opened Bicycle Dedicated Expressway
commuting, fitness and leisure. Bikes Can be ‘Green Light All the Way’ [J]. West
Transportation Science and Technology, 2016, (02):
(2) The travel mode of the viaduct can be people-
7.
oriented. This can avoid pedestrians and non-motor
vehicles direct contact with motor vehicles, and [10] Qiu C. L. China Xiamen Built the World's
reduce security risks. Bicycle travel can also reduce Longest Air Bike Lane [J]. Landscape Architecture,
noise pollution, reduce emissions, improve the 2017, (04): 9.
ecological environment and so on as a short
[11] Xiamen Built the First Air Bike Lane to Open to
distance trip(<5km).
the Community at an Opportune Time [J]. Business
(3) The key points and difficulties of the design are Research, 2017, (04): 9.
how to divide and realize the fast and slow mixing.
[12] Zhong Z. W. Visits Xiamen Air Bike Lane [N].
It is a good choice to realize non-physical isolation
People's Daily, 2017-04-01 (009).
in the way of intelligent induction traffic marking.
[13] CJJ11-2011, Code for Design of the Municipal
(4) Viaducts will become a new landscape in the city
Bridge [S].
with good lighting and bridge modeling.
[14] Xu S.L. and Li H.D. Research Progress and
(5) The application of new technologies and
Engineering Application of Ultra High Performance
materials such as jointless bridge and intelligent
Cement Based Composites. China Civil Engineering
induction traffic marking can provide better help for
Journal, 2008, 41(6): 45-60.
comfort and safety.
5 References
[1] Zheng A. L. Research on Urban Bicycle Network
Planning [D]. Xi’an University of Architecture and
Technology, 2005.
[2] Li Z. D. London to Create ‘High Altitude Bike’
Highway [J]. China Bicycle, 2004, (01): 80-81.
[3] Zhu L. T. British Bicycle Traffic Planning Practice
and its Reference [J]. Jiangsu Urban Planning, 2011,
(12): 24-27.
[4] Cai W. J. Star Paving -- the Netherlands to Build
the World's First Luminous Bike Lane [A].
Conservation and Management, 2014, (12).
[5] Li Z. D. Low-carbon Dutch Bicycle into a ‘National
Ride’ [J]. World Culture, 2013, (02): 36-38.
[6] Yang X. Denmark - a Fairy Tale Kingdom of
Bicycles [J]. Energy Saving and Environmental
Protection, 2012, (07): 66-67.
[7] Lao, H. Denmark - Green Traffic of Kingdom of
Bicycle [J]. Traffic and Transportation, 2015, 31 (02):
38-39.
924
SMART STRUCTURES AND MATERIALS

Mysore Srirama Prasad, Rakesh
MMSB Consult Sdn Bhd, Selangor, Malaysia
Contact: msrakeshms@gmail.com, rakesh@mmsbconsult.com.my
Abstract
Piezoelectric crystals are smart materials used in the structures for better performance under
vibrations. These crystals act as a vibration damper, which depends upon location, size of crystal
and value of shunt resistors. The presented work was carried out to measure the effectiveness of
the crystal in reducing the response of the structure. A steel frame was used with three above
mentioned parameters. Three (0.5mm. 1.0mm, 1.5mm) thicknesses, four values of shunt resistors
(2.2, 10, 33 and 67 ohms) and three locations on the model (Top, Middle, and Bottom). At first,
free vibration tests were carried out with these parameters and with no piezoelectric crystals.
From this test, it was found that, damping increased from 0.387% (No piezoelectric crystal case) to
4.4% with 1.5mm thickness, 2.2 ohms and bottom position. Further, keeping the 2.2 ohms as
constant parameter, 50% Kobe Earthquake excitation was given with other two parameters
varying (Total 10 cases). It was found that the peak response reduced from 1.05 g (No piezoelectric
case) to 0.83 g (1.5mm thick crystal at bottom). Also, reduction in Arias Intensity was observed.
The experimental studies confirmed that the piezoelectric crystals are very effective in reducing
the response of the structure with increasing the damping.
Keywords: Dynamic effects/vibrations, Innovative structural systems, smart materials,
piezoelectric crystals, seismic design and response.
For controlling the structural vibrations during

1 Introduction earthquakes, the response time must be
During the event of a catastrophic Earthquake, a sufficiently short to minimize the time between
smart material can recognise the earthquake sensing an external turbulence and operating the
waves and respond to it on time and reduce the actuators. Thus, special emphasis is laid upon
damage to the structures and save lives. These smart structures with piezoelectric control
smart materials can be active, passive or hybrid actuation. The success of these smart structures is
type used accordingly to the need of the orchestrated by the materials such as
structure. So, earthquake is one of the main piezoceramics, shape memory alloys, controllable
governing cases considered during the design fluids such as magneto-rheological fluids and
phase of a structure. But, for the purpose of electro-rheological fluids, fibre-optic sensors and
design of a structure, whether we are able to various other materials.
mitigate the devastating effects of earthquake by
some suitable means is of the most important 2 Effect of Damping
aspect. Designing the structure to be response
In structural engineering, damping can be defined
control structure is the most effective way to
as the inherent property of materials, which tends
economically meet the social demands.
to oppose movement. The higher the damping of
925
a system, the quicker it will return to rest from a using the external disturbance signals generated
displaced position and higher rate of energy by sensors installed either inside or outside the
dissipation. However, the reduction is not structure. Active control systems use either feed
constant over the full period range of response forward control, in which sensors outside the
and it varies with earthquake. At zero periods, structure detect the disturbances before it
damping has no effect as the spectrum value is reaches the structure or feedback control, in
equal to the maximum ground acceleration. At which sensors in the structure detect the building
very long periods damping also tends to have little response.
effect on acceleration but has more effect on
Semi-active systems: Semi active control is a
displacements.
relatively new approach for protecting civil
structures against seismic induced damages.
2.1 Necessity of damping
According to these techniques, we can achieve a
The dynamic response of a structure depends on performance that is better than that achieved by
its mechanical characteristics and the nature of passive isolation systems and comparable with
the induced excitation. Ground motions generated that of active control systems. Semi-active
from earthquakes differ from one another in combines features of passive and active damping.
magnitude, source, characteristics, distance and Rather than push on the structure they counteract
direction from the rupture location and local soil motion with a controlled resistive force to reduce
conditions. The ability of a structure to dissipate motion. Magneto-rheological dampers (MR) are
energy is central to controlling displacement one such example. A simple demonstration by
demands, and various energy dissipation David Carlson [2], a physicist at the North Carolina
mechanisms. Under seismic excitations that have Laboratory, shows the liquid’s ability to transform
relatively long durations, a structure undergoes to solid in milliseconds. He pours the liquid into
several cycles during the forced vibration part of the cup and stirs it around with a pencil to show
the response, therefore its response depends it’s liquid. He then places a magnet to the bottom
more on the amount energy that is dissipated of the cup, and then liquid instantly turns to a
during each cycle (Area under the force- near-solid. To further demonstrate that it’s turned
displacement loop) than on the nature of the to a solid, he holds the cup upside down, and
dissipative force that develops. Because of this, none of the MR fluid drops out.
the dissipation properties of structures have been
traditionally averaged over a cycle of motion and
expressed in term of dimensionless ratios which
originate from the linear theory of structural
dynamics [1]. Therefore, damping plays a pivotal
role in design of smart structures.
2.2 Classification of smart materials Figure 1. MR fluid before magnetizing

Response control structures can be classified Once, exposed to magnetization, the fluid turned
according to whether or not they require energy into a solid. Notice the shiny surface of the liquid
input to restrain and control the response of the in the Figure 1 and the dull surface in the Figure 2.
structure to external disturbances. On this basis,
following types of response control systems are
defined.
2.2.1 Active Systems

Active dampers are force generators that actively
push on the structure to counteract a disturbance.
This system provides various countermeasures by Figure 2. MR fluid after magnetizing
926
These MR fluids are used in heavy industry with used as passive system include Piezoelectric
applications such as heavy motor damping, crystals, shape memory alloys.
operator seat damping in construction vehicles, in
army for enhancing the body armours. They are 2.2.3 Hybrid systems
also used in the construction of the Hubble space Hybrid systems are a combination of active and
Telescope’s corrective lens, Now, in high speed passive systems, supplying energy to enhance the
cars and vehicles as shock absorbers, in helicopter damping effect of the passive system. Hybrid
cockpit seats (as safety devices in the event of a active – passive damping treatments combine the
crash) and also used in semi-active human reliability, low cost and robustness of visco-elastic
prosthetic legs. damping treatments and high performance, modal
selective and adaptive piezoelectric active control.
2.2.2 Passive Systems
Kansai International Airport - Osaka, Hamamatsu
This is an uncontrolled damper, which requires no ACT tower – Hamamatsu etc. to name a few.
input power to operate. These include base
isolation and tuned mass dampers (TMD) systems. 2.3 Piezoelectric Crystals as Dampers
Many structures are built with Tuned mass
These materials refer to the substances that have
damper system. One wall centre in Vancouver,
the following unique property; an electric charge
Shanghai World Financial centre in Shanghai,
is produced when a piezoelectric substance is
Statue of Unity in Gujarat – India, Akashi Kaikyo
subjected to a stress or strain (direct effect), and
Bridge, Tokyo Skytree, Taipei 101 skyscraper, Burj
conversely a mechanical deformation i.e., the
al-Arab in Dubai, Grand Canyon Skywalk in US,
stress or strain produced when an electric field is
London Millennium Bridge to name a few.
applied to a piezoelectric substance in its poled
direction (converse effect). It is by virtue of a
unique property of the piezoelectric crystals due
to which they are able to transform mechanical
energy to electric energy when they are stressed
and vice versa. Piezoelectric devices comprises of
piezoelectric crystal which acts mainly for the
damping action. The crystal is attached to the
surface of a flexible structure using strong
Figure 3. Statue of Unity, Gujarat [3] adhesive material. The crystal will be strained or
deformed when an external force is applied on the
Statue of Unity is an under construction structure. This strain in the crystal will generate an
monument dedicated to Indian independence electric voltage and by suitable shunting on the
movement leader Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel which crystal the generated voltage can be passed out
is 182 metres in height. A 400 ton tuned mass through a circuit where the voltage gets dissipated
damper is located at chest level of the statue. in the form of heat in resistor which in turn causes
a damping effect [4].
2.4 Experiment on Piezoelectric crystals

Using piezoelectric crystals as vibration dampers,
response of ground excited structures can be
effectively reduced. It depends on thickness and
size of crystal, location of crystal on the structure
and also the value of shunt resistor (3 variables).
Figure 4. Akashi Kaikyo Bridge in Kobe, Japan [3]
The experiment [5] was conducted on Shake Table
This bridge uses pendulums within its suspension facility available in Indian Institute of Technology
towers as tuned mass dampers. Some of materials Roorkee (IIT Roorkee).
927
2.4.1 Experimental setup This was done to check the optimal positioning of
the crystals with respect to the practical
A steel space frame of 500 mm Height and frame
difficulties which are often encountered in the
of size 600 mm x 600 mm was constructed. All the
field.
beams and columns were welded all-round. The
steel space frame is having a section of 63,5 mm
2.5 Free Vibration tests
width and 6 mm thick. A steel plate of 10 mm
thickness, which is used as slab is placed on the The experiment was divided into mainly three
columns and welded. The structure is standing on parts
a base plate of 100 mm x 150 mm x 10 mm thick
- Varying Thickness of crystals
plates. This structure was mounted to the shake
- Varying Position of the crystals
table using 12 mm bolts. To measure the response
- Varying Shunt Resistance
of the structure, a force balance accelerometer
was placed on the top of the structure screwed To start with, free vibration tests were done for
into a wooden piece which was mounted on the these 3 combinations (36 cases plus one case with
structure. The setup of the experiment on shake no piezoelectric crystals = Total 37 cases). It was
table is shown in Figure 5. found that use of resistance value more than 67
ohms has negligible effect on damping of the
model and resistance value less than 2,2 ohms
creates a short circuit effect (can damage crystal).
Free vibration tests were carried out by giving a
displacement of 10 mm to the model for all the
different combinations of thickness, position and
resistance. Figure 7 shows free vibration record of
model with no piezoelectric crystals and Figure 8
Figure 5. Showing the experimental setup shows a typical free vibration record with 1,5 mm
thickness crystal placed at the bottom position
2.4.2 Piezoelectric crystal setup with 2,2 ohms shunt resistance.
Piezoelectric crystals of various thicknesses (0,5 Fraction of critical damping for each case was
mm, 1 mm, 1,5mm) where glued to a 2 mm steel calculated and is tabulated in Table 1. It can be
plate and two poling sides where connected to the visualized from the Table 1 that damping of model
shunt resistors (2,2 ohms, 10, 33 and 67 ohms) increased from 0,387% (No PZT case) to 4,4% (1,5
and different positions (Top, Middle and Bottom) mm thickness, Bottom, 2,2 ohms).
on the column structure. Figure 6 shows the final
Response of the structure with NO PZT
experimental setup. Piezoelectric crystals were 0.5
placed at a height of 60 mm (Called as Point A – 0.4
0.3
Bottom position), 140 mm (Called as Point B –

Response of the structure (g)
0.2
Middle position) and 220 mm (Called as Point C – 0.1
0 NO PZT
Top position) from the bottom of the column. -0.1

0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
-0.2
-0.3
-0.4
-0.5
Sampling Rate ( 200 samples / second )
Figure 7. Response record with no PZT case
Figure 6. Showing the Piezoelectric crystal setup
928
Response of the structure with 1.5 mm thick piezoelectric crystal

positioned at Bottom with 2.2 ohms shunt resistance Table 2. Comparison of Energy Dissipation for
0.5
0.4
different PZT cases (for 2,2 ohm resistors) with NO
0.3 PZT case in free vibration test
0.2
0.1
0 1.5 - B - 2.2 ohms

0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
-0.1
-0.2
-0.3
-0.4
-0.5
Sampling Rate ( 200 samples / second)
Figure 8. Response record with 1,5 mm crystal

case placed at point A with 2,2 ohms resistance
It is also apparent that 2,2 0hms shunt resistance
is the most appropriate value in this case and by
increasing the value of shunt resistance, we get
less increase in damping.
To have the feel of amount of energy dissipated,
free vibration results with 2,2 ohms shunt
resistance further analysed [6].
Table 2 illustrates the energy dissipated values in
50 cycles for different cases with 2,2 ohms shunt
resistance. As expected, maximum energy was
dissipated when 1,5 mm thickness was mounted 2.6 Forced Vibration tests
at the bottom and the energy value was 218,791
Forced vibration tests were conducted using the
N.m (Joules).
shake table facility. Forced vibration excitation
Table 1. Comparison of Damping Ratios of was given with 50% of KOBE earthquake’s {(Also
different combinations of PZT’s with NO PZT case known as Great Hanshin Earthquake, 1995,
Magnitude of 7,2 in JMA scale (Mw = 6,9)} time
history. The purpose of using the reduced
excitation was due to uncertainty surrounding the
behaviour of the structure. The following
combinations were subjected to forced vibration.
- NO PZT case
- PZT – 1,5 mm – 2,2 ohms – AT BOTTOM
- PZT – 1,5 mm – 2,2 ohms – AT MIDDLE
- PZT – 1,5 mm – 2,2 ohms – AT TOP
- PZT – 1,0 mm – 2,2 ohms – AT BOTTOM
- PZT – 1,0 mm – 2,2 ohms – AT MIDDLE
With the above observation from the free - PZT – 1,0 mm – 2,2 ohms – AT TOP
vibration tests, one of the parameter – Shunt - PZT – 0,5 mm – 2,2 ohms – AT BOTTOM
resistance was restricted to 2,2 ohms to get the - PZT – 0,5 mm – 2,2 ohms – AT MIDDLE
maximum damping for further studies. - PZT – 0,5 mm – 2,2 ohms – AT TOP
Therefore, 10 cases (9 cases with piezoelectric The purpose of using the above combinations of
crystals in different position with different test was to study the reduction in response of the
thickness but having constant 2,2 ohms shunt structure due to thickness of piezoelectric crystal
resistance and one case with No Piezoelectric (the cost effectiveness/economical) and position
crystal) were considered for the forced vibration of piezoelectric crystal (logistic requirement).
test.
929
Hence, to ensure that the excitation given in all Further, the Bottom position was fixed and
these 10 cases were same, a parameter well piezoelectric crystal thickness was varied (0,5 mm,
known – Arias Intensity [7] on the shake table was 1,0 mm, 1,5 mm). The comparison of these cases
calculated and found that it was 0,020 m/sec. with No Piezoelectric crystal is made in Figure 9.
Thus, confirming that the input excitation was Figure 9, clearly shows that the piezoelectric
same for all 10 cases, so that comparison can be crystals are really effective in reducing the
made. response of the structure. Table 4, shows the
reduction in peak response in these cases.
Forced vibration tests were carried out on all
these combinations and results were recorded. Table 4. Showing reduction in peak due to
Arias intensity of response time history was Piezoelectric crystals of different thicknesses
calculated for each case and results are shown in
Table 3. Crystal Position Peak of Peak of Reducti
Table 3. Showing Arias Intensity reductions due to thickne of the respons response on in
Piezoelectric crystals (PZT) ss Crystal e (g) (g) with peak(g)
with NO PZT due to
Arias (mm)
% PZT Crystal
Crystal Position Intensity
Reduction
thickness of the of the
in Arias
crystal input 1,5 Bottom 1,0510 0,83072 0,22036
Intensity
(mm) Ia (m/sec)
TOP 0,020784 9,5 1,0 Bottom 1,0510 0,85576 0,19532
1,5 MIDDLE 0,021429 16,6
BOTTOM 0,020083 40,34 0,5 Bottom 1,0510 0,87580 0,17528
TOP 0,020300 10,703
1,0 MIDDLE 0,020137 19,57 Then in next case, 1,5mm thickness of the
BOTTOM 0,020516 35,410 crystal was kept constant and the position was
TOP 0,019784 5,324 varied while keeping the shunt resistance at 2,2
MIDDLE 0,020500 16,74 ohms. Figure 10, clearly shows the difference in
0,5 BOTTOM 0,020450 25,82 amplitude reduction due to it.
NO PZT ----------- 0,020164 ----------- Figure 10. Showing a part of response of the
structure with PZT crystal 1,5mm located at
Comparision of NO PZT with constant (BOTTOM) position and varying Bottom, Middle and Top position with 2,2 ohms
Thicknesses (0.5,1.0,1.5 mm)
Comparision of NO PZT with 1.5 mm crystal thickness positioned at

0.8
TOP,MIDDLE and BOTTOM
0.8
0.4
NO PZT
0.4
1.5 - BOTTOM
0
1.0 - BOTTOM
2500 2600 NO PZT
0.5 - BOTTOM
Bottom 1.5 mm
0
Middle 1.5 mm
-0.4 2500 2520 2540 2560 2580 2600
Top 1.5 mm
-0.4
-0.8
Number of samples (200 samples/second)
-0.8
Number of samples (200 samples/second)
Figure 9. Showing a part of response of the
structure with PZT crystals 0,5 & 1,0 & 1,5mm Only few cycles are shown here for the best view
located at Bottom position with 2,2 ohms of the reduction in response.
930
Table 5. Showing reduction in peak due to 3 Conclusions

Piezoelectric crystals of different positions
The experimental results have proven the
Crystal Positio Peak of Peak of Reductio importance of using piezoelectric crystals as
dampers in reducing the amplitude of vibration. A
thicknes n of the respons respons n in
wider investigation has been performed with
s Crystal e (g) e (g) peak(g) different combinations – varying thicknesses and
with NO with PZT due to varying positions along with the variation of shunt
(mm) resistors. Based on the results, a clear increase in
PZT Crystal
damping ratios was noticed with the increase in
the thickness, change in position from top to
1,5 Bot 0,71053 0,42507 0,28546 bottom and decrease in resistors.
Further, from the experimental results, the
1,5 Middle 0,71053 0,44009 0,27044 following salient features are concluded:
1. For the given steel frame, with NO PZT
1,5 Top 0,71053 0,50019 0,21034
case, the damping ratio was found to be
0,387 %. With the use of different crystal
By keeping the crystal thickness constant and thickness, position and change in the
varying the position, it can be concluded that the resistor value, the damping has
piezoelectric is highly effective at the bottom of substantially increased. The best
the column, where bending stress is maximum. As combination being 1,5 mm crystal located
we move upwards in column position, the at the bottom of the column with 2,2
reduction in response is minimized. ohms resistor. The value of damping ratio
in this case was found to be 4,4 %, which
2.7 Discussion is more than 10 times the NO PZT case.
Major factors to be considered for the level of 2. Whereas with 1,0 mm and 0,5 mm
smartness in a structural design depend on safety, piezoelectric crystal it was found to be
cost effectiveness, affordability, reliability and 2,89 % and 1,81 % respectively. This
logistic approach. When cost effectiveness is proves that, as the crystal thickness
considered, 1,5 mm crystal is 1,2 times costlier increases at a position, damping ratio
than 1,0 mm and 1,5 times more than 0,5 mm increases.
crystal thickness. Cost of the crystal is governed by
3. In case of 1,0 mm piezoelectric crystal
dimensions, thickness and number of crystals
located at middle with 2,2 ohms resistor,
required. Designer should ensure the optimal
the damping ratio was found to be 2,89 %,
combination of the same from the economical
whereas the same crystal at same position
point of view. As the structure becomes big,
but connected to 67 ohms resistor gave a
requirement of the crystal also increases. Thus,
damping ratio of 0,918 %. This proves
giving a vital role to the development of
that, as the resistance increases, damping
mathematical modelling for the proportioning of
ratio decreases. This led to the conclusion,
the crystal number, thickness and dimensions
that, for every combination there exists a
based on the practical construction.
resistance called “Limiting resistance”,
Second most important factor is the logistic. Based which makes the system to act, almost the
on the availability, depending on the purpose and same as NO PZT case, with the damping
use in the structure, one has to intelligently ratio approximately equal to 0,387 %. If
choose the required size of the crystal to dissipate the resistance is gradually increased from
the energy in an anticipated path. 2,2 ohms to many kilo ohms, this
condition arises, where the damping ratio
931
with crystal is almost the same as that of 3.1 Acknowledgements

the NO PZT case.
I would like to thank my guides Dr. Ashok Kumar
4. For same initial displacement during free and Dr. Manish Shrikhande, (Professors, DEQ, IIT
vibration tests, the energy dissipated in Roorkee) for their help throughout the
case of 1,5 mm crystal located at bottom experiment. Also, I would like to thank Dato’ Ir.
with 2,2 ohms was found to be 218,291 * Ashok Kumar Sharma (MD, MMSB Consult) and
10-3 (N.m) Joules in fifty cycles, whereas Mr. Sajal Nandy (Technical Director, MMSB
with NO PZT case, it was found to be Consult) for all the extended support.
13,4573 * 10-3 (N.m) Joules in fifty cycles
respectively. This clearly indicates the 4 References
increase in energy dissipation with use of
crystals. [1] Clough W. Ray, Penzien Clough., “Dynamics
of Structures”, McGraw – Hill publications,
5. After the structure was subjected to 50 % 2nd Edition, 1993.
KOBE earthquake, main parameter
studied was Arias Intensity. Here the [2] Crawley EF, Luis JD, Hagood NW, Anderson
combination was being limited to 10 EH., “Development of piezoelectric
cases. For 50 % KOBE earthquake technology for applications in control of
excitation, the Arias Intensity at the shake intelligent structures”, Proceedings
table was found to be around 0,02017 American Control Conference 1988; 88
m/sec and it was approximately same for (3):1890–6.
all ten shakings. For NO PZT case, it got [3] Internet searches using Google and Picture
amplified to 0,254513 m/sec at the top of taken by Kim Rötzel from an aircraft.
the structure. The reduction in Arias
Intensity at the top of structure was about [4] IEEE standards on Piezoelectricity. IEEE Std.
0,102675 m/sec with the use of 1,5 mm 176-1987.
crystal used at the bottom position with [5] Rakesh M. S., Kumar Ashok, Dissertation
2,2 ohms resistor, whereas with 1,0 mm Thesis, Department of Earthquake
crystal it was found to be 0,090124 m/sec. Engineering, IIT Roorkee
Use of 0,5 mm crystal fetched the
[6] Chopra K. Anil [2007], Dynamics of
reduction in Arias Intensity to be 0,065715
structures – theory and applications to
m/sec. This shows that the increase in
earthquake engineering, Prentice – hall of
crystal thickness increases the reduction
India private Limited, New Delhi, Second
in Arias Intensity.
edition.
6. Use of 1,0 mm crystal at the middle
[7] Arias, A. (1970). "A Measure of Earthquake
position gave a reduction in Arias Intensity
Intensity," R.J. Hansen, ed. Seismic Design
of 0,049802 m/sec whereas at the top
for Nuclear Power Plants, MIT Press,
position it was 0,027240 m/sec. the
Cambridge, Massachusetts, pp. 438-483.
reduction was reduced to almost half.
Thus showing the middle position better [8] Kumar Ashok, Computer program for
than the top position when it comes to Integrating Time History, Personal
the optimal position of the crystal. Communication, 2001.
Similarly the bottom position gave
0,090124 m/sec, highest reduction in
Arias Intensity for the same case.
From the results, the best combination was
found to be with 1,5 mm Piezoelectric crystal
located at Bottom position connected to 2,2
ohms shunt resistance.
932
Design and Construction of Triple-Span Precast Concrete Open

Spandrel Arch Bridge
Chong Yong Ong, Kok Keong Choong
Tai Boon Ong, Kenny Chia, Wong Fook Kan

Rivo Precast Sdn. Bhd., Klang, Selangor, Malaysia
Contact: cekkc@usm.my and rivoprecast@gmail.com
Abstract
Design and construction of a triple-span precast concrete open spandrel arch bridge over a river
for an integrated commercial and residential development project is presented. Due to the bridge
skew angle and necessity for the newly constructed bridge to serve as one of the landmark along
the river for this project, a triple-span precast arch bridge with open-spandrel concept was
designed with special consideration to aspect of speedy construction. Precast construction
technique was adopted with three main precast concrete components, namely open-spandrel
supporting arch frame, tie beam and plank for composite slab. Arch span of 19m with rise of
4.25m, and arch span of 25.0m with rise of 5.0m were designed respectively for two side spans
and middle span of the bridge. The main supporting arch component was made of two units of
half arches joined at the crown with a specially designed joint. Besides the traffic loading, the
design of these supporting arches was carried out taking into account aspect of transportation of
the precast unit to site and also aspect of ease of erection at site. After the two supporting arch
units and tie-beams were launched using cranes, special joint at the crown was cast to form a rigid
arch frame. The construction process of the precast arch bridge with minimal number of joints
connecting specially designed precast units meet the construction time frame and budget set by
the client.
Keywords: Triple-span precast arch bridge; Open spandrel; Skew bridge
structures are found to coexist and stand next to

1 Introduction one another harmoniously at many prominent
Enchanted by their spectacular outlook, countless locations of the world. The advent of concrete and
arch structures have been constructed. The precasting technologies have invoked greater
exceptional performance and unbelievable creativity for the design and construction of arch
durability of these structures have resulted in structures. Precast concrete arch system involving
many successful applications; especially bridges, the use of special designed and profiled
of striking aesthetic appearance being recorded geometrical sections has emerged in various
across nearly all continents of the world. structural schemes. Such precast concrete arch
Interestingly, many ancient and modern arch bridge system has been successfully used in many
933
single span applications locally since its first 2.1 Project Requirements
introduction over Melaka River in 2009. This paper
The proposed bridge crossing is shown in Figure
aims to present an example of new triple-span
2a and 2b with a total length of 74m from bank to
application for a bridge project at Elmina West in
bank across Sungai Subang, connecting GCE
Selangor which is located approximately 36km
interchange to Elmina West. The in-bound and
west of the capital Kuala Lumpur.
out-bound bridge of 17.30m wide each is
separated by a 5m median. Each bridge
2 Description of the Bridge Project carriageway carries three traffic lanes of 3.65m
The Elmina West project is a development wide (two lanes plus one future expansion lane), a
package covering some 135 acres of land as the shared-use 3.5m wide path for pedestrians and
heart and part of the larger 5000-acre City of cyclists, and provisional space for utility services.
Elmina. Under this integrated residential and The access road alignment intersects the river at a
commercial development, a signature bridge bend with a skew angle of 30 degrees. The
notably “Elmina Bridge One” was conceptualized proposed road level at RL 33.28m is 10.1 m over
and planned to cross a main river. Arch bridge is river invert at RL 23.18m. High water level is
preferred than conventional bridge beam with its estimated at RL 26.31m for 100-year storm design
unique aesthetic which blends well with the and normal dry weather water level is at RL
natural environment setting of the proposed 23.94m. Intermittent piers if needed shall be
development. positioned away from the centre of the river to
minimise disruption to waterflows and needs for
Due to the specific geographical location and
frequent maintenance. Most importantly, unique
layout design, the main access from the existing
aesthetical appearance is of prime concern to
Guthrie Corridor Expressway (GCE) Interchange
serve as one of the landmark along the river and
has to cross over Sungai Subang at an oblique
value-add the properties.
angle (Figure 1). An economical arch bridge design
using precast construction method was planned to
2.2 Selection of Structural System
suit the site conditions, budget and time schedule.
Commercially, there are two main types of precast
concrete arch bridge systems available locally in
the form of closed and open spandrel. Closed
spandrel system comprises of a series of precast
segments enclosed with two end spandrel units.
The empty enclosure above the arches is then
overfilled in compacted layers with suitable
granular materials. The stability of the arch
structure is achieved through soil-concrete
interaction with side earth fills providing the
Figure 1. Layout Plan of Elmina Bridge 1 lateral support to withstand the service loads.
Figure 2a. Elevation of Elmina Bridge 1
934
Figure 2b. Cross Section of Elmina Bridge 1

Like any bridge girder system, open-spandrel arch arranged in vertical grids were specified to clad on
system supports the roadway through a series of the exterior sides of the bridge parapets.
precast arch frames with vertical or inclined struts,
connected to the concrete decks without fills. The
main precast framed arch elements can be spaced
at 1.0 to 3.0m spacing depending on loading
requirements. In general, open spandrel has lower
rise dimension than closed spandrel for a given
arch span.
Open spandrel arch bridge was selected here due
to its advantageous features meeting the specific
project site topography. The arch frames can
accommodate the acute skew angle across the
Figure 3. Open and Closed Spandrel Arch
width of river easily with trapezoidal deck (Figure
Requirement
3). On the other hand, close spandrel arch has to
cover beyond the width of river with a rectangular
2.3 Selection of Span
deck. Standard precast arch segments must be
assembled butting each other along the river Although it is the most practical option, single
alignment, thus oversized span of arches must be span has been ruled out due to cost concern over
provided using closed spandrel system. Besides long span bridge structure. Single span of over
cost factor associated with larger span, the 74m has exceeded the standard bridge beam
resulting bridge deck may pose some appearance range. The construction cost would be easily two
difficulties in finishing, especially with part of the to three times more using customised or special
arch footing buried in one side of the supporting design. High foundation costs were estimated to
abutment. The proposed river profile has also resist large horizontal reactions due to shallow
prohibited the use of closed spandrel system due arch profile (rise to span ratio of 1:18) with only
to its shallow rise river profile, especially for two 4.47m rise at bridge abutments. Double spans of
side spans due to the slope berms at RL 28.0m. approximate 37m each were possible for
For 19m to 25m span, closed spandrel arches are economical arch structure but intermittent piers
available for a rise of 8m, whereas the side berms at the centre of the river were not allowed by the
have only approximately 4.47m of clearance to authority. The next viable solution would be triple-
the soffit of the bridge. If closed spandrel arch was span bridge with each span of 25m or less. These
used, large portion of arches will have to be span ranges for arch bridge are more common
buried beneath the slope. The finished arch bridge and commercially available at competitive price.
appearance may be compromised. With this arrangement, the centre arches can span
across the dry weather flow section and thus
Architectural wave patterns were to soften the
ensure the continuity of river stream at all time.
harsh appearance of concrete bridge structure.
Corrosion resistance steel (Cor-Ten) materials Due to site constraints and limitations, precast
construction method was adopted to expedite the
935
works. Precasting of components can commence as specified in BS5400: Part 1&2 (1978), BD37/88
simultaneously with in-situ site works, thus and BD37/01 for a design period of 120 years.
facilitate smooth work flows and minimise critical Primary live loads considered for the design of the
work paths. Figure 4a & 4b show the general bridge are as follows:
arrangement of the bridge that was selected to
1) HA-UDL + HA-KEL
achieve optimal balance of aesthetics, cost and
2) HB-45 unit guided at the centreline of the
constructability.
deck and
The conceptualization and development of the 3) 5 kPa of pedestrian live load at the
open-spandrel arch bridge system take into pedestrian walkway
account the following aspects for a complete
solution for a bridge taking full advantage of 3.2 Structural Scheme
precast technology and limitations; functionality
The reinforced concrete open spandrel arch
and aesthetics, arch profile development and
structure is essentially made of a series of
foundation design, constructability in precast way-
parabolic arch joined monolithically to top
transportation and arch frame components,
horizontal chords (with intermittent inclined struts
connection, casting, de-moulding and stacking,
for larger span) to support the deck. Such
site installation and on-site joint, composite deck
structure is not practical to be constructed of in-
slab.
situ forming, but only possible with precast
techniques. To facilitate precast construction and
3 Design of Arch Bridge Structure for ease of manufacturing, the arch bridge
The solution adopted was a triple-span precast structures are segmented into three major precast
arch bridge using open spandrel system, with two components – the half-arch frame, tie beam and
side spans of 19m and middle span of 25m. The composite deck slab. The full ring of arch frame
profiles, especially the heights were skilfully with spacing of 2.0 meter centre-to-centre is
detailed with the in-situ supporting structures to formed with two units of precast half arch frames
match with the proposed river cross sections. The and two units of precast tie beams. For both side
design of arch bridge sub-structure and super spans of 19.0m, K-series precast arch frame of
structure is carried out in accordance to relevant overall dimension 11.0m x 2.6m and precast tie
codes of practices and specifications. The dead beam 5.21m length are used. For middle span of
load of the precast arch frame acts on three- 25m, M-series precast arch frame of overall
pinned arch system. Once the crown is dimension 14.3m x 4.0m and precast tie beam
connected, the ring of the precast arch frame acts 5.75m length (Figure 5).
as a two-pinned arch. They are modelled Series of precast planks span between the arch
accordingly in analysis and design. frames which act as the permanent formwork of
the bridge deck. Composite decks with 100mm
3.1 Design Loading thick precast planks and 100mm in-situ toppings
The new bridge is designed to withstand loading are used to facilitate fast track construction,
Figure 4a. Elevation of Bridge Structure
936
Figure 4b. Cross Section of Bridge Structure

900mm diameter x 13m deep, penetrating
through layers of firm soil to hard layers
underneath. With pile top level at RL 21.5m, the
bored piles are socketed into 7 – 8m deep of
sandstone layers. Each of the pile point is
designed to resist 4300 tonnes of working loads.
4 Precasting and Construction

All the precast components were cast in the
factory and delivered to site for installation.
Figure 5. Overall Dimension of K/M Series Precast construction enables manufacturing of
eliminating elaborate and wasteful conventional concrete components to commence
practices of timber formworks. All components simultaneously with site works on sub-structures
were designed within manageable size and weight with bored piling, pile caps, abutments and piers.
for handling, transporting and installing. The load Both trades were coordinated and planned to save
conditions or load cases during casting, de-mould, time, harnessing the benefits of precast
storing, staking, rotating, transporting and construction.
installation have also been considered during the
design stage for all the precast components.
4.1 Precast Components
Precast tie beams and planks were very simple
The arch structures were supported by in-situ
reinforced concrete abutments and intermittent components to mould and produce with base and
side forms in rectangular shapes. The main arch
piers with specially designed keyways to secure
frames were relatively bulky with arch geometry.
the bases of arches and uprights to receive the
It was thus sensible to manufacture them sideway
decks.
like standard rectangular beam section,
3.3 Foundation simplifying mould fabrication and concrete pour
processes, thereafter demoulded and delivered in
Two bore logs from soil investigation near both the same manner (Figure 6). Lifting points were
bridge ends revealed consistent soil profile with 4 determined with reference to the center of gravity
to 5 m deep of medium stiff sandy silt overlaying at various orientation to facilitate demoulding,
stiff silty clay from RL 20.0m to RL 15.0m, and handling and pitching (turning) during installation.
sandstones below that level. Nine Machintosh
probes carried out along the proposed bridge 4.2 Construction Sequence
alignment had also confirmed rock layer at RL 15
m. Driven piles were not feasible due to shallow Tight control of dimensional tolerances was crucial
to ensure smooth precast installation process.
penetration and raked pile requirements to resist
Checking on all the critical dimensions such as pile
horizontal arch reactions. The whole bridge
cap keyway levels, pier head levels, pile cap
structure is designed to be founded on bored pile
foundation, consisted of a total of 100 points of
937
Figure 6. Transport of M-series arches

distance etc. and careful marking on arch frame
position were done prior to installation. Levelling
pads and side shims were prepared in advance to
ensure correct positioning of precast components. Figure 7a. Installing M-series arch
The weight for the precast half arch frame and the
precast tie beam are 17 metric tons and 3.5 metric
tons, respectively for M-series; and 9 metric tons
and 2.8 metric ton for K-series. Two mobile cranes
of 80-Mton and 120-Mton were deployed for
every span of installation works. Working
platforms at each side behind the piers were
allocated for delivering trucks, temporary storage
and mobile cranes to park.
To begin the installation, both of the half arch
frames were hoisted simultaneously and then
rotated into the installation positions. Upon
landing of the legs for both half arch frames at the
corrected positions, the crown joints of the half
arch frame were lowered down simultaneously in
order for the tongue and groove joint to secure Figure 7b. Installing K-series arch
each other correctly. Concrete blocks with smaller
The installation works were completed within 2 -3
shims and wedges were placed at each side of the
days time for a cycle. The crown of the arch
keyways to secure the overall stability of the arch
frames was then joined with in-situ concrete and
frame. With everything in place, a curve bolt was
the keyway of the pile cap was grouted prior to
then inserted and fixed in the block out at crown
the placement of precast plank for deck slab in-
joint. The installing of M and K series arches are
situ topping (Figure 8).
shown in Figure 7a and Figure 7b.
For every successive installation, temporary
bracing frames were installed in between the
precast arches. Lastly, precast tie beams were
installed at correct position from both ends. The
same method was applied to the remaining sets of
precast arch frame and precast tie-beams.
Figure 8. Composite Bridge Deck
938
4.3 Site Problems and Solutions levelling plinths to the required level, and
hacking of affected areas where necessary.
Several construction issues were encountered and
d) Wherever possible, direct launching of precast
addressed accordingly during the execution of
arch components from the trucks was
works:
preferred due to site constraints. Coordination
a) To speed up the construction, the precast of product delivery sequence and of product
installation works were planned to follow the type (male and female joint) must be closely
sequencing of in-situ sub-structure works with coordinated. Additional site handling costs
overlapping of trades. Additional costs were were incurred when it was out of control due
incurred for mobilisation and demobilisation to disruption of truck schedules or traffic
of machineries, while waiting for the conditions.
preparation of in-situ structures. Site
e) Safety requirements were of major concern
disruptions were inevitable with idling works;
with handling of heavy and bulky components,
b) Improper preparation of site access and
especially securing joint and in-situ stitches of
working platform has also contributed to
crown joints at height of some 10m above
delays. Movements of trucks and cranes were
ground. All method statements and safety
interrupted frequently due to lack of
procedures were strictly adhered.
maintenance; (Figure 9)
5 Conclusions
This new innovative precast concrete open
spandrel arch bridge system has been successfully
used in many single span applications since its first
application locally in 2009. The first triple-span
application in Elmina Bridge One (Figure 10)
presented in this paper has further demonstrated
its flexibility and cost effectiveness in overcoming
Figure 9. Settlements of working platform. site limitations, especially the acute bridge skew
angle without extra cost. Most importantly, better
c) Out of tolerances of in-situ supporting quality concrete bridge structure was made
structures, especially the keyway level and possible with simple precasting techniques. It can
alignment was another factor requiring be concluded that precast open spandrel arch
attention prior to precast launching works.
bridge is one of the best options for crossing with
Preparatory works involved accurate setting span range from 15 m to 40 m. The design is
out all support points for arches, grouting of
Figure 10. Completed Bridge
939
proven to be more efficient compared to close

spandrel arch bridge. The former utilizes less
materials and hence reduces foundation cost. The
required on-site construction time can be
shortened with fast and simple installation
technique. Furthermore, the unique, aesthetic and
classic beauty of the arch shape blends well with
its surrounding. This new system is poised to be
the predominant arch bridge structure,
contributing towards sustainable bridge
construction in the near future.
6 References
[1] BS5400-1:1978 Steel, concrete and
composite bridges. General Statement.
British Standard, 1978.
[2] BS5400-2:1978 Steel, concrete and
composite bridges. Specification for loads.
British Standard, 1978.
[3] BD37/01: Design Manuals for Roads and
Bridges. Loads for Highway Bridges.
[4] BD37/88: Design Manuals for Roads and
Bridges. Loads for Highway Bridges.
[5] Tan G.E., Ong T.B., and Choong K.K. An
Innovative Construction Method for Precast
Arch Bridge. Research, Development, and
Practice in Structural Engineering and
Construction, 1st Australasia and South East
Asia Conference in Structural Engineering
and Construction (ASEA-SEC-1). 2012; 259-
263.
[6] Tan G.E., Ong T.B., Ong C.Y., and Choong
K.K. Development and Standardisation of
New Precast Concrete Open Spandrel Arch
Bridge System. 37th International
Association for Bridge and Structural
Engineering (IABSE) Symposium Report,
Madrid. 2014; 102(31): 799-806.
940
Full Scale Load Test of A 20m Span Precast Concrete Closed Spandrel
Arch Bridge System With Corrugated Section
Chong Yong Ong, Kok Keong Choong
Geem Eng Tan, Tai Boon Ong

Rivo Precast Sdn. Bhd., Klang, Selangor, Malaysia
Contact: cekkc@usm.my and rivoprecast@gmail.com
Abstract
A new form of precast concrete closed spandrel arch bridge with corrugated section was
introduced and developed in Malaysia in the year of 2008. Due to its high stiffness to self-weight
ratio, this precast arch system is beneficial to the sustainable bridge construction. In order to study
the actual performance of this precast arch system, a full scale load test on a 20m span arch bridge
using two 88 tonnes trucks is presented in this paper. Total of five types of truck arrangement
were carried out. Vertical deflection at mid span and foundation settlement were measured. It is
found that the maximum vertical deflection recorded under 2 x 88 tons trucks was 3.67mm,
corresponding to 1/5450 (deflection/span) ratio and there was no noticeable settlement of
foundation. Analysis model load test is done using 2D analysis model PLAXIS. The results were
compared to the designed analysis model with HB-45 unit loading. It is found that the internal
forces of the load test are closed to the designed loading. However, the deflection in the load test
analysis model is higher than actual measured deflection, probably due to the assumed value of
soil modulus of elasticity and concrete modulus of elasticity. In order to approximate the
deflection in the load test analysis model to the actual measured deflection, a series of sensitivity
analysis on different soil young modulus and concrete young modulus were carried out.
Keywords: full scale load test; closed spandrel arch bridge system; corrugated section; deflection-
span ratio; soil modulus elasticity; concrete modulus elasticity.
corrugated section was introduced and developed

1 Introduction in Malaysia in the year of 2008. This natural
Currently, various structural forms of section were structural forms which has been proven having
widely studied by researchers. These sections are high stiffness to self-weight ratio, contributes to
T-section, I section, inverted-T section and U the sustainable bridge construction [1],[2],[3]. This
section. However, behaviour of natural structural section is first applied in precast concrete closed
forms such as banana tree trunk and oil palm tree spandrel arch bridge system in Malaysia. In order
trunk is still new to researchers. Hence, a new to study the actual performance of this precast
941
arch system, a full scale load test on a 20m span

arch bridge is presented in this paper.
2 Description of the Precast

Concrete Closed Spandrel Arch
Bridge System with Corrugated
(b)
Section
Figure 3. Precast arch geometry; (a) Parabolic arch
A full scale load test on a 20m span and 7.3m rise profile; (b) Corrugated section
precast concrete closed spandrel arch bridge was
carried out in Malaysia. Figure 1 and 2 show the 2.1 Design parameters
bridge elevation view and bridge deck section,
respectively. Precast arch geometry of corrugated The precast concrete arch bridge is designed
section is illustrated in Figure 3. based on the assumed design parameters as
shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Design assumptions used in analysis
model
Parameters Values
Material – Backfill Soil
Soil weight [kN/m3] 19
Friction angle (o) 30
Figure 1. Bridge elevation view Poisson’s ratio 0.3
Young Modulus [kN/m2] 35 x 103
Material – Concrete
3
Density [kN/m ] 24
Poisson’s ratio 0.3
Young Modulus [kN/m2] 28 x 106
Vehicle loading – Live Load
HA-UDL [kPa/m width] 12.24
HA-KEL [kN/m width] 33.6
HB-45 units 112.5
[kN/m width]
2.2 Design code of practice

The precast corrugated arch segments are
designed to withstand the loading as specified in
Figure 2. Bridge deck section BS5400: Part 1 & 2 (1978) [4], [5], BD 31/01 [6]
and BD 37/01 [7] for a design period of 120 years.
Primary live loads considered for the design of the
bridge are as follows: (a) HA-UDL + HA-KEL and (b)
HB-45 unit guided at the centreline of the deck.
(a)
942
3 Load Test Procedure

The precast concrete closed spandrel arch bridge Road
was tested based on the procedures as shown in
Figure 4. River
1. Identify one set of arch panel and

determine type of vehicle loading for load
test purpose Test Arch Panel
Figure 5. Layout plan of test unit panel

2. Identify different loading arrangement Besides, another important aspect in load test of
on the deck of the test unit arch panel. bridge was type of test vehicle. Since this test on
the panel was aimed to test as close to live load
HB 45 units, two 6-axles of 88 tonnes vehicle truck
3. Setting out the position of loading points was chosen. Dimension and load distribution each
on deck based on different loading axle of the truck is as shown in Figure 6 and 7,
arrangements. respectively.
4. Provide settlement markers at each side

of footing.
5. Install plumb bob with measuring ruler

vertically at mid span of the arch.
(a)
6. Arrange the vehicle loading on the

bridge accordingly
7. Monitoring of vertical deflection of arch

crown, footing settlement and
temperature of concrete
(b)
Figure 4. Load test procedure
Figure 6. Dimension of 88 tonnes vehicle truck;(a)
3.1 Step 1: Identify one set of arch panel Side View; (b) Section A-A
and determine type of vehicle loading
for load test purpose
A set of precast arch panel which was located at
fast lane was chosen as test unit panel as
illustrated in Figure 5.
Figure 7. Load distribution of each axle of vehicle

truck
943
3.2 Step 2: Identify different loading

arrangement on the deck of the test
unit arch panel.
A total of five load arrangement patterns were
used in the load test. They were applied in the
following sequence:
3.2.1 Load Arrangement 1 - Vehicle Load (a)

covered one lane at support of arch panel
(Figure 8a, 8d and 9)
This loading was applied and maintained for 15
minutes before readings of plumb bob and
settlement markers were recorded.
3.2.2 Load Arrangement 2 - Vehicle Load

covered one lane at quarter span of arch
panel (Figure 8b, 8d and 9)
(b)
3.2.3 Load Arrangement 3 - Vehicle Load

covered one lane at mid-span of arch
panel (Figure 8c, 8d and 9)
settlement markers were recorded. (c)
3.2.4 Load Arrangement 4a - Vehicle load

covered two lanes at mid span of arch
panel (Figure 8c, 8e and 10)
3.2.5 Load Arrangement 4b - Vehicle load

covered two lanes at quarter span of arch (d)
panel (Figure 8c, 8e and 10)
hours before readings of plumb bob and
(e)
Figure 8. Vehicle truck arrangement
944
3.5 Step 6: Arrange the vehicle loading on

the bridge accordingly.
Step 7: Monitoring of vertical
deflection of arch crown, footing
settlement and temperature of
concrete
Figure 9. Vehicle truck arrangement 1 to 3 88 tonnes vehicle trucks were then loaded on the
bridge based on different arrangements as stated
in Section 3.2. For each load stage, parameters
that were monitored for the testing are vertical
deflection, footing settlement and temperature of
concrete. Initial readings of plumb bob and
footing were recorded prior to application of
loads.
Figure 10. Vehicle truck arrangement 4a and 4b 4 Results and Discussion

3.3 Step 3: Setting out the position of 4.1 Footing settlement
loading points on deck based on
There was no noticeable settlement of
different loading arrangement. foundations throughout the different loading
Different positions of vehicle loading points were arrangement of 88 tonnes of vehicle trucks.
marked on bridge deck before load test.
4.2 Vertical deflection at mid span of arch
3.4 Step 4: Provide settlement marker at bridge
each side of footing. Based on the graph shown in Figure 12, the
Step 5: Install plumb bob with maximum mid-span deflection recorded under 2 x
measuring ruler vertically at mid span 88 tonnes trucks was 3.67mm, corresponding to
of the arch. 1/5450 (deflection / span) ratio (from “AASHTO
LRFD 2012 Bridge Design Specification 6th Edition,
Few settlement markers on each footing were under vehicular load, the allowable
made in order to understand the effect of load deflection/span=1/800)[8]. Upon unloading of
test on the vertical movement of foundation. maintained load for 15 hours, residual mid-span
Moreover, plumb bob with vertically aligned deflection was 0.75mm with 80 % recovery. Under
measuring ruler at mid span was installed as the maintained loads of 15 hours, no further
shown in Figure 11. deflection was recorded.
4.3 Flexural or Shear Crack

There was no visible flexural or shear crack (in
transverse direction).
4.4 Temperature of Concrete

Maximum change of temperature of concrete is
about 1.5 degree Celsius which is negligible.
Hence, it does not affect the results of load test.
Figure 11. Locations of Plumb bob with measuring
ruler and settlement markers
945
Comparison of loads, reactions and internal forces

between load test and HB-45 loading are found to
range from 80% to 110% which is very close to HB-
45 loading. However the deflection estimated is
higher than measured deflection (18.24mm vs
5mm on site) which is probably due to assumed
soil stiffness or modulus of elasticity (Es). From
literature review (based on Obrzud & Truty 2012
complied from Kezdi 1974 and Prat et al. 1995),
the dense sand well-graded modulus of elasticity
ranged between 160 to 320 MPa. In original
design, soil Young Modulus of 35 MPa or
35000kN/m2 was adopted. The in-situ soil Young ‘s
modulus is higher than 35MPa.
Figure 12. Graph of vertical deflection at mid span
4.5 Analysis of Load Test 4.6 Sensitivity Analysis of Load Test on Soil
Young Modulus and Concrete Young
Analysis on load test model was done using 2D Modulus
analysis model PLAXIS. All assumed parameters
used in the analysis are the same as those in To investigate further on the deflection aspect, a
original design for HB-45. Table 2 shows the series of sensitivity analysis with varying Young ‘s
comparison results between load test and HB-45. modulus of soils and concrete were carried out.
Both approaches could approximate the
deflection closer to the measurements on site.
Table 2. Comparison results between load test and The output results shown in Figure 13, 14 and 15
original design HB-45 unit indicate that with increasing soil or concrete
modulus, deflections are found to reduce with
Load HB-45 % Load
sagging and hogging moment distribution, but
Test Unit Test to %
increase in axial force. It is noted that the
HB-45
redistribution of internal forces with increase of
Msag 244.84 298.43
82 % Young’s modulus of soil and concrete results in
(kNm/m)
better arch behaviour in the longitudinal
Mhog 293.51 281.75
104% direction.
(kNm/m)
Vertical
Reaction
769.62 817.69 94%
Force
(kN/m)
Vertical
Reaction
162.04 151.49 107%
Force
(kN/m)
Vertical
Deflection 18.24 18.29 100%
at Mid
Span (mm)
Figure 13.Graph internal forces versus soil

stiffness (concrete Young Modulus = 28GPa)
946
maintained for 15 hours , no further deflection

was recorded .
c) There is significant recovery of vertical
deflection (79.6%) with unloading.
d) There is no noticeable settlement of footing.
e) There is no visible flexural crack observed
during loading.
6 References
[1] G.E. Tan, T.B. Ong, K.K Choong and C.Y. Ong
(2013). “A New Form of Precast Closed
Spandrel Arch Bridge System”, Proceedings
Figure 14.Graph internal forces versus soil of the 7th International Conferences on
stiffness (concrete Young Modulus = 45GPa) Arch Bridges, pp. 195-202.
[2] C.Y. Ong, K.K Choong, G.E. Tan and T.B. Ong
(2015). “Precast Concrete Closed Spandrel
Arch Bridge System as Viable Alternative to
Conventional Beam Bridge System”, Trans
Tech Publication, Switzerland, Applied
Mechanics and Materials. Vol. 802, pp 261-
266.
[3] C.Y. Ong, K.K Choong, G.E. Tan and T.B. Ong
(2015). “Trends and Development of
Precast Concrete Closed Spandrel Arch
Bridge Systems”, Trans Tech Publication,
Figure 15.Graph Bending Moment versus soil Switzerland, Applied Mechanics and
stiffness and concrete Young Modulus Materials. Vol. 802, pp 295-300.
[4] British Standards Institute. BS5400-1:1978:
5 Conclusions Steel, concrete and composite bridges.
A full scale load test of precast concrete closed General statement. London.
spandrel arch bridge was carried out on a selected [5] British Standards Institute. BS5400-2:1978:
arch panel. The series of load test carried out has Steel, concrete and composite bridges.
been described in details. From the analysis of the Specification for loads. London.
recorded data, the following conclusions can be
made: [6] Highways Agency (UK). BD31/01,
Departmental Standards. The Design of
a) The maximum mid-span vertical deflection Buried Concrete Box and Portal Frame
recorded under 2 x 88 tons trucks (Load Structure. Department of Transport,
Arrangement 4b – Vehicle load covered two lanes Highway and Traffic, November 2001.
at quarter span of arch panel maintained for 15
hours) was 3.67mm, corresponding to 1/5450 [7] Highways Agency (UK). BD37/01,
(deflection / span) ratio. (from “AASHTO LRFD Departmental Standards. Loads for Highway
Bridge: Design Specification 6th Edition 2012”, Bridges, Design Manual for Roads and
Clause 2.5.2.6.2 , under vehicular load, the Bridges. Department of Transport, Highway
allowable deflection/span = 1/800). and Traffic, 2001.
b) Under Load Arrangement 4b - Vehicle load [8] AASHTO LRFD Bridge: Design Specification
covered two lanes at quarter span of arch panel 6th Edition” 2012, ISBN: 978-1-56051-523-4
947
Lancang River Railway Arch Bridge with stiffened skeleton of

Concrete-filled Steel Tubes
Jin Fei
China Civil Engineering Construction Co., Beijing, China
Contact: jinfei@ccecc.com.cn
Abstract
The Lancang River railway arch bridge, a key project, is located on Dali~Ruili Railway with a design
speed of 140 km/h. The bridge spans over the Lancang River, with the max slope angle of the
mountain body on both sides of the river being more than 80 degrees. The distance between the
bridge deck and the river surface exceeds 270 m. The whole bridge is 528.1 m long and the main
span is 342 m. The x-style arch rib is a deck-type concrete-filled steel tube stiffened skeleton,
which becomes the main arch structure of single-box single-cell box section after swing erection,
by means of filling the inner space and covering the outer face with concrete.
Keywords: stiffened skeleton; concrete-filled steel tube; x-style arch bridge.
used as the bracket to pour concrete around.

1 Introduction After swing erection and being closed, stiffened
The railway from Dali to Ruili, which is located in skeleton become a main arch structure with
the western area of Yunnan Province and 330 km single-cell single-box section. Then the piers on
long, is the national class I electrified railway with the arch rib and the box girder pushing platform
the designed speed of 140 km/h. This railway is an are constructed. The platform is supported by the
important part of the west route of the "Trans- brackets on the arch rib and the abutment. The
Asian Railway Network", and will connect with the first segment of the beam is poured, and then
Bangladesh–China–India–Myanmar railway. The prepared to be pushed to the accurate position.
bridge spans over the Lancang River. The max The other box girders are constructed like this,
slope angle of the mountain on both sides is more except the vault is the cast-in-place Π-shaped
than 80 degrees. The bridge deck stands more beam.
than 270 m (890 feet) over the Lancang River, This kind of bridge has advantages as follows.
which makes it as one of the highest safety risk
bridges under construction in China. Firstly, the stiffened skeleton is used as the
bracket for pouring the arch rib concrete, which
The bridge is 528.1 m long, and the main span is will greatly save the cost, and also can work as the
342 m. The X-style arch rib is a deck-type reinforcement of the concrete section【1】.
concrete-filled steel tube stiffened skeleton, which
is filled with concrete inside and outside. The Secondly, Arch bridge has good anti-wind and
concrete-filled steel tube stiffened skeleton is anti-seismic capability. These make it suitable for
the requirements of the railway bridges.
948
Thirdly, although the reaction force of the arch two arch ribs are merged together into one arch
bridge’s foundation , caused by dead loads , is rib of a single-box and double-cell section at the
large. However, the large thrust is beneficial to vault, which is 80 m long and 8.2 m wide. The
the stability of the rock on both sides of the river. width of other arch ribs is 4.5 m. At the arch foot,
the center distance between two arch ribs is 28 m.
Fourthly, the arch rib, covered by concrete,
The two arch ribs are tilted inward by7 degrees in
without exposed steel member, can reduce the
order to fit the piers on them.
maintenance and operation cost.
The stiffened skeleton in the arch ribs is concrete-
Finally, the weight of a single member of the
stiffened skeleton is less than 10 tons, so it is filled truss. The dimension of the chord tubes isφ
applicable for the current transport. The arch rib 1,000x36mm. The web members are composed of
can be constructed by the tower crane or cable shape steel of HW400x400 mm. There are 12
crane with lifting capacity of 10 tons. transverse braces, which also have concrete-filled
truss in them. The dimension of the chord tubes is
φ600x16 mm. The web members are composed
of shape steel of HW400x400 mm and tube ofφ
450x12 mm.
Figure 1. Completed bridge design sketch
Figure 3. Plane layout and vertical layout (units:m)
Figure 2. Stiffened skeleton closure
2 Main structure dimension

The arch rib with span of 342 m , rise of 80m and
rise-span ratio of 1/4.2 is designed as catenary
curve in the vertical plane, whose axis coefficient
is 4.5. Each arch rib is a single concrete box girder,
with stiffened skeleton inside. The height of the
girder at the vault is 6m. The height of arch foot
cross section is 14 m.The arch ribs are designed as
quadratic parabola in the horizontal plane. The
949
Figure 4. Cross section of the single arch rib

(units:mm)
Figure 7. Finite element model of the stiffened

skeleton
3.2 Construction procedures

The stiffened skeleton adopts the swing
construction technology. The steel tubes are
poured with concrete, and the next one cannot be
Figure 5. Cross section of the arch ribs conducted in the same way until the former
combination at the vault (units:mm) reaches its design strength. The templates are
installed on the stiffened skeleton. The arch rib
concrete is gradually poured in the arch foot, vault
and 1/4 section together to keeping the arch rib
3 Static analysis
alignment. After the arch rib construction is
finished, other members on the arch rib should be
3.1 Establishment finite element
constructed.
calculation model
The spatial calculation is carried out by MIDAS
software. In the finite element calculation model,
the total number of the nodes and elements
separately is 1,698 and 4,367. The stiffened
skeleton is simulated by the concrete-filled steel
tube beam elements【 2 】 , which are connected
with the arch rib concrete through rigid
connection.
Figure 8. Construction process of arch rib concrete
3.3 Main calculation results

During the construction process, the maximum
bending moment of the single ribs is 195,405 kN·
m, which causes the tension in the bottom flange,
and the vertical reaction force is 96437 kN for this
moment. For concrete-filled steel tubes
Figure 6. Finite element model of the whole bridge uncovered with concrete outside, the maximum
axial force is 38,994 kN. The maximum axial force
of the arch rib combination at the vault is 47,836
950
kN. After the bridge is constructed completely, the Table 1. The internal force of critical sections
maximum vertical reaction force of the single arch under frequent earthquake
ribs foot is 165201 kN, and the bending moment is
Nz Mx My
8674 kN·m for this reaction, which causes the position
[kN] [kN.m] [kN.m]
tension in the top flange. Cross
Under the live loads, the arch vertical section
2,260,57 167,92
of an 13,472
displacement is 0.047 m, and the ratio of Longitudinal 5 7
arch rib
deflection to span is 1/7,149. Under the wind bridge
foot
force and lateral swaying force of train, the seismic
Bottom
transverse displacement of the deck above the wave
of a pier
vault is 0.018 m, and the ratio of deflection to 17,564 5,460 31,079
on the
span is 1/18,667. Under the combination of the vault
live loads, braking force and the track expansion Cross
force, the longitudinal displacement of the pier section
114,88
top is 0.0177 m. of an 243,605 90,036
3
Transverse arch rib
4 Stability analysis seismic foot
wave Bottom
The stability calculation is carried out by using of a pier
23,004 8,183 14,418
MIDAS software. Under construction and on the
operation of bridge, the instability mode is the vault
lateral-torsional motion of the arch ribs【3】. The Remarks: Nz -axial force, Mx-longitudinal bending
stability coefficient of the stiffened skeleton moment, My-transverse bending moment.
closure is 10. The minimum stability coefficient According to the Chinese seismic design code
under each pouring arch rib concrete condition is for railway engineering, the basic horizontal
5.2. The minimum stability coefficient of pouring acceleration of the rare earthquake is 0.38 g. The
earch transverse brace of arch ribs is 15.2. The time-history analysis of rare earthquake is
stability coefficient of the completed bridge performed by the artificial seismic wave. The
without the live loads is 15.3. The stability internal force of the arch rib foot and the bottom
coefficient under operation condition is 13.8. of the piers upon the arch is calculated and the
results are showed in the table 2.
5 Anti-seismic calculation analysis Table 2. The internal force of critical sections
under rare earthquake
5.1 Anti-seismic calculation
Nz Mx My
Lancang River arch bridge is in an 8-degree seismic position
[kN] [kN.m] [kN.m]
fortification intensity zone. The response Cross
spectrum method is used to calculate frequent section of 740,45
earthquake. According to the Chinese seismic Longitudinal 262,732 31,996
an arth rib 2
bridge
design code for railway engineering, the basic foot
seismic
horizontal acceleration of the frequent Bottom of
wave 111,30
earthquake is 0.07g, and the important coefficient a pier on 20,867 6,373
9
is 1.4. The internal force of the arch rib foot and the vault
the bottom of the piers upon the arch is Cross
Transverse
calculated, and the results are showed in the table section of 277,86 374,33
seismic 336,230
an arth rib 0 5
1. wave
foot
951
Bottom of bottom
a pier on 38,552 19,256 40,092 arch rib
548,000 695,600
the vault foot
transverse
Remarks: Nz -axial force, Mx-longitudinal bending pier
64,440 73,350
moment, My-transverse bending moment. bottom
From the above results, the seismic bending

5.2 Aseismic checking
moments of the arch rib foot and the pier bottom
The principle of seismic design of bridges is that cross section under the both of frequent and rare
the slightly damaged bridge structures maintain earthquake are less than the initial yield moment,
its normal use function under the action of the which means that they all work within the elastic
frequent earthquakes, and the large damaged range.
bridge structures can be used for traffic with the
limit speed after repairs under the action of the 6 Conclusions
rare earthquake. The methods of aseismic
This paper has calculated and analyzed the
checking are showed as follows:
concrete filled steel tube arch bridge of Lancang
Firstly, the section bending strength of River in view of static, stability and seismic
reinforced concrete piers and arch ribs is resistance, and the conclusions are as follows:
analyzed by the moment-curvature analysis Firstly, from the static calculation results of the
method. whole bridge, it can be seen that the mechanical
Secondly, under the action of frequent earthquake, behavior of the bridge can meet the needs both in
for the reinforced concrete piers and arch ribs, the the construction stage and in the operation stage .
seismic bending moment should be less than the Secondly, from the analysis of structural stability
initial yield moment. of the bridge, all the buckling modes are the
Thirdly, when the bending moment of pier cross transverse lateral buckling. From the skeleton
section under rare earthquake is less than the construction to the operational phase of the
initial yield moment, it is only necessary to carry whole bridge, the minimum stability coefficient is
out aseismic checking calculation under frequent 5.2. Therefore, there is no problem with stability.
earthquakes. Otherwise, the ductility calculation Finally, the seismic bending moments of the arch
should be carried out for the pier section and the rib foot and the pier bottom cross section under
nonlinear displacement ductility ratio should be the both of frequent and rare earthquake are less
lower than 4.8. The seismic bending moment of than the initial yield moment. Thus, the Lancang
the arch ribs should be less than the initial yield River arch bridge has a sound anti-seismic
moment under rare earthquake. The bending performance.
moment of the main critical sections is showed in
table 3. 7 References
Table 3. The initial yield moment、equivalent yield [1] Cheng Baochun. Concrete Filled Steel Tube
moment and ultimate moment of the main critical Arch Bridge. China Communications
secions Press.2007 .
Initial yiel Equivalent [2] Wang Shumei, Qian Zhendong. Mechanics
Bend
position moment yiel moment
direction Analysis of Arch Rib of Concrete-filled-steel-
(KN.m) (KN.m)
tube Tie-Bar Arch Bridge. Journal of
arch rib
1,300,000 1,670,000 Transportation Engineering and Information.
foot Vertical
pier 111,000 145,900 2006;4(4): 41-45.(Chinese)
952
[3] Yan Quansheng, Xu Shengqiao. An Analysis

of Stable Bearing Capacity of Long Span
Steel Tubular Concrete Arch bridge . Railway
Standard Desing . NO.7 ,2003(7).(Chinese)
953
Corrosion-resistant Reinforced Concrete Columns

S.A. Sheikh, Zahra Kharal
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Toronto, ON, Canada
Contact: sheikh@ecf.utoronto.ca
Abstract
To address this issue of corrosion of steel in reinforced concrete, large scale columns reinforced with
glass fibre reinforced polymer (GFRP) bars were tested under simulated earthquake loads. In
addition to the moment - curvature and shear - deflection responses, ductility factors, and work and
energy dissipation parameters were used to evaluate column performance. Twenty-five columns
with circular and square sections can be compared to investigate variables such as axial load level,
amount and type of reinforcement, i.e. GFRP vs steel. GFRP-reinforced columns were found to
behave with stable post-peak response and achieved high levels of deformability and energy
dissipation. The optimum solution with respect to column strength, stiffness, ductility and energy
dissipation, and corrosion resistance appears to be a hybrid column with steel longitudinal bars and
GFRP transverse reinforcement.
Keywords: GFRP; Columns; Deformability; Energy Dissipation; Seismic, Confinement; Reinforced
Concrete
solution that can alleviate this problem. During the

1 Introduction past decade, a few studies have reported on the
Reinforced concrete (RC) columns are often the behaviour of GFRP bars as lateral and longitudinal
most critical elements in the structure and the reinforcement for concrete components under
failure of even one of them in a critical location can compression [2-4]. Based on the results of the
lead to a complete structural collapse. In tests, it was found that replacing longitudinal steel
conventional columns, steel reinforcement is bars with GFRP bars irrespective of the type of ties
prone to corrosion, especially the lateral steel. (steel or GFRP) reduced the capacity by about 13%
Corrosion of lateral steel in columns causes spalling [5]. Under concentric load, the lateral GFRP
of concrete cover which results in a drop in the reinforcement was found to be quite effective in
load-carrying capacity, ductility and energy columns. Although results from the
dissipation capacity of columns. Additionally, the aforementioned studies provide valuable
World Corrosion Organization estimates the global information, the small column size, limited number
cost of corrosion to be about US$ 2.5 trillion of variables, and the simple load pattern
annually [1]; a large portion of this could be necessitated the need for further investigation on
eliminated by utilizing various prevention the performance of columns under more realistic
techniques which will not only save billions of loadings. To this effect, an extensive experimental
dollars annually in infrastructure repair around the program was initiated at the University of Toronto
world but will also ensure health and safety of the in which full-scale columns confined with glass
public. The replacement of lateral steel with a non- fibre reinforced polymer (GFRP) bars were tested
corroding material like glass fibre reinforced under simulated earthquake loads which included
polymer (GFRP) bars is a feasible preventive axial load and reversed cyclic lateral displacement
954
excursions. A total of twenty-five column

specimens were tested as part of a three-phase
study. In the first phase, nine circular columns
reinforced with GFRP lateral and longitudinal bars
were tested [6]. The results of phase one,
prompted the need to conduct phase two, in which
seven circular hybrid columns with steel
longitudinal bars and GFRP spirals were tested [7].
The promising results of the second phase, resulted
in the third phase of the program currently
underway on nine square hybrid columns [8].
These twenty-five columns with circular or square
sections can be used to investigate the effects of
variables such as the level of axial load, amount and
spacing of transverse reinforcement and the type
of material, i.e. GFRP vs steel. In each phase, in
addition to the moment vs. curvature response and
shear vs. deflection behaviour, several ductility
parameters related to curvature and displacement,
and work and energy dissipation were also used to
evaluate the performance of column specimens.
Performance was also evaluated against various
code requirements. In this paper, a summary of the
experimental program, test set-up and brief Figure 1. (a) Specimen Geometry; (b) column
overview of the results of the three phases has reinforcement cage
been presented. Extensive instrumentation, namely LVDTs and
strain gauges, were installed on all the specimens
2 Experimental Program and Results to gain a thorough understanding of the column
behaviour. The specimens were tested in the
2.1 Circular Columns with GFRP Column Testing Frame (CTF). The specimens were
Longitudinal Bars and GFRP Spirals placed in the CTF in a horizontal position and
Tavassoli et al. [6] investigated the behaviour of subjected to simultaneous pre-determined axial
circular columns reinforced with longitudinal and load and cyclic quasi-static lateral excursions
transverse GFRP bars. A total of nine large-scale simulating earthquake loading. Figure 2 shows the
circular columns were tested. Each column CTF test set-up with a fully instrumented specimen.
contained six 25 mm longitudinal GFRP bars The axial load was kept constant at the required
uniformly distributed around the column core and level throughout the duration of the test. Lateral
a GFRP spiral. The concrete strength was specified load was applied at the stub approximately 150
as 35 MPa for all the columns tested. The four mm away from the stub-column interface, so that
major variables investigated were the size and the most critically loaded region of the column was
amount of GFRP spiral, GFRP spiral spacing, level of adjacent to the stub and subjected to combined
axial load and the type of GFRP. The geometry of flexure, shear, and axial forces. In the first cycle, a
specimens and GFRP reinforcement column cages peak displacement of 0.75Δy was applied to the
are shown in Figure 1. specimen. This was followed by two cycles each to
peak displacements of Δy, 2 Δy and so on till
specimen failure. The specimen was considered
failed when it was unable to maintain the originally
applied axial load due to the damage to the
concrete, failure of the longitudinal bars, the failure
955
of lateral reinforcement, or a combination of all cycles and achieved higher section ductility and
these. Figure 3 provides the transverse overall deformation in comparison with their
displacement history of a typical specimen; where companion steel reinforced column P27-NF-2 [9]
Δy is the theoretical displacement corresponding to shown in Figure 4a; specimen P27-NF-2 was
the column lateral load capacity on a straight line identical to Specimen P28C-12-160 in every aspect
joining the origin and the point corresponding to except that it was reinforced with steel longitudinal
65% the column capacity on the ascending part of bars and spirals rather than GFRP. However,
the load-deflection curve. Specimen P28-C-12-160 can be seen to have a
lower moment and shear capacity than specimen
P27-NF-2. Additionally, the hysteresis loops clearly
had significantly lower energy dissipation.
(a)
Figure 2. Test set-up and instrumentation of a

typical specimen in the column testing frame (CTF)
(b)
Figure 3. Transverse Displacement History (c)

Behaviour of a fully GFRP reinforced column P28-C-
12-160 is shown in Figure 4b; it had six 25 mm
diameter GFRP bars as longitudinal reinforcement
and 12 mm spirals with 160 mm pitch as lateral
reinforcement. A stable column behaviour with
large energy dissipation capacity and high level of
deformability can be observed despite large spiral
spacing. The GFRP spirals provided continuous (d)
support even at large deformations until the Figure 4. Shear vs. deflection and Moment vs.
columns failed by a combination of crushing and curvature relations for: (a) Specimen P27-NF-2
buckling of the longitudinal bars in compression (circular steel-RC column); (b) Specimen P28-C-12-
accompanied by the crushing of the concrete core 160 (circular GFRP-RC column); (c) P28-LS-12-160
in the most damaged zone. The GFRP reinforced (hybrid circular column); and (d) TA-P28-S-10
columns were able to undergo more number of (hybrid square column)
956
2.2 Circular Columns with Steel replacing the GFRP longitudinal bars by steel.
Longitudinal Bars and GFRP Spirals However, the measured sectional ductility
properties stayed approximately the same; the µΔ
The results from the pilot study conducted by and δ values were 3.2 and 3.0 for Specimen P28-C-
Tavassoli et al. [6], specifically the low flexural 12-160 and 3.1 and 3.1 for Specimen P28-LS-12-
capacity and low stiffness in comparison to 160. Thus, the overall strength and ductility of the
conventional steel-RC columns, highlighted the GFRP confined columns was found to be similar to
need to conduct a follow-up study that aimed at the comparable conventional steel confined
maximizing the advantages of the GFRP bars and columns (Figure 4a). The main advantage of GFRP
minimized their disadvantages. To this effect, an spirals was found beyond the steel yield strain of
innovative study with hybrid concrete columns 0.002. The steel confined columns faced a
reinforced with longitudinal steel bars and lateral significant drop in stiffness after the spirals reach
GFRP spirals was carried out. It was theorized that the yield strain whereas the GFRP confined
the longitudinal steel would provide the much- columns were found to effectively confine the
needed stiffness in the column specimens and the concrete core and support the longitudinal bars till
GFRP spirals would provide confinement and keep an approximate strain of 0.02, which is
the columns protected against corrosion. Tavassoli approximately 10 times the steel yield strain.
and Sheikh [7] reported results from seven 356 mm
diameter columns reinforced longitudinally with 2.3 Square Columns with Steel
steel and laterally with GFRP spirals under constant
Longitudinal Bars and GFRP Ties
axial load and cyclic lateral load. The concrete
strength of the specimens varied between 40 and The promising results of circular columns confined
41 MPa. In order to compare the results with the by GFRP spirals, prompted the need of a similar
fully GFRP reinforced columns, the specimen study on GFRP confined square columns; this was
dimensions, test set-up and loading conditions deemed necessary to not only corroborate the
were kept as close as possible to tests by Tavassoli results of circular columns but also to increase the
et al. [6]. data-base of GFRP reinforced columns under
realistic loads which could later be utilized towards
Results from this study showed that the flexural
the development of GFRP confinement design
capacity of the hybrid columns i.e. columns
procedure and guidelines. Additionally, evaluating
reinforced with steel longitudinal bars and GFRP
the feasibility of using GFRP ties, given the
spirals was approximately 30% higher than
industry’s abilities in making bent bars, was an
comparable columns with GFRP longitudinal bars
essential goal of this research.
and GFRP spirals. This can be seen in Figure 4c
showing the moment vs. curvature and lateral This test program consists of nine square columns
shear force vs. tip deflection results of Specimen with a cross-section of 305 mm x 305 mm [10]. All
P28-LS-12-160. Specimen P28-LS-12-160 had six 25 the columns are 1470 mm long and the
mm steel longitudinal bars in comparison to corresponding gross cross-sectional area of the
Specimen P28-C-12-160 (Figure 4b), which column is 93025 mm2; in comparison to the
contained six 25 mm GFRP bars. All the other circular column cross-sectional area of 99538 mm2
parameters between the two columns were the for Tavassoli and Sheikh (2017) and Tavassoli et al.
same. A much higher moment and shear capacity (2015). The columns were reinforced longitudinally
of the column can be seen in Figure 4c in with eight 20M steel bars. GFRP rectilinear ties,
comparison with the column in Figure 4b; the shear made by the same manufacturer with comparable
and momento capacities, respectively, improved properties to the GFRP spirals used by Tavassoli
from 71.1 and 152 kN.m in Specimen P28-C-12-160 and Sheikh (2017), were used to confine the
to 98 kN and 210kN.m in Specimen P28-LS-12-160. columns. For the GFRP ties, one of the more
Additionally, the measured µΦ also improved from commonly used tie configuration consisting of an
9.0 for Specimen P28-C-12-160 to 11.1 for internal diamond shape tie in addition to the
Specimen P28-LS-12-160 as a direct result of external peripheral ties was selected. The
schematics of the square column specimens and
957
the corresponding cross-sectional details can be During the tests, it was observed that for circular
seen in Figure 5. All the columns are tested under column, there was no redundancy after the rupture
constant axial load and cyclic quasi-static lateral of GFRP spiral and confinement provided to the
displacement excursions in a similar manner to the core concrete vanished as soon as the spirals
previous two studies [6, 7]. ruptured. The loss of confinement in the square
column was found to be not quite as sudden; the
failure was more prolonged due to the fact that
there were two ties at each level and it took several
cycles for the ties to unhook and they did not fail
suddenly. Table 2 shows the test results of the two
specimens including a summary of the ductility
paramet
curvature ductility factor (µΦ) and the drift ratio
(δ), displayed by each specimen. The ductility
(a) parameters were determined following the
procedure suggested by Sheikh and Khoury [10].
The results in Figures 4c and 4d, and from Tables 5
and 6 shows that the square and circular columns
reinforced longitudinally with steel and laterally
with GFRP were able to undergo several load cycles
before failure and achieved high levels of
deformability. With the lateral reinforcement ratio
(b)
of Specimen TA-P28-S-10 (square column) about
Figure 5. Specimen geometry of the square 80% higher than that in Specimen P-28-LS-12-160
specimens (circular column) with similar spacing, the circular
column displayed similar overall performance to
Due to space limitation, only the result from one
square is discussed in this paper to highlight the the square column specimen. Square column
effectiveness of GFRP rectilinear ties and to showed a slightly lower displacement ductility
compare the behavior with a comparable circular factor μΔ and somewhat higher curvature ductility
column. The results in terms of shear versus tip factor μΦ, which indicates the higher efficiency of
deflection and moment versus curvature from confinement provided by GFRP circular spiral
Specimen TA-P28-S-10 (square column) have been compared with rectilinear lateral confinement.
shown in Figure 4d. The Specimen TA-P28-S-10 The flexural strength was found to be
(square column) had the same GFRP tie spacing as comparatively higher in the square columns
the spiral spacing of Specimen P-28-LS-12-160 partially due to the relatively higher concrete
(circular column); all the other parameters were compressive strength. However, the strength
similar in both specimens to ensure a proper degradation before failure for both square and
comparison. Table 1 gives the details of the two circular columns was found to be insignificant
specimens including the relevant information
because of the well-confined concrete core. The
regarding the material properties. Even though the
concrete core was confined more effectively, and
length of the columns was 1470 mm, the actual
longitudinal bars more effectively supported than
shear span of each column was 1840 mm,
they were be by steel spirals due to the linear
measured from the column-stub interface to the
contraflexure point which is the centerline of the elastic behavior of GFRP spirals and ties up to the
hinge at the column end. This resulted in a shear approximate failure strain of 0.02.
span to depth ratio of about 6.0 for the square The drift capacities of Specimen P-28-LS-12-160
columns and 5.17 mm for the circular columns; the (circular column) and Specimen TA-P28-S-10
depth was taken as the outer dimension of the (square column) at failure were 3.1% and 3.5%,
columns. respectively. Despite the fact that both columns
958
had a spacing of 160 mm, and thus were under provide confinement comparable to, if not better,
designed as per CSA S806-12 [11] standard, they than that of conventional steel. The optimum
were still able to achieve a drift capacity of more solution with respect to column strength and
than 2.5 %, the minimum requirement according to stiffness, ductility and energy dissipation, and
the seismic code provisions. All the values of the corrosion resistance, thus, appears to be a hybrid
ductility parameters presented in Table 2 were column with steel longitudinal bars and GFRP
satisfactory, which shows that GFRP confined transverse reinforcement.
columns have the ability to be very ductile and
Table 1. Specimen Details

Axial
load Longitudinal Reinforcement Transverse reinforcement
Concrete
level
strength,
Study Specimen Column ’ P
fc
Shape Po
No. – Size fy or fu Bar s h ffu
[MPa] Type ρl (%) type
[MPa] Size [mm] [%] [MPa]
Kharal
TA-P28-S-10 Square 44 0.28 Steel 8 - 20M 2.58 421 Tie 12 160 1.69 941
(2018)
Tavassoli
and Sheikh P-28-LS-12-160 Circular 40 0.28 GFRP 6 - 25M 3.01 463 Spirals 12 160 0.94 914
(2017)
Table 2. Test results of specimens
Failure Mode
𝑴𝒎𝒂𝒙
h Vmax Mmax Mn
Specimen Shape
[%] [kN] [kNm] [kNm] 𝑴𝒏 μΔ μΦ δ [%]
Max.
Last
Disp
Cycle
[mm]
TA-P28-S-10 Square 1.69 11 -22.5 109 219 206 1.06 2.94 15.6 3.5
P-28-LS-12-160 Circle 0.94 12 -28 98 210 210 1.00 3.1 11.1 3.1
A few of the conclusions related to column

3 Conclusions responses are listed below:
This study investigated the application of • The GFRP-reinforced columns, with GFRP
corrosion-resistant GFRP spirals in circular concrete spirals and longitudinal bars, displayed stable
columns and GFRP ties in square columns under column behaviour and were able to undergo a large
constant axial load and cyclic lateral displacement number of cycles and achieve high deformability
excursions simulating earthquake forces. A levels before failure. The flexural strength and
summary of the results of three pilot studies is stiffness of these columns was found to be lacking
presented to highlight the effects of different
variables on the column performance. The • Results from this research show that GFRP
behaviour of the columns was studied based on the spirals and rectilinear ties can be used as primary
moment-curvature and shear-deflection responses lateral reinforcement for shear and confinement in
and various ductility parameters. concrete columns designed for seismic resistance.
959
The GFRP transverse reinforcement performed Structures Laboratories of the University of

very well even when the spacing was about 60% of Toronto.
the core dimension. Due to their linear elastic
behaviour until rupture at a strain of approximate 5 Notations
0.02, GFRP lateral reinforcement provided
Mmax Experimental maximum flexural strength;
continuous confinement to the columns which Mn Nominal moment capacity;
resulted in large deformability and energy L Shear span of column;
dissipation capacity. Po Nominal axial load capacity of the column at zero
eccentricity;
• It was observed that for circular columns, PL Applied lateral load;
there was no redundancy after the rupture of GFRP V shear force at the column base;
spiral and confinement provided to the core Vmax Maximum shear strength measured at the base of
the column;
concrete vanished as soon as the spirals ruptured. f’c Maximum compressive concrete cylinder stress;
In square columns, the failure was more prolonged ffu strength in FRP transverse confinement
since there were two ties at each level and it took reinforcement;
several cycles for the ties to unhook and they did fy Yield strength of steel reinforcement;
fu Ultimate strength of reinforcement;
not give way suddenly.
s Center-to-center spacing of transverse
• The behaviour of square columns confined reinforcement;
by GFRP ties was found to be very similar to circular Δ tip displacement of the column;
 lateral drift capacity of a column corresponding to
columns confined by GFRP spirals in terms of shear 20% lateral force decay;
versus tip deflection and moment versus curvature μΔ displacement ductility factor;
when the amount of tie reinforcement ratio was μΦ curvature ductility factor;
about 80% higher than the spiral reinforcement but ρh reinforcing ratio of lateral reinforcement; and
ρl reinforcing ratio of longitudinal reinforcement.
the spacing of the lateral reinforcement was the
same.
6 References
• The strength degradation before failure for
square and circular hybrid columns was found to be [1] NACE: The National Association of
insignificant due to the well-confined concrete Corrosion Engineers,
core. The drift capacity of the circular columns at http://impact.nace.org/executive-
failure was 3.1%, and the drift capacity of the summary.aspx, Nov 2017.
square columns at failure was 3.5%, both of which [2] Affifi, M.Z., Mohamed, M.H., and
satisfy the limitations of North American building Benmokrane, B.,“Axial Capacity of Circular
codes. Concrete Columns Reinforced with GFRP
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and stiffness, ductility and energy dissipation, and B., “Behaviour of concentrically loaded
corrosion resistance, thus, appears to be a hybrid fiber-reinforced polymer reinforced
column with steel longitudinal bars and GFRP concrete columns with varying
transverse reinforcement. reinforcement types and ratios.” ACI
Struct. J., 111(33), 2014a, pp. 375–386.
4 Acknowledgements [4] De Luca, A., Matta, F., and Nanni, A.,
The financial support for this work was provided by “Behavior of full-scale glass fiber-
grants from Natural Sciences and Engineering reinforced polymer reinforced concrete
Research Council of Canada and IC-IMPACTS, an columns under axial load.” ACI Struct. J.,
NSERC network of Centres of Excellence. The FRP 107(5), 2010, pp. 589–596.
transverse reinforcement was provided by [5] Alsayed, SH; Al-Salloum, YA; Almusallam,
Fibreline Composites Canada Inc. The experimental TH and Amjad, M A. Concrete Columns
work reported here was carried out in the Reinforced by GFRP Rods. Fourth
960
International Symposium on Fiber-

Reinforced Polymer Reinforcement for
Reinforced Concrete Structures, pp 188.
[6] Tavassoli, A, Liu, J, Sheikh, SA., “Glass Fiber-
Reinforced Polymer-Reinforced Circular
Columns under Simulated Seismic Loads,”
ACI Structural Journal, V. 112, No. 1, Jan-
Feb, 2015, 103-114.
[7] Tavassoli, A., and Sheikh, S.A., “Seismic
Resistance of Circular Columns Reinforced
with Steel and GFRP.” ASCE Journal of
Composites for Construction, Jan. 23,
2017. DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE) CC.1943-
5614.0000774
[8] Kharal, Z., “Seismic Response of Square
Columns Confined with GFRP Rectilinear
Ties.” PhD Thesis, University of Toronto,
Toronto, 2018.
[9] Liu, J. and Sheikh, S. A. "FRP-confined
circular columns under simulated seismic
loads," ACI Structural Journal, Vol. 110, No.
6, 2013, pp. 941-952.
[10]Sheikh, S. A., and Khoury, S. S., “Confined
concrete columns with stubs.” ACI Struct.
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[11]CSA (Canadian Standards Association),
“Design and construction of building
components with fibre-reinforced
polymers.” CSA S806-12, 2012, Rexdale,
ON, Canada, 177.
961
Study on the corrosion experiment of concrete under different stress

conditions
Gang SHEN, Hui LI, Xun WU
Master candidate (SHEN) & PH.D candidate(LI) & Tutor(WU), Tongji University, Shanghai, CHN
Contact: 1530498@tongji.edu.cn; 1310222@tongji.edu.cn; wuxun@tongji.edu.cn
Abstract
For long-span cross-sea bridges, both the tower and pier are compression members which are
under severely corrosive environment and running inevitably with stress, but studies about
concrete compression member of durability under coupling of load and environment is still rare. In
this paper, the concrete members are designed according to corresponding scale ratio. The
influence of sustaining stress and design corrosion degree to concrete durability are considered.
The experiment results show that the failure mode of corrosion concrete components is generally
brittle failure. As design corrosion degree increases, the amount and width of cracks, corrosion
degree of steel rebar grows, while stiffness and ultimate bearing capacity of component
decreases. With sustaining stress growing, the number and width of cracks, corrosion degree of
steel rebar declines, and stiffness and ultimate bearing capacity rises.
Keywords: Cross-sea bridge; concrete component; corrosion experiment; sustaining stress;
ultimate bearing capacity; corrosion degree.
Recently, scholars mainly study the influence of
1 Introduction main reinforcement corrosion on concrete
Concrete is the most widely material used in members. Hakan Yalciner, and Khaled Marar[4]
society today. However, the performance of (2017) conducted an test to develop empirical
concrete structure will inevitably deteriorate due models for the prediction of the bond strength of
to the characteristics of the material and uncorroded and corroded reinforcement bars and
environment [1]. For cross-sea bridges, pylon and finally found that partly covered hooked
pier are compression members under severe reinforcement bars increase the radial stress on
erosion environment. Due to chloride erosion, the concrete surface and reduce the bond
reinforcement will be gradually corroded which strength. Liu Huiying[5] et al. found that with the
leads to mechanical performance reduction. degree of corrosion increasing, the bearing
Meanwhile, the expansion of corrosion products capacity and plasticity of reinforced concrete
results in cracking and spalling of the protective members are degenerated. The form of failure
layer and shortening the service life of the bridge. may change from ductile failure to brittle failure.
Therefore, it is of great significance for the As for the influence of the stirrups corrosion, Li
durability evaluation of existing bridges and the Qiang[6] et al. hold that the stirrup corrosion cracks
durability design of bridges to be built that the in concrete components occurred near the
deterioration law of the compression members of stirrups. With the increase of the degree of stirrup
bridge structures due to environment and load corrosion, characteristics of the brittle fracture
factors is studied [2-3][9]. become more apparent. Finally, the concrete
protective layer spalls. Nevertheless, the research
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on the durability of reinforced concrete structure based on commonly concrete grades, reinforced
is still in its infancy with the following several materials and thickness of the protection layer of
questions to answer： reinforced concrete structure in the long-span
reinforced concrete structure used in the cross-
1. So far, scholars mainly study the influence of
sea bridge at present. Both the diameter of main
main reinforcement corrosion on the structure.
rebar and stirrup are 16mm and the distance
However, the stirrups are outermost
between two main rebars is 142mm.
reinforcements which are corroded earliest.
What’s more, the cracking mode considering the
stirrups corrosion is also different from only
considering the main reinforcement corrosion.
Therefore, it is necessary to study the reinforced
concrete compression members under the
condition of stirrups corrosion and joint corrosion
of stirrups and main bars [2][5][7].
Figure 2-1. Diameter of test component(mm)
2. The components of bridges are under
corresponding stress with bridges in operation. Specific parameters are listed as follows: design
Previous studies mainly concentrated on the corrosion degree ( can be calculated by Eq.1)
performance of corroded members of reinforced and sustaining stress (  )
concrete under no stress. To simulate the real
M T -M L
condition of bridge component, the mechanical = 100% (1)
performance of reinforced concrete members MT
subjected to the coupling effect of load and
environmental actions is studied [3][5][8-11]. Where M T was the weight of steel rebar prior to
In this paper, the accelerated corrosion tests of its corrosion; M L was the weight of the steel rebar
concrete axial compression members are carried after it was corroded, and cleaned. The
out considering different sustaining stresses and component numbers are shown in table 2-1 (Next
design corrosion degree, finally, the corrosion page). S indicates sustaining stress, and C
states of the components are obtained. After that, represents design corrosion degree. For example,
the bearing capacity test is carried out to obtain S5-C10 represents component sustaining stress is
the rebar corrosion degree, the load-strain curve 5MPa and design corrosion degree is 10%.
and the bearing capacity of the compression The test component used C50 concrete in Chinese
members. In order to get the effect of code(GB50010-010) [12]. HRB400 ordinary steel bar
environment and load on the durability of the (With yield strength is 400MPa) is used in both
components, the performance change rules main reinforcements and hoops. Two stirrups on
before and after corrosion are summarized and both ends of the experimental components are
analysed, which provides a theoretical basis for epoxy coating reinforcements to avoid the rebar
evaluating the durability of concrete compression corrosion on both ends of the experimental
members of existing cross-sea bridge. components, which can cause serious concrete
cracking and make the experimental components
2 Experimental Program lose strength early in the test of ultimate bearing
capacity. The cube compressive experiment was
2.1 Concrete component design conducted 28 days after the pouring and curing,
The reinforced concrete compression components and the result revealed that the concrete
in this experiment is designed according to the compressive strength was 51MPa and the average
reinforced concrete compression components value of elastic modulus was 43360MPa.
used in actual long span cross-sea bridge and the
dimension is reduced on the basis of scale ratio.
The specific parameters (Shown in Fig2-1) are
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Table 2-1. Number of concrete component

design design
Sustaining Sustaining
Number corrosion Number corrosion
stress(MPa) stress(MPa)
degree (%) degree (%)
S0-C0 0 0 S4-C10 4 10
S0-C5 0 5 S4-C15 4 15
S0-C10 0 10 S8-C5 8 5
S0-C15 0 15 S8-C10 8 10
S4-C5 4 5 S8-C15 8 15
2.2 Methods of applying sustaining stress 2.3 Methods of accelerating corrosion

Preloading device can be seen in Fig. 2-2. It The current strength of the component must be
includes two 20mm thick steel plates and four M30 accurate and stable to reach design corrosion
(30mm diameter) steel screws. Anti-corrosion degree. In order to ensure the accuracy of the
paint is painted to avoid loading device corrosion current strength in the component, a DC power
during the test. To apply the stress, the two plates supply is only used for single components.
are placed on both sides of the compressive Electrifying time is calculated on the basis of
specimens, the four steel screws pass through the Faraday's law. The total immersion method
steel plate and the nuts are tightened to make combined with impressed current is used in this
them form a whole. The pressure exerted by the experiment. The total immersion combined with
press has considered the influences such as the impressed current to accelerate the corrosion
elastic deformation of the nut caused by the method is used in this experiment. The pond water
released pressure after tightened, the is 5% sodium chloride solution.
displacement of the concrete in the loading
process and the deformation of the steel screw. 2.4 Test method of bearing capacity after
Before the compression member loading, strain corrosion
gauge is attached on the corresponding position in
To obtain displacement and strain in the process of
the middle of the components and the load is
loading, horizontal and vertical strain gauges are
controlled by both load readings and strain gauge
respectively pasted at the 2 adjacent elevations of
values while loading. In this way, sustaining stress
the test column. The strain gauges are located in
of the components is the same as the designed
the middle of each facade to measure the
value.
transverse and longitudinal strains of the concrete.
Two displacement meters is installed at the top of
the column to measure the displacement of the
axial column under vertical load. Because the strain
gauge on the surface of the concrete column may
fall off during the test, the displacement meter is
arranged in the centre of the column to assist to
measure the lateral deformation of the column, so
each test component has 4 strain gauges and 4
displacement meters. The sensor layout is shown
in Fig 2-3. and the actual sensors arrangement is
shown in Fig 2-4:
Figure 2-2. Preloading device (mm)
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observed, and the influence of the design corrosion

degree and sustaining stress on the corrosion
status of component is obtained.
3.1.1 The influence of the design corrosion

degree
The surface corrosion trace in the power process
appears mainly along the direction of stirrup
arrangement. With the increase of the design
corrosion degree, the rust trace of the member
surface increases obviously. Fig. 3-1 (a) (b) show
the effect of design corrosion degree on the
corrosion status of the member under same stress
level. When the corrosion degree is small (5%), the
cracks mainly extend along the position of the
transverse stirrup, while the number and width of
cracks is little. As the design corrosion degree
Figure 2-3. Placement of Sensors
increases, the original cracks further extend,
meanwhile, the new transverse cracks appear
unceasingly and the longitudinal crack gradually
occur and develop intersecting with the stirrup
direction. When the corrosion degree become
higher (15%), many longitudinal and transverse
cracks occur on the surface of the member. In the
surface area of the stirrup under serious corrosion,
the skin of the concrete protection layer loosened
accompanied with partial spalling.
3.1.2 The influence of the sustaining stress

The development of transverse crack of
Figure 2-4. Actual sensors arrangement compression member under sustaining load is
obviously slower than that of component without
In the experiment, the grading loading method is sustaining stress, and the higher stress is, the later
used according to the specimen limit load the crack appears, and the number and width of
estimated by Chinese code (GB/50152-2012) [13]. cracks is less than no stress component. For
Before cracking each stage loading is less than 20% example, under the same design corrosion degree
of the damage load. Near the crack load, each of 15%(Shown in Fig. 3-1(b)(c)), the partial spalling
stage loading is less than 10% of the cracked load, of the concrete protection layer on the surface
and the load duration of each level is more than area appears in the member without sustaining
15min. After the bearing capacity test, rebar load, however, the member with sustaining stress
weight was weighed and actual corrosion degree does not appear. The reason is that the thickness
was calculated after cleaning according to of the stirrup protection layer is relatively thin, and
according to the ASTM Standard [14]. the expansion of the corrosion product has a great
influence on the concrete protection layer in the
3 Analysis of experimental results stirrup position, so the transverse crack is the main
part. The longitudinal compressive stress offset the
3.1 Methods of accelerating corrosion corrosion expansion force of the stirrup, which
When the component has been powered to design restrains the cracking of the protection layer and
time, the corrosion status of the components was has a favourable protective role.
965
Fitted (represents average corrosion degree of

main rebar and stirrup under sustaining stress 
while  stands for corrosion degree under no
sustaining stress).
18
16.7
16 Main reinforcement 15.2
Degree of corrosion(%)
14 stirrup 13.2
12 10.8
9.9 10.1
10 9.2 9.6 8.8
8 7.6 7.5
6.3
6 5.5 5.2
4.5
4 3 3.1
(a)S0-C0 (b)S0-C15 2.5
2
0
S0
S4
S8
S0
S4
S8
S0
S4
S8
-C
-C
-C
-C
-C
-C
-C
-C
-C
5
10
10
10
15
15
15
Figure 3-2. The corrosion degree of main rebar and
stirrup
According to the fitting formula (Shown in Fig 3-3),
the higher the sustaining stress is, the lower the
(c)S8-C15 corrosion degree of steel rebar, and corrosion
degree of steel reinforcement of component under
Figure 3-1. Component corrosion status 8MPa sustaining stress is only 83% of the
3.2 Corrosion degree of component component under no stress.
Fig. 3-2 is a comparison chart of main rebar and Table 3-1. Stress influence coefficient  / 0
stirrup corrosion degree under different sustaining Stress 5% 10% 15% Average
stress and design corrosion degree. The maximum
0 MPa 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
corrosion degree of stirrup is 16.7% of S0-C15 and
the maximum main rebar corrosion degree is 4 MPa 0.96 0.93 0.94 0.94
10.1% of S4-C15.Stirrup corrosion degrees are 8 MPa 0.82 0.85 0.82 0.83
always higher than main rebar whose corrosion
degree is generally less than design corrosion 1.02
degree, This is mainly because the stirrups 2
protection layer is relatively thinner than main 0.99 η/η0=1-0.00875σ -0.00156σ
rebar, so chloride ions first permeate to the 0.96
stirrups surface, finally leading to stirrups
0.93
corrosion. From Fig 3-2, both main rebar and
η/η0
stirrup corrosion degree decrease with sustaining 0.90

stress growing, because pressure stress makes 5% design corrosion
0.87 10% design corrosion
pores of concrete reducing, and prevent chloride
15% design corrosion
ion into concretem and pressure stress partly 0.84
offset the tensile stress by swelling of corrosion
0.81
products of steel rebar. In order to analyse the 0 2 4 6 8
effect of sustaining stress on the corrosion degree Stress level(MPa)
of reinforcement, the ratio of 𝜂𝜎 /𝜂0 (Shown in
table 3-1) was calculated and Figure 3-3. Stress influence for corrosion degree of
rebar
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3.3 Load-displacement curve 3.4 Load-strain curve

From Fig3-4 (a) and (b), the brittleness of corrosive Fig3-5 (a) (b) are the load-strain curves of the
members increases obviously compared with that concrete compression member. Negative abscissa
of the corrosive members, and the more the design strain means the compressive strain. V and H
corrosion degree is, the more brittle the represents longitudinal strain and transverse strain
component is. From (a), the ultimate bearing respectively. Poisson’s ratio of the component is
capacity and displacement at the ultimate load of around 0.35. It exhibits elastic deformation at the
concrete columns decreases with the increase of beginning of loading. After continuous loading, the
design corrosion degree. Fig (b) shows the component has almost not experienced the plastic
comparison of load-displacement curves of phase. After reaching ultimate load, the strain
different sustaining stress members under the suddenly increases and then the component is
same design corrosion degree. The greater the damaged. It indicates that the failure mode of the
sustaining stress is, the higher the peak of load- component is brittle failure. In addition,
displacement curve, so the sustaining stress can compressive strain is generally lower than 2000
improve the ultimate bearing capacity of corrosive when failure happens.
members.
4000
4000 3500
3500 S0-C0 3000

S0-C5
3000
Load(k)
S0-C10 2500
S0-C0-V
Load(kN)
2500 S0-C15 S0-C0-H

2000 S0-C5-V
2000 S0-C5-H
1500 S0-C10-V
1500 S0-C10-H
1000 S0-C15-V
1000 S0-C15-H
500
500
0
0 -2000 -1000 0 1000 2000
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 Strain()
Displacement(mm) (a) S0-CX (Sustaining stress: 0MPa)
(a) S0-CX（Sustaining stress:0MPa） 4000
4000 3500 S0-C0-V

S0-C0-H
S0-C0 S0-C10-V
3500 3000
S0-C15 S0-C10-H
S4-C10-V
Load(kN)
3000 S4-C15 2500

S4-C10-H
S8-C15
Load(kN)
2500 S8-C10-V
2000
S8-C10-H
2000 1500
1500
1000
1000
500
500
0
0 -2000 -1000 0 1000 2000
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 Strain()
Displacement(mm) (b)SX-C15（Design corrosion degree:10%）
(b)SX-C15（Design corrosion degree:15%） Figure 3-5. Load-strain curve of experiment
component
Figure 3-4. Load-displacement curve of experiment
component As shown in Figure 3-5 (a), it can be seen that the
vertical and horizontal strain of the member under
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the same load increase with the increase of the component with sustaining stress of  , and
corrosion degree, which indicates that the stiffness N 0 is the ultimate bearing capacity of component
of the component decreases with the increasing of with no sustaining stress), The influence of the
corrosion rate. And the bearing capacity at stress level on the ultimate bearing capacity is
ultimate compressive strain decreases as the obtained (shown in Fig.3-7), the relationship is
corrosion degree increases. As can be seen from close to linear when the stress is small.
Fig. (b), the slope of the component increases with
the increase of the sustaining stress, indicating that Table 3-2. Stress influence coefficient N / N0
the larger the sustaining stress is, the greater the Stress 5% 10% 15% Average
stiffness of the component. Meantime, from the
0 MPa 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
load-strain curve, it can be found that the bearing
capacity increases with the increase of the 4 MPa 1.03 1.03 1.06 1.04
sustained stress. 8 MPa 1.06 1.08 1.12 1.09
3.5 Analysis of ultimate bearing capacity
1.12
Fig. 3-6 shows the relation between the ultimate
N/N0=1+
bearing capacity and the design corrosion degree 1.10
of the member under the sustaining stress. With 1.08

the increase of design corrosion degree, the
N/N0
1.06
ultimate bearing capacity of concrete columns
decreases. The ultimate bearing capacity at 15% 1.04
0MPa
design corrosion degree was reduced by about 30% 1.02 4MPa
of that of uncorroded member. As the sustaining 8MPa
1.00
stress increases, the ultimate bearing capacity of
the member increases slightly. The ultimate 0 2 4 6 8
Stress(MPa)
bearing capacity of the corroded member with the
stress of 8MPA is 10% higher than that of the no Figure 3-7. Stress influence for ultimate bearing
sustaining stress member, the effect is not capacity
particularly obvious.
4 Conclusion
3600
0MPa 1. Design corrosion degree has great influence on
3400 4MPa the distribution, number and width of cracks. As
8MPa the design corrosion degree is relatively small, the
Load(kN)
3200
cracks are mainly along the transverse stirrup
3000
position with little quantity and width. When
design corrosion degree increases, the number and
2800 width of cracks increases, occurring vertical and
horizontal cracks. When corrosion is relatively
2600 severe, the protective layer of the stirrup loosens
0% 5% 10% 15% and accompanied with local spalling, and the
Design corrosion degree(%) stiffness of the component decreases with the
Fig 3-6. Ultimate bearing capacity of component increase of the design corrosion degree.
In order to analyse the influence of the sustaining 2. The failure mode of corrosive members is
stress on the ultimate bearing capacity of the generally brittle failure while the Poisson ratio is
member, the ratio of N / N0 was calculated for about 0.35, and the corrosion degree of main rebar
is lower than that of stirrup. Sustaining stress has a
each design corrosion degree ( Shown in Tab. 3-2)
great influence on the corrosion status of the
and fitted ( N is the ultimate bearing capacity of
component. As sustaining stress increases, the
968
cracks appear later, and the number and width of Beams. Journal of Railway Science and
transverse cracks, the corrosion degree of the main Engineering. 2014; 11(4); 26-31. (in Chinese)
reinforcement and stirrup declines, while stiffness
[6] LI Q., JIN X.Y. Effect of Stirrup Corrosion on
rises. The corrosion degree of steel reinforcement
Bearing Capacity of Uniaxial Compression
of component under 8MPa sustaining stress is only
Short Column. Journal of Zhejiang University
83% of the component under non-stress.
(Engineering Science). 2015; 49(10); 1929-
3. The bearing capacity of the component reduced 1938. (in Chinese)
rapidly as the design corrosion degree increased,
[7] WU X., LI H. Effect of Strain Level on
and the ultimate bearing capacity at 15% design
Corrosion of Prestressing Steel Strands.
corrosion degree was reduced by about 30% of
International Association for Bridge and
that of uncorroded member. With the rise of the
Structural Engineering(IABSE). IABSE
sustaining stress, the ultimate bearing capacity of
Conference Guangzhou 2016; 292-299
the component increased correspondingly, but the
effect is not obvious. With the same degree [8] WANG X.S., JIN X.Y., TIAN Y., and LI B., JIN
corrosion rate, the ultimate bearing capacity of the N.G. Applicability of Accelerated Corrosion
corrosive member at 8MPa stress is about 10% Method of Steel Bars in Cracked Concrete
higher than that of non-stress component. Structure. Journal of ZheJiang University
(Engineering Science). 2013; 47(4); 566-
Acknowledgement 574.(in Chinese)
This research was financially supported by China [9] HUI Y.l., LI R., LIN Z.K., QUAN M.Y.
National 973 Plan No. 2013CB036303. The Experimental Studies on the Property Before
experiment work was performed in the Key and After Corrosion of Rebars in Basic
Laboratory of Advanced Civil Engineering Materials Concrete Members. Industrial Construction,
of Tongji University. 1997; 27(6); 14-18.
[10] KAT V., MG S. Structural Reliability of
5 References Concrete Bridges Including Improved
[1] ABDULLAH A.ALMNSALLAM. Effect of Chloride-induced Corrosion Models. Building
Corrosion on the Properties off Reinforcing Technique Development. 2007; 27(4); 313-
Steel Bars. Construction and Building 333
Materials. 2001; 15(8); 361-368. [11] Ghanooni-Bagha M., Shayanfar M., Reza-
[2] Cabrera, J. G. Deterioration of concrete due Zadeh O., Zabihi-Samani, M. The Effect of
to reinforcement steel corrosion. Cem. Materials on the Reliability of Reinforced
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Corrosions.EKSPLOATACJA I NIEZAWODNOSC
[3] JIANG Y., ZHOU G.X. The present status and MAINTENANCE and RELIABILITY. 2012; 19(3);
prospect of corroded reinforced concrete 393-402.
column bearing capacity study. SHANXI
ARCHITECTURE. 2009; 35(10); 60-66.(in [12] GB50010-010. Code for design of concrete
Chinese) Structures. Beijing: China Architecture &
Building Press; 2015. (in Chinese).
[4] HAKAN Y.,KHALED M. Experimental Study on
the Bond Strength of Different Geometries [13] GB/50152-2012. Standard for Test Method
of Corroded and Uncorroded Reinforcement of Concrete Structure. Beijing: China
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(in Chinese).
[5] LIU H.Y., ZHANG J.S., and MENG F., ZHOU
Z.X. Effects of Main Bars Corrosion on the [14] ASTM, Standard Practice for Preparing,
Bearing Behaviour of Reinforced Concrete Cleaning, and Evaluating Corrosion Test
Specimens. ASTM PA: West Conshohocken.
2011.
969
Fatigue Performance of Pre-Corroded Bridge Wires
Chao JIANG Chong WU Xu JIANG

Research Student Professor Lecturer
Tongji University Tongji University Tongji University
Shanghai, China Shanghai, China Shanghai, China
jcjiangchao@hotmail.com cwu@tongji.edu.cn jiangxu@tongji.edu.cn
Summary
Corroded high-strength bridge wires on three corrosion levels were produced from the accelerated
corrosion experiment. The uniform corrosion depth was calculated and the zinc coating was totally
consumed for all the specimens. Three-dimensional (3D) profile measurements of the wires without
destruction were conducted after the corrosion products were removed by the chemical cleaning.
Based on the 3D coordinates of the points on the surface, it was found that the pitting depth
followed the normal distribution. The corrosion depth contours and the maximum pitting depth of
each specimen were also obtained from the data.
Fatigue tests were conducted to investigate the fatigue properties of the corroded wire specimens
and significant decrease in fatigue life of corroded wires was observed. A modified fatigue crack
growth model considering the fatigue threshold was used for fatigue life prediction of the wire
specimens. The material constants used in the model were fitted according to the most relevant
tests. The results showed that fatigue lives predicted by the model were compared well against the
experimental results as the largest error of the life predictions is within 36% of the experimental
lives. The life prediction method based on the model and 3D profile is a valuable tool for assessing
remaining fatigue life of corroded bridge wires without destruction and expensive fatigue tests.
Keywords: Fatigue performance; Bridge wires; corrosion; 3D profile; Fatigue life prediction
1. Introduction
Stay cables, which serve as a major structural component in the long-span bridges, are extremely
vulnerable to the environmental corrosion. In recent 20 years, more than fifteen bridges have
replaced the cables in China due to the severe corrosion[1]. The high-strength bridge wires that
make up the cable start to deteriorate when the cable corrosion occurs[2]. In order to evaluate the
operation life of corroded stay cables, the degradation of the mechanical properties of the bridge
wires should be researched on.
In the past decades, the static properties of corroded wires have been widely studied. The static
properties, including elastic modulus, ultimate stress, ultimate strain, yield stress and yield strain,
are measured using corroded wire specimens by the uniaxial tensile test [3, 4] and the degradation
model is established [5]. However, the research on the fatigue properties of corroded wires is
limited compared with the static properties.
Nakamura and Suzumura investigated the fatigue strength of corroded galvanized steel wires and
the fatigue strength was found to decrease with the increase of the corrosion level [6]. A dramatic
degradation in fatigue life was also observed by Lan and the pit was considered to be the fatigue
initiation zone [7]. The fatigue tests are conducted by Zheng with two types of corroded wires and
the fatigue performance of wires made by artificial accelerate corrosion test was better than the
wires taken from the bridges [8]. The standard deviation of fatigue life was found to increase with
the pit size and the stress ratio had little impact on the fatigue life of corroded wires [9]. However,
the investigation of fatigue life prediction of corroded wires has been very insufficient.
In this study, corroded bridge wires on three corrosion levels were produced from the accelerated
corrosion experiment. 3D profile measurements of the wires without destruction were conducted
after the corrosion products are removed by cleaning. The distributions and characterizations of
pitting corrosion were obtained and then the fatigue tests were conducted with the wire specimens.
Finally, the fatigue life of corroded wires was predicted using the crack propagation model
970
combined with the 3D profile.
2. Experiment procedure
2.1 Preparation of wire specimens
The bridge wires were manufactured by Jiangsu Fasten Cable Co. (Jiangsu, China),which is one of
the biggest cable manufacturers in China. The wires were high-strength, galvanized and cold drawn
with a diameter of 7 mm. The chemical composition by weight of the bridge wires was 0.85-0.90%
carbon, 0.12-0.32 silicon and 0.60-0.90 manganese. The attached zinc mass was about 360 g/m2 and
the depth of zinc coating was 50 μm. The mechanical properties of the high-strength bridge wires
are obtained by the tensile test and the results are shown in Table 1.
Table 1: Mechanical properties of the high-strength bridge wires
Elasticity modulus/GPa Yield strength/MPa Tensile strength/MPa Elongation after fracture/%
200.5 1649 1835 5.5
The acetic acid salt spray test based on the standard ISO 9227:1990 [10] was conducted to obtain
the corroded bridge wires. The fog solution in the salt spray test chamber was consist of 50 ± 5 g/L
NaCl and was adjusted to pH 3.0 by acetic acid.The inner chamber temperature and humidity were
controlled at 50 ± 2 °C and 95%, respectively. Corroded wires on three corrosion levels were
produced and the following exposure time in the salt spray test chamber was 997, 1370, and 1712
hours, respectively. On each corrosion level, 4 steel wires with a length of 500 mm were used and a
total of 12 bridge wires were corroded in the accelerated corrosion experiments. The wire
specimens were wrapped with adhesive tape at the upper and bottom ends with a length of 100 mm
for the fatigue loading. Therefore, the corrosion length of wires was 300 mm. The appearances of
corroded wires (Corrosion Level 1, 2 and 3) are shown in Fig. 1. It can be seen that the zinc coating
were totally consumed after the severe corrosion and the ferrous rust was covered widely on the
specimen.
Fig. 1 Pre-corroded wire specimens

After the exposure period in the salt spray test chamber, the corrosion products of the wires were
removed at room temperature based on the standard ISO 8407:1991 [11]. The uniform corrosion
depth du was calculated by the following equation:
1 3
m
m0 -mk    mc1 (i)  mc 2 (i)
3 i 1
du = = (2)
 le D0  le D0
where m0 is the mass of the uncorroded wire; mk is the mass of the corroded wire after chemical
cleaning; ρ is the density of the steel; le=300 mm is the wire length of corrosion zone; D0=7 mm is
the diameter of the wire; mc1 and mc2 are the masses of the uncorroded wire before and after
chemical cleaning, respectively. Three uncorroded wire specimens are designed to calculate the
mass loss caused by the chemical cleaning. After the accelerated corrosion experiment, the wire
specimens are kept in the desiccator until the 3D scanning and fatigue tests.
2.2 3D profile measurements

In order to obtain the surface pit depth of the corroded wires, a noncontact OKIO-5M 3D profiler
manufactured by Beijing TenYoun 3D Technology Co. (Beijing, China) was used in the study. The
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vertical and horizontal resolutions were 5 μm and 40 μm, respectively. The surface profile was
measured along the circumference by rotating the specimen every 90º. It is noted that the 3D data
should be processed by software NX Imageware to obtain the 3D coordinates of every point on the
surface. 3D model provided by NX Imageware was shown in Fig. 2.
a Overall model b Local topography of the wire specimen

Fig. 2 3D model of the steel wires
2.3 Fatigue test

All the bridge wire specimens were tested according to GBT 17101-2008 [12] in laboratory air. The
temperature and humidity in the test room were 25 ± 3 °C and 60 ± 5 %, respectively. Fatigue
tests were conducted on a high frequency fatigue testing machine (PLG-200C) under a cyclic
sinusoidal load with a frequency of 80 Hz. The stress ratio R was 0.4 and the stress ranges were
selected to be 270, 360, 450 and 520 MPa. To prevent the wire fracture at the grips of fatigue testing
machine due to the stress concentration, two ends of the wire specimens were sandblasted and an
anchorage device was specially designed.
3. Test results
3.1 Uniform corrosion
The uniform corrosion depth du of wire specimens were calculated and the results are shown in
Table 2. The mean value of the uniform corrosion depth increases with the corrosion time and is
much larger than the depth of zinc coating, indicating that the zinc coating is totally consumed for
all the specimens. The variation coefficient decreases with the increase of exposure time because of
the little change in the standard deviation of the uniform corrosion depth.
Table 2: Statistical properties of the uniform corrosion depth
Exposure time/h Mean value/μm Standard deviation/μm Variation coefficient
997 196.93 6.39 0.032
1370 258.97 7.31 0.028
1712 296.38 7.35 0.025
The power function model of the uniform corrosion depth based on the data can be fitted through
the least square method by:
du (t )=1.009t 0.764 (3)
where t represents the exposure time of the wire specimen.
3.2 Pit corrosion

Based on the 3D coordinates of points, the corrosion depth contours were obtained and shown in
Fig. 4. Then the pitting depth of the wire specimens was analysed. The probability distribution of
pitting depth of wires is shown in Fig. 5. The K-S test did not reject the normal distribution function
for the data samples of pitting depth at a 95% significance level. The maximum pitting depth dpmax
of the wire specimens was also obtained from data of the pitting depth.
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Fig. 4: Corrosion depth contour of the wire specimen at 997 hours of exposure (unit : μm)
(m) (m) Exposure time 550 Exposure time


(m) 38.327 997h
202.604 997h
Probability density function
500
302.751 94.488 1370h 1370h
Stress range (MPa)

0.01 323.507 104.722 1712h 450 1712h
400
350
300
0.00
200 400 600 800 250
5 6
10 10
Pitting depth (m) Fatigue life
Fig. 5:Fitted normal distribution of the Fig. 6: Results of the fatigue test
pitting depth
3.3 Fatigue test results

Fig. 6 shows the S-N data of the corroded wire specimens. It can be seen that all the fatigue lives are
shorter than 2×106 cycles. The fatigue life decreases with the increase of the corrosion level.
According to GBT 17101-2008 [12], the fatigue life of new wires is required to be greater than 2 ×
106 cycles under the stress range of 360 MPa. The fatigue resistances of corroded wire specimens
drastically decreased and their fatigue life was less than 11% compared with the new wires.
4. Fatigue life prediction

4.1 Fatigue crack growth model
To investigate the effect of pit corrosion on the fatigue life of wire specimens, the fracture
mechanics approach for prediction is discussed as follows. The crack growth rate da/dN is
considered as a function of the stress intensity factor (SIF) range ΔK. It covers three different parts,
i.e. region I which is the threshold region, region II in which the crack grows in the flat mode and
region III near the fracture. According to the well-known Paris equation:
da
 C  K m (4)
dN
where C and m are the material constants. The Paris equation is widely used because of its
simplicity and accuracy in region II. However, Eq. (4) does not account for the asymptotic
behaviour in regions I. To overcome this problem, Donahue proposed a modified equation which is
valid at region I and II:
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da
 C   K -K th 
m
(5)
dN
where ΔKth is the crack growth threshold. The value of the threshold is expressed as a function of
stress ratio R and the ultimate strength σy of the steel [13]:
K th =6.42  1.87 R  1.6 103 y (6)
Therefore ΔKth=3.03 MPa m when R=0.4 and σy=1649 MPa. In order to obtain the material
constants of the equation, a review of existing experimental research is an important foundation for
the crack growth model. Results from the most relevant tests of high-strength steel wire are
presented in Fig. 7 [14-17]. As the stress ratio has little effect on the material constants of the steel
wire [14], C=1.396×10-10 and m=1.789 are fitted and then used in the crack growth model.
-6
10
-7
10
da/dN(m/cycle)
-8
10
[16],R=0.1
-9 [16],R=0.5 D
10 [16],R=0.8
-10 [14],R=0
10 [15],R=0
-11
[17],R=0
10 [17],R=0 a
-1 0 1 2
10 10 10 10

K  K th MPa m 
Fig. 7: Experimental results of fatigue crack growth rate Fig. 8: Crack on the steel wires
The SIF range ΔK can be calculated by:
K =Y   a (7)
where Y is the dimensionless SIF; a is the crack depth; Δσ is the stress range of the wire. The part-
through cracks of the wire usually have a typical semi-elliptical shape, which is shown in Fig.8.
Therefore, the corroded steel wires can be modelled as a cracked cylinder where the crack front is a
part of semi-elliptical shape. The dimensionless SIF of the crack fronts can then be expressed as
[18]:
1
1.84    a   a  2
   2 D  2 D  
tan /
   a  
3
a
Y=  0.752  2.02  0.37 1  sin     (8)
 a   D   2 D  
cos     
 2D 
where D is the diameter of the wire. For the corroded wire specimens, the uniform and pitting
corrosion should be considered in the analysis. Then D=D0-2du and a=dpmax-2du are used in the
fatigue crack growth model.
4.2 Model prediction

For each wire specimen, the obtained values including uniform corrosion depth, maximum pitting
depth and initial crack size are listed in Table 3. The predicted fatigue life for each specimen with
different corrosion status is also compared with the experimental life in the table.
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Table 3: Predicted fatigue lives based on the fatigue crack growth model
Initial crack size Stress range Error
Specimens du/μm dpmax/μm Experimental life Model prediction
a/μm D/mm /MPa /%
A-1 191.23 398.72 207.49 6.5955 520 73,560 94,292 28.2%
A-2 202.51 432.81 230.30 6.5690 450 123,274 124,649 1.1%
A-3 204.99 391.57 186.58 6.5780 360 230,367 246,287 6.9%
A-4 194.32 350.59 156.27 6.5874 270 1,072,495 689,572 -35.7%
B-1 251.47 607.67 356.20 6.4681 520 59,111 61,874 4.7%
B-2 257.53 479.56 222.03 6.4579 450 103,675 111,835 7.9%
B-3 268.14 604.61 336.47 6.4327 360 163,443 150,768 -7.8%
B-4 315.06 462.94 198.09 6.3519 270 586,464 456,418 -22.2%
C-1 306.81 643.58 336.77 6.3594 520 57,457 55,886 -2.7%
C-2 306.51 600.35 301.65 6.3680 450 83,697 86,558 3.4%
C-3 295.08 652.15 357.35 6.3928 360 159,810 136,878 -14.3%
C-4 286.5 503.49 216.99 6.3940 270 510,750 414,785 -18.8%
The results show that the predicted fatigue lives of the wire specimens change with increasing
corrosion level in the same regularity as the experimental results. The model predictions agree
favorably with the experimental lives and the largest error of the life predictions is within 36% of
the experimental lives. These results indicate that the fatigue crack growth model based on 3D
profile data can capture the corrosion effects on the fatigue life.
5. Conclusion
The corroded bridge wires on three corrosion levels were produced from acetic acid salt spray test.
3D profile measurements of the wires without destruction were conducted after the chemical
cleaning. The pitting depth was found to follow the normal distribution and the maximum pitting
depth of each specimen was obtained.
Fatigue tests were conducted to investigate the fatigue properties of the corroded wire specimens
and significant decrease in fatigue life of corroded wires was observed. A modified fatigue crack
growth model was used for fatigue life prediction and the material parameters used in the model
were fitted based on the relevant tests. Results showed that lives predicted by the model were
compared well against the experimental results.
6. Acknowledgement
This research is sponsored by Key Project of Chinese National Programs for Fundamental Research
and Development (973 Program, Grant No: 2013CB036303). This support is gratefully
acknowledged.
7. Reference
[1] WANG Li-li, YI Wei-jian. Cases Analysis on Cable Corrosion of Cable Stayed Bridges[J].
Central South Highway Engineering, 2007, 32(1): 93-98.
[2] STAHL F L, GAGNON C P. Cable Corrosion in Bridges and Other Structures: : Causes and
Solutions[J]. American Society of Civil Engineers, 1995, 18: 888-889.
[3] BETTI R, WEST A C, VERMAAS G, et al. Corrosion and Embrittlement in High-Strength
Wires of Suspension Bridge Cables[J]. Journal of Bridge Engineering, 2005, 10(2): 151-
162.
[4] NAKAMURA S, SUZUMURA K, TARUI T. Mechanical Properties and Remaining
Strength of Corroded Bridge Wires[J]. Structural Engineering International, 2004, 14(1):
50-54.
[5] LI S, XU Y, ZHU S, et al. Probabilistic Deterioration Model of High-Strength Steel Wires
and Its Application to Bridge Cables[J]. Structure & Infrastructure Engineering, 2014,
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11(9): 1-10.
[6] NAKAMURA S, SUZUMURA K. Experimental Study on Fatigue Strength of Corroded
Bridge Wires[J]. Journal of Bridge Engineering, 2013, 18(3): 200-209.
[7] LI H, LAN C M, JU Y, et al. Experimental and Numerical Study of the Fatigue Properties of
Corroded Parallel Wire Cables[J]. Journal of Bridge Engineering, 2012, 17(2): 211-220.
[8] ZHENG X L, XIE X, LI X Z, et al. Fatigue Fracture Surface Analysis and Fatigue Life
Estimation of Corroded Steel Wires[J]. China Journal of Highway & Transport, 2017,
30(4): 79-86.
[9] SUN Chuan-zhi . Assessment of Safety Capability and Fatigue Life of Corroded Cable for
Cable-supported Bridge [D]. Nanjing: Southeast University, 2013.
[10] ISO 9227:1990. Corrosion tests in artificial atmospheres—Salt spray tests [S]. Geneva,
1990.
[11] ISO 8407:1991. Corrosion of metals and alloys—Removal of corrosion products from
corrosion test specimens [S]. Geneva, 1991.
[12] GBT 17101-2008. Hot-dip galvanized steel wires for bridge cables [S].Beijing, 2008.
[13] ZHENG X, XIE X, LI X, et al. Estimation Model for Steel Wire Crack Propagation and Its
Application in Calculation of Pre-Corrosion Fatigue Life [J]. China Civil Engineering
Journal, 2017, 50(3): 101-107.
[14] TORIBIO J, MATOS J C, GONZÁLEZ B. Micro- and Macro-Approach to the Fatigue
Crack Growth in Progressively Drawn Pearlitic Steels at Different R -Ratios[J].
International Journal Of Fatigue, 2009, 31(11–12): 2014-2021.
[15] TORIBIO J, MATOS J C, GONZÁLEZ B. A Macro- and Micro-Approach to the
Anisotropic Fatigue Behaviour of Hot-Rolled and Cold-Drawn Pearlitic Steel[J].
Engineering Fracture Mechanics, 2014, 123: 70-76.
[16] LLORCA J, SANCHEZ-Galvez V. Fatigue Threshold Determination in High Strength Cold
Drawn Eutectoid Steel Wires[J]. Engineering Fracture Mechanics, 1987, 26(6): 869-882.
[17] SATO T, KATAGIRI K, KONNO K, et al. Fatigue Crack Propagation Characteristics in
Drawn Eutectoid Steels[J]. Transactions of the Japan Society of Mechanical Engineers Part
A, 1999, 65(638): 2092-2098.
[18] BSI 7910:1999. Guide on methods for assessing the acceptability of flaws in fusion welded
structures [S]. London; 1999.
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Bach Dang cable-stayed bridge – Underslung form traveller

Joakim Dupleix
VSL Technical Centre, Singapore
Contact: Joakim.dupleix@vsl.com
Abstract
The Bach Dang Bridge forms part of the Ha Long – Hai Phong Highway in Vietnam. It will help cut
50km from the journey between Hanoi and the Ha Long Bay UNESCO world heritage site. The focal
cable-stayed section of the bridge will consist of two main spans of 240 m. The tallest of the three
towers will reach a height of almost 100 m.
The construction technique used for the cable-stayed section is to cast 9.6 m-long and 28 m-wide
concrete segments in situ, using an underslung form traveller (FT) which is launched to the next
position once the segment is cast.
The FT has been designed by the Technical Centre of specialist contractor VSL. Its weight is
minimised by using the stay cable as a support at the front of the traveller. The stay cable is
connected to the FT by precasting the anchor block and securing it to the FT. This innovation was
previously, successfully used by VSL on the Ironton-Russell project in the USA. Besides, the
formwork system has been mechanised to be easily collapsed from one segment to the next.
This paper discusses the design of this innovative construction technique and how it was used on
this major bridge project in Vietnam.
Keywords: Stay cables; Bridge; Form-Traveller; construction engineering; Bridge equipment.
(FT) used for the construction of the cable-stayed

1 Introduction bridge spans. Prior to casting the wet concrete,
The Bach Dang Bridge, located near the portal city the FT is connected to the stay cables via a precast
of Hai Phong in northern Vietnam, is the anchor block to optimise the weight of the FT.
continuation of the Hanoi – Hai Phong Highway. In
order to cross the river and allow for large ships to
operate in the port of Hai Phong, the main bridge
is a 50-m tall cable-stayed structure with two main
spans of 240-m and back spans of 110-m. Shorter
approach spans connect the main bridge to the
existing highway on the Hai Phong side.
The bridge is a fully concrete cast in situ
segmental structure, with segments that are 9.6m
long. In addition to supplying and installing the Figure 1: Blueprint of the Bach Dang Bridge
stay cable system, specialist contractor VSL also
designed and supplied underslung Form Traveller
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2 Bridge specifications method. The underslung FT provides a movable,

self-launching platform and has a built-in
The bridge is symmetrical around the centre formwork system for the casting of the deck in
pylon. Figure 2 below shows an extract from the 9,6 m segments.
drawings of the main span cantilever.
Major operations involving the FT include:
o Rising / lowering the FT
o Launching the FT
o Preparation for typical segment casting
o Preparation for closure segment casting
o Back launching the FT for final dismantling
(if required)
2.2 Typical segment characteristics

The segments are made of two longitudinal edge
beams and two transverse cross beams. Each edge
beam is connected to the stay cable via an anchor
Figure 2: Typical main span cantilever block blister. All the stays are in the same vertical
The bridge has the following typical plane, eccentric from the centreline of the edge
characteristics: beam by 1,6 m. The stay angle from the horizontal
varies from 56° to 20° from segment 1 to 11.
Table 1. Bridge facts
The two rectangular full depth cross beams per
Description Units Data
segment support a 250 mm thick slab. Both cross
and edge beams are post-tensioned.
Main span length m 240
Back span length m 110
Segment weight T 460

No of segments per
- 11
cantilever
Deck width m 28
Deck depth
m 2,35
(centreline)
Overall deck crossfall % 0
Max deck gradient % 5

Figure 3: Half segment transverse section
Radius in plan - straight
2.1 Deck construction

The bridge pier table is supported on bearings on
the pylon as well as on the first pair of stay cables.
It was cast in situ on falsework supported on the
pile cap.
Figure 4: Segment longitudinal section
Thereafter, the bridge deck is constructed in situ,
using the balanced cantilever construction
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The segments are all identical with the following construction, and as modelled in 3D during the
exceptions: design office.
 Angle of the stay cables
 Longitudinal PT blister on the inside face
of the edge beam
The closure segment is 3.8 m long with a single
cross beam.
2.3 Stay cables

Stay cable units to be installed range from 6’25 to
6’80 strands. Stay lengths vary approximately
between 30 m and 125 m.
The stay cable stressing end (active end) is located
at the deck therefore, the stressing of the cables is
performed from the FT. Figure 5: FT rear view
Cable stays use the VSL SSI 2000e System built up

of individually anchored parallel strands which are
encapsulated in a continuous pipe system. The
system provides enhanced rotational capacity at
the anchorage, which improves the fatigue
resistance of the cable. Strands are installed and
stressed individually. Once the installation is
complete, equalisation is performed to adjust the
force in the cable stay and minimize the tension
scatter between strands.
3 Form traveller characteristics

3.1 Main geometry Figure 6: View of FT during bridge construction
The FT is a steel structure made up of two 3.2 FT weight figures

longitudinal rectangular trusses running below the
segment edge beams, and two transverse trusses  Total suspended weight: 175 tons
below each cross beam. The longitudinal trusses  Weight of equipment on the deck: 28 tons
are connected to an anchor block support frame,  Total FT weight: 203 tons or 43% of the
used to nail a precast concrete anchor block to the segment weight
FT to use the stay as a support. By using the
precast block, individual steel props can be placed 3.3 Mechanical items
between the block on the FT and the one from the During launching, the FT is hanging on either side
previous segment. at the front by hanger frame. The frames are
The FT is also equipped with a complete safe supported on a rail beam system tied down to the
working platform all around. An additional deck. The rail beams have smooth sliding surfaces
platform at a lower level is available for the at the top for forward movement.
formwork operation. The FT is equipped with hydraulic equipment to
Figures below show photos of the FT during trial be able to be launched to the next segment
assembly in the fabrication yard and during position. Key items include:
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 Hydraulic jacks to push the FT forward

sliding against the rail beam on the deck.
 Telescopic legs with rollers on the
concrete soffit surface.
Custom
Mechanical design steel
support roller
Balancing beam
Hydraulic jacks
for telescopic
movement
Support leg
Figure 8: Rear support leg with rollers

Figure 7: Modelling of rear support leg with rollers
Figure 9. 3D modelling of the FT – view from the top (rollers below deck hidden)
3.4 Formwork
The formwork also integrates horizontal props to
A collapsible formwork was chosen over having a
transfer the horizontal component of the stay
fixed formwork, because this allowed to reduce
cable force to the previous segment. The props
the lowering of the FT from 2 m to only 0.2 m
have hydraulic jacks with ringnut to be unloaded
before launching. Reducing this lowering
during stripping of the formwork.
operation is felt to be safer.
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These props can transfer the horizontal

component of the stay force to the permanent
structure which therefore does not have to be
transferred by the FT main structure. By using a
direct load path, the steel weight of the FT can be
optimised.
Figure 10: Extract of formworks kinematics Prop bearing

locations
Figure 12: 3D modelling of stay cable anchor block,

with tie down bars to FT
Once the shape of the blister was agreed, VSL
studied the load introduction into the concrete
from the horizontal props and calculated the
required additional reinforcement.
A full Finite Element Analysis (FEA) modelling of
the block was required, to confirm the initial
estimate from a strut and tie analysis. Indeed, the
horizontal component of the stay force is very
large and can be up to 5000 kN for the last
segments.
Figure 11: Raising of the formwork deck
4 Technical challenges
The original design of the bridge did not foresee in
a precast anchorage for the stay cables. The shape
of the stay anchor block was varying according to
the stay angle. In order to place the block on the
FT and to prop it against the previously erected
segment, the following modifications where
proposed:
- Create constant horizontal surfaces to Figure 13: Stress contours through anchor block
support the block vertically on the FT under prop loads
- Create bearing surfaces to transfer the As shown on Figure 13 above, significant tensile
horizontal load from the stay to the stresses developed on the inclined face of the
previously cast segment. blister, which required additional reinforcement.
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Figure 16: Work area on the FT with edge

protection
6 Conclusion
The design of an underslung form traveller for
Figure 14: FT in preparation for segment casting large concrete cable-stayed bridge construction
can be complex. The use the stay cable as a
5 Safety in design support to the FT to resist the wet concrete
weight allows the FT weight to be minimised and
The FT was designed in accordance with VSL high
favours the permanent work design. However, the
safety standards. VSL ensured that the operators
interaction between the FT and the concrete
have adequate access from the deck, and safe
structure is to be considered in detail: the loads
working platforms with proper edge protection. A
from the stay cable in temporary stage before the
significant amount of time was spent on their
full concrete structure is built can be quite large
design, and the final weight of the platform
and requires additional local studies of the
elements was approximately 7% of the FT
concrete stresses.
suspended weight.
Besides, it is important to design construction
equipment that meet the world’s highest safety
standards, with minimum risk associated with
their operation. This should be considered in
every temporary equipment design.
Figure 15: Example of safe access from the deck
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987
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989
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Study on A New Type of Deck Applied to Four-lines Railway Cable-

stayed Bridge with Wide Truss Stiffening Girder
Wangqing Wen, Zheng-chun Xia, Guo-zhao Qu
China Railway Fourth Investigation Design Institute Group Co. LTD, Wuhan, China
Zhou Shi
Jiong Liang
Central South University, Changsha, China
Abstract
A cable-stayed bridge, whose main span is 230 m, is a four-line railway steel truss bridge. It is the
first time to use only two main trusses in four-line railway truss bridge. In order to solve the
transfer problem of wide truss-deck system and the design of the horizontal deck-beam, auxiliary
longitudinal beams and horizontal K-bars are installed near lower chords of main truss. This is an
innovative deck system, and we need to research on the structure performance. In this paper, the
comparative analysis between the new type of deck system with horizontal K-bars and the
traditional deck system with multi-crossbeam were carried out by FEM which focus on the deck
structural characteristics, system stiffness, local deformation, etc. Also, in order to carry out the
model test, a scale segmental experimental model of deck structure with horizontal K-bars was
designed and manufactured. The FEM results show that: the bridge deck system with horizontal K-
shaped braces is better than the multi-crossbeam deck system in structural stiffness, local
deformation, participating rate of longitudinal force. And, the experimental results were in good
agreement with the results of FEM analysis, which verified the correctness of FEM results and the
rationality of design. The working condition of the bridge is good since opened on December 26,
2014.
Keywords: four-lines railway bridge; double truss, deck system, level K-bar, load transmission
path, performance.
as arch bridges, cable-stayed bridges and

1 Introduction suspension bridges. The stiffening beam of above
Large span of four-line railway bridges, which have four-line railway bridges is mostly three pieces of
been operating or being constructing, are not steel truss or two pieces of steel truss with middle
much, but there are varieties of bridge types, such hanger. The Tian-xing-zhou Yangtze-river Bridge in
the Wu-guang high-speed railway, whose main
991
span is 504m, is a typical project of four-line 2 Engineering background

railway bridges. The stiffening beam of Tian-xing-
zhou Bridge consists of three pieces of steel truss The Guiguang railway is a high-speed rail line
(see Figure 1). between Guiyang city and Guangzhou city, and
the design speed is 300km/h. The Nanguang
Use three main truss or two main truss with railway is another high-speed rail line between
middle hanger, which have the following Nanning city and Guangzhou city, and the design
disadvantages: (1) It is difficult to determine the speed is 250km/h. The Guiguang railway and the
load distribution ratio of the middle truss among Nanguang railway have been merged into a four-
three pieces of truss. (2) The line spacing line railway when crossing the Sixianjiao river by
increased caused by the middle truss or hanger, the Sixianjiao bridge.
which led to rise the amount of approach bridge
engineering. (3) The view is not opening if you are The Sixianjiao bridge, whose span is (58.5 +109.25
on a train passing the bridge. (4) It is not +230 +109.25 +58.5) m, is a steel struss cable-
conducive to the maintenance of big machinery. stayed bridge with two towers.
Figure 3. Elevation drawing of Sixianjiao bridge

There are two pieces of main trusses. Correspond
Figure 1. Three pieces of main trusses to the main trusses, the Sixianjiao bridge has
Can only two pieces of steel truss with no middle double faces of cable. The wide of two pieces of
hanger be used to four-line railway bridge? To truss is 24m, the high of truss is 14m, and the
realize the above ideas, the design of bridge deck distance between adjacent node is 11.5m. First-
system that is suitable for wide struss is one of the side span has five internodes, second-side span
key technologies. has 9.5 internodes, mid-span has twenty
internodes, and the bridge has 49 internodes in
The Sixianjiao river bridge is a four-line railway total. In the middle 39 intersections are
truss cable-stayed bridge, which is a new orthotropic steel bridge panels, and others are
construction bridge working for Guiguang- steel-concrete composite bridge panel. The cable-
nanguang railway. In order to use only two steel tower is H form.
trusses on the Sixianjiao bridge, this paper
research a new deck support system with
horizontal K-bars based on theoretical analysis,
FEM calculation and model test.
Figure 4. Cross-section of Sixianjiao bridge
Figure 2. Two pieces of main trusses
992
Figure 7. A detail picture of K-bar deck
3 Study on the structural

characteristics and transmission
mechanism of bridge deck system
with horizontal K-bars
Figure 5. A picture of Sixianjiao Bridge In order to study the structural characteristics
and transmission mechanism of deck system
For the first time, only two main trusses with with horizontal K-bars, the closely spaced
no mid-hanger is used in four-line railway transverse beams deck is referred to as A1
truss bridge at Sixianjiao bridge. In order to scheme and the horizontal K-bar deck as A2
suit for wide struss, a new deck with K-bar is scheme.
designed at Sixianjiao bridge, which has
following advantages: 3.1 A1 scheme and A2 scheme
(1) The longitudinal force of deck is
3.1.1 Plane layout
transmitted timely to main truss nodes
through K-bars, which reduces the outer In A1 scheme, the wide of two pieces of truss is
bending moment of transverse beams. 24m, and the distance between adjacent nodes of
lower chord is 11.5m, the transverse beam is
(2) Most of the vertical load of the deck is arranged at the bottom chord node, three
transmitted to the end of transverse beam, transverse ribs are arranged between the two
which reduces the in-plane bending moment adjacent nodes with space interval of (2.8 + 2.95 +
of the transverse beam effectively. 2.95 + 2.8) m, both ends of the transverse ribs are
connected with the lower chord of the main truss.
(3) The deck and the lower chord of main This scheme does not set the auxiliary longitudinal
truss can be separated, and the lower chord is beam. Except for the transverse beam at nodes of
only affected by the axial force, which lower chord, there are three transverse ribs
improves the performance of main truss, between every two transverse beams, and these
while reducing the span of transverse ribs of transverse ribs are connected directly to the lower
the deck. chord. See Figure 8.
Centerline of deck
Figure 6. The structure of K-bar deck

Figure 8. The structure of A1 scheme
Transverse
The difference between A2 and A1 is that the
bracing-bar
auxiliary longitudinal beam and the K-bar are set
Web member
K-bar up in A2 scheme, and the space between the
Lower chord
auxiliary longitudinal beam and the lower chord is
2.45m. In A2 scheme, both ends of the transverse
ribs are connected to the auxiliary longitudinal
Auxiliary
beam, instead of connecting to the lower chord in
Node of main truss Transverse
K-bar longitudinal beam
beam A1 scheme. The end of two transverse ribs closed
993
to the transverse beam are connected to the R1, R2— the force transferring ratio of P1 and P2;
nodes of lower chord by K-bars, see Figure 6. R2a, R2b— the force transferring ratio of P2a and
P2b within P2.
3.1.2 Load transmission path
Take the steel-concrete composite deck on the
In A1 scheme, The bridge deck load is finally
left 9 internodes as the study object. In order to
transmitted to the lower chord node through the
study easy, only the secondary dead load is
following two paths: Path one (P1): It is
applied on the deck, and the comparison of deck
transmitted to the transverse beam througt the
load transfer ratio of A1 and A2 schemes are
deck slab and the longitudinal rib of the deck slab,
shown in following table.
then transmitted to the lower chord node via the
ends of transverse beam. Path two (P2): It goes Table 1. Load transfer ratio of A1 (%)
through the bridge deck and the lower Load transfer path
longitudinal rib, then through the transverse rib to Internode
P1 P2
the lower chord, and arrival to the lower chord
1 48.13 51.87
node at last.
2 40.65 59.35
3 40.81 59.19
4 40.16 59.84
5 38.88 61.12
Figure 9. Load transmission path of A1 scheme 6 38.58 61.42

7 39.38 60.62
A2 scheme is also divided into two paths: Path one
8 39.98 60.02
(P1): is the same as A1 scheme. Path two (P2): It
9 43.81 56.19
goes to the auxiliary longitudinal beam instead of
the lower chord, and then arrival to the lower
chord node though two branches, one (P2a) is
transverse beam, another (P2b) is horizontal K-bar. Table 2. Load transfer ratio of A2 (%)
Deck load P2 load
Internode transfer path transfer branch
P1 P2 P2a P2b
1 38.61 61.39 60.64 0.75
Figure 10. Load transmission path of A2 scheme
2 31.6 68.4 67.63 0.77
3 33.29 66.71 65.96 0.75
3.2 Vertical load transmission mechanism
4 34.7 65.3 64.59 0.71
For ease of study, the load transferring ratio is 5 31.72 68.28 68.11 0.17
defined as the ratio of the deck load transmitted
6 31.62 68.38 67.87 0.51
through a path within an internodes to the total
7 34.82 65.18 64.5 0.68
deck load and is designated by R. The sum of
8 32.68 67.32 66.6 0.72
transmission ratio of path 1 and path 2 is equal to
1. 9 35.86 64.14 63.38 0.76
Through above comparison, it can be seen that

𝑅1 = ∑ 𝑟𝑑 = 1 − 𝑅2 (1) the transverse ribs and the auxiliary longitudinal
beam in A2 scheme bare more vertical load of the
(2) deck, which improves the stress state of the
𝑅2 = ∑(𝑅2𝑎 +𝑅2𝑏 ) = 1 − 𝑅1
transverse beam at lower chord nodes.
994
3.3 Deck system and lower chord of main lower chord under static live load is shown in
truss function together Table 5.
In order to study how much the deck system Table 5. The local deformation of lower chord
performed when functioned together with lower Scheme Internode 18 Internode 25
chord of main truss, the plane steel truss models
A1 0.525mm 1.510 mm
named A0 is set up, whose bearing total load
A2 0.073 mm 0.829 mm
equivalent to A1 and A2 is applied into the lower
(A1- A2)/ A1 86.10% 45.10%
chord node. Taking the four lines most adverse
live loads as an example, the contribution rates of In addition, it is be compared between A1 and A2
each deck to the lower chord axis force of the about the deck deformation, track irregularity,
main truss is shown in Table 3. short-wave, transverse-wave and the relative
Table 3. Load transfer ratio of A2 (%) deformation of the same track.
Deck scheme A1 A2 3.5 Comprehensive comparison of A1 and

A2 deck scheme
The participation of the deck (ρ) 55% 62%
Based on the above research results, conclusions
are following:
It can be seen from the results, under the live load
of four-line railway, the contribution of the bridge (1) The transverse ribs and auxiliary longitudinal
deck to the main truss lower chord enduring load beam support more load, which improve the
is quite considerable, and the extent of the stress state of the transverse beam at nodes. The
interaction of the A2 deck is better than that of A1, A2 scheme is better than A1 in terms of working
so that A2 scheme is superior to A1. together with the lower chord.
(2) The bridge integral stiffness of A2 is slightly
3.4 Study on the integral stiffness of bridge better than that of A1. About the local
and the local deformation of lower deformation of the deck, A2 is superior to A1.
chord
(3) For total bridge steel, A2 scheme is about 7.8%
Long wave effect refers to the waveform of the less than A1 scheme, and the economic benefits
lower chords when live load acting on the deck of are obvious.
bridge, and It reflects the integral vertical stiffness
of the bridge. The ratio of deflection to span w/L Therefore, compared with the A1 scheme, the A2
under static live load is an important parameter to scheme not only increases the bridge stiffness and
measure the vertical stiffness of the bridge, and local resistance to deformation of deck, but also
the detail is shown in Table 4. It can be seen the increases the working together degree of the deck
bridge integral stiffness of A2 is slightly larger than system with the lower chord.
that of A1.
4 Sectional model test of steel deck
Table 4. w/L under the static live load
with horizontal K-bars
The ratio of
Deflection
Scheme deflection to span
w (mm)
w/L 4.1 Design and production of test model
A0 246.84 1/932 The model has a total length of 6.151m and a total
A1 216.9 1/1060 width of 4.229m. Each internode length is 1.917m,
A2 212.63 1/1082 node transverse beam height is 0.416m, and
transverse rib height is 0.363m.
Taking the internode 18 and the internode 25 as
examples to study the stress and local
deformation of lower chord under the worst-case
live load. The maximum relative displacement of
995
(2) The constraint from transverse frame of main

truss affect the deck deformation, which can't be
ignored when dealing with test data. If the
restraint effect is ignored, the displacement of
bridge deck's centre of is about 28% larger than
that of the real bridge. When correcting this
restraint, the deck deformation got good match
with the real bridge.
Figure 11. The picture of test model manufacturing 5 Conclusions

In this paper, based on the newly built Sixianjiao
4.2 Simulation of Stay Cable and Vertical Bridge in the Gui-Guang Railway as a project
Load background, the contrastive analysis between the
Under action of the deck load, through simulation A1 deck scheme and the A2 deck scheme is
of the horizontal and vertical component of the carried out. Conclusions are following:
stay cable and the vertical load acting, the (1) Horizontal K-bars bridge deck system is an
corresponding test results are obtained. innovative bridge deck structure, which make
1-1 1-2 Lower chord 1-3 1-4 bridge deck longitudinal force transmitted to the
Auxiliary main truss node by node. This structure not only
longitudinal beam
increases the local stiffness of the deck, but also
Deck centerline
increases the working together degree of the deck
system with the main truss; not only optimize the
structure of bearing force, but also saves amount
Auxiliary of steel.
longitudinal beam
2-1 2-2 Lower chord 2-3 2-4 (2) The experimental results show that the
Note:"□" marks loading points when test
"○" marks the location of jacks. horizontal K-bars bridge deck system not only
"1-1"to"2-4" are the number of lower chord nodes
makes the overall bridge in excellent performance,
Figure 12. Layout of test loading points but also improve stress state and local
deformation of bridge deck. The design concept of
this deck are verified, and the structure is safe and
reliable.
Since Guangzhou railway opened on December 26,
2014, Sixianjiao Bridge has been in good working,
which means that the horizontal K-bars bridge
deck is safe and reliable.
References
Figure 13. Test picture after installed loading- [1] FANG Qin-han, GAO Zong-yu, LI Jia-wu.
beams Development Course and Prospect of Steel
Railway Bridges in China [J]. Journal of
The main conclusions of model test are: Architecture and Civil Engineering.
(1) There are errors between the finite element 2008,25(4):1-5.
analysis and the test results, but the rules of the [2] YAN Bin, DAI Gong-lian, ZHANG Hua-ping.
two are consistent, and both meet the code of Beam-track interaction of high-speed
design. railway bridge with ballast track[J].Journal
996
of Central South University of

Technology,2012,19(5): 1447-1453.
[3] GAO Zong-yu. Overall Design of WuHan
Tianxingzhou Chang-jiang River Rail-cum-
Road Brdige [J]. Bridge Construction,
2007,2007(1):5-9.
[4] XU Wei, Design of Steel Girder of Main
Bridge of WuHan Tianxingzhou Chang-jiang
River Rail-cum-Road Bridge [J]. Bridge
Construction, 2008,2008(1):4-7,22.
[5] HAN Yan-qun, SHI Zhao-feng, YE Mei-xin.
Routine and calculation of load transfer in
monolithic deck with multi-transversal
beams. Journal of Central South
university(Science and
Technology) ,2010,41(5):1993-1997.
[6] HAN Yan-qun, YE Mei-xin, LUO Shi-dong.
Study on the Load Transfer Routine in Truss
Bridges with Integral Decks [J]. Journal of
the China Railway Society,2008,30(1):65-69.
[7] LIAO Zu-jiang. Study on Bearing Capacity of
Steel Truss Cable - Stayed Bridge for Four-
lines High Speed Railway [J]. Journal of
Wuhan University of
Technology(Transportation Science &
Engineering), 2012, 36(2): 429-432.
[8] CHENG Bao-hui, JIA Ying-chun. Model Test
Study of Composite Railway Floor System of
Cable-Stayed Bridge of Tianxingzhou
Bridge[J]. Bridge Construction,
2009,2009(supplement2):50-54.
997
Behavior of Reinforced Concrete Panels by Impact of Hard Projectile

Chunghyeon Kim, Jae-Yeol Cho
Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea
Contact: jycho@snu.ac.kr
Abstract
As the scale of infrastructures enlarges, the level of damages for human life and property due to the
failure of structures keeps increasing, especially for nuclear power plants. Very severe damages can
occur due to internal failures of plants by local effect of penetration, perforation, and scabbing
developed by impact of projectiles at high velocity. Therefore, in order to prevent this severe
potential hazards, accurate prediction of damage level by local effects is very important. For this
accurate prediction, Impact experiment for structures is needed to evaluate accurately the behavior
of structures by impact. In this research, impact experiments of hard projectile for reinforced
concrete(RC) panels scaled from containment wall of nuclear power plant were performed. The
results of impact experiment are discussed to evaluate impact behavior.
Keywords: Impact loading; RC panels; Penetration depth; Hard projectile
generated by impact of the projectile. In this paper,

1 Introduction three empirical formulas of NDRC formula, Riera’s
For local effects design of containment wall of formula, and Forrestal’s formula are used to
nuclear power plant, guidance of ASME BPVC-2010 evaluate impact behavior for penetration because
suggests that concrete wall thickness shall be the three formulas are derived from each specific
designed for penetration depth limited to 75% of formula of penetration resistance force which acts
total concrete wall thickness. between projectile and concrete panel.
Therefore, in order to design protective concrete
structures accurately for the local effects, accurate
3 Impact Experiments
prediction of penetration depth must be needed. In
3.1 Design of RC Panel
this paper, impact experiments are performed and
impact behavior for penetration is evaluated by RC panels for impact experiment is designed by
using empirical formulas for prediction of impact scaling the containment wall of nuclear power
behavior. plant at ratio of 1:2.4 based on the wall thickness.
Dimension of RC panel is 2.1 × 2.1 × 0.5 m(W×L×
2 Empirical Formulas for Prediction H), compressive strength of concrete is 40.53 MPa,
of Impact Behavior spacing of SD400 rebar is 130 mm for horizontal
and vertical direction, and cover thickness of RC
To predict the impact behavior by local effects such
panel is 40 mm. Also, RC panels are designed for
as penetration depth and minimum wall thickness
projectile not to collide with rebar which means
required to prevent scabbing or perforation for
projectile passes through space between rebars.
concrete wall, many empirical formulas have been
developed. These formulas were developed
without considerations for effect of displaceement
998
3.2 Design of Hard Projectile

Projectile is designed by scaling schedule 40
pipe(Ø219.1 mm, thickness: 8.18 mm) considered
as tornado-borne debris missile. Dimension of
projectile is cylinder shape of Ø100 mm and 570
mm of length. Nose shape of projectile is blunt
shape having 100 mm of radius of curvature, and
Mass of projectile is 35.5 kg.
3.3 Result of Impact Experiments

Two impact experiments are performed for various
impact velocity. Result of impact experiments is
summarized in Table 1. Displacement in table 1 was
measured at the center of the opposite side of the Figure 1. Penetration behavior with time
impact of the panel.
Table 1. Result of impact experiments 5 Conclusions
Impact Penetration Maximum When compare the result of experiments with the
No. Velocity Depth Displacement impact behavior for penetration evaluated by the
[m/s] [mm] [mm] three empirical formulas, two empirical formulas of
1 123.86 118 - Riera’s and Forrestal’s formula show very good
agreement with experimental result of penetration
2 113.46 104 5.21 depth. Therefore, Riera’s and Forrestal’s formula
are recommended to predict impact behavior
4 Evaluation of Impact Behavior for within tested condition.
Penetration
6 Acknowledgements
For experiment no.2, the maximum displacement
is measured at 5.21 mm which is only 5% of the This work was supported by the Infrastructure and
penetration depth. This means that empirical Transportation Technology Advancement Research
formulas can be used for the result of experiments Program funded by the Ministry of Land,
because effect of the global behavior can be Infrastructure and Transport of Korean
neglected. Then, the impact behavior for government [grant number 18CTAP-C129906-02]
penetration with time is evaluated in Figure 1. and the BK21 PLUS research program of the
National Research Foundation of Korea.
7 References
[1] BPVC, ASME. "ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel
Code." The American Society of Mechanical
Engineers, Three Park Ave., New York, NY
(2010).
[2] Li, Q. M., et al. "Local impact effects of hard
missiles on concrete targets." International
Journal of impact engineering 32.1-4 (2005):
224-284.
999
Air-coupled Nonlinear Ultrasonic Test for Reinforced Concrete Beams

Jason Maximino C. Ongpeng
Kenneth Guevarra
Sohichi Hirose
Tokyo Institute of Technology, Tokyo, Japan
Contact: jason.ongpeng@dlsu.edu.ph
Abstract
Air-coupled ultrasonic test is a non-destructive test method for investigating damage in material. In
this paper, reinforced concrete beams with one 8-mm diameter rounded bar were casted and tested
under four-point bending test with water-cement ratio of 40% and 60%. The transducers were
placed and focused on the horizontal surface with induced 3mm notch at the midpoint where
maximum tension occurred and crack formation was located. Frequency domain waveform was
used specifically to analyze second harmonic generation (SHG). There were two metrics used under
the SHG, these were: second harmonic amplitude (SHA) and second harmonic ratio (SHR). The SHR
proved to be consistent for both water-cement ratio and it behaved increasing as damage in tension
increases.
Keywords: Air-coupled; ultrasonic; non-destructive; concrete
of the structure over time (b) new structural codes
1 Introduction have been established, (c) visual inspection of a
Since most of the structures that are constructed technical personnel that requires immediate action
today are made of concrete, it is essential that there (cracks, bending, etc.) and different strength
is a reliable method for testing the quality of assessment of cylindrical concrete specimens and
concrete. For effective maintenance and their actual building strength [2]. Often than not,
management of concrete structures, it is necessary most of the existing structures that are tested are
to know the level of current damage. Understanding accessible from only one side and cannot be
the importance of the behavior of ageing and destructively tested [3]. In the recent years, there is
renovated structures for evaluating the ultimate a growing need of assessing the structural health of
strength is crucial for the maintenance of existing existing structures that are affected by calamities [4].
structures [1].
The use of non-destructive test (NDT) faces
One of the major challenges that civil engineers face sensitivity problems in its physical characteristics and
is finding the strength of existing structures. These provides unwanted results described as noises. In the
assessments come in different sources: (a) Damage case of Reinforced Concrete (RC) Beams, which is a
critical part of a structure, faces different problems
1000
over time (ageing of concrete, natural calamities, and Photos of the actual testing were recorded after
human intervention). There have been many the experimentation. Concrete and rebar details
presentations on wide spread studies concerning are shown in Figure 1.
NDT for concrete testing and evaluation. It must also
be able to produce evaluations of concrete that are
realistic in numbers therefore statistical comparisons
are made with the existing and approved tests of
concrete strength to validate the reliability of the
tests. It is vital to use NDTs that are accurate, reliable, Figure 1. Front and side elevation of the reinforced
gives real time information of the existing structure concrete beam
[4].
Most common NDT used today are acoustic emission

[5], impact-echo, radar, sonic methods, acoustic 2.1 Test Set-up
tomography, and ultrasonic methods [6] [7] [8]. One After the mixing and curing preparations of the
thing to note on ultrasonic tests are they have beams are completed, the samples are set up on an
relatively low cost [9]. Along with the advancements inverted 4-point bending test to measure the
of technology, the use of NDT become more mechanical damage of the specimens during the
economical since it reduces the costs for the step loading as shown in Figure 2 and Figure 3. The
preparation of the samples. It also increases inverted setup was made for the air-coupled
opportunities in testing concrete wherein traditional ultrasonic sensors to be positioned at the top
destructive methods of concrete testing are not surface where tension occurred. It focused on the
possible thus enabling structures to perform its midpoint of the beam where a 3mm notch was
function even in harsh environments [10]. In placed before testing to make sure that the crack
addition, the use of air coupled ultrasonic testing is formation will be at the midpoint.
becoming a popular testing method for analyzing the
different characteristics of a material without having
any contact with the material. Air coupled ultrasonic
tests uses air as its coupling agent instead of a gel
couplant. Based on its analysis, characteristics on
different properties like wood materials, composite
materials in aerospace, metal parts, and concrete Beam
[11]. P/2 P/2
In this paper, the researchers studied the use of air-

coupled nonlinear ultrasonic test on reinforced
concrete beams on higher harmonics, specifically,
Oil Hydraulic Pump
the second harmonic generation (SHG). In addition,
three metrics were used to measure mechanical
damage. These were second harmonic amplitude
(SHA) and second harmonic ratio (SHR).
Figure 2. Inverted Setup for air-coupled ultrasonic
2 Experimental Procedures sensors
The materials used in this study are 8 reinforced
concrete beam specimens of size 100mm x 100mm
x 400mm having two different water cement ratios
of 40% and 60% and having a steel reinforcement
of 8mm. The were 4 beams of 40% water-cement
ratio and 4 beams of 60% water-cement ratio.
1001
Concrete is a complex material due to its non-

homogenous components. In a previous work, a
proposed SHG technique is developed to evaluate
nonlinear parameter and can be used to
characterize microstructural changes in cement-
based materials [13]. In this paper, frequency
domain waveform was used at the transducer’s
receiving end. The second harmonic generation or
2F shown in Figure 5 is used.
Figure 3. Step Loading Graph with L1, L2, and L3

Load Pattern
Three branches are categorized by the size of the
step load interval on the loading pattern on the
specimen: L1, L2, and L3. The branch L1 represents
five repeated loads from 0% to 20%, L2 having five
repeated loads from 0% to 40%, and L3 having five
repeated loads from 0% to 60%. The time domain
waveform of the transducer’ receiving end was
recorded. Frequency domain waveform was
calculated using MATLAB. The set-up of the
equipment is shown in Figure 4 where the Figure 5. Formation of Second Harmonics
specimen is placed in a step loading pattern.
Two metrics were used in the analysis of

mechanical damage according to branches L1, L2,
and L3. These were SHA and SHR.
In addition, SHR was used as the second metric to
characterize damage in this study. An increase in
signature of nonlinearity is associated to damage
increase, hence the objective of this metric was to
extract the signature of the nonlinearity from the
elastic response to characterize damage. The
relation between the first and second harmonic
amplitude for nonlinear elastic waves in an
Figure 4. Inverted 4-point loading test isotropic material is defined in (1) [14].
2.2 Second Harmonic Generation (SHG)
A2 = -A12 k2 a β (1)
The study of acoustic and wave propagation has
been relevant in NDT. It is to characterize materials 8α
with and without defects. It produces a difference
in signal between the receiver’s transducers from Where A1 = amplitude of the fundamental wave; A2
undamaged and damaged conditions. Time domain = amplitude of the second harmonic wave; k = wave
and frequency domain is important in the analysis number; a = distance measured from the
of materials using ultrasonic test. Some researches generating transducer to the instantaneous
on the sensitivity of NDT on stress evaluation of position of the fundamental wave in a solid
structural concrete uses nonlinear acoustic waves medium; α = function of Lame constants; β =
[12]. acoustic nonlinearity parameter. The SHR used in
this study is defined as the quotient of A2 and A12
1002
and it can be a good estimate of the acoustic In this paper, air-coupled ultrasonic test was made
nonlinearity parameter β. It is also considered that and frequency domain waveforms was used were
the second harmonic generation is related to the values of SHA and SHR for each loading branch L1,
square of the fundamental harmonic generation [7, L2, L3 were taken. In each loading branch, boxplot
10]. and whiskers were noted to show the trend of the
metrics to each increasing load branch.
3 Discussion of Results From studies, the behavior of SHA decreases as
Few studies have been conducted on the analysis damage increases [6] [8]. In this case shown in
of contact-type ultrasonic test on tension side of Figure 6, WC60 shows evident reduction in SHA
reinforced concrete structures. Relevant study showing increase in damage consistently for L1, L2,
showed that using indirect placement of and L3. On the other hand, WC40 did not show this
transducers on tension side of a beam, loaded with behavior.
4-point bending test, had a significant progressive In Figure 7, SHR was plotted against load. The SHR
reduction of amplitude in time domain waveform is the ratio between the second harmonic
on tension face from zero load to initial structural amplitude to the square of the fundamental
crack right up to the bars. The tension and amplitude. In theory, an increase in SHR is
compression side were then compared to show associated with an increase in damage. It showed
significant differences in monitoring damage that WC40 had significant increase of SHR against
according to load deflection curve [15]. In addition, increase in loading branches.
limited studies are available in using air-coupled
ultrasonic focused on tension side relating
frequency domain waveform to damage in
reinforced concrete.
Figure6. Second Harmonic Amplitude (SHA) of WC40 and WC60 on L1, L2 , and L3 Loading Branch
1003
Figure 7. Second Harmonic Ratio (SHR) of WC40 and WC60 on L1, L2, and L3 Loading Branch
[3] Schabowcz, K. Ultrasonic tomography - the
4 Conclusions latest nondestructive technique for testing
Air-coupled ultrasonic test provides an economical concrete members - Description, test
and reliable method for analyzing damage in methodology, application example. Archives
materials. The use of second order higher of Civil and Mechanical Engineering 14 (2014),
harmonics in understanding the level of damage on 295-303.
concrete is a good way of identifying the damages. [4] Bilgehan, M., & Turgut, P. The use of neural
It was found out that second harmonic ratio (SHR) networks in concrete compressive strength
increases when damage in tension surface estimation. Computers and Concrete (2010),
increases. It was also more consistent compared to 271-283.
second harmonic amplitude (SHA). Additional
[5] Ongpeng, J.M., Oreta,A.W., and Hirose, S.
experimental data is encouraged in future studies
Damage progression in concrete using
to have more reliable and statistically reliable
acoustic emission test through convex hull
analyses.
visualization. ACI Materials, 113 (6): (2016)
737-744, doi: 10.14359/51689238.
5 References [6] Ongpeng, J.M., Oreta,A.W., Hirose,S. and
[1] Shi, Z., Nakano, M., Tanaka, H., & Takahashi, Y. Nakahata,K. Nonlinear ultrasonic investigation
A separate method for evaluating the ultimate of concrete with varying aggregate size under
load-carrying capacity of aging and renovated uniaxial compression loading and unloading.
sewage structures. Construction and Building Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, 29(2),
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new perspective by combining NDT methods. Artificial Neural Network Model using
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[8] Ongpeng, J.M., Oreta,A.W., and Hirose, S. Effect
of Load Pattern in the Generation of Higher
Harmonic Amplitude in Concrete using
Nonlinear Ultrasonic Test. Journal of
Advanced Concrete Technology, 14, (2016),
205-214.
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and sensitivity of linear and non-linear
ultrasonics to identifying micro- and macro-
scale defects in concrete. Materials and
Design 50 (2013) 905-916.
[10] Elshafey, A. A., Dawood, N., Marzouk , H., &
Haddara, M. Crack width in concrete using
artificial neural networks. Engineering
Structures 52 (2013)., 676-686.4
[11] Fang, Y., Lujun, L., Hailin, F.,Zhixiong, L., Grant,
E. Review of the use of air-coupled ultrasonic
technologies for nondestructive testing of
wood and wood products. Computers and
Electronics in Agriculture 137 (2017)., 79-87
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for Rocks and Structural Concrete Members
through Ultrasonic Wave Analysis: Review.
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29(10), (2017), doi: 10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-
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[13] Kim, G., In, C.W., Kim, J.Y., Kurtis, K.E., Jacobs,
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1005
DESIGN & POST TENSIONING APPLICATION OF CEMENT SILOS

Lefteris Chrysos
Chief Structural Engineer - LC Consulting, Athens, GREECE
Sotos Raptopoulos
CEO - HiSCS S.A., Athens, GREECE
Contact: lchrisos@otenet.gr, info@hiscs.gr
Abstract
The design & erection of two (2) cement silos for a cement grinding plant is a demanding study requiring
engineering competence and high level of efficiency and maintainability. Optimal operating conditions must
foresee from the design stage assuring a high quality and a silo-safe cement.
Keywords: Cement, silo, post-tensioning (PT), anchorages, buttresses, prestressing, hopper.
1 Introduction
The project is located in the State of Kuwait (Figure
1) and is under an advanced phase of construction
(expected to be accomplished by the end of 2017).
Figure 1. Location of the project

The cement plant consists of a two adjacent and
practically identical silos, each having an external
diameter of 16,8 m and a height of 60,43 m from
foundation level (56.33 m from the natural ground)
(Figure 2).
Figure 2. Foundation views
1006
The thickness of the silo wall is 40 cm above level The design concept adopted parameters within the
+15,469 and 67 cm below respectively. The hopper applicable standards and has been built in terms of
is conical between levels +15,469 and +25,677, it is economy and efficiency of the structure.
60 cm thick and has 8 orthogonal cement outlets.
There are various other openings (truck doors at 2 Design & Construction issues
ground level & personnel doors up to the hopper
level), ranging from 4,5 m x 5 m to 0,4 m x 1 m Due to the particularity of the design for the
(Figure 3). combined foundation (twin silo), the total vertical
load acting on the footing is to the order of 430.800
KN (case of both silos filled with cement including
footing and backfilling). Considering the limits of
the foundation plan area (Figure 4) and the
significant vertical loading, a thorough
geotechnical investigation and study took place so
as to specify the soil characteristics and the
capacity to bear such high pressure (> 350 kN/m2).
In order to be in the picture regarding the
significant vertical loading from both the silos
superstructure at top of footing, we may consider
an equivalent modelling of a conventional bridge of
1 Km in length and 15 m in width supported on one
pier only!
Figure 3. Various openings

Further to the roof slab, there are two other slabs
at levels +6.00 and +15.019, supporting the
necessary equipment for the operation of the silo.
According to geotechnical investigation, isolated
footing is suitable for foundation of the structure.
Due to the vicinity of both silos (only 4,2 m clear
distance) the foundation at level -4,00 consists of a
combined footing with overall plan area
dimensions 24 m x 41 m and a maximum thickness
of 1,7 m (Figure 1). Figure 4. Plan view of Silos & foundation
The total volume of structure is exceeding 5.400 Another critical factor was the serviceability effects
m3, while the reinforcing steel is to the order of of silos foundations settlements to the
1000 tons and prestressing steel about 51 tons. neighbouring facilities (plan control & substation
rooms, cement conveyors etc.) (Figure 5), mostly
due to the eccentric loading (case of one silo full of
1007
cement while the other empty) (Figure 6). The most The design has also considered that during
critical areas of the foundation are around the construction, several embedded items into the
corners of footing and the mid-section between concrete had to be foreseen such us supports for
the two silos. staircases, elevators, cables and other steel
elements with a tolerance quite tight for a prompt
assembly and installation. A construction guideline
has been issued so as to avoid any proximity of such
items with the PT tendon ducts jeopardizing their
integrity.
A special mix design of concrete due to severe
potentiality for sulphate & chloride attack
(exposure class S2 as per ACI-318) has been applied
defining minimum concrete strength fc’ > 4.500 psi.
In circular structures such as silos, buttresses are
used to anchor the tendons placed mirrored and
symmetrical along the silo axis (Figure 7).
Figure 5. Cement conveyor steel structure
Figure 7. PT tendons arrangement

Tendons are lapped at buttresses and the laps of
adjacent hoop tendons are staggered at adjacent
buttresses (Figure 8). By this way the PT design
allows uniform stresses to be developed around
the silo, along the height of the structure. The most
efficient PT design solution is calling for 380
number of tendons per silo, located in 95 different
elevations ranging from 0,3 m to 1,25 m intervals.
Each tendon consists of 4 strands and is stressed
from both sides. Anchorages are located in the
buttress having 2,42 m length (Figure 9).
Figure 6. Vertical section of twin Silos
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The circular profile of PT tendons provides an

inward acting force.
Figure 9. Typical buttress detail

Due to the geometric discontinuity at the ends of
buttresses, detailed study of reinforcement
adequacy has been occurred to avoid any cracking.
For the sake of construction time, the design

foresees the stressing of tendons upon erection
accomplishment of both silos. The 4 groups of
Figure 8. PT ducts overlapping at buttresses & tendons will be stressed symmetrically (mirrored
general arrangement profiles 1-2 & 3-4) starting from bottom to top and
from both ends, first one side stressing of all
tendons in the same group and then the other side
(Figure 10).
1009
Figure 12. Cutting of strands

The design was mainly in line with Eurocodes. Both
the superstructure of a single silo and the
combined foundation has been simulated by a 3-D
model using shell finite elements (Figure 13).
Figure 10. Stressing sequence
Conical hopper, internal slabs, roof slab, all
To avoid possibly tendons blockage during casting, openings and rest of superstructure details have
a full threading of ducts prior of casting took place. been modelled.
Considering also the long-time interval from strand
placement to stressing and grouting, the strands
overlength as well as the anchorages openings
have been protected and covered to avoid any
penetration of humidity inside the duct causing
strand corrosion (Figure 11).
Figure 11. Overlength protection

Strands were cut on the ground in proper length
considering the needed overlength for stressing
from both sides of tendon and installed in the ducts
by hand (Figure 12). This specific methodology has
been adopted so as to avoid the use of strand
threading machine located on the ground exposing
strand to filths and dust during threading.
Figure 13. Software simulation
1010
The following general design parameters have -Theoretical elongation prior of wedge drawn-in:
been utilized: 158.8 mm + 27.2 mm = 185.4 mm
-Silo Actions acc. to EN1991-4 :2006
-Concrete: C40/50 (above foundation) & C35/45 -Dead & live loads from equipment, material &
(foundation) (acc. to EN 1992-1-1). personnel according to GA & OL design documents
by “FLSmidth”
-Steel reinforcement: ASTM A615 / Grade 60
(minimum yield strength =420 MPa) -Wind Actions acc. to EN1991-4 :2006 (peak wind
velocity vb = 45m/sec)
-Prestressing steel: ASTM A416, Grade 270, 15,2
mm/140 mm2 (Breaking strength 1860 MPa) -Thermal Actions acc. to design by “FLSmidth” (EN
1991-1-5, annex D & EN1991-4, §5.6.2 have also
-PT tendons: LMK PT system type stressing LMK S4-
been applied)
M15 (Figure 14)
-Seismic Actions. According to the Geotechnical
-PT ducts: Galvanized corrugated steel Φ50/55 mm
Report, the Seismic Zone is 1 (Z=0.075) and Soil
-Applied stressing force per tendon: 792 KN Profile Type is Sc, referring to UBC-97. A dynamic
seismic analysis was performed and the 1st
-Remaining stressing force at each end
eigenperiod was found to be 0,9 sec
immediately after stressing and wedge drawn-in:
668.5 KN -Loading Combinations acc. to EN 1990 and EN
1991-4
-Long term prestress losses: about 12% of the
stressing force -Concrete design acc. to EN-1992-1-1
-Theoretical tendon length: 28.31 m
Figure 14. LMK Bearing Plates
1011
3 Conclusions
The silo as a structure requires a complicated and
unique approach in terms of design and
construction.
The application of PT is also a demanding process
requiring inventiveness and engineering
judgement especially in case of stressing and
grouting (use of lifting cranes, drop of grouting
pressure due to extreme elevation etc.)
4 Acknowledgements - References
-Lefteris Chrysos, Chief Structural Engineer (HiSCS
structural design of silos)
-FLSmidth, General Arrangement Design
-LMK PT system, design & submittals
-Gulf Inspection International Co., “Factual &
Interpretive Geotechnical Report - Soil
Investigation Works for Alghanim Cement Grinding
Factory”
-Vladimir Bauer (Technical Manager ALGHANIM
Int’l), Hassan M.Elhadidi (Operations Manager
ALGHANIM Int’l), Ahmed Eissa (Execute Manager
ALGHANIM Int’l))
-Ahmad Khalil Al-Hawi (LMK PT projects Manager),
Feras Emad Selwadi (LMK PT site Engineer-
specialist)
-Ms. Pepie Palasantza, Dionysios Alivizatos
(Structural Engineers HiSCS)
1012
Structural Planning for Tall Damped Building

with Irregularly-Shaped Plan and Elevation
Taisei Morishita, Soichiro Kushima, Yasuhiko Yamashita, Yuuichirou Okuno, Kazuto Nakahira
TAKENKA Corporation, Japan
Contact: morishita.taisei@takenaka.co.jp
Abstract
This paper introduces two distinctive means for use of a 189-meter-high damped structure
ensuring the safety against earthquake.
1. Realization of L-shaped elevational structure planning
The bottom and top of the tower have belt trusses and hat trusses respectively to restrain the
bending deformation. Furthermore, large-capacity oil dampers (damping force 6,000kN) are
installed in the middle part of the tower to restrain the higher-mode deformation.
2. Realization of L-shaped planar structure planning
We devised the means of matching the centers of gravity and rigidity by adjusting planar rigidity.
Moreover, viscous damping devices are located at the edges of the L-shaped plan, where torsional
deformation tends to be amplified. We call this system “Damping Tail” system.
Keywords: “Damping Tail” system; high-capacity oil damper; hat truss and belt truss
low-rise (podium) section, and thus secured the

1 Introduction safety of a complicated shaped skyscraper in an
In recent years, skyscrapers with bizarre efficient way. This paper describes the details of
planar/elevational shapes have started to emerge the process.
worldwide. Demands for large-scale, complicated
shaped skyscrapers are on the increase in Japan
which has been hit by large-scale earthquakes
during recent years. On the other hand, these
types of buildings are likely to have larger
deformations and stresses caused by horizontal
Offices
loads due to an earthquake or strong wind than
regular-shaped buildings and therefore require a 189m
variety of considerations and cares in the Mechanical Room
designing process.
In this project in Osaka, we have focused
especially on two planning processes: the 54m
elevational structure planning of a high-rise

(tower) section, the planar structure planning of a Figure 1. Concept rendering of completed building
1013
2 Overview of Building viscous dampers. Figure 2 shows an illustration

overview of the structural planning.
This is a project to rebuild a skyscraper complex
which stands on the two sites across a road at the This building uses the following two major
center of the Osaka-Umeda Terminal, the West distinctive means in the structural planning to
Japan’s largest terminal, serving an average of realize the characteristic shapes in plan and
around 2.5 million people each day. We plan to elevation and ensure effective and reliable safety.
build a 189-meter-skyscraper in the north site and More details are described in Section 4 below.
a 54-meter-high tall building in the southeast site. 1) Use of belt/hat trusses and high-capacity oil
Figure 1 shows a concept rendering of a dampers to match the L-shaped elevation; and
completed building. In terms of the building scale,
the complex has 3 underground stories, 38 stories 2) Use of a “Damping Tail” system to match the L-
above ground and 2 penthouse levels, with a shaped plan having eccentricity of loading.
department store and a conference center in the
low- and mid-rise section and offices in the high- 4 Seismic Design Criteria
rise section.The building configuration is featured There are more and more social demands for and
by irregular shapes both in plan and in elevation. interest in ensuring a margin of structural
The building consists of an L-shaped plan vis-à-vis performance to prepare for an earthquake
the urban center area and an L-shaped elevation beyond the statutory level after the Great East
combining a commercial podium and an office Japan Earthquake in 2011. Table 1 shows the
tower. seismic design criteria for this building which have
been established as the result of our negotiations
3 Overview of Structure with the Client. We have performed validation of
This building is steel structured above the ground the Safety Level 3 as a measure against an
with steel and reinforced concrete structures at earthquake on a scale exceeding the statutory
the underground level. Additionally, it has a level of earthquakes. Besides, these criteria have a
damped structure to reduce shaking and structure margin of about 10% over the story drift angle
damages in an earthquake and serve as a criteria established for normal high-rise buildings
countermeasure against an earthquake on a scale in Japan to improve the performance of the
exceeding the statutory level of earthquakes. Two existing design criteria. Moreover, the member
types of damping devices are employed in this strengths specified in the members design criteria
building to provide adequate bearing force and are under the elastic limit strength against the
stiffness by installing hysteretic dampers and Level-2 earthquake motions in particularly critical
ensure redundancy by using both hysteretic and areas: the belt truss, hanging braces above roads
and overhead structures above roads.
1) Hat Truss
5 Structural Planning
2) Damping Tail system 5.1 Realization of L-shaped elevational
Above Road Zone structure planning of tower
1) Belt Truss This building has an L-shaped elevation, with an
L-shaped planand approximately 135-meter-tall tower (offices)
Hanging Brace and elevation erected on the top of a nearly 60-meter-high
podium accommodating a department store
Road
section. It is critical in structural planning to
prevention of the whipping and the torsional
deformation of the tower.
Rail Beam
Figure 2. Overview of structural planning
1014
In this project, the floor equipped with MEP restrain the higher-order mode deformations in
machines, located between the podium and the the middle part of the tower (Figure 5). They are
tower, serves as an 8-meter-high belt truss. high-capacity slim dampers with smaller
Besides, the top floor is provided with a hat truss diameters achieved by a new mechanism while
in the shorter-side north-south direction (Y) being arranged in the same way as the
(Figure 3). And moreover, the columns connected conventional parallel mechanism of three 2,000kN
to those outriggers are made of CFT (concrete dampers. We have developed the system because
filled tube, max. FC=80N/mm2) to improve the we often encounter difficulties in securing a space
vertical stiffness and thereby restrain the tower for installing dampers despite our desire to ensure
section’s bending deformation. The belt truss high-capacity damping force in design.
functions as a transfer truss that transforms the
east-west span (in the X-direction) which is 9.6 5.2 Realization of L-shaped planar
meters for the podium into a 6.4 meter span for structure planning of podium
the tower. The colonnade along the outer
The podium of this building is an L-shaped
perimeter of the tower increases the torsional
configuration measuring approximately 150 by
stiffness of the tower and reduces the torsional
150 meters in plan. Besides, there is a tower only
deformation (Figures 3 and 4).
on the north side, one of the sides of the L shape,
Furthermore, high-capacity oil dampers with a which yields a deviation between the centers of
damping force of 6,000kN [1] are installed to rigidity and gravity in the podium.
Table 1. Seismic design criteria and safety decision criteria in designing superstructure members
Level 1 Level 2 Level 3*1
Outline of earthquake motions - Rare. - Very rare.

- 1.5 times stronger than
- Recurrence interval: - Recurrence interval:
the Notification Level-2.
Approx. 50 year Approx. 500 years
Story drift angle 4.55×10-3 rad. (1/220) 9.09×10-3 rad. (1/110) 13.4×10-3 rad. (1/75)
Allowable stress for short-

Ductility factor of story 1.5 or less 3.0 or less
term loading, or less
Allowable stress for short- Less than ultimate Less than ultimate
Column
term loading, or less strength*2 strength*2
Super-structure

Girder Plastic hinges allowed Plastic hinges allowed

Brace Plastic hinges allowed Plastic hinges allowed
Belt Truss Allowable stress for Less than elastic limit Less than ultimate
Rail Beam
short-term loading, or less strength strength*2
Hanging-Brace
Connection floor τ < 0.38 × σB0.5 τ < 0.56 ×σB0.5 τ < 0.75 × σB0.5
τ: Shearing unit stress of slab (N/mm2)

σB: Specified design strength of concrete (N/mm2)
*1 Seismic Safety Margin Analysis Level
*2 Formation of plastic hinges is allowed in some of the members.
1015
Y
X1 X2 X2’ X1’
【 Hat Truss】
Y
[ViscousWall
Damper]
135m
【 Buckling
【CFT】【 High-Capasity
Restrained Brace】
Oil Damper】
3,000
189m
【 Viscous Wall Damper】

【Belt Truss】
2,000kN×3
X1-X1’ φ300
X2-X2’ Downsized
【Belt Truss】【Belt Truss】
54m
φ540 6,000kN
GL
▽
East-West Sectional North-Souch Sectional View

(X-direction) (Y-direction) Stimulus functions in Y-direction
Figure 4. Structural sectional views
6.4m 6.4m 6.4m In this project, we adjusted planar rigidity to
achieve balance between the tower and the
podium sections and match the centers of rigidity
and gravity. Specifically, highly-rigid, buckling
restrained braces are laid out throughout the
8m
tower, while the podium using a rigid-frame

CFT
(500N/mm2, FC80) structure becomes relatively less rigid than the
tower’s lower part (Figure 6). Moreover, viscous
9.6m
damping devices are intensively located mainly
9.6m
along two edges of the L-shaped plan of the
Figure 3. Detail of belt truss podium section where torsional deformation
tends to be amplified. We call this system
“Damping Tail” system, aiming to restrain the
podium section’s deformation and absorb the
seismic energy throughout the building at the
“tail-shaped” portion attached to the tower
(Figure 7). Table 2 shows a list of the damping
devices applied to this building.
In this building, it is important in structural
(4.40sec.) (1.83sec.) planning to firmly integrate the tower section and
Fisrt, Y-direction Second, Y-direction the podium section. On the two ends of their
connection installed are steel large-box-section
Figure 5. Natural modes of deformation beams called Rail Beams with the maximum
thickness of 80 mm and yield strength of 385
Consequently the building is prone to an increase
N/mm2 each to bear the bending moment and
in the torsional deformation of the whole podium
axial force applied to the connection (Figure 8).
when horizontal load is applied. It is critical to
restrain the deformation.
1016
Table 2. Damping devices applied to this building
Hysteretic Dampers Viscous Dampers
Buckling Restrained Brace Oil Damper Viscous Wall Damper
728 pcs.
Low yield steel braces having excellent deformation Oil in cylinders absorbs the shaking and Viscous wall between steel plates absorbs
performance absorb seismic enegy. impact on the building. the shaking and impact on the building.
Rigidity matching the weight of the tower area Seismic energy flexibly Absorbed Without Gibing
ensured before energy is absorbed. rigidity.
Tower The shear force applied to the connection is borne

Tightly connected
Department Store through Rail-Beams. by the slab (the maximum strength is FC=36
N/mm2). The shearing unit stress of the slab is set
so as to be lower than its cracking unit stress,
BOH Area
thereby ensuring the transmission of shear force
N through the slab.
N
Hysteretic dampers are Q
intensively located:
・ Buckling Restrained Brace
6 Study of Seismic Response Analysis
M
Viscous dampers are Department Results
Y
Y Store
intensively located:
・ Oil Damper BOH 6.1 Seismic response analysis model
X
X ・ Viscous Wall damper Area
This building consists of a podium L-shaped in plan
Figure 6. Layout of damping members in and a regular-shaped tower located at a biased
lower section of tower and in podium position above the podium. Therefore, it is critical
to grasp the building behaviors, considering the
effects of the podium’s eccentricity and torsion.
We have conducted a 3D seismic response
Body Tail analysis using a full model to evaluate them. The
full model contains as many as 53,000 mass
points, which requires a lot of calculation time.
Fourth mode, overall Thus we used an equivalent shear model on the
Viscous dampers intensively located along Our damping system operates in the
two outer edges of the podium section
efficiently absorb the seismic energy.
same way as an animal’s tail works
to keep its body from shaking.
11 blocks, into which the whole building is split, in
Figure 7. Overview of Damping Tail system the design development phase after confirming
the compatibility of the two models. Moreover,
1,000
Rail Beam the data of the 11 blocks were tallied in 3 areas
N
N according to the building configuration, the results
N of which were compiled. Figure 9 shows the
N equivalent shear model used for the seismic
400
response analysis.
Y N
Rail Beam Each of the blocks was provided with a mass point
X N
where the mass of the corresponding area was
Figure 8. Detail of Rail Beam joint concentrated. Besides, the horizontal rigidity of
1017
Area 1 Area 2 Area 3
the frame in each block was assessed using an Coupling Rod
equivalent shear plastic spring. The blocks were Tower

PH2FL
connected to one another by the elements having North
Center
the horizontal bending rigidity and shear rigidity in
……
East Podium
consideration of the thickness and minimum North Center
East
West
South13FL
width of the slab connecting one block to another. South

Atrium
12FL West
The earthquake motions were input on the
position of the third basement floor. The sway
springs and rocking springs in consideration of the 11FL
dynamic interaction between the structure and
……
the ground were set to the position of the third
basement floor. Concerning the internal viscous 2FL
damping of the building, the damping constant of
each building in the first mode was set to 2%, and
the ground’s damping was considered only for the 1FL
Rigid horizontal
rocking vibrations. Table 3 shows the natural diaphragm
Rigid horizontal
periods of a mass system model. diaphragm Rigid horizontal
diaphragm
B3FL
6.2 Input earthquake motions Rocking Spring
The input earthquake motions can be classified

into three types as shown below in Table 4: (1) Sway Spring
Y X
The earthquake motions provided for in the
Japanese laws and the standard earthquake
motions, (2) the earthquake motions beyond an
X-Direction Coupling Rod
expected level which are 1.5 times higher than the Shear Stiffness Axial Stiffness
Level-2 earthquake motion accelerations on Y-Direction
Shear Stiffness
Bending Stiffness
engineering bedrock and (3) the earthquake Shear Stiffness
(inplane)
motions in consideration of regionality such as X-Direction
Shear Stiffness
long-period earthquake motions (subduction Y-Direction
zone) [2,3] and epicentral earthquake motions. Shear Stiffness
Torsional Stiffness
Figure 10 shows the velocity response spectra of
（ Coupling Rod ）
the input earthquake motions. We discussed the
earthquake motions (2) and (3) above with the （ Shear Stiffness Model）
Rocking Spring
Client after March 11, 2011 (the date of the Great Frame
Sway Spring
East Japan Earthquake) and decided to apply them
to our analysis.
Shear Spring
6.3 Results of seismic response analysis of Oil Damper Hysteretic

Viscours Wall Damper
Level 2 damper ＜1F＞
Frame Area 1 Area 2
Figure 11 shows the results of the analysis of the
responses to the Level-2 earthquake motions, all
of which meet the design criteria established in Y Area 3
Section 4. These results indicate that the belt and
X
hat trusses exhibited effects in the Area -1, ＜B3～B1F＞
showing a reduction of the story drift angles at the

Figure 9. View of analysis model
10th and penthouse floor levels compared with
those at the other floor levels.
1018
Table 3. Natural periods (in seconds)
Entire mode order 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th
Equivalent
4.40 3.72 3.38 2.17 1.83 1.56
Natural shear model
period
(sec.)
Full model 4.33 3.60 3.38 2.08 1.65 1.47
Tower Tower Tower Podium Tower Tower

Predominant mode Torsion: First
Y: First X: First XY: First Y: 2nd X: 2nd
Table 4. Input earthquake motions for design purpose and seismic safety margin analysis
Level 1 Level 2 Level 3*

Vmax Amax Vmax Amax Vmax Amax
(mm/s) (mm/s2) (mm/s) (mm/s2) (mm/s) (mm/s2)
Elcentro 1940 NS (1) 250 2,555 500 5,110 －－
Standard
Waves
TAFT 1952 EW 250 2,485 500 4,970 －－

Hachinohe 1968 NS 250 1,669 500 3,338 －－
Notification Wave A 159 1,107 744 3,995 (2) 1,050 5,250
on Waves
Notificati
Notification Wave B 132 996 714 4,278 1,065 6,075

Notification Wave C 102 1,128 485 3,993 700 5,230
Tokai/Tonankai/Nankai
(3) －－ 304 1,916 －－
earthquake (average)
Regional Waves
Tokai/Tonankai/Nankai
－－－－ 494 2,956
earthquake (deviation)
Hyuga/Tokai/Tonankai/Nankai
－－－－ 430 2,313
earthquake (average)
Uemachi fault zone (UFZ) －－－－ 1,155 5,322
*Seismic Safety Margin Analysis Level
300 300
Sv(cm/s) Notification Wave C
Sv(cm/s)
250 Notification Wave B
250
TAFT 1952EW Notification Wave A
Notification Waves A Elcentro 1940NS 200
200 Notification Waves B
150 150
Hachinohe
1968NS
100 100
Uemachi fault zone(UFZ)
50 50
Notification Waves C Tokai/Tonankai/Nankai
earthquake(deviation)
0 0
Period(s) 0.10 Hyuga/Tokai/Tonankai/ Nankai 1.00 Period(s) 10.00
0.10 Tokai/Tonankai/Nankai 1.00 10.00
earthquake (average) earthquake(average)
Level 2 Level 3
Figure 10. Velocity response spectra
1019
Furthermore, installation of high-capacity

dampers has caused a mitigation of the higher-
order mode effects as demonstrated by the story
drift angle values at the 18th to 31st floor levels Criteria:1/110
which are not increased so much as those at the

other floor levels. We have also confirmed that
the responses to the Level-1 and Level-3
earthquake motions meet the design criteria.
Max. Story Drift Angle
1/136
7 Conclusion
The skyscraper irregularly-shaped both in plan and
in elevation has achieved the seismic performance Max. story drift angles (×10-3rad)
beyond the conventional design criteria by using
the following two distinctive means to ensure Criteria:1.5
safety in a reliable and effective way: 1) Framing
system and 2) installation of damping devices.
8 References
[1] Yamamoto, M., Minewaki, S., Nakahara, M.,
and Tsuyuki, Y. (2016): Concept and
performance testing of a high-capacity oil Max. Ductility factor
1.42
damper comprising multiple damper units.
Earthquake Engng Struct. Dyn., doi:
10.1002/eqe.2728.
[2] Shiomi, T., Yoshizawa, M., Onimaru, S. and Max. ductility factors
Tsukuni, S. (1998): Development of
structural analysis system considering non- Area 1 Area 2
linear behaviors of soil and structure,

Takenaka technical research report, No.54, Y Area 3
pp.1-8 (in Japanese). X
[3] Okawa, I., Saito, T., Satoh, T., Sato,

Kitamura, H., Torii, S., Tsuji, Y., Kitamura, Y., Figure 11. Results of response analysis of Level-2
Fujita, S., Sekiya, Y., Seki, M,. (2010): Study earthquake motions (Y Direction)
on the Safety Countermeasures for Super-
High-Rise Buildings etc. against the Long-
Period Earthquake Ground Motions,
Building Research Data, Building Research
Inst., Incorporated Administrative Agency,
No.127, pp.521-530.
1020
3D Non-Linear Model Describing the Behaviour of Peripheral High

Capacity Saw-Tooth Connectors Subjected to Compressive Load
Hussein Al-kroom
Technische Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
University of Jordan, Amman, Jordan
Volker Schmid, Andreas Reimer
Technische Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
Contact:hussein.al-kroom@mailbox.tu-berlin.de
Abstract
This contribution aims to demonstrate the behavior of a high capacity saw-tooth connectors fixed
at the edges of a slender reinforced concrete slab. The connectors are subjected to compressive
load and mainly designed to transfer shear forces into the slab either from steel truss or cable, as
in truss bridge or cable stayed bridge. A 3D finite element model is carried out in ANSYS
Workbench environment to simulate the specimen. The description of non-linear material
behavior is implemented by using an elastoplastic model. The material model is defined by
adopting Menetrey-Willam failure criterion and non-associated flow rule. Hardening / softening
law is obtained by using power hardening function and fracture based function. The model shows
a good agreement with the experimental force – displacement relation, with a discrepancy of 2-
5%.
Keywords:Composite structures, Failure behavior, Finite element method, Reinforced concrete,
Saw-tooth connector.
been developed to enhance the load capacity of
1 Introduction the connector and increase the ductility [3,4].
Composite steel-concrete structures become Later on, a development on the shape of the
widely used due its economy and durability. One perfobond connector is achieved [5,6]. The new
of the most important members in the composite connector’s shape, which is called Y-type
structures is the shear connector, where it perfobond rib, shows an increase of both bearing
transfers the forces between concrete and steel. resistance and displacement.
As a common type of shear connectors, shear Regarding the shortcomings of the
studs have been used immensely. Shear stud has conventional shear connectors, many researchers
been a topic of research for many years. Thus its have been working to develop a very high load
behavior is completely studied to give a full capacity saw-tooth connector at both the
description of its failure modes [1,2]. However, University of Stuttgart and then the Technical
the shear studs have many drawbacks like the University of Berlin. The saw-tooth connector was
difficulties in welding control and its fatigue described in 1989 by Schlaich and schäfer. The
problems. Therefore, many researchers have been description was based on the strut and tie model,
carrying out tests and studies for overcoming where the flow forces distributed around the
shear studs’ flaws. Perfobond rib connector has connector [7]. The connector was used in a
1021
Figure 1. Different approaches for the implemented force on the saw-tooth connector
pedestrian bridge to transfer the forces from the is carried out between the FE model and the
cables horizontally into the deck's bridge [8]. In experimental results. The FE model is used to
1999 in Stuttgart, Nesenbachtal bridge was built. extract more detail that was not obtained from
the connection between steel truss and the the tests such as shear stresses and minimum
reinforced concrete slab was erected by the saw- principal stresses along the connector.
tooth connector. Besides that, Schmid started his
research at Stuttgart University to find the 2 Experiment
optimum shape of the saw-tooth connector. He
designed strut and tie models that can describe Three specimens are produced to imitate the first
the flow forces around the connector in different use of the saw-tooth connector at the edges. The
positions. He concluded that the maximum load specimens are 1562 mm length, 700mm width
capacity of the connector could be obtained when with a thickness of 100mm. The connector has
the force is implemented with 45o [9]. Figure.1 one side of teeth in these tests, where it contents
demonstrated various approaches for the applied 18 teeth. The dimensions and the specimen's
forces and the corresponding dimensions. It is shape are shown in figure. 2. The force is
obvious that the height of the teeth should be half introduced to the connectors by two plates
of the distance between the teeth to acquire the welded to each. The specimen's test is designed
maximum load, where the centric distance is by the strut-tie method, which is illustrated in the
assumed to be 30 mm. appendix A1. The angles of the struts are between
20-65o. The distribution of the reinforcement
In 2012, Tandler carried out many tests on the mesh is demonstrated in the appendix A2.
saw-tooth connector to observe the influence of Transversal rebars are deployed to increase the
its inclination on the load capacity. The connectors stability of the connectors. The load is
were integrated into small concrete prisms with implemented on the connectors by an actuator of
different slopes [10]. According to the outcomes 5000 kN capacity. 38 strain gauges are allocated
of the tests, he deduced that the slope of the around the connectors and on both sides the of
connector neither affect the behavior of the the specimen. The load is implemented gradually
connector nor the strength of the concrete. up to 200-300 kN to make sure that the specimen
As part of an ongoing research project, which aims is balanced and to avoid any eccentricity. The
to examine the behavior of the saw-tooth balance of the specimen is controlled by the
connector at different positions with compressive strains' values at the bottom and the middle on
and tensile forces. This work presents a brief both sides. After that, the connectors are
description of the compressive test of the subjected to a 3 monotonic cyclic load with 500
connector fixed at the edge of the slab. 3D Finite kN each. The aim of that cyclic load to confirm
element model is conducted in ANSYS that full contact between the connectors and the
environment with the aid of multiPlas user concrete is achieved. Afterwards, the load is
material library[11]. A comprehensive comparison applied up to the failure. It is observed that the
1022
(a) (b)
Figure 2. (a) Preperation of the specimen test, (b) Specimen’s dimensions and the positions of the connectors (mm)
failure is governed by a concrete failure, where to (1600-1800)kN, then the force started to raise
the cracks initiated in the concrete at the lowest nonlinearly up to the failure. The nonlinear
teeth with 1000 kN. The cracks propagated later behavior, which is acquired from the force-
along the connectors as the load is increased up to displacement relationship, happens at the final
the failure. Table I shows the maximum forces and stage of the load.
displacements attained from the tests and the
As it is mentioned above the balance of the
deviations between each one of them with the
specimen and the eccentricity of the load are
mean value. It is clear that the differences
checked. However, a small eccentricity occurred
between the forces are insignificant, whereas the
at the final phase of the test. The eccentricity is
deviations of the displacements are considerable.
observed by the failure of the concrete, where
The high discrepancies can be referred to the
one side failed, whilst the other one was bearing
sudden release of the energy due to the brittle
the load. The failure formed as a wedge around
failure of the concrete in the front of the
the saw-tooth connector. The shape of the wedge
connectors. The force increased and transferred
represents the hardened concrete that moved
along the connectors almost in a linear manner up
Table 1. Maximum force- displacement values of the three tests and the differences with the mean value
Name
Maximum Force Maximum Displacement Deviation from Deviation from
(kN) (mm) the mean value the mean value
(Force) (Displacement)
Test 1C2 1988.6 1.78 2.8 % 32.8 %
Test 2C2 1894.2 1.25 2.1 % 6.7 %
Test 3C2 1921.8 1 0.7 % 25.3 %
AvgC2 1934.9 1.34 1.9 % 21.6 %
1023
with the connector and caused a splitting failure

mode at the final phase of the experiment.
3 Finite element model

Three-dimensional finite element model for a
quarter of the specimen is conducted to observe
the behavior of the concrete around the Middle
connector and to monitor the evolution of the plane of
stresses in the specimen. MultiPlas user material concrete
is adopted in this model [11]. The material is
defined by a Menetrey-Willam failure criterion,
where it is an advanced criterion with 3
parameters, that can capture the most behavior of
concrete. The power hardening function and the
fracture based function are deployed to obtain the
plastic behavior of the concrete. Two contacts
methods are chosen in this model. The first one is
face to face frictionless contact between the saw-
tooth connector and the concrete with an
augmented formulation. The other method is
bonded contact, which is deployed between the
reinforcement and the concrete with multi-point-
constraint formulation (MPC). The model is
calibrated against the experiments’ outcomes. The Figure 3. 3D FE model for quarter of the specimen
most influential parameters in the material model
are the fracture energy in compression, dilatancy parameter is governed by formulas, which are
angle, the compressive strength of concrete, related to the elements’ sizes. The following
elastic modulus, the biaxial compressive strength equations define the limits of the fracture energy
of concrete and elements’ size. to the size of the elements [12]:
A coarse mesh size is applied as an overall size of 𝐺𝑐

the concrete body, whereas a fine mesh is used in 𝑙𝑒𝑞 ≤ 𝑓 (1)
𝑓𝑐 (𝜀𝑐 (1 − 𝑏) + 𝑏 𝐸𝑐 )
the interface area with the connector. The coarse 𝑐
size of the mesh is 20 mm, with the smallest size

being between 3-5 mm. the connector meshed Where 𝑙𝑒𝑞 denotes the element length in FEM, 𝐸𝑐
with 7 mm size. And the size of 5 mm is used for is the young’s modulus, 𝜀𝑐 is failure strain and
the reinforcement rebars. The model contents 𝐺𝑐 , 𝑏 are fracture energy and scalar parameter
36030 nodes with 39112 elements. Figure.3 shows that split the inelastic strain into plastic and
the mesh of the quarter of the specimen. 100 damage parts, respectively. Table (2) illustrates
steps with 50 iterations for each are used in the the values of the aforementioned parameters and
model, where it is noticed out of many sensitivity other parameters, which have less influence on
analyses that the number of steps affects the the results of the model. The results of the model
convergence of the model thus the failure of the show high agreement with the experiments.
concrete. Figure.4 illustrates the force-displacement relation
for the three tests and the model. It is clear that
As it is mentioned above, the fracture energy in the difference between both isn’t big, where the
compression one of the important parameter in maximum force is obtained from the model is
the model. That parameter indicates the area 1937.9 kN with maximum displacement of 1.67
under the curve of stress-strain relationship in the mm.
uniaxial compressive test. The calibration of this
1024
The derived results of the model are compared

with tests’ results to make sure that the model is
representing the behavior of the concrete around
the saw-tooth connector. Figure. 5 shows the
comparisons between the strains from both the
FEM and test (1) at DMS10, DMS17 and DMS24.
The strain gauges are distributed along the
connector with a distance of 48 mm from the
edge of the specimen, figure. 2 (b) shows the
allocation of the strain gauges.
Tabe 2. Parameters are used in the FE model
Name Value
Figure 4. Force-displacement relationship for the
Uniaxial compressive strength 50 MPa tests and the FE model
Biaxial compressive strength 55 MPa
Tensile strength 5 MPa
Compressive fracture energy 2.5 N mm/mm2
Dilatancy angle 5o
Elastic modulus 28000

Poisson’s ratio 0.2
The aim of that allocation, which is called rosettes,

is to extract the changing of the strain’s directions
as the load increased [13]. The direction of the
strain theoretically represents the same direction
of the stress thus it denotes the force ‘s direction.
Thereby a comparison with the strut –tie model
designed for the specimen can be conducted. The
angles of the struts along the saw-tooth connector
are in the range of 20-45o, whereas they are
between 0-38o in the FE model and the tests.
However, the range of the tests and the FE model
represents the evolution of the strain’s angle as
the force is increased. Figure. 6 demonstrates the
directions of the strain in both test (1C2) and FE
model at the rosettes and the angles of the
corresponding struts in the elastic calculation. It is
obvious that all results in a rang to be accepted Test (1) FE model
especially at the top (DMS10) and the middle
(DMS17) of the connector. The Higher difference Figure 5. Comparison between the strains’
is noticed between the results of the rosettes at values at different positions
the bottom, where the concentration of the stress concrete around the connector are like the ones
happens. Measuring the strain at that position can observed from the tests, where the cracks
be affected by the cracks at a nearly stage of the initiated in front of the connector and then the
experiment. On the other hand, it is marked out of stresses increased along with it till the failure. It is
the FE model that the deformations of the extracted from the model that the stresses inside
1025
the specimen is higher than the ones obtained at

the surface, that can be justified by the
confinement of the concrete. As it is known,
confined concrete elements show higher stress
and strain than unconfined concrete element
[14,15]. The model indicates that the minimum
principal stresses at the tip of the teeth inside the
specimen between 65-91 MPa with strain
between 0.006-0.03 mm/mm. The values of the
stresses and strains depend on the lateral
confining pressure, which is varied from tooth to
tooth. Therefore, it is noticed that the highest
stress and strain occurred at the lowest tooth and
reduced with the length of the connector.
As the model is verified, important results are
delivered like the minimum principal stress and
shear stress along the connector. Both values help
to design the load capacity of the saw-tooth
connector, where it is clear that the failure is
caused by the concrete. Wherefore, the principal
compressive strength is calculated by using the
angle of the struts and the values of the shear
stress according to the next equation [16]:
τIxy Figure. 6 Directions of the strain at the top,

σII
3 ≅ (2)
sin(θI ) · cos(θI ) middle and bottom of the connector as the
force is increased.
Where:
where all the struts direct almost toward the
τIxy shear stresses from elastic analysis along the centre of the specimen and then to the bottom.
sides of the connector Based on the FE model’s outcomes, the design of
θI direction of the principal stresses along the the connector should be calculated according to
sides from elastic analysis. the compressive strength of concrete in the
adjacent area. The area, from which the shear
The maximum force can be attained on the saw-
stress and minimum principal stress is extracted,
tooth connector at the angle of 45o, so 𝜃 𝐼 is
should be located (0.25-0.45) of the slab’s
always assumed to be 45o. Figure. 7 demonstrates
thickness from the connector. The range indicates
the shear stress and the minimum principal stress
the danger area around the connector, in which
along the connector, where the path is 70 mm
the cracks initiated.
apart from the edge of the specimen. It is obvious
that the shear stress is almost regular along the
connector and higher in the area in front of the 4 Conclusion
connector. On the other hand, the minimum This work presents the experiments that are
principal stress increases with the direction of the conducted on the saw-tooth connector fixed at
implemented load. The irregularity of stress along the edges of a reinforced concrete slab. The
the connector means either the forces increase results show that the load capacity of the
gradually along the connector due to the connector is higher than the conventional shear
displacement of the connector and thus the connectors. A 3D FE model is carried out to obtain
transfer of the forces are not equal, or the angles the behavior of the connector and to capture the
of the struts effect the stresses’ values along it, behavior of concrete around the connector. The
1026
600 600
500 500
400 400
Length [mm]
Length [mm]
300 300
200 200
100 100
Shear stress [MPa] Minimum principal stress [MPa]

0 0
-20 -15 -10 -5 0 -60 -40 -20 0
Figure 7. Shear stress and minimun principal stress along the saw-tooth connector
model shows high correlation with the tests [2] Shim, Chang-Su, Pil-Goo Lee, Dong-Wook Kim,
results. and Chul-Hun Chung. "Effects of group
arrangement on the ultimate strength of stud
It is recommended that the design should be
shear connection." In Composite Construction in
based on the compressive stresses values of the
Steel and Concrete VI, pp. 92-101. 2011.
area between 0.25-0.45 of the specimen thickness
from the connector. New tests are going to be [3] Costa-Neves, L. F., J. P. Figueiredo, PCG da S.
executed aiming to increase the load capacity of Vellasco, and J. da Cruz Vianna. "Perforated shear
the saw-tooth connector. The preliminary design connectors on composite girders under monotonic
and the FE model show that the load capacity is loading: An experimental approach." Engineering
going to be higher than the old specimen by 19%, Structures 56 (2013): 721-737.
whereas the displacement is going to be reduced.
[4] Kang, Jae Yoon, Jong Sup Park, Woo Tai Jung,
and Moon Seoung Keum. "Evaluation of the Shear
5 Acknowledgment Strength of Perfobond Rib Connectors in Ultra
The authors would like to thank all the High Performance Concrete." Engineering 6, no.
employees at the department of composite 13 (2014): 989.
structures and the laboratory at the Technical [5] Kim, Sang-Hyo, Kyu-Tae Choi, Se-Jun Park,
university of Berlin who helped to accomplish the Seung-Min Park, and Chi-Young Jung.
tests. "Experimental shear resistance evaluation of Y-
type perfobond rib shear connector." Journal of
6 References constructional steel research 82 (2013): 1-18.
[1] Lin, Zhaofei, Yuqing Liu, and Charles W. [6] Kim, Sang-Hyo, Won-Ho Heo, Kyung-Sik Woo,
Roeder. "Behavior of stud connections between Chi-Young Jung, and Se-Jun Park. "End-bearing
concrete slabs and steel girders under transverse resistance of Y-type perfobond rib according to rib
bending moment." Engineering Structures 117 width–height ratio." Journal of Constructional
(2016): 130-144. Steel Research 103 (2014): 101-116.
1027
[7] Schlaich, J. & Schäfer, K., 1998. Konstruieren im concrete with minimum number of material
Stahlbetonbau. Beton-Kalender, Band II, pp.751- parameters."Computers & structures 82, no. 15
892. (2004): 1201-1215.
[8] Schlaich, Jörg, Volker Schmid, and Mike [13] Vishay Micro-Measurments Tech Note TN-
Schlaich. "Stahlverbundbruecken-neue 515, . "DMS-Rosetten - Auswahl, Anwendung und
Erfahrungen. Die Entwicklung von Verbindungen Datenauswertung.", no 10528.
mit Zahnleisten/Composite bridges-recent
[14] Sfer, Domingo, Ignacio Carol, Ravindra Gettu,
experience. The development of teeth-
and Guillermo Etse. "Study of the behavior of
connectors." Bauingenieur 77, no. 3 (2002).
concrete under triaxial compression." Journal of
[9] Schmid, V., Hochbelastete Verbindungen mit Engineering Mechanics 128, no. 2 (2002): 156-163.
Zahnleisten in Hybridtragwerken aus
[15] Muguruma, Hiroshi, and F. Watanabe.
Konstruktionsbeton und Stahl. 2000: Grauer.
"Ductility improvement of high-strength concrete
[10] Tandler, J. Modellierung von columns with lateral confinement." Special
Hochleistungsverbindungen mit Zahnleisten in Publication 121 (1990): 47-60.
hybriden Tragwerken aus Beton und Stahl. in
[16] Tandler, J., V. Schmid, and A. Reimer. "High
Proceedings 30th CADFEM User's Meeting. 2012.
capacity saw tooth connectors–experimental
Kassel, Germany.
testing and numerical studies". in IABSE
[11] MultiPlas User’s manual, release 5.1.0 for Symposium Report. Madrid, 2014. International
ANSYS 14.5.7 and 15.0, March(2014) Association for Bridge and Structural Engineering.
[12] Krätzig, Wilfried B., and Rainer Pölling. "An
elasto-plastic damage model for reinforced 7 Appendix
Tie
Strut
Figure 10.The flow of forces within the Figure 11. Distribution of the reinforcement
specimen by strut and tie model
1028
1029
Structural Response of Skew-Curved Concrete Box-Girder Bridges

under Eccentric Vehicular Loading
Tanmay Gupta, Manoj Kumar
Department of Civil Engineering, Birla Institute of Technology & Science Pilani (BITS-PILANI), Pilani
333031, Rajasthan, India
Contact: tanmay271@gmail.com
Abstract
Concrete box-girders are widely used for modern highway bridges and large urban interchanges.
Bridges with ends skewed or horizontally curved girders are becoming more popular now-a-days
to incorporate heavy traffic within a very limited space available. Certain geographical situation
even demand skew supports in addition to the curved layout of the bridge and results in complex
skew-curve geometry of the deck. All the more complexity of such cases increases under eccentric
traffic load due to which additional torsion and warping is induced in the bridge. Present study
focuses on predicting the bending moment and deflection response of a single cell box-girder
bridge for each unique skew/curve/skew-curve combination via 3D finite element analysis using
CsiBridge. For the curved and skew-curved bridges the central curvature angle has been varied
from 0° to 48° at an interval of 12° while for the skewed and skew-curved bridges the skew angle is
swept from 0° to 50° at an interval of 10° in order to investigate the effect of curvature, skewness
and skew-curve on flexural and deflection response of box-girder bridge. For these unique simply
supported concrete box girder bridges, bending moment and vertical deflection of bridge girder
for dead load as well as for IRC Class 70R Tracked wheel load cases are monitored via large
parametric study. Results indicate that with increasing skew angle, magnitude of girder deflection
and bending moment in general decreases for outer web and inner web. While for heavily curved
bridges outer girder response becomes severe, combining the effect of skewness and curvature, it
is observed that for highly curved bridges it is better to have skewed abutment to significantly
reduce the overall deflection and bending moment response.
Keywords: Skewness, Curvature, Skew-Curve, Deflection response, Bending moment response, IRC
vehicular loading.
bridges, interchanges have become a usual

1 Introduction practice in highway construction industry.
Major cities around the world are constantly However, geometric, topographic and traffic
facing the trouble of accommodating ever demands sometimes need combined curvature
increasing traffic on roads and bridges. Population and skewness to be present in the bridges,
eruption especially in developing countries, generally such bridges are referred as skew-
demand for new and innovative solution to ensure curved bridges. In practicality, erection of such
smooth traffic flow in congested urban areas too. bridges is avoided by the constructors due to
As a result, skew or curved constructions of roads, reasons such as lack of specialized design
1030
literature, special shape formwork requirements, construction cost, extra land acquisition and
distinct analysis and design process which may increased distance for every vehicle passing on the
need computing analysis etc. However, this study bridge. Often it is seen that construction of new
proves the superiority of skew-curve bridge highway flyovers in old crowded cities or bridges
construction over only curved bridges in regards in hilly regions even do not present the option to
to deflection response and flexural response of go for extra length construction due to limited
the bridge. space applicability in such situations skew
construction becomes a necessary requirement.
As box-girder sections have proven their valour in
bridge industry due to their exception torsional In practical situations, sometimes skew angles
rigidity and striking presence, present study also even as high as 60°-70° are required which behave
focuses in RC box-girder sections under straight, quite differently from their straight counterpart.
curved, skewed and skew-curve geometric Many researchers [1-3] have observed that up-to
conditions. Moreover, as Indian vehicle loading is 15°-20° skewness, more or less structural behavior
considered as one of the heaviest in world, it has of superstructure remains comparable to non-
been applied eccentrically to extract worst skewed bridge. Although, old guidelines still
response of such complex bridges. Parametric sometime suggest avoiding high skew angles for
study results are compiled for inner and outer bridge construction but, with the evolution of
girder of the bridge deck under dead and live load highly efficient computing technology today, many
conditions. designers are pushing for new limits. For many
decades, skewed bridges were analyzed and
2 Skewness or/and Curvature in Box- designed in the same way as straight ones
Girder Bridges regardless of the skew angle. One example is the
load distribution factor. Until recently, the load
distribution factor for a skewed bridge was simply
determined by the expression s / 7 for a single
lane loaded or s / 5.5 for two or more lanes
loaded bridges, in which s is the girder spacing. In
this expression, no effect of skew is considered.
However new codes [4-5] give practical guidelines
to incorporate effect of skewness and other
parameters for more robust understanding of load
distribution factor.
2.2 Impact of Curvature

Curved bridges are in common practice since the
very beginning of bridge constructions. Due to
virtue of curved geometry these bridges undergo
large torsional moments and coupling of
longitudinal moments with torsional moments
especially under eccentric vehicular loading. Thus,
2.1 Impact of skewness as compared to similar straight counterpart
bridges curved bridge carry significantly higher
Figure 1. Skew v/s Non-skew bridge construction
flexure towards the outer girder of the bridge.
Figure 1 depicts the difference between straight
Many codal provisions [6-7] recommend using
(non-skew) intersection v/s a skew intersection
bridges having central curvature angle 12° as
clearly indicating merit of skew construction as it
similar to straight bridge, as such small curvature
debars the un-necessary increase in the length of
effect become irrelevant over the span of the
bridge (curved approach road), which is a very
bridge.
costly affair both in terms of one-time
1031
2.3 Combined Skewness and Curvature shape, consequently, the skew-curved box
geometry was poorly discretized. Panayotounakos
Due to complex site constraints, sometimes the
and Theocaris [9] determined flexibility matrix and
situation demands to go for intricate span bridge
analytical closed-form solutions for generalized
geometry which is curved in plan as well as
forces and displacements at an arbitrary point
supported on skew supports. In New Delhi, there
upon skew-curved helicoidal cantilever beam,
are two noted examples of skew-curved bridges
however, these formulations were not applicable
viz. the Dhuala Kuan Interchange and Mass Rapid
for thin-walled girder cross-sections. NCHRP [10]
Transit System (MRTS) flyover at GT road India.
published detailed guidelines for designing skew-
The structural behavior of skew-curved bridges
curved steel girder bridges, however, these cannot
can-not be simply obtained by superposition of
be applied to skew-curved concrete box-girder
structural behavior of skew and curved bridges
bridges. Miner [11] studied support reaction
due to coupling of curvature and skewness. As a
response of four-cell skew-curved concrete box-
result, the behavior of these types of bridges
girder bridge using the linear elastic finite element
needs to be better understood. Figure 2
based program and found that aspect ratio of the
represents 3D Finite element model of 30° skew
bridge, bearing stiffness and analytical modeling
and 24° curved skew-curve bridge generated in
technique play a vital role in correctly estimating
CsiBridge.
skew-curve combined effect on the bridge support
Owing to eccentric vehicular loading and skew- reactions. Wilson [12] performed nonlinear time-
curved geometry, these bridges are subjected to history analysis using 3D FEM software SAP2000
high torsional moments, in addition to bending for skew-curved concrete box-girder bridges and
moments and shear force. Although, substantial reported large deformations in bridge
research has been carried out for the analysis of superstructure and high demand to the capacity
curved and skewed bridges, however, no ratio in the columns, due to the combined effect
significant research has been carried out for skew- of skewness and curvature present in the bridge.
curved box-girder bridges. In addition, there are To investigate thermal behavior of skew-curved
no codal guidelines available to specify impact of steel I-girder bridge with integral abutment, Deng
combined skew-curve upon bridge response. et al. [13] monitored the strains induced in the
Moreover, the skew-curved bridge geometry, bridge experimentally. Based on the field data
even within individual specified safe limits of calibrated FE model, they presented a limited
skewness and curvature (12° for curvature and 15° parametric study by varying skew at 0°, 15°and
for skew), cannot be analyzed and designed 30° with four different curvature radii and found
similar to their straight counterpart due to the that integral abutment bridges with a 10° skew
coupling of curvature and skewness and needs a and 0.06 radians arc span length to radius ratio,
robust analytical technique for analysis and could be designed as a straight bridge provided
design. the calculated axial forces and bending moments
are increased by 10%. Based on the literature
A handful few studies over skew-curve bridge
reviewed above, it may be stated that the analysis
geometry can be summarized as follows: Sisodia
and design of skew-curved concrete box-girder
et al. [8] studied the behavior of curved and
bridge is still not explicitly adopted by designers
skewed box-girder bridges using finite element
and needs further investigations.
method with elements having parallelogrammic
1032
Figure 2. Representative skew-curve bridge Finite element model generated in CsiBridge (30°skew 24° curve)
degree of curvature for each bridge. To allow for

3 Parametric modelling better assessment of the effect
Figure 3. Cross-section of Han-Jiang Bridge [Luo,

Tang, Li (2003)] (dimensions in mm)
To examine the effect of curvature and skewness
on the flexural response of the box-girder bridge,
the Han-Jiang bridge at Shayang located in
Wuhan, China [14] with actual dimensions has
been considered as root geometry. This non-skew
straight bridge is simply supported over a span of
27.4 m (90 ft.) having a single cell box section with
an overall depth of 2.96 m. The thickness of the
top and bottom slabs as 250 mm and 280 mm
while the thickness of webs is 360 mm. The bridge
contains kerb of 200 mm at both sides, which
results in clear carriageway width of 10.4 m [Fig. Figure 4. Systematic representation of various
3]. The material properties of concrete considered curvature angles considered in parametric study
are: Poisson’s ratio 0.2, density of concrete 25
kN/m3, grade of concrete M25 and modulus of of skewness and curvature, all other parameters
elasticity of concrete as 2.5×107 kN/m2. Various of the bridge models were kept the same as the
bridge models have been established by root bridge while varying the central curvature
systematically changing the support skewness and angle of the bridge from 0° to 48° at an interval of
12° [Fig 4] and introducing an equal amount of
1033
skewness at both the supports, which is swept clearance of 1.2 m from the kerb in order to
from 0° to 50° at an interval of 10° [Fig 5]. develop maximum torsional effect while providing
enough space for the vehicle to maneuver. The
class 70R vehicle tracked vehicle comprises of two
wheels spaced at 2.06 m center to center and
each carrying 350 kN load which is assumed
uniformly distributed over the contact area of size
0.84 m4.57 m as shown in shown in Fig. 6.
Figure 5. Systematic representation of various

skew angles considered in parametric study 0.84 m 0.84 m
Total
A three-dimensional linear elastic finite element weight
analysis has been performed for all the bridge 700 kN
geometries considered in this paper using four-
node shell elements having six degrees of
freedoms (3 translation +3 rotational) at each 1.2 m 1.22 m
node. For finite element discretization of the
bridge, it is preferable to keep the element length
roughly 2% of the span length. Thus, approximate 2.90 m
element lengths around 20 cm had been selected, 10.4 m
which yielded in use of 13000-21000 elements Figure 6. IRC class 70R Tracked vehicle loading
approximately in different parametric model
As deflection and flexural response holds
considered.
significant importance in bridge design, results of
Bridge codes all around the world recommend present parametric study have been plotted in
several serviceability and ultimate design load term of these two parameters.
combinations including various loads such as
gravity, vehicular, seismic, thermal, wind, snow, 4 Deflection Response
fatigue, creep etc. under which the structure
should perform well. However, as the present Vertical deflection is one of the most important
work has been focused on serviceability limit state response parameter for bridge design, giving
thus structural performance only under DL and LL designer the clear picture of the behavior of the
cases have been presented. For estimating the bridge. For present study deflections are studied
forces due to LL in bridges, standard vehicles have along the two webs (girder) of the box section for
been assumed to travel at a minimum specified the chosen concrete bridge. The three cases
clear spacing from the kerb and to occupy any considered here are only skew bridges (0° curve),
longitudinal position, which produces the only curved bridge (0° skew) and skew-curved
maximum stresses. In India, for the design of cases (rest of the cases) under dead load and live
highway bridges, Indian Road Congress (IRC) load conditions.
specifies that the bridges should be designed for Figs 7-10 show variation of maximum vertical
self-weight and Class 70R loading and these deflection suffered via outer an inner girder under
bridges must be checked for Class A loading. The LL and DL respectively. The deflection of the
IRC class 70R loading consists of two types of bridge is generally common for outer web and
vehicles namely Class 70R tracked vehicle and inner web in case of the straight bridges, but for
Class 70R wheeled vehicle. Generally, Class 70R skew bridge this behavior is found changing,
tracked vehicle is found to develop more severe where deflections at outer and inner webs are not
longitudinal moments, therefore, the same is same. As the live load runs very near to outer
considered in this study. As per the IRC, for the girder, it is found to be subjected to larger
bridges having clear carriageway width between deflection than inner girder especially in live load
5.3 m and 13.1 m, a single class 70R tracked case. For dead load case skewness, do not much
vehicle must be considered at a minimum
1034
effect the deflection in outer and inner girder. For

only curved cases, under Dead load conditions, it
can be observed that outer girder deflection
increases a whopping 268.4% when curvature is
increased from 0° to 48°, while inner girder also
show an increase of 77.8%. But major changes
happen for live load responses where 48° curved
bridge inner girder show a 730% increase in
deflection response as compared to a normal
bridge, while in the same case outer girder suffers
168.8% increase in deflection. Such drastic
changes deflection values are very alarming for
curve girder design especially under eccentric
loading cases.
In general, under both live load and dead load
cases as the curvature angle increases deflection Figure 8. Maximum Deflection response at Inner
response for any unique skew can be identified as girder under LL
increasing similarly for a constant curvature
increasing the skew angle tend to decrease the
deflection response. As for the extreme case of
50° skew and 48° curve it is seen that it shows
99.6%, 324.5% increase in deflection response
under live load for outer and inner girder
respectively which nearly decreases vertical
deflection to half as compared to only 48° curved
case. Similar behavior is observed in dead load
case too. Thus, it can be emphasized that for
highly curved bridges presence of skew is
beneficial to control its deflection.
Figure 9. Maximum Deflection response at Outer

girder under DL
Figure 7. Maximum Deflection response at Outer

girder under LL
Figure 10. Maximum Deflection response at Inner
girder under DL
1035
5 Flexural Response
In order to simplify the design of single cell
skew-curved box girder bridges, maximum
longitudinal bending moment suffered by the
bridge for outer and inner girder under LL and
DL are shown in Figs 11-14.
For both dead and live load case a general
trend of decrease in longitudinal moment is
observed when skew angle is increased for
both inner and outer girder for every central
angle considered. However, as the curvature
in introduced in the bridge flexural responses
at inner and outer girder starts diminishing Figure 11. Maximum Bending Moment response at
and increasing respectively. As central Outer girder under LL
curvature angle increases more and more, a
jump in maximum bending moment is seen
which go as high as up to 145% for non-
skewed cases under dead load conditions at
outer girder. It can be also observed from the
comparison graph that for highly curve
bridges (≥36°) rate of increase in the bending
moment decreases for highly skew bridges
under both live and dead load cases,
indicating the virtue of skew curve
combination. While for inner girder with dead
loading only shows opposite behavior as it
tends to attract lesser moment with
increasing α, but for inner girder design at
Figure 12. Maximum Bending Moment response at
higher curvature angle, effect of skewness Inner girder under LL
start diminishing slowly, still preferring high
skew cases. Similarly, for live load case it can
be observed that as the load is very near to
outer web of the bridge, very little variation
due to skew angle is perceived on outer girder
results. Up-to 24° central curvature angle it
can be prominently seen that lower skew
angle bridges perform slightly better than
highly skewed ones, but with further increase
in curvature, again highly skew and highly
curved combination becomes preferable.
So, it can be equivocally said for outer girder
that highly curved geometry is always
beneficial to pair with highly skew supports in Figure 13. Maximum Bending Moment response at
order to reduce the bending moment Outer girder under DL
significantly.
1036
[3] Dilger WH, Ghoneim GA, Tadros GS.

Diaphragms in skew box girder bridges.
Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering. 1988
Oct 1;15(5):869-78.
[4] AASHTO, 2012, “AASHTO-LRFD Bridge
Design Specifications,” sixth edition,
American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials, Washington, DC,
1661 pp.
[5] BSI B. 5400 Steel, concrete and composite
bridges, British Standards Institution. 2006.
[6] Canadian Standards Association (CSA), 2010,
“Canadian Highway Bridge Design Code,”
Figure 10. Maximum Bending Moment response at Toronto, ON, Canada, 800 pp.
Inner girder under DL [7] AASHTO, 2003, “Guide Specification for
Horizontally Curved Highway Bridges,”
6 Conclusions American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials, Washington, DC,
Structural response of skew curved bridge is 392 pp.
difficult to obtain from exact mathematical [8] Sisodiya RG, Cheung YK, Ghali A. Finite
solutions; thus, one has to rely upon Element Analysis of Skew, Curved Box-
numerical methods to solve such geometries. Girder Bridge. Publication of: Kajima Inst
One such attempt is made here in present Constr Tech/Japan/. 1970(30).
study via large FEM based parametric study to [9] Panayotounakos DE, Theocaris PS. Flexibility
matrix for skew-curved beams. International
monitor the deflection response and bending
Journal of Solids and Structures.
moment response when combined skewness
1979;15(10):783-794.
and plan curvature is present in a box girder [10] White D W. Guidelines for analysis methods
bridge. and construction engineering of curved and
Based on overall results obtained for skewed steel girder bridges. Transportation
longitudinal bending moment response along Research Board. 2012. 725.
[11] Miner LR. Effect of abutment skew and
inner and outer girder it can be concluded
horizontally curved alignment on bridge
that high rate of increase in bending moment
reaction forces Doctoral dissertation,
with increase in curvature can be limited with California State University, Sacramento,
inclusion of skewness in the bridge system 2014
especially for outer girder. Similarly, [12] Wilson T, Mahmoud H, Chen S. Seismic
deflection results also suggest that highly performance of skewed and curved
curved bridges should be coupled with reinforced concrete bridges in mountainous
skewness at supports to give counterbalance states. Engineering Structures. 2014 Jul
to increased deflection coming through the 1;70:158-67
virtue of curve effect [13] Deng Y, Phares BM, Greimann L, Shryack GL,
Hoffman JJ. Behavior of curved and skewed
7 References bridges with integral abutments. Journal of
Constructional Steel Research. 2015 Jun
[1] Bakht B. Analysis of some skew bridges as right 30;109:115-36.
bridges. Journal of Structural Engineering. 1988 [14] Luo QZ, Tang J, Li QS. Calculation of
Oct;114(10):2307-22. moments on top slab in single-cell box
[2] Chen WF, Duan L (Eds). Bridge Engineering girders. Journal of Structural Engineering.
Handbook Second Edition: Superstructure 2003 Jan;129(1):130-4.
Design. CRC Press. 2014; 577 pp.
1037
A semi-analytical method for dynamic responses of cantilever plates

under moving loads
Qi Wu, Qi Li*
Department of Bridge Engineering, Tongji University, SH, CN
Contact: liqi_bridge@tongji.edu.cn
Abstract
In this paper a semi-analytical method is proposed to calculate dynamic responses of cantilever
plates subjected to moving loads. Rayleigh-Ritz method is used to obtain free vibration
characteristics of the cantilever plate by using assumed mode shapes that fulfil the boundary
conditions of the plate. The motion equations of the cantilever plate are decoupled by the mode
superposition method to obtain a series of equations represented by the generalized coordinates.
The generalized forces are then expanded to Fourier series of discrete harmonic loading
components. The dynamic responses of the plate are thus obtained by superimposing the analytical
responses of many single degree of freedom systems induced by harmonic loads. Finally, this
method is verified by comparing the results with those obtained from pure numerical simulation.
Keywords: cantilever plate; moving loads; dynamic responses; Rayleigh-Ritz method; mode
superposition method;
superimposed it to obtain the dynamic responses

1 Introduction of the beam with arbitrary spacing loads passing
It is important to obtain the dynamic responses of through the bridge. Yang et al. [3] analytically
a bridge crossed by moving trains in the design of analyzed the vertical response of the simply
the bridge to ensure the comfort of the passengers, supported beam under fixed spacing loads by
stability of the tracks and safety of the bridge. The simplifying each vehicle into two concentrated
bridges and trains might be endangered when the forces. Li et al. [4] expanded the generalized force
phenomenon of resonance appears. The simply of a simply supported bridge into Fourier series and
supported beam models have been extensively obtained the dynamic responses of the bridge by
adopted [1-4] in former train-induced vibration mode superposition method.
analysis and the vehicles are usually modeled as Though the dynamic vibration of a simply
moving concentrated forces. Among these studies supported beam under moving loads have been
on beams, Kurihara et al. [1] assumed that the extensively studied, the dynamic responses of a
moving loads with arbitrary intervals as a Poisson cantilever plate under moving loads are rarely
process thereby the time histories and power focused on. Over the years, many researches have
spectral density functions of the dynamic been done on the bending vibration problem of a
responses of a simply supported beam are rectangular cantilever plate [5,6]. Zhong et al. [5]
obtained. Savin [2] used the forced vibration of a expressed the governing equations for the bending
beam caused by a single moving load and then
1038
of the elastic plate as Hamilton canonical equations 2.1 Lagrangian of a plate

and obtained the analytical solution of rectangular
The strain energy U and kinetic energy T of a thin
cantilever plate by symplectic geometry method.
Yang et al. [6] analyzed the symmetric and asym- plate can be written as [7]
metric bending of a cantilever plate based on 2
Richardson’s theory and the exact solution of the D L H   2W ( x, z , t )  2W ( x, z , t ) 
U      
problem is obtained by triangle series expansion 
2 0 0  x 2 z 2 
method. Chiba et al. [7] performed the coupled   2W  x, z , t    2W ( x, z , t )
2
free vibration analysis on a cantilever thin plate +2 1-     (1)

 xz  x 2
carrying a spring-mass system attached on an
arbitrary point by using Rayleigh-Ritz method. In  2W ( x, z , t )  

  dxdz ,
these studies, the coupled free vibration of the z 2 
system consisting of plate and added spring-mass
have been analyzed but the forced vibration of the h
W 2  x, z, t  dxdz，
L H
cantilever plate under moving loads has not been T
2  
0 0
(2)
studied yet.
This study aims to obtain the semi-analytical results where W ( x, z, t ) is the deflection of the plate at
of the forced vibration responses of a cantilever position x , z and at time t ;  denotes the density
plate under a series of moving loads with arbitrary of the plate; and D is the bending stiffness of the
spacing and magnitude. And the mode plate
superposition method is used to obtain the vertical
dynamic responses of the plate. The free vibration Eh3
characteristics of the cantilever plate are D , (3)
12(1   2 )
calculated using the Rayleigh-Ritz method. The
accuracy of calculated frequencies and mode
where E is the elastic modulus; and  is the
shapes of the cantilever plate are verified by
comparing present results with the finite-element Poisson’s number. By assuming the plate vibrates
results. Finally, the dynamic responses of the plate harmonically with circular frequency  , the
under moving loads calculated from the proposed deflection of the plate can be expressed as
method are compared with those from a pure
numerical simulation method. W ( x, z, t )  w( x, z )eit . (4)
2 Free vibration of a cantilever plate Substituting Eq. (4) into Eq. (1) and Eq. (2), the
maximum strain energy and kinetic energy can be
In this section, the Rayleigh-Ritz method is used to written as
obtain the semi-analytical modal frequencies and
shapes of a thin and isotropic cantilever plate with 2
D L H   w( x, z )  w( x, z ) 
2 2
width H , length L and thickness h (see Figure 1). U max      
  x z 2 
2
2 0 0 
  2 w  x, z    2 w( x, z )
2
+2 1-     (5)

 xz  x 2

 2 w( x, z )  
  dxdz ,
z 2

Figure 1. A cantilever plate in Cartesian coordinate
system h L H
Tmax  2
2  
0 0
w2 ( x, z ) dxdz. (6)
The Lagrangian of the plate is defined as
1039
shapes for the beams with clamped-free boundary

Π  U max  Tmax . (7) conditions and free-free boundary conditions [7]
Using the following non-dimensional parameters m     cosh  m  cos  m 

sinh  m  sin  m
z x w  
2
  sinh  m  sin  m  (13)
  ,   , w  , 2    , cosh  m  cos  m
H L H  0   m  1, 2,3... ,
(8)
D H
0  ,  ,
 hH 4 L where  m are the roots of
Eq. (7) can be rewritten as cosh  m cos m  1. (14)
1 1   2 w  2 2 w 2 w  1    1,
Π   2   2 2 2
0 0
     2  2    3  2  1 ,
  w   n     cosh  n  cos  n 
2
 w
2 2
(9)
  4  2   2 1     2    d  d (15)
       sinh  n  sin  n
  sinh  n  sin  n 
2 cosh  n  cos  n
 2   w  ,  d d.
1 1
0 0
 n  3, 4,5, ... ,
2.2 Assumed mode shapes of vibration where n  n  3 are the roots of
The displacement of the plate can be expressed in
terms of a set of assumed shapes which are the cosh n cos n  1. (16)
product of m   and  n   of amplitude amn as
follows Substituting Eq. (11) into Eq. (9), Lagrangian Π can
be expressed by non-dimensional natural frequ-
w  ,    amnm   n   , (10)
ency  and amplitudes amn . According to Rayleigh
m n method [8], the best approximation of the mode
shapes will minimize the Lagrangian Π . This
in which the amplitudes amn are unknowns to be
condition can be expressed as
determined through the Rayleigh-Ritz method.
Convert the above formula into a matrix form
Π
 0. (17)
w  ,   ΦT A Ψ (11) amn
where Φ and Ψ are column vectors consisting of From Eq. (17) the frequency equations can be
derived as
m and  n , and A is a square matrix consisting of
  A   2 Bmnrs  ars  0,
amplitude amn
mnrs (18)
r s
 1   1 
     a11 a1n 
    Amnrs   m4   4  n4   mr  ns
Φ=  2  Ψ=  2  A . (12)
   
    a amn   2   2m  2 s  2r  2 n 
 m1
1 1

0 0
        
 m   n   
2 r n
 2  2
m s
 2  (19)

    
To satisfy the boundary for the cantilever plate, 2(1   ) 2 m r m s  d  d ,
    
m   and  n   are chosen as the mode
1040
Bmnrs   mr ns ,
 m  1,2, , M n  1,2, , N (20)
r  1,2, , M s  1,2, , N 
where  is the Dirac delta function and the upper Figure 2. Moving loads on the plate
limit of stage m and stage n are considered to be According to the mode superposition method, the
M and N respectively. Thus Eq. (18) can be displacements of the plate can be converted to
rewritten into a matrix form described as generalized coordinates

K   2 M  Z  0, (21) U ( x, z, t )   qk  t  Γk ( x, z ), (24)
k 1
K ij  Amnrs Mij =Bmnrs

(22) where the k th vibration mode of the plate can be
Z=  a11 , , aMN 
T
, a1N , a21 , , a2 N , aM 1 , calculated from
i  (m  1)  N  n, j  (r  1)  N  s, (23) M N
 z   x
Γk  x, z    amn k
  ψ , (25)
m 1 n 1 H   L
where K and M are square matrices with size
 M  N    M  N  ; and Z is a column vector k
where amn is the element of the eigenvector
consisting of relative amplitudes ars to be corresponding to the k th eigenvalue of Eq. (21)
determined. By solving the eigenvalue problem when the eigenvalues are arranged in ascending
expressed in Eq. (21) one can get the natural order.
frequencies ω as eigenvalues and Z as
The forced vibration differential equation of the
eigenvectors.
plate can be written as
3 Forced vibration of the cantilever  2U U
D▽4 U   h 
plate under moving loads t 2
t
N  v  t  ti  
(26)
The following assumptions are used in the     x  v  t  ti  , z  zc  S   Pi ,
following derivation of the force vibration of the i 1  L 
plate: 1) the vehicles are moving loading series with
any intervals; 2) each load is a constant during the where   x   , z  zc  is the dimensional Dirac

function; S   is the function for determining
moving process; 3) the loads travel through the
plate at a uniform speed; 4) the position of the load L
keeps a fixed distance from the root of the plate. whether the load is on the plate in the longitudinal
direction defined as
3.1 Motion equations of generalized
coordinates   1 0 l
S   0 , (27)
Depicted in Figure 2 is a plate with width H , length l   else
L and constant thickness h subjected to a moving
loading series with various axle weights Pi , and  is the viscous damping coefficient assumed
intervals di and speed v . The distance from the to be Rayleigh damping with the vibration orthog-
load line of the moving loads to the root of the onality;  is the density of the plate.
plate is Z c .
Substitute Eq. (24) into Eq. (26) and multiply by
Γ k on both sides, and then, double integrate the
1041
plate along the x and z directions. Then motion

equation of the k th mode is
1
qk  t   2k k qk  t   k2 qk  t   Pk  t  , (28)
Mk
Figure 3. Illustration of moving loads pass through
the cantilever plate
in which qk  t  denotes the generalized coordinate
of the k th mode; k is the k th natural vibration 3.2 Calculation of dynamic responses
frequency of the plate; M k is the generalized mass The response of the plate caused by the moving
of the k th mode written as loads is divided into two stages: the first stage
𝐿+𝑑
occurs during the period 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑣 𝑁 when the
Γ2k  x, z   h dxdz,
H L
Mk    (29) response of the plate is mainly induced by the
0 0
forced vibration of the moving loads; the second
(𝐿+𝑑𝑁 )
 k is the viscous damping ratio of the k th mode; stage occurs during the period <𝑡≤
𝑣
(𝐿+𝐿𝑓 +𝑑𝑁 )
Pk  t  is the generalized force of the k th mode when the loading series moves out of the
𝑣
written as plate, and the response is the free vibration of the
plate. In the whole process, the generalized force
N  v  t  ti   of the k th mode expands with the value of zero on
Pk  t    PS i  
i 1  L  the basis of the first stage when the second stage
occurs.
  x  v  t  ti  , z  zc   k  x, z  dxdz
H L
 
0 0
(30)
The coefficients of the Fourier series are expressed
N
 v  t  ti  
= PS i    k v  t  ti  , zc .
as [8]
i 1  L 
1 T
Pk  t  dt ,
T 0
a0 k  (32)
For any periodic loading, the generalized force can
be converted to a form expressed in Fourier series
[4] and the transformation is 2 T
Pk  t  cos  j t  dt  j  1, 2,3, ,
T 0
a jk  (33)

Pk  t   a0 k    a jk cos  j t  2 T
Pk  t  sin  j t  dt  j  1, 2,3, .
T 0
j 1 (31) b jk  (34)
b jk sin  j t   ,
As can be seen from Eq. (31), for any periodic
2 2 v loading expanded into the Fourier series, Pk  t 
in which  =  , L is the longitudinal
T L  Lf  dN comprises a constant force a0k and a series of
length of the plate, L f is the distance that the simple harmonic loading terms with frequency j
loading series moves forward after it moves out of . Therefore, the steady state response of the
the plate, d N is the total length of the loading system can be calculated using the superposition
series. (see Figure 3) principle
1042
wheel-axles of a bogie. The vehicle model used for

calculation is shown in Figure 4.
Figure 4. The vehicle model proposed for

calculation
The calculated frequency of the first eleven modes
are listed as Table. 2.
Table 2. Comparison of calculated frequencies
between two methods (a)
Mode Finite element Rayleigh-Ritz

order method method
1st 11.559 11.564
2nd 11.598 11.606
3rd 11.733 11.735
4th 11.957 11.962
5th 12.270 12.274
6th 12.674 12.680

(b)
th
7 13.169 13.175 Figure 5. The comparison of the mode shapes
between the calculated results from Rayleigh-Ritz
It can be seen that the frequencies obtained from method and finite element method: (a) cross
the Rayleigh-Ritz method are nearly identical with sections of the 5th mode (b) cross sections of the
those from the finite element method, while the 7th mode
results of Rayleigh-Ritz method are a bit larger. It is
within our expectation because the assumed Figure 6 (a) and (b) gives the displacement time
deformation shapes that for the plate are histories of the midpoint of the load line on the
additional constraints on the plate therefore the plate under the speed of 80km/h and 290km/h.
stiffness of the plate calculated by the Rayleigh-Ritz Figure 6 (c) presents the comparison of the
method is a bit larger than the real one. vibration amplitudes under various speeds. The
numerical results shown in the two figures are
Figure 5 shows the comparison of the 5th mode calculated by using a step by step integral method
shape and the 7th mode shape from the [8] and the vibration modes obtained from the
perspectives of the cross section. As can be seen finite element method. As can be seen from Figure
the mode shapes coincide well thus the accuracy of 6, the results calculated by semi-analytical method
the natural vibration characteristics calculated agree well with those from the numerical
from Rayleigh-Ritz method is verified simulation using.
1043
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 6. The comparison of vibration time histories and amplitudes under different speeds: (a) v  80km/h ;
(b) v  290km/h ; (c) vibration amplitudes under different speeds
[3] Yang, Y.B., J.D. Yau, and L.C. Hsu, Vibration of

5 Conclusion simple beams due to trains moving at high speeds.
In this study, the frequencies and mode shapes of Engineering Structures, 1997. 19(11): p. 936-944.
the free vibration of a cantilever plate are firstly
obtained by Rayleigh-Ritz method and the results [4] Xiao-zhen, L., Z. Zhi-jun, and L. Quan-min, Vertical
are confirmed to be accurate by comparing them dynamic response analysis of a simply supported
with finite element results. The forced vibration of beam bridge under successive moving loads.
the cantilever plate under a series of moving loads Journal of Vibration and Shock, 2012(20): p. 137-
with arbitrary spacing and magnitude are 142.
calculated using a Fourier series expansion
[5] Yang, Z., C. Jing-yun, and W. Su-yan, Analytical
method. These two methods together form a
solution of rectangular cantilever thin plate.
semi-analytical method for calculating the forced
Chinese Journal of Computational Mechanics,
vibration of a cantilever plate under moving loads.
2006. 23(3): p. 368-372.
The forced vibration obtained from the proposed
method has been also verified by comparing it with
[6] Xiao, Y., N. Jian-guo, and C. Chang-jun, Bending of
numerical result. The semi-analytical method has
a Rectangular Cantilever Plate Considering
advantages in investigating the influence of
Transverse Shear Effect. Applied Mathmatics and
different parameters, i.e., vehicle moving speed,
Mechanics, 1992(1): p. 53-66.
load interval, damping ratio and stiffness of the
plate, on the dynamic responses of the plate. [7] Chiba, M. and T. Sugimoto, Vibration
characteristics of a cantilever plate with attached
6 References spring–mass system. Journal of Sound and
[1] Kurihara, M. and T. Shimogo, Stability of a Simply- Vibration, 2003. 260(2): p. 237-263.
Supported Beam Subjected to Randomly Spaced
Moving Loads. Journal of Mechanical Design, [8] Clough, R.W., J. Penzien, and D.S. Griffin, Dynamics
1978. 100(3): p. 507. of structures [M] . 1975: McGraw-Hill. 366.
[2] Savin, E., Dynamic amplification factor and

response spectrum for the evaluation of
vibrations of beams under successive moving
loads. Journal of Sound & Vibration, 2001. 248(2):
p. 267-288.
1044
A Review on Prestressed Transfer Plate Analysis and Design

Ir. Hin Foo Low
Monash University Malaysia, Bandar Sunway, Malaysia
OSD Consultants (M) Sdn Bhd, Petaling Jaya, Malaysia
Dr. Sih Ying Kong, Dr. Daniel Kong

Monash University Malaysia, Bandar Sunway, Malaysia
Contact: Low.Hin.Foo@monash.edu; lowhf@osdconsultants.com.my
Abstract
Prestressed transfer plate consists of a thick cast in-situ post-tensioned concrete slab supporting
multi-storey shear walls at building transition level. Compared to conventional reinforced concrete
transfer beams, it offers savings in concrete volume of 10-15%, cuts steel reinforcement content
by 35-50% and significantly reduces formwork usage which eventually helps to achieve lower
carbon footprint for a more sustainable transfer floor construction. The design of prestressed
transfer plates is complicated owing to its two-way bending behaviour and irregular load path
from reactions of numerous shear walls. This paper elaborates the analysis of prestressed transfer
plates and discusses their interaction effect with shear walls. It also explains the design of
interfacing shear for thick plate construction with multi-layer casting in addition to various design
considerations including flexural and punching shear design based on relevant codes of practice.
Keywords: post-tensioning; prestressed transfer plate; transfer slab; high-rise building; shear wall;
arching effect; punching shear; interfacing shear.
1 Introduction rise construction, an alternative form of transfer

structure, prestressed transfer plates that offer
The construction of high-rise buildings have been speedy construction and cost effectiveness have
growing by leaps and bounds for the past two started to be adopted. Prestressed transfer plates
decades to meet the demand of the increasing consists of a thick cast in-situ post-tensioned
population for residential, commercial and office concrete slab that may sometimes be associated
space. To fulfil the modern design concept for with column capitals or drop panels to enhance its
convenience, most of these high-rise buildings are punching shear resistance. Compared to
built with integrated car park or commercial lots reinforced concrete (RC) transfer beams, the
that require larger column grids and wider span construction costs of the prestressed transfer
clearance as compared to the tower block above. plate can be reduced by up to 20 to 30% based on
A transfer structure is necessary to enable the current market trend in Malaysia. Besides cost
transition of load from the smaller grid structures saving, construction is easier and faster due to
in the tower block to the columns of larger straightforward reinforcement detailing and much
spacing at the podium. simpler bottom formwork. In terms of aesthetics,
Reinforced concrete transfer beams have transfer plates provide a flat and pleasing soffit
traditionally been used as transition structures to while allowing designers the freedom to position
support the tower blocks at transfer level. shear walls anywhere on top of the transfer floor.
However, as the result of the recent boom in high- With all these benefits, it is not surprising that
1045
more and more high-rise buildings have adopted there, designers proceed to complete full transfer
such structural schemes for their transfer plate design of prestressing forces to comply with
structures, particularly in Malaysia, Hong Kong, the Service Limit State (SLS) requirements.
China, India and Australia. In Malaysia, it is
Initial prestressed transfer plate design in Hong
estimated that more than 70% of the high-rise
Kong adopted concrete cube strength (fcu) of
residential apartments around Klang Valley region
35MPa, but now the current trend in the region is
are supported by prestressed transfer plates.
to use higher concrete grades to optimise the
plate thickness. Concrete cube strength, fcu of 45
MPa has been commonly adopted in Malaysia for
the design of prestressed transfer plates. From the
first author’s design experience, a designer may
select preliminary sizing of transfer plate thickness
based on estimation of 50mm for each floor
(residential) supported above for typical column
grids of 8.5m. This is applicable for transfer plate
design based on the maximum allowable shear
stress in accordance to TR43 [3], EC2 [4] and HK
CoP [5], but adjustments shall be made to suit
ACI318 [6] and AS3600 [7]. Besides, modification
Fig 1: Prestressed Transfer Plate under construction factors shall be applied for transfer plate with
larger span/depth ratio, wider column grids, and
2 Guides on Prestressed Transfer concrete cube strength, fcu lower than 40MPa.
Plate Preliminary Sizing & Design Generally, prestressed transfer plate with its thick
section, requires only nominal amount of tendons
Compared to reinforced concrete members,
in the range of 22-33kg/m3 with average pre-
prestressed structures are subjected to pre-
compression force around 0.85MPa to 1.5MPa. An
compression force from tendon stressing, as well
effective prestressing force per sectional area of
as uplifting and balancing loads from tendon
slab (P/A) less than 0.85MPa is not recommended
profiles which counteract any vertically applied
which may otherwise jeopardise the transfer
loads, and thus effectively reduce the deflection
plate’s resistance against cracking due to creep
and cracking of the structure. Prestressing forces
and shrinkage or thermal effect [8]. With the
and the tendon profiles also help to improve the
above prestressing steel content, the density of
bending strength and shear capacity of the
un-tensioned steel reinforcement (rebar) would
structure that eventually makes designing a
be around 75-100kg/m3 including punching shear
slender and thinner structure possible. Taking
links and interfacing bars, even though projects
advantage of these effects, prestressed transfer
with rebar poundage as low as 56kg/m3 have been
plate is designed as a post-tensioned flat slab to
successfully completed in Malaysia. Higher rebar
support multiple heavy loads from shear walls or
poundage of 130-180kg/m3 was recorded for the
transfer columns. With the exception of American
prestressed transfer plates in Hong Kong and
Continents, prestressed transfer plates are
Shenzhen [9] probably due to the extra strength
commonly designed with bonded tendons.
requirement to resist extreme wind loads from
Unlike typical prestressed slabs which are typhoon at these regions.
normally controlled by allowable concrete
Compared to the reinforced concrete transfer
stresses, punching shear consideration always
beams, prestressed transfer plates are able to
governs the design of a prestressed transfer plate
offer reduction in the total concrete volume for
[1, 2]. Thus, designers always start with the sizing
about 10-15% and rebar poundage for about 40-
of prestressed transfer plate thickness based on
60% with overall saving in the range of 20-35%.
the maximum allowable punching shear stress at
With enhanced shear resistance from the
the most heavily-loaded column supports. From
1046
compression force and the vertical component of The current practice assumes prestressed transfer
the prestressing tendon profile to offset the plate of considerable thick section to be
punching shear stress at column support, the indefinitely rigid and acts as a solid base for shear
saving will become even more significant for walls with negligible deformation. A two-step
direct comparison between prestressed and RC analysis approach is normally applied whereby a
transfer plate; with 20-30% saving in concrete and model is constructed for the tower block structure
50-70% reduction for rebar providing overall consisting only of concrete frames made up of
saving in the range of 30%-45%. Due to the shear walls and slabs for the lateral analysis and
structural efficiency, improved constructability design of the tower. This model assumes the shear
and aesthetics, the usage of prestressed transfer wall base is fixed with moment release at the
plate has increased remarkably worldwide. Since minor axis so that only axial loads are transferred
the first documented project, Pacific Place from the shear walls to the transfer plate. Another
Building in Hong Kong in 1988, more than 80 separate model is then used for the analysis of the
prestressed transfer plates have been constructed prestressed transfer plate structures. The base
in the following 20 years in Hong Kong alone [10]. reactions of shear walls from the first model are
In Malaysia, the popularity of prestressed transfer taken as line loads acting on the plate. This
plate is even more overwhelming; with an conventional approach has been widely adopted
estimate of 300 such structures completed in over by engineers to reduce the time of analysis. It also
200 projects for the last decade. Table 1 shows enables separate teams of engineers to work on
some structural information about high-rise two different models concurrently, effectively
buildings supported by prestressed transfer plates shortening the overall design schedule.
in the Asia region. Nevertheless, it may lead to conservative design
of the transfer plate by neglecting its interaction
3 Prestressed Transfer Plate Analysis effect with the shear walls.
Table 1: Summary of Basic Info on Prestressed Transfer Plates in the Region
No. of Max Transfer Ave. Plate

Span/
Floors Span Plate Thickness for
Item Project Location Depth
Supported Length Thickness one supported
Ratio
Above (m) (mm) level (mm)
Hong
1 Pacific Place Building [9] 61 9.3 4500 2.1 74
Kong
Nanjing Lou Zi Xiang Service
2 China 25 8.0 2000 4.0 80
Apartment [2]
Shanghai Qian Hong Yuan
3 China 20 8.4 1000 8.4 50
Building[2]
4 Delhi One, Noida, Delhi1 India 42 9.0 3000 3.0 71
1
5 Vasant Oasis, Mumbai India 28 N.A 1800 N.A 64
Concerto Kiara, Mon't Kiara,
6 Malaysia 30 8.0 1400 5.7 47
Kuala Lumpur (KL) 2
7 Alila Bangsar Apartment, KL2 Malaysia 41 11.5 2600 4.4 63
Lido Avenue Residence, Kota
8 Malaysia 21 9.0 1100 8.2 52
Kinabalu, Sabah2
1
Courtesy of Mr. Mahendran R, Business Development & Technical Director of Utracon India Pty Ltd
2
Courtesy of OSD Consultants (M) Sdn Bhd
1047
In conventional transfer structures, engineers use podium transfer structure as long as consistency
transfer beams to support shear walls at building of load path and structural equilibrium can be
transition levels which has the advantage of a ensured. Thus, the benefit of arching effects is
direct and straightforward load path; loads from often ignored in the analysis. However, HKCoP [5]
shear wall → transfer beam → columns. requires engineers, via Clause 5.5, to consider the
Comparatively, transfer slabs or transfer plates local effect due to the shear wall interaction with
are more complicated to analyse owing to its two- the transfer structures, and design for any
way bending behaviour. On top of that, most of redistribution of shear wall loads due to the
these shear walls are irregularly positioned to suit deflection of the transfer structures. These
the architectural design and hence, their load considerations require the designers to take into
paths are extremely difficult to predict by the account the interaction effect of the shear wall-
conventional strip method of flat slab design using transfer plate under gravity and lateral load, in
Equivalent Frame Method or other simplified addition to whatever structural requirements for
design approaches. With the advancement of strength. To achieve this, engineers need to model
computer technology and their computational the entire building structure in a single global
power and speed lately, finite element method numerical model considering concrete shear wall
(FEM) has become a useful tool for the analysis of frames of the tower blocks, as well as the transfer
the prestressed concrete transfer plate structures. plates and their supporting columns at the
podium floors.
3.1 Shear Wall- Transfer Plate Interaction
3.2 Transfer Plate Analysis with FE
Under shear walls loading, the transfer plates start
to take load and deflect, but the high in-plane There are commercial softwares that offer finite
stiffness of shear walls will reduce the transfer element modelling of structures for general
plate deflection and initiate arching effects which analysis purposes. However, only a few are tailor
stiffen the transfer plate. Kuang & Zhang [11] and made to handle the analysis of prestressed
Osman & Azim [12] have carried out studies on structures which shall consider both the out-of-
the interaction between shear walls and transfer plane load effect from gravity load, and also the
plates using finite element analysis. Kuang & in-plane load effect from prestressing axial force
Zhang [11] compared analysis results of different together with the tendon primary and secondary
FEM models of the same transfer plate, one with effect in the transverse direction. Prestressed
complete shear walls taking the interaction effect transfer plates can generate plate action in
into account of, whereas another one with flexural of both Mx & My and twisting moment Mxy
simplified model based on shear wall reaction together with transverse shear in Vx and Vy
applied as line loads. They found that the direction, as well as axial membrane action in Nx
complete model with interaction effect yielded and Ny beside in-plane shear Nxy. These specialist
lower stresses to the transfer plate structures. softwares are usually capable to calculate the
Osman & Azim [12] found that the interaction prestress losses due to immediate and long term
effect becomes more obvious for longer shear effect, as well as to predict the long term and
walls, and the action of arching increased with the short term deflection of a prestressed structure.
length of the shear walls. They concluded that the
Shell elements are normally adopted in the finite
interaction effect may be beneficial to the transfer
element modelling of prestressed transfer plates.
plate structure, but it does not alter the
Thin shell element follows Kirchhoff formula with
supporting column reactions significantly. Some of
an assumption that the plane section remains
the theoretical analysis and fundamental design
plane which ignores any shear deformation in the
concept of prestressed transfer plates by other
transverse or out-of-plane direction. It under-
researchers were reported in [1, 2, 13].
estimates the deflection of a prestressed transfer
Most codes of practice allow engineers to analyse plate, as compared to thick shell theory which
and design a transfer structure by adopting follows Mindlin/ Reissner theory. Shear
separate models for the tower block and the deformation of a concrete structure becomes
1048
significant when the span/ depth ratio is less than tensile and compressive stresses are commonly
8, which is commonly the case for prestressed adopted for prestressed transfer plate design.
transfer plate supporting 20 storeys and above The service requirements of the basic SLS load
[12]. When this happens, the bending stiffness of combinations from various codes of practices are
the transfer plate will be reduced due to summarised in Table 2. These allowable stresses
additional shear deformation, causing higher are referred based on concrete cube strength, fcu
transfer plate deflection compared to the 45MPa (or cylindrical strength, fck of 35MPa) with
predicted results using thin shell formulation. bonded tendon as prestressing reinforcements.
Thick shell may simulate the behaviour of Both BS8110: 1997[16] and HK CoP2013[5] do not
prestressed transfer plate better with shear cover prestressed flat slab design rather than just
deformation but still ignoring any arching effect prestressed one-way slabs. To compliment these,
within the thick concrete section. To consider this UK Concrete Society Technical Report 43: Post
effect, the transfer plate can be modelled using Tensioned Concrete Floors Design Handbook, or
solid elements. By comparing the results using TR43 [3] is widely accepted as one of the most
shell and solid elements considering wall-plate comprehensive design guides for prestressed flat
interaction effect, it was found that the stresses slab with broad guidance on interpretation of
are more evenly distributed in the latter case with Finite Element Analysis (FEA) and normalisation of
lower transfer plate deflection due to the added FEA results for practical design purpose besides
strength from the compression arch within the guidance on tendon and rebar detailing for
thick solid elements [12]. From existing literatures, prestressed two-way slabs. Even though meant for
transfer plate analysis using solid elements yields prestressed flat slab in general, these guidelines
the most economical and realistic results. are adopted for the prestressed transfer plate
Nevertheless, solid elements are too complicated design with some engineering judgements.
for daily structural modelling and their results are
Apart from TR43 (2nd edition)[3], lack of clear
too tedious to analyse for practical design
guidelines on the definition of design strips for
purpose. Thus, analysis software based on shell
prestressed flat slabs which is crucial for
elements is still commonly used for the design of
normalisation of transfer plate stresses using FEA
prestressed transfer plate at the moment.
design approach, are found in EC2[4], AS3600 [7]
However, if the helping effect from the wall-plate
and GB50010[15]. ACI 318 [6] requires prestressed
interaction were to be utilised, the designer shall
flat slabs to achieve service stresses below the
use FE program based on thick plate theory for
allowable limit across the full panel width of the
the accurate analysis of transfer plate together
tributary about the line of zero shears which is
with shear walls. For modelling of prestressed
sufficient generally for uniformly distributed load
transfer plate with thin plate theory, the designer
(UDL) using Equivalent Frame Method.
shall modify the transfer plate shear stiffness to
Normalising the stresses across full panels and
cater for any shear deformation if the helping
limiting it to lower tensile stress of 0.9fctm and
effect from shear wall interaction is considered.
compressive stress of 0.33fcu may not be sufficient
Alternatively, the helping effect from the shear
to address the complicated localised stress
wall interaction is ignored to yield a conservative
condition at critical regions of a prestressed
design based on thin plate theory.
transfer plate, like areas over column support and
areas below shear wall, for the purpose of
4 Evaluation of Current Design controlling cracks and concrete creep effect.
Practice and Design Codes Unlike typical prestressed flat slab, the live load
component of a transfer plate may not be
4.1 Allowable Flexural Stresses
significant in comparison with its dead loads
Major design codes in the world do not specifically (usually in the range of 15-20% of total supported
address the design requirement for prestressed load), particularly for residential buildings. Hence,
transfer plate rather than the normal prestressed the long term effect of the prestressed transfer
one-way slab or flat slab. The same allowable plate under permanent dead load and quasi-
1049
permanent live load needs to be checked to avoid 4.2 Punching shear

the undesirable concrete creep effect. In this
Punching shear is crucial for prestressed transfer
regard, EC2 [4], ACI 318 [6] and AS3600 [7] adopts
plate design and it usually governs its thickness.
a reduced allowable concrete compressive stress
The shear force consists of gravity loads at
up to 25% (refer to Table 2).
ultimate limit state (ULS) plus the resultant shear
TR43 (2nd edition)[3] provides guidelines on the force due to unbalanced moment transferred to
prestressed 2-way slab design using FEA approach column. The punching resistance of a prestressed
that are applicable for prestressed transfer plate transfer plate develops from 3 main components;
design. It supports normalising of FEA stresses at concrete strength, punching shear links and
the support region within 0.4w of the total vertical component of prestressing force from
tributary width known as Column Strip. With this tendons resulting from the catenary action of
refined approach, the localised effects due to load tendons. However, only those tendons passing
concentration of shear walls on the prestressed within 0.5h of the column face can be considered
transfer plate can be properly addressed by and the angle of the tendon considered should be
adopting narrower strips. Authors recommend that at 0.5h from the column face and remain
adopting 0.4w for column strips at hogging region, constant for outer perimeters [3]. The helping
and 0.6w for middle strips at sagging zone under effect from the prestressing tendons against
shear walls. When normalising the localised punching shear is significant and TR43 requires
stresses across a design strip, sufficient un- partial safety factor, p of 0.9 to be applied for a
tensioned reinforcement bars shall be provided to safe design. For the same concrete grade, EC2 [4],
distribute localised stresses for control cracking. In TR43[3] and HK CoP [5] allow higher maximum
this regard, minimum un-tensioned reinforcement punching shear stress which enable the most
of 0.075% as required by TR43 and ACI318 shall be optimised design of a prestressed transfer plate,
applied to the top and bottom rebar for closely followed by BS8110 [16], AS3600 [7] and
prestressed transfer plates. If reinforcement lesser GB50010[15], with the ACI 318 [6] being the most
than this amount is used, more rigorous stress conservative. Table 3 shows the comparison of
check with design strip < 2 times of the plate maximum allowable punching shear stress of
thickness shall be envisaged to avoid cracking. different major codes of practice.
Table 2: Allowable stresses at SLS for prestressed flat slab design from various codes
Load Basic Service Load Allowable Stress
Codes
Category (SLS) Combination Compression (MPa) Tension (MPa)
Total 1.0DL+1.0LL+1.0PT 0.60fck (0.48fcu) = 21.6 0.5√fck (0.45√fcu) = 3.0
ACI318M-14 Sustained 1.0DL+0.3LL+1.0PT 0.45fck (0.36fcu) = 16.2 0.5√fck (0.45√fcu) = 3.0
Frequent 1.0DL+0.5LL+1.0PT 0.60fck (0.48fcu) = 21.6 0.3fck2/3 (0.48√fcu) = 3.2
EC2-2004 Quasi-
Permanent 1.0DL+0.3LL+1.0PT 0.45fck (0.36fcu) = 16.2 0.3fck2/3 (0.48√fcu) = 3.2
AS3600- Short Term 1.0DL+0.7LL+1.0PT 0.60fck (0.48fcu) = 21.6 0.6√fck (0.54√fcu) = 3.6
2009 Long Term 1.0DL+0.4LL+1.0PT 0.50fck (0.40fcu) =18.0 0.6√fck (0.54√fcu) = 3.6
GB50010-
Characteristic 1.0DL+0.7LL+1.0PT 0.50fck (0.40fcu) =18.0 0.5√fck (0.45√fcu) = 3.0
2010
TR43 (2005) 1.2*0.3fck2/3 (0.57√fcu)
Frequent 1.0DL+0.5LL+1.0PT 0.40fck (0.33fcu) =14.8
2nd Edition = 3.8
BS8110: 19973
HK CoP2013 Characteristic 1.0DL+1.0LL+1.0PT 0.40fck (0.33fcu) =14.8 5.4*0.7= 3.8 (0.56√fcu)
3
Refer to Prestressed One-Way Slab Design of crack width < 0.2mm for slab thickness >1.0m (Table 4.2 & 4.3)
1050
4.3 Interfacing Shear imprint to enhance the interfacing shear capacity

in order to reduce the amount of interfacing
It is common for contractors to adopt two or
reinforcement of a prestressed transfer plates
multi-layers of casting for the construction of thick
shall treat this with care. With many protruding
prestressed transfer plates for practical and
punching shear links and rebar chairs across the
economical design of formwork, and to avoid
two casts of concrete (Fig 2), it is extremely
overloading the podium floor slabs below during
difficult for workers to provide proper imprint
construction. Hence, interfacing shear across the
onto the concrete surface at the construction site.
construction joint of different castings has been a
Besides, it is also unlikely to ensure a thorough
major concern for the prestressed transfer plate
cleaning of the concrete surface of the first cast
designers. Unfortunately, none of the current
with imprints to remove construction debris and
design guidelines or codes for prestressed flat
concrete laitance before subsequent cast.
slabs specifically addresses this design issue.
The current approach for interfacing shear design
is either based on the elastic shear stress formula:
VQ/Ib Eq.2
where, V is the vertical shear force, Q equals to
the first moment of area (A*y), I is moment of
inertia of the composite section; and b is the
length of contact surface. Alternatively, engineers
can also design the interfacing shear
reinforcement based on the concrete compressive
stress block of the section or tension forces in the
Fig 2: Prestressed Transfer Plate with concrete casting
reinforcement at ultimate limit state (ULS)
in 2 layers (2nd cast on top of 1st cast)
subjected to the calculated demand moment.
However, designers shall take note that unlike
straightforward interfacing shear calculation for
5 Conclusions
beam in one direction, the interfacing shear in This paper reviewed the current practices for the
prestressed transfer plate is subjected to two-way analysis and design of prestressed transfer plate
behaviour which still remains as a new subject for based on relevant design codes. The shear wall-
further research. Thus, it is recommended that a transfer plate interaction has not been addressed
conservative approach for the interfacing shear in most of the design codes, except Hong Kong
design shall be adopted; either assuming elastic Code of Practice, thus leading to conservative
distribution of shear stress proportional to the designs. For prestressed transfer plates, the
punching shear or developing the interfacing punching shear resistance always governs the
shear stress based on the shear forces in each design particularly on concrete slab thickness and
normalised design strip. In addition to the vertical thus, the transfer plate thickness highly depends
shear forces, the designer shall also consider the on the selected codes of practice. EC2, TR43 and
interfacing shear across the concrete plane due to HK CoP allow higher maximum punching shear
the horizontal component of the prestressing stress and lead to a more economical design of a
forces from the stressing anchorages within the prestressed transfer plate. Interfacing shear stress
end block region. distribution in prestressed transfer plate is a new
All the major codes provide design formula to topic which shall adopt a conservative approach in
compute the interfacing shear capacity across the the design. As a new structural scheme, the design
concrete surfaces based on the concrete strength, of prestressed transfer plates shall always adopt
the design guidelines and formulas from the latest
amount of interfacing reinforcement, presence of
prestressing and condition of the contact surface. version of the codes of practice to be on par with
However, designers who intend to adopt surface the new research finding.
1051
Table 3: Comparison of maximum allowable punching shear of various Codes of Practice
Load Basic Ultimate Load Allowable Punching

Codes Remarks
Category (ULS) Combination Shear Stress (MPa)
ACI318M-14 Total 1.2DL+1.6LL+1.0HYP4 * 0.66f√fck = 2.9  taken as 0.75 for shear
0.5* bw* d* * fcd  = 0.6[1 – fck/250]

EC2-2004 Characteristic 1.35DL+1.5LL+1.0HYP4
= 5.2 fcd = 0.85*fck/1.5
AS3600-
Characteristic 1.2DL+1.5LL+1.0HYP4 * 0.2* fck = 4.9  taken as 0.70 for shear
2009
GB50010-
Characteristic 1.35DL+1.4LL+1.0HYP4 1.20* ft *  = 4.8 ft= 2.51 and = 1.6
2010
TR43 (2005) 0.5* bw* d* * fcd  = 0.6[1 – fck/250]
Characteristic 1.35DL+1.5LL+1.0HYP4
2nd Edition = 5.2 fcd = 0.85*fck/1.5
BS8110: 1997 Characteristic 1.4DL+1.6LL+1.0HYP4 5.0 0.8√fcu but ≤ 5.0MPa
HK CoP2013 Characteristic 1.4DL+1.6LL+1.0HYP4 0.8√fcu = 5.3 0.8√fcu but ≤ 7.0MPa

4
HYP denotes hyperstatic or secondary moment from prestressing effect
6 References
[1.] Huang C. r., & Zou, Z. g. . Design of [9.] International Federation or Structural
Prestressed Thick Slab for Transfer Story for Concrete fib. Technical Report Bulletin 31: Post
Qianhongyuan Building. . Building Science. 2005 Tensioning in Buildings fib Bulletin 31. 2005.
21(2). [10.] Crigler J. . Expanding the Use of Post-
[2.] Su J. H. Post Doctorate Thesis: Design & Tensioning in Buildings. . STRUCTURE Magazine, .
Structural Performance of Prestressed Transfer 2008 (January):pp. 48-51.
Slab in High-rise Building. . Shanghai, China: TongJi [11.] Kuang J. S., Zhang Zhijun. Analysis and
University. 2007 behaviour of transfer plate–shear wall systems in
[3.] Society UK Concrete. Technical Report tall buildings. The Structural Design of Tall and
No.43: Post Tensioned Concrete Floor Design Special Buildings. 2003;12(5):409-21.
Handbook. . TR43 2005 [12.] Osman A., & Azim, M. A. . Analysis and
[4.] Standardisation European Committee for. Behaviour of High-rise Buildings with Transfer
Eurocode 2: Design of Concrete Structures. EC2 Plate System. . 13th Arab Structural Engineering
2004. Conference Algeria. 2015
[5.] Department. HK Buildings. Hong Kong [13.] SU Jianhua TANG Mengxiong, LI Jianian,
Code of Practice for Structural Use of Concrete. . ZHANG Qilin and LI Jiang. Introduction to Tall
HK CoP2013 Building with Pre-stress Transfer Slab. Guangzhou
[6.] Committee ACI. Building Code Architecture 2007;2007(06).
Requirements for Structural Concrete and [14.] Aalami B. Analysis Tools for Thick Concrete
Commentary. ACI 3182005. Slabs. California, USA: ADAPT Corporation 2007.
[7.] Ltd. Standard Australia. Australian [15.] China. National Standard of the People's
Standard: Concrete Structures AS 36002009 Republic of. Chinese Codes for Design of Concrete
[8.] Aalami B., & Bommer, A. Design Structures. . GB500102010
Fundamentals of Post-Tensioned Concrete Floors: [16.] Institute British Standard. BS8110:
AZ, USA: Post-Tensioning Institute, PTI.; 1999. Structural Use of Concrete. BS81101997
1052
The Appraisal of Wind-Driven Rain within Open-Air Sport Venues

Nurhayati Hashim, Robin Stanfield, Stefano Cammelli
BMT Fluid Mechanics Ltd, Teddington, Middlesex, UK
Contact: Robin.Stanfield@bmtglobal.com
Abstract
Regions of the world that find themselves characterised by the term ‘developing’ often tend to
observe significant growth rates, commonly having specific areas that are targeted for rapid
modernisation, and with that see the emergence of high quality destinations and venues that
serve as a focal point for major cities.
Many such regions fall outside the temperate climes of the conventionally ‘developed’ world and,
by extension, they experience greater extremes of weather. The climate of Southeast Asia, for
example, is mainly tropical, hot and humid all year round with rainfall plentiful.
With the significant urbanisation of these regions, designers will – to some extent – need to set-
aside their conventional views on how to account for the climate. Through a case study that
considers a contemporary stadium and focuses on the effects of wind-driven rain, this technical
paper will demonstrate how the well established and emerging technologies of wind tunnel
testing and Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) based modelling can be carefully employed in
tandem to ensure that the architectural solution stands up to the tests the climate will offer.
Keywords: Wind-Driven Rain (WDR), Aerodynamics, Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD), Stadia
provide comfortable conditions for visitors and

1 Introduction players alike, while remaining unenclosed to
For some time now, stadia have been widely used retain the feel of an open-air / outdoor venue.
as venues for a range of entertainment activities Comfortable conditions would typically consider
although they still focus heavily on traditional several factors including the availability of natural
sporting events. As these events tend to attract light, thermal comfort, and wind / air infiltration
large crowds, over time owners and operators effects that affect both occupant comfort and
have to cater for changing demands and (although not related to comfort) the availability
expectations of visitors either by redeveloping the of CO2 for healthy grass growth.
existing stadium (Anfield Stadium, Camp Nou), or
by building a new stadium on the same site (White In addition, the most logical purpose for a stadium
Hart Lane) or at a different site entirely (Emirates roof is to provide adequate protection to
Stadium). spectators from precipitation. Take for example,
the Arthur Ashe Stadium in Flushing Meadows,
Stadium roofs are complex structures and being so New York, home to the US Open tennis
they provide significant challenges for both the championships. Prior to 2016, the main court that
architects and the engineers responsible for the serves the grand slam tournament had not
design. The design intent of a stadium roof featured a roof. As a result, spectators were
normally aims to provide unobstructed viewing, to exposed to rainy conditions and matches were
1053
suspended because of the rain delays. The enclosed by a porous façade (~50%) comprising
extensive rain delays had forced the tournament twisted fins around the curved facades. The outer
to reschedule matches, most notably the men’s edge of the roof sits inboard and just below the
singles final for five years in a row. The stadium top of the façade. From there it slopes upwards
was also renowned for being noticeably windier steeply to its highest point above the rear of the
than other tennis venues. seating tiers then down towards the centre of the
stadium. The stadium has three tiers of spectator
In contrast to Arthur Ashe whose original design
seating, with an open concourse level running
had no roof, the recent redevelopment of a
around the perimeter of the stadium.
stadium in Europe very much featured a roof that
provided overhead protection to all seating tiers.
Despite this, it transpired that numerous 2 Methodology
supporters were not adequately protected from
the effects of wind-driven rain (WDR). 2.1 Wind Climate Analysis
Persoon et al. [1] have discussed the importance A wind climate analysis was first performed to
of WDR studies, and explained that most roofs determine the various parameters for the WDR
have been designed solely with vertical rainfall in study before the experimental and computational
mind, often with little or no consideration being work were undertaken.
given to rain that is blown onto the stands and A joint probability analysis of wind and rainfall for
spectators by WDR. the site was performed using weather data
The aim of a WDR study is to inform the design so collected from the nearest suitable weather
that it can be optimised to limit the amount of station, located approximately 1.5 km NE of the
rain deposited on spectator seating areas, and to stadium. Figure 1 shows the details of the wind
assess the effectiveness of different design / speed and wind direction probability distributions
mitigation options. Studies on WDR previously that correspond to the occurrence of rainfall.
carried out by Persoon et al. [1] and van Hooff et
al. [2] compared the influence of various stadium
geometries and their effects on wetting on the
spectator stands by CFD simulations. Their work
indicates that while different stadium geometries
will give rise to notably variable internal flow
patterns and thus rain ingress and deposition
behaviour, all cases show the potential for
spectators to be impacted by WDR, especially (as
is the case for a majority of stadia) if the roof
provides vertical coverage to the innermost rows
of seating and little more.
While ordinarily computational methods have
been employed exclusively to simulate WDR, the
case study presented herein shows that
experimental work via wind tunnel testing can be
used to explore the impact of various mitigation
solutions and to help validating the computational
method.
The stadium discussed within this paper is located
in Europe and is home to a major football club,
with a capacity of nearly 55,000. The stadium is
Figure 1: Probability distribution of (a) wind
nominally elliptical in shape, with the bowl
direction and (b) wind speed
1054
Figure 2: Probability distribution of (a) rainfall rate at the site and (b) rain droplet diameter
The wind directions that were found to be the tiers for the original stadium roof configuration
predominant wind directions during rainfall (the baseline case) plus two principal alternate
events, 260° to 330°, were selected for the roof configurations that were devised with the
analysis. Additionally, the wind speed that is aim of resolving the WDR problem. 3D models
exceeded most commonly was found to be 2 m/s. showing the baseline and mitigation
configurations are presented in Figure 4.
A statistical analysis of rainfall performed at the
site identified that the most commonly occurring
rainfall rate was found to be 1 mm/hr. The rain
droplet diameter distribution associated with a
rainfall rate of 1 mm/hr was calculated based on
the work of Wolf [3]. Wolf studied the distribution
density of raindrop diameters implied by the
measured Laws-Parsons distribution of the
volume fraction of water in rain. Based on this, a
droplet size of 1.1 mm was selected to be
representative of a typical raindrop size because
the probability of exceedance of this size is
approximately 50% which also corresponds to
light rainfall, as described in Thompson et al [4].
Figure 2(a) shows the probability of rainfall rate at Figure 3: Full scale observations of wetting pattern
the site and the rain droplet diameter distribution. for a wind direction of 300°
In Figure 2(b), it can be seen that for a droplet
diameter of 1.1 mm, the probability of ANSYS CFX software V15 [5] was used to solve the
exceedance of this size is approximately 50%. 3D steady-state RANS equations in combination
with the k-ω turbulence model [6]. An Eulerian
A wetting pattern on the spectator seating for the homogenous multiphase model solving explicitly
stadium is shown in Figure 3. This pattern for air and rain particles was used in the rain
represents a worst-case scenario of the data deposition analysis. The velocity of the dispersed
collected from the site that occurred from one of fluid was calculated using the Algebraic Slip Model
the prevailing wind directions known to drive the (ASM) [7] with the drag coefficient calculated from
wetting of the stands, which was 300°. the mean particle diameter of the raindrops.
2.2 CFD & Computational Model The computational mesh was generated to
envelope the space bounded by the development,
A rain deposition analysis was carried out to the surrounding buildings, the ground, up to the
determine the wetting patterns within the seating boundaries of the computational domain. The
1055
computational mesh used for the study comprised

approximately 17 million cells of a hybrid
topology, with cells concentrated in the vicinity of
the development.
The atmospheric boundary layer (ABL) was
simulated using a logarithmic velocity profile
consistent with the model presented by Richards
and Hoxey [8]. It assumes that:
(i) The vertical velocity is zero
(ii) The pressure is constant
(ii) The shear stress is constant
This implies the following relationships for the Figure 4: 3D CAD model of roof configurations
velocity and turbulence quantities: assessed
𝑢∗ 𝑧 The surface roughness parameter was set to a

𝑈= ln ( ) (1) value representative for the case study terrain
𝑎𝑘 𝑧0
roughness derived based on the widely accepted
2
𝑢∗ Deaves and Harris model of the ABL, as defined in
𝑘= (2) ESDU Item 01008 [9].
√𝐶𝜇
Input parameters for wind direction and raindrop
3
𝑢∗ diameter for the CFD modelling were chosen to
𝜀= (3)
𝑎𝑘 (𝑧 + 𝑧0 ) reflect the findings of the wind climate analysis.
Additional wind speeds were chosen for
Where: u* is the friction velocity simulation of the baseline case to consider the
ak is the von Karman’s constant sensitivity of wetting patterns to wind speed. A
wind speed of 10 m/s was subsequently selected
U is the mean velocity for the remainder of the analysis having been
z is the height found to replicate the full-scale wetting patterns
reasonably and give rise to worst-case wetting
z0 is the aerodynamic surface roughness of patterns.
the ground
One such replica is presented in Figure 5. This is
k is the turbulent kinetic energy the numerically predicted wetting pattern for
Cμ is a constant equal to 0.09 300°, for the baseline scenario that was modelled
at a speed of 10 m/s, a rainfall rate of 1 mm/hr
ε is the turbulence eddy dissipation
and a raindrop diameter of 1.1 mm.
The associated streamline illustration, with
The friction velocity was calculated from a streamline colour representing velocity
specified reference velocity Uref at a reference magnitude, is presented in Figure 6.
height Zref as follows:
𝑈𝑟𝑒𝑓
𝑢∗ = 𝑎𝑘
𝑍𝑟𝑒𝑓 + 𝑧0 (4)
ln ( )
𝑧0
1056
The environment within a stadium bowl under the

conditions modelled could be plausibly described
as unsteady & turbulent. At model scale, the
physical constraints additionally restrict access to
the interior meaning installation of important
components, namely instrumentation, lighting and
cameras can be a difficult and lengthy exercise in
which it can be a challenge to capture meaningful
and informative material.
Figure 8 summarises key observations from the
flow visualisation for the baseline scenario.
3 Discussion
Figure 5: CFD Predictions of wetting pattern for a
wind direction of 300° The exercise of viewing both CFD and wind tunnel
visualisations is very informative, and quite
2.3 Wind Tunnel Testing insightful, highlighting both the advantages and
disadvantages of both methods and why it might
A wind tunnel test was carried out together with be wise for standard practice for WDR studies to
the CFD simulations, principally to provide a require both.
qualitative comparison of the flow features
observed within the wind tunnel with those from Consider first the CFD modelling. The modelling
CFD simulations. parameters were selected because, following a
series of sensitivity simulations, they gave rise to
The wind tunnel tests were carried out at BMT’s the worst-case wetting, and provided a
atmospheric boundary layer wind tunnel which reasonable prediction of the full-scale wetting
has a working section 4.8 m wide, 2.4 m high and observations from 300°. In Figure 5, the red region
15 m long. The surrounding area was modelled to highlights the full-scale wetted region that has
a radius of 450 m from the centre of the stadium. been captured by CFD, while the blue regions
The surrounding buildings and topography were indicate where the CFD has not predicted wetting
represented to a sufficient level of detail to that has been observed at full scale. The degree of
reproduce the wind flows at the location of the agreement is reasonable. The streamline patterns
site. shown within Figure 6 exhibit the behaviour that
A 1:300 wind tunnel model was designed to allow has been predicted by Persoon et al. [1] and van
a good representation of the details that are likely Hooff et al. [2], which is the presence of the
to affect the local and overall wind flows at full dominant primary vortex within a central region
scale. Flow visualisation was carried out using within the bowl, with a contra-rotating secondary
smoke release devices such as smoke rakes and vortex beneath both the upwind and downwind
smoke wands to illustrate the key wind flow roofs. The CFD studies undertaken by Persoon et
features within the stadium. In addition to that, al. [1] are additionally validated against
the pitch was instrumented with model mounted experimental work, though arguably (and this
tufts and the spectator seating was instrumented appears to be acknowledged) the ‘street canyon’
with wind speed sensors. The tests were simulation is perhaps less complex than the
conducted for the baseline geometry, with two modelling of flow behaviour within a stadium.
different mitigation configurations which were Importantly, CFD permits a more detailed
replicated by the configurations modelled in the interrogation / visualisation of the results to gain
CFD simulations. an understanding of the aerodynamic behaviour
involved, what is driving the problem, and thus
Figure 7 shows the wind tunnel set-up, viewed
informs any potential solutions.
from upstream.
1057
Figure 6: Streamline plot for the baseline configuration (300° wind direction)
In contrast to the CFD the outputs from the wind indicate the presence of a region of re-circulation
tunnel appear comparatively antiquated. The but it is not well defined, very turbulent, and
interrogation of flow-visualisation recordings is intermittent. Moreover, in such an environment
arduous and subject to interpretation. the smoke patterns are not sufficiently defined to
Observations from video recordings are also corroborate, or to contradict, the direction of any
especially challenging to represent in conventional rotation. The tuft recordings are more supportive
written form. of the CFD, verifying the presence of the
predominant primary vortex, and suggesting that
– while there would appear to be more complex
behaviour in this region, there is merit in the CFD
prediction of a contra-rotating secondary vortex.
Figure 7: Wind tunnel set-up, from upstream

That said, the products of the wind tunnel have
their own merits, principally that the fluid
phenomena produced are accurate, time-varying
representations of full-scale that account for the
effects of turbulence and the unsteady nature of
the flow field inside the stadium. Indeed, watching
the wind tunnel flow-visualisation videos on loop
provides an excellent reminder of the limitations
to the RANS CFD approach. The flow is highly
unsteady. The outer layer moves periodically from
above the roof, to beneath it, not purely above
the roof as Figure 6 would suggest. A primary
vortex is present, and its rotation agrees with the
CFD prediction. Yet this vortex is non-stationary
and intermittent – this is evident from both smoke
and tuft recordings. The region beneath the
upwind roof is not well captured in the recordings. Figure 8: Wind tunnel smoke and tuft visualisation
Beneath the downwind roof the smoke flow does
1058
Based upon the good level of agreement between [5] http://www.ansys.com/products/fluids/an

full-scale observations, experimental wind tunnel sys-cfx.
testing and numerical simulations for the existing
[6] Menter F. Zonal Two Equation k-ω
configuration of the roof, the design and the
Turbulence Models for Aerodynamic Flows, AIAA
engineering team were able to recommend with
Paper 93-2906, 1993.
sufficient confidence an extension of the roof to
the football club. The solution has since been [7] STENMARK E. On Multiphase Flow Models
adopted and is reported to improve the spectator in ANSYS CFD Software, CHALMERS UNIVERSITY
comfort by 70%. OF TECHNOLOGY, Göteborg, Sweden 2013.
[8] Richards, P.J. and Hoxey, R.P. Appropriate
4 Conclusions boundary conditions for computational wind
The work presented herein demonstrates that engineering models using the k-ε turbulence
while both CFD and wind tunnel methods are valid model. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial
and valuable tools to investigate the phenomenon Aerodynamics, vol. 46 & 47, 1993; 145-153.
of wind-driven rain, both have limitations that [9] ESDU, Computer program for wind speeds
would question their validity as a standalone and turbulence properties. Item 01008, ESDU
solution. In contrast, if carefully used together, International, London, 2006.
they can complement one another to provide
more comprehensive and robust solutions.
In future, it would be prudent to explore the
performance of higher fidelity CFD solutions (LES,
DNS, DES) for application to this phenomenon. In
doing so, more comprehensive wind tunnel
techniques – including Particle Image Velocimetry
(PIV) technology as well as more adventurous and
non-intrusive pressure measurements across the
underside of the roof, pitch and seating tiers –
could be an additional and valuable tool for
validation.
5 References
[1] Persoon, J., van Hooff, T., Blocken, B.,
Carmeliet, J., de Wit, M.H. On the impact of roof
geometry on rain shelter in football stadia. Journal
of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics
96, 2008; 1274-1293.
[2] van Hooff, T., Blocken, B., van Harten M.
Numerical analysis of wind-driven rain shelter in
sports stadia: influence of stadium geometry.
Building and Environment 46(1), 2011, 22-37.
[3] D. A. d. Wolf. On the Laws-Parsons
distribution of raindrop size. Radio Science, vol.
36, no. 4, 2001.
[4] P. Thompson, J. Tolloczko, N. Clarke.
Stadias, Arenas and Grandstands – Design
Construction and Operation, 1998.
1059
Application of Aerogel in Building Energy-saving

Hao Shuo
Yan Bin
Zhou Min
PowerChina ZhongNan Engineering Corporation Limited, Changsha, China
Contact: top@hsbob.studio
Abstract
Each year, China consumes more than 1.4×108t coal for supplying heat. However, an urgent
problem is that a large percent of the heat is not fully used but lost to external through the
windows, walls and roofs. The paper mainly talks about how to improve the thermal insulation
property of the buildings by adopting aerogel in order to reduce the unnecessary consumption of
coal. Aerogel is a solid-state material with a density lower than that of the air and extraordinary
performances in heat insulation and fire resistance which can be seen in the fact that the
temperature it can withstand is more than ten times than other common materials. This paper
aims at studying the application of particle aerogels, plate aerogels, and glass aerogels in the
construction industry. And some application methods of aerogel are put forward connected with CRTS
slab, architectural glass and non-bearing structure.
Keywords: Aerogels; building energy saving; thermal insulation materials
advancement of national policy and growing

1 Introduction attention of industry, how to develop the aerogel
In recent years, with the gradual transformation of industry gradually becoming the hot spot of
Chinese economy, environment protection is attention.
getting more attention to by the government, Aerogel is a kind of material with extremely strong
investors and academicians. "KEEP THE GREEN " is property sound insulation performance and high
not just a slogan. By the end of 2016, China light transmission. Its porosity is high 80% to
national new material leading group was 99.8%; minimum density is low at 0.003g/cm3 [2].
established. Not only at the national level, but also In 1930, SIO2 aerogel was prepared by
in the industry, we think more highly of new supercritical drying, but at that time, aerogel was
material especially the aerogel industry. On April not put into the market. After years of
7th 2017, "2017 national aerogel application experimental demonstration and research of
seminar" was held in Beijing [1]. With this many scholars, many excellent properties of
1060
aerogel have been developed. In recent years, 1%, burning grade is A, tensile strength is 1000
China has paid special attention to the research of kPa and thermal conductivity is shown in figure1.
aerogel performance. Professor Liu Zhao-hui from
Logistic Engineering University of PLA has
improved the preparation process of the original
SiO2 aerogel and studied the performance of the
mixing mortar with KH550 SIO2 aerogel [3]. As the
academic community has developed a deeper
understanding of aerogel, the development of the
material of aerogel has become the future
direction.
2 Actual application form of aerogel

in building materials
Figure 1. Thermal conductivity diagram
2.1 Particle aerogel
2.3 Glass aerogel
The chemical composition of particle aerogel is
usually sio2 aerogel, which has extremely high light The glass aerogel has better light performance
transmittance, high porosity, low density, low and thermal insulation performance and it has a
thermal conductivity and large specific surface good application prospect in high-rise buildings.
area. It can be used alone in the building But the glass aerogel is difficult to be used
insulation layer. Due to its weak compressive separately as glass, it should be used in
strength, it can be mixed with concrete mortar combination with ordinary glass panels, mainly
and applied to non-shear wall and other non-load- include aerogel coated glass and vacuum
bearing construction. In the construction of laminated aerogel glass. The glass visual effect of
aerogel particles, it can experience the excellent vacuum laminated aerogel glass is good, and has a
energy saving characteristics of aerogels, which low heat transfer coefficient, but it is difficult to
can save up to 60% to 80% of the building energy prepare, which does not meet the normal
consumption [4], the high insulation of aerogel economic budget in the project. However, if the
particles shows great advantages and prospects in visual effect of the glass is reduced, it can reduce
this aspect, and in construction, the aerogel the cost and guarantee the lower thermal
particles are safe, environmentally friendly and conductivity coefficient. In the present market,
non-toxic. the air gel glass is more than 75% light
transmittance [6], and the thermal conductivity
2.2 Plate aerogel increases with the increase of light transmittance.
For some buildings (such as cinemas, shopping
Due to the fragility of aerogels, it is not suitable malls, etc.) with no higher requirements in light
for being directly applied in engineering. In the transmittance, the use of aerogels can greatly
preparation of aerogels, reinforced materials have reduce the energy consumption of buildings.
been added, which can enhance the compressive
and tensile strength of aerogel. On the other 3 Application method and effect of
hand, mixed with some inorganic materials, such
as ceramic fiber, calcium silicate, which has
aerogel in building energy-saving
enhanced aerogel’s thermal performance, and
after the composite material is dried, the plate 3.1 Mix with mortar
aerogel is obtained [5]. Aerogel has good heat insulation performance,
Nano technology co., LTD’s production of plate but its strength is low, which seriously limits its
aerogel-FMA650, which is recommended to use applications, many usages of the aerogel are
mixed with other materials, Wang Fei and his
temperature - 50-650 ℃, dimensional stability is
1061
team studied the optimization of slurry 3.2 Composite with glass

performance in SiO2 aerogel granules to improve
Due to the emergence of more and more high-rise
its thermal insulation performance and
buildings, a large number of building glass is also
environmental adaptability [7]; Liu Chao-hui from
used in building. According to statistics, the loss of
Logistic Engineering University of PLA used 5%
heat from this is 40% to 50% [9], and the area of
KH550 silane coupling agent as modifier. The
the glass is also increasing. The application of
surface modification of SiO2 aerogel was first
aerogel glass plays a key role in building energy
performed, and the modified aerogel granules
conservation. Compared to the insulating glass
were substituted for aggregate, adopted the
and the vacuum glass, the aerogel composited
method of constant volume change[8]; The results
with glass has a great advantage in price, and the
show that when the replacement ratio is 50%, the
insulation performance is similar to that of the
effect is optimal, but the mechanical properties
vacuum glass. In the future, the glass industry will
and densities of mortar are decreased while the
inevitably show its strong side, and the permeable
doping aerogels are doped (Figure 2).
ratio of the aerogel glass is higher than that of the
vacuum glass, and lower than insulating glass
Lu bin and his team from central south university,
after decades of research, finally broke through
the core technologies of high-end transparent
aerogel [10], and after two years of incubation, a
production line specially designed for aerogel
glass was built in Changsha, Hunan province. The
thermal conductivity of the aerogel produced by
the production line was less than 0.015, which
really enabled the building to save a great amount
of energy in the later stage, which contributed
greatly to the sustainable utilization of resources.
Figure 2. Mechanical properties of SiO2 aerogels
mortar
4 Conclusion—Challenges and
The aerogel and mortar mixture can be used in opportunities faced by aerogel
non-load-bearing walls in the structure, so that
the characteristics of the mechanical properties
industries
and the low thermal conductivity can be fully At present, due to the excellent properties,
utilized. And the application of aerogel and mortar thermal insulation and fire protection properties
can also be used in CRTS, because of temperature of aerogel, many people hope that production will
and force, the track is often destroyed, but after be increased greatly. At present, in terms of
the application of the aerogel mortar in CRTS, this China's building materials market, most buyers
phenomenon is reduced. still hope to choose the low-cost external wall
thermal insulation materials to maximize
economic benefits. With the Chinese quality
supervision and the gradual improvement of
people's requirements for living standards, the
traditional thermal insulation materials will
eventually be replaced by aerogel, and the
problems that need to be solved are as follows:
(1). the supercritical conditions required for the
preparation of aerogel are extremely strict, the
investment is large and the preparation of the
Figure 3. Concrete CRTSIII slab aerogel is dangerous.
1062
(2). there is insufficient promotion of aerogel in Energy-saving Glass. Building energy saving
China, and the elimination of old thermal 2010; 38: 35-37 (in Chinese).
insulation materials requires certain cognitive
[7] Wang F, Liu ZH, Deng ZP, etc. Effect on the
processes.
performance of mortar using different
(3). the materials needed to make aerogel are volume content of SiO2 aerogel. Journal of
strict, such as high purity silicon source, which is Functional Materials 2016; 40: 64-69 (in
bound to affect its production efficiency. Chinese).
With the transformation and upgrading of the [8] Liu ZH, Ding YD, Wang F, Yang HB.
national economy, it is believed that once the cost Preparation and Characterization of Silica
of aerogel is reduced, the whole insulation market Aerogel. Contemporary Chemical Industry
will change. In June 2014, Allied Market Research 2016; 45:2092-2096 (in Chinese)
Company released global aerogel market size of
[9] Reim M, K Rner W,MANARA J, etc. Silica
$221.8 million in 2013. It is expected to reach
aerogel granulate material for thermal
$18.866 billion by 2020, with a total growth rate
insulation and daylighting. Solar Energy
of about 36.4% in the 10-year period (2014-2024).
2005; 79: 131-139.
The aerogels are making inroads in the whole
building insulation market, which is now almost [10] Hu JG, Chen QY, Li J, Lu B, Li PJ. Preparation
insignificant in the whole market, which indicates of TiO2 Aerogels by Ambient Pressure
that the aerogel is still in its early stage and Drying. Journal of Inorganic Materials 2009;
heralds a great future development space. 24: 685-689 (in Chinese).
5 References
[1] Bi DP. Aerogel will have a big time. China
Building materials daily 2017 Apr 13 : 3 (005)
[2] A. Soleimani Dorcheh, M.H. Abbasi. Silica
aerogel: synthesis, properties and
characterization. Journal of Materials
Processing Technology 2008; 199: 10-26.
[3] Liu ZS, Ding YD, Wang F, Ban GD, Lin R.
Influences of KH550 Modified SiO2 Aerogel
on Mortar Property. Equipment
Environment Engineering 2017; 14: 71-76
(in Chinese).
[4] Guo XY, Zhang GL, Zhao XY, Qin GQ, Li GP.
Forms and Effect of Aerogels as Insulation
Materials in Building Energy-saving. Bulletin
of the Chinese Ceramic Society 2015; 34:
444-449 (in Chinese).
[5] Betul U, Sermin G.S, Aydin K.S. Stress
formation during heating in supercritical
drying. Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids
2001; 279: 110-118.
[6] Wang H, Wu HJ, Ding YF. Advance in the
Study and Application of Aerogels as
Translucent Insulation Materials in Building
1063
Managing Wind-driven Rain to Improve the Performance of Outdoor

Spaces
Sudeesh Kala, Mark Chatten, Lim Yi Shan
RWDI Consulting Engineers & Scientists, Singapore
Contact: sudeesh.kala@rwdi.com; yishan.lim@rwdi.com
Abstract
This paper identifies the architectural design challenges associated with wind-driven rain in tropical
cities like Kuala Lumpur and Singapore. It explains state-of-the-science analysis tools and techniques
that can be employed to understand how windy, rainy weather interacts with buildings and how to
improve the overall performance and occupant comfort.
Keywords: wind-driven rain, climate sensitive design, building performance
1 Introduction
Tropical cities like Kuala Lumpur and Singapore, sheltering provided by the architecture can get
located in the equatorial belt, face a unique compromised when intense rain downfalls are
challenge: the climate in these cities most of the accompanied by gusty winds. Patrons can get wet,
time are a mix of low wind speeds, high and annoyed; floors can become dangerously
temperatures and high humidity, with almost daily slippery; and finishes and electrical circuitry can be
thunderstorms. To maximize usage, and in many exposed to water.
cases revenue generation, architects are often
In Southeast Asia, this can be problematic during
faced with daunting task of keeping occupants in
extreme wind and rain events, but also during
outdoor and semi-outdoors spaces breezy and
more everyday weather in the urban environment
comfortable , while also at the same time dry when
due to funneling effects by tall buildings, which can
it rains. Outdoor cafes, restaurants and retail are
amplify the intensity of winds and rain.
essential part of contemporary architecture and
patrons have high expectations. 2 Understanding the local wind climate
The factors to achieve such comfort is well known: Cities like Singapore and Kuala Lumpur are located
good ventilation, shading and protection from the close to the equator (approximately 1º - 3º north),
rain. Although each design issue requires special where the typical daily wind climate is relatively
attention, addressing them in isolation does not benign. The large scale meteorological systems
deliver an optimal solution. Striking a right balance that are prominent in the local wind climate are
between them is key to a well performing design. monsoons, which generate their highest winds
This can be particularly challenging when public over a period of hours, or days and are associated
areas that have been designed with natural with weak wind speeds.
ventilation and/or shading structures such as The meteorological systems that generate extreme
canopies to maintain comfort. The challenge is the wind and rain events are individual thunderstorms
1064
and thunderstorms within squall lines called the

“Sumatras”. Due to the nature of thunderstorms
they are quite unpredictable and tend to impact
only a relatively small area. These convective
systems can generate downbursts, where strong
vertical winds impact the ground and generate high
horizontal winds that flow outwards. Due to the
nature and short duration of downbursts these
events occur over a relatively small localized region
and are transitory in nature (their duration is
measured in a few minutes, not hours). Dry
downbursts are associated with thunderstorms
with very little rain, while wet downbursts are
created by thunderstorms with high amounts of
rainfall, leading to problematic wind-driven rain Figure 1. Kuala Lumpur Wind Rose
scenarios.
Figures 1 and 3 show the strength and
directionality of the wind climate for Kuala Lumpur
and Singapore, respectively, while Figures 2 and 4
show the Rain Rose for Kuala Lumpur and
Singapore, respectively, for all rain events (i.e.,
light, moderate and heavy) along with the
associated wind directionality all year round.
Figures 1 and 2 are based on measurements taken
at Kuala Lumpur International Airport between
1998 – 2014 whereas Figures 3 and 4 are based on
measurements taken at Changi International
Airport between 1981 and 2014. The data from
Figures 1 and 2 show a strong convergence in the
overall directionality for wind and rain events in
Kuala Lumpur. However, reviewing Figures 3 and 4, Figure 2. Kuala Lumpur Rain Rose (All Rain)
it appears the same does not hold true for
Singapore. Further, Figures 5, 6 and 7, indicate that
the wind direction and wind speed in Singapore
change statistically depending upon the intensity of
rain events (i.e., light, moderate and heavy). This
difference in weather patterns in two almost
similar wind climates necessitates a thorough
understanding of the long term meteorological
data for assessing the impact of wind-driven rain
issues.
Figure 3. Singapore Wind Rose
1065
Figure 4. Singapore Rain Rose (All Rain)

Figure 7. Singapore Rain Rose (Heavy Rain)
3 Understanding the physics of wind-

driven rain
A discussion around managing rain penetration is
incomplete without a thorough understanding of
the key parameters involved such as rain drop size
and intensity, wind speed and direction, and
building and surroundings aerodynamics.
Figure 8 shows the change in relative wetting
pattern around a development for two different
wind directions.
Figure 5. Singapore Rain Rose (Light Rain)
Figure 8. Wetting pattern around a development

for two different wind directions
As expected, more rain gets deposited into the
peripheries of the building when wind blows into
the face of the building. The airflow patterns is
determined by the aerodynamic influence of the
building and its surroundings on the approaching
wind flow. Figure 9 illustrates a typical example of
Figure 6. Singapore Rain Rose (Moderate Rain) airflow around a tall building. Winds approaching a
building see it as an obstruction in their path and
airflow takes the path of least resistance. In doing
so, winds get accelerated around the corners, roof
1066
and grade or sometimes get funnelled between 4 Using CFD to solve complex wind-
closely spaced buildings.
driven rain problems
To evaluate complex, rain infiltration problems, the
most advanced technique is a detailed
computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model of the
site and surrounding environment is generated,
and steady-state simulations conducted to
generate the appropriate wind fields in and around
the development, for the wind direction(s) and
speed(s) of interest. In terms of modeling urban
aerodynamics CFD modeling has its limitations, but
in this application, is the best tool available as wind
tunnel simulations cannot model accurately the
Figure 9. Typical Tall Building Airflow Patterns
transport of particles such as rain carried by the
Another key parameter in the analysis of wind- wind. CFD simulations can account for the effects
driven rain is rain drop size and intensity. Rainfall that the surrounding buildings and the
comprises rain drops of different sizes, ranging architectural geometry of the building will have on
from less than 1 mm to several mm. Figure 10 airflow.
shows the distribution of Rain Drop Size versus
Rainfall Intensity [Best, A.C. 1950]. Rain drops that
are less than 1 mm, typical of drizzles and mist, are
readily carried by wind and often driven inside the
open spaces of a development. These are difficult
to control and form a significant part of all rainfalls.
On the other hand, rain drops around 4mm are
considered “heavy” and are often driven by their
own mass and momentum. Rain drops greater than
4mm are rare as they are broken up by
aerodynamic forces before reaching the ground.
Figure 11. Plan view, rain with a NW wind showing

slight rain infiltration (north is at the top of image)
The accompanying CFD illustrations show the
effects of wind-driven rain and mist, considering
mist (0.1mm – 0.4mm diameter) separately from
rain with larger drops (1mm – 4mm diameter). The
wind velocity is shown (as vectors) and the
trajectory of rain drops and mist at 2 m above
ground level resulting from winds that are roughly
90 degrees from each other.
Figure 10. Rain Drop Size vs Rainfall Intensity
Once the steady-state wind fields are established,
rain drops are simulated by inserting a cloud of
spherical particles which are sized to average rain
drop diameters. A transient simulation is then run
to track the position of each particle as it moves
through the site under the influence of gravity,
1067
drag and the airflows simulated previously. By drops, due to their mass and momentum trapped
making the droplet diameters larger or smaller, and by the louvers, allowing only a small portion of rain
looking at different wind directions and approach to pass through. Figure 14 shows an example of the
wind velocities, different types of rain events can output of a CFD model and compares the
be simulated. By looking at the distribution of performance of an external space with and without
particles on surfaces, the relative wetness of those mitigative solutions. It is seen that different screen
surfaces can be determined, providing valuable configurations have different impact on the overall
information to those specifying or designing performance of the space.
architectural solutions. It is important to note that
the potential for wind-driven rain cannot be fully
eliminated without fully enclosing the open space.
A desired outcome however is to minimize the
relative wetness and the frequency of such
occurrences so the space can be comfortably used
during heavy rain most of the time. If the CFD
results indicate less than favourable conditions,
mitigative solutions, in the form of porous screens,
louvers wind deflectors or vegetation, can be
designed to achieve desired level of performance.
Similarly, modifications to an existing building for
Figure 13. Rain and Wind Penetration Through a
mitigation of rain problems can be evaluated and
Fin-type Louver System
quite possibly improved prior to undertaking the
cost of installation of architectural solutions and
possible disappointment in performance.
Figure 14. Performance of an open space with and

without mitigative solutions
It is important to note in combination with such
mitigation it is necessary for designers to have a
reliable understanding of the rainfall that will
accumulate, in terms of where and what volume
Figure 12. Plan view, mist with a NW wind will occur during a design storm event. Adequate
showing substantially more infiltration but with drainage is then required to ensure water does not
mitigation devices in place (small blue lines) pool at grade or flow to sensitive spaces.
When considering architectural solutions for wind-
driven rain problems, it is important to verify their
Conclusions
performance through CFD modelling that captures In tropical climates, like Kuala Lumpur and
in details the geometry and localized flow Singapore, wind-driven rain poses a significant
interacting with the elements providing mitigation. design and economic challenge to designers and
Figure 13 shows the performance of one such builders. In order to improve the performance of
solution: fin-type louvers. For winds striking the outdoor spaces and to save both capital costs and
louvers at 45o angles, the CFD results indicate that operating costs associated with managing rain and
wind is driven through the louvers whereas rain its effects, wind-driven rain studies combining long
1068
term local meteorological data and CFD modelling

should be considered.
Addressing this early on in the design process
through simple changes to architecture can help
minimize the frequency of wind-driven rain
problems, thereby improving overall comfort and
economic effectiveness of outdoor spaces whose
performance may otherwise be hampered by
severe rain infiltration.
Reference
Best, A.C. 1950a. The size distribution of raindrops.
Q. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc. 76, 16-36
1069
Innovative Ballast-less Track System for Urban Areas

Günther Achs
VCE Vienna Consulting Engineers ZT GmbH, Vienna, Austria
Contact: achs@vce.at
Abstract
An effective and reliable mass transit system is the social and economic engine of any city or urban
area. The basis for high availability and safety is built on the infrastructure. This includes the track
system, which essentially is one of the most important factors for reliability of the rail network.
VCE and PORR developed maintenance free ballast-less track system accounting for these
requirements. This system known as STA Slab Track Austria is well suited for high speed rail, urban
rail and metro operations. It has been tested and proved in many reference projects. The system
design can vary depending on the project requirements, thus being highly adaptable to different
circumstances. It can be either installed in tunnels or on bridges. On viaducts the bridge girder
systems can be used as a direct base structure for the slab track. In this case the track system
requires special verifications of rail stresses and forces on rail fasteners. The focus of all these
investigations is on interaction between bridge structure and permanent way in longitudinal
direction as well as in lateral direction especially in areas of joints.
Keywords: Ballast-less track system; floating track slab; track-bridge interaction; precast slabs;
urban traffic.
track work consists of a best-quality track form

1. Introduction and is preferably absolutely maintenance free.
Railways are one of the most important types of Although railways in general have numerous
transportation for the future. Not only their advantages compared with other transport
capacity to accommodate a large number of systems, the acceptance of new railway lines is
passengers, but also their very effective use of relatively low, particularly by potential
energy and relatively small space requirements neighbours. The reasons for it often are impacts
make them an essential transport system for from noise and vibrations generated by operating
highly populated urban areas. trains. These problems mainly occur in urban
In recent years the demands and requirements of areas where railway routes are aligned in tunnels
urban mass transport systems changed. Besides with low overburden very close to residential
the most important factor of safety, new areas. It is one of the main issues of an effective
demands, like high availability, a twenty-four- and compliant track system to minimize ground-
seven operation as well as short riding intervals borne noise and vibration impacts e.g. using mass-
emerged in the last years. Thus, nowadays it is spring-systems.
important that the railway system such as the
1070
2. Technical Basics of the Ballast-less concrete, which prevents cracking, caused by

concrete creep, shrinkage and temperature
Track System changes. Traffic-induced peak forces are safely
dissipated. The precast track slab is casted using
2.1. Development
high modular steel moulds which allow the
To account for all the requirements described in production of slabs in different dimensions based
section 1 a new ballast-less track work system has on the project requirements, see Figure 1.
been developed in the early 1990s for high speed
railway lines in Austria [1], [2], [3]. Since then this
system has been implemented in many projects
high speed but also urban railway projects.
The development of the ballast-less track system,
internationally known as Slab Track Austria STA
considered the following factors:
• Space Requirements
• Construction Methodology
• Quality in Construction and Operation Figure 1 - Track slab – variable dimensions
• Cost Effectiveness and Lifecycle Costs according to track slab type.
• Environmental Impacts 2.3. Application to different Cross Sections
Since its development STA became the standard The described slab track system is applicable for
system in Austria for ballast-less tracks adopted different cross sections with particular differences
for viaducts and bridges. on the system itself.
2.2. Technical Design 2.3.1. Sections at Grade
The main component of STA is the track slab, a In general ballast-less track systems at grade have
precast panel consisting of non-tensioned to be built on a relatively stiff and stable ground,
reinforced concrete. The dimensions of the track where long term settlement is expected to be
slab may vary, depending on the usage (high minimal. If these preconditions cannot be fulfilled
speed or urban transport) and certain parameters special measures have to be considered to
such as track gauge. Rail support points form a stabilize the ground or minimize the
highly elastic track fastening system and are consequences of the settlement.
integrated with a spacing of 60 - 65 cm depending
on the track curvature. An open joint of 4 cm The system design of STA can vary depending on
allowing longitudinal deformation due to concrete the project requirements, thus being highly
creeping, shrinkage and temperature variation, is adaptable to different circumstances. As an
arranged. The open joint between the panels does example, given in Figure 2, a reinforced concrete
not require any cover. Two tapered casting holes distribution plate is built on top of the subbase, on
are left open in the centre. The conical shape of which the track slab will be installed and grouted.
the openings prevents slab uplift due to lifting
forces once the concrete has cured.
On the slab bottom side and the grouting
openings an elastic separation layer of 6 and 3
mm respectively is attached. The elastic layer
additionally reduces the vibration impacts
generated by wheel-rail contact and introduces a
separation between precast track slab and in-situ
1071
Figure 2 – Example of a cross section for a section • Distance between the rails and the centroidal
at grade axis of the bridge
• Expansion length (distance between the
2.3.2. Tunnel Sections
thermal fixed point and the end of the bridge)
Tunnel floors normally have little to zero
The rail configuration is significantly affected by
settlements and therefore are an ideal base
the radius of the track, cross section of the rails,
structure for ballast-less track systems. The slab
longitudinal shifting resistance, and lateral shifting
track can be directly mounted on the tunnel floor,
resistance of the track as well as the influence of
see Figure 3. The STA System can be equipped
the track on the approach sections. Temperature,
with additional precast plates on top to ensure an
creep and shrinkage, braking, speed up and
even surface and to allow trafficability of the
vertical rail traffic loads have a major impact and
tunnel e.g. by fire brigades.
should be considered depending on the system
depending during bridge design phase to avoid
certain specific additional measures.
Even though STA was preliminary developed for
tunnels, its low track width and height, fast and
accurate installation rate, high track quality and
especially its fast adjustment, repair and
replacement concept, the system emerged to be
adequate for bridges as well.
Figure 3 - Example of a cross section for a tunnel

section
2.3.3. Bridges and Viaducts

For the installation of ballast-less track systems on
bridges the structure itself can be used as a direct
base structure for the slab track, see Figure 4. In
narrow curvatures the horizontal forces are
transferred into the bridge structure by concrete Figure 4 - Example of a cross section on Bridges
blocks acting as shear keys. At the transition
between embankment and bridge the flexibility of 2.4. Installation process
the supporting structure of the track changes. In The installation process of ballast-less track
the area of the transition, the interaction between systems vary depending on the type of the
the rails and the bridge has to absorb constraining system. In case of the STA system the track slabs
forces that build up due to the deformation of the are precast elements and therefore allow a high
bridge structure. The resulting stresses are degree of prefabrication and minimize installation
referred to as additional rail stresses. The time.
magnitude of these stresses is significantly
influenced in the configuration of the bridge by 2.4.1. Slab Production
the following parameters, among others:
The track slabs of the STA system are produced in
• Bending stiffness prefabrication plants with a weight of
• Horizontal rigidity (fixed point rigidity) approximately 1 to/m. The panel production
therefore is independent of meteorological
1072
conditions. In general the steel moulds used for due to the fast hardening process of the self-
slab production are adjustable and can cover all compacting-concrete.
radius ranges required by a project to a minimum
radius of 100 m. The design of each slab accounts 2.4.5. Control and Specifications for Track
for reductions of the panel length, openings in the Tolerances
panel, coverings, dowels etc., and the mould is set To fulfil the final precision requirements
up in a way which ensures design of the slab particularly for high speed lines the precast track
element is executed with ±0.3 mm accuracy. Each slab production has to achieve high accuracy. For
of the track base plate types can be clearly the production process of the STA system a
marked with a corresponding bar code and theodolite measures the geometry of the slab and
therefore be easily identified at any time in order provides the data to the software which proves
to control the correctness of the process. the deviation in perspective to the tolerance
values. Furthermore the high precision
2.4.2. Installation of the Track
requirements can be ensured by using high-
The installation of the slabs is usually completed precision steel moulds and applying an elaborate
with portal cranes. No reloading or intermediate quality control and management systems.
storage is necessary as the slabs can be Tolerances can be achieved effectively for precast
transferred directly from the transport wagon. In elements due to a high-end production process.
case a track connection is missing, the Fabrication is therefore executed under complete
transportation and laying of slabs by a truck with a quality assurance to guarantee the delivery of
loader arm is common practice. The slabs are continuous high-quality products.
lowered with an accuracy of ±0.5 cm to minimise
Besides the accuracy of precast elements, final
required adjustment at the end of the process.
track quality is essential for the durability of the
If necessary reinforcement mats are installed in whole system. Therefore, one prior target of track
advance in the layer of the grouting concrete. construction works is a very accurate geometry of
the final track. The quality control programme
2.4.3. Adjustment of the Track contains checks of different geometry parameters.
After installing the rails, final track adjustment is The network of measurements is very dense and
done using spindles. This method guarantees covers gauge, cant, rail inclination, etc. The
precise accuracy in setting the track with no evaluation consists of comparison with target
further corrections required. Adjustment work is values and statistical evaluations.
furthermore reduced by adequate track geometry
of track slabs. In order to guarantee design 3. Challenges of STA Design on
accuracy and quality a special vehicle has been Bridges and Viaducts
developed to determine and prove rail alignment.
As far as application on bridges are concerned,
2.4.4. Pouring Concrete ballast-less track systems require special
verifications of rail stresses and forces on rail
Based on the available space, a concrete joint fasteners. To meet limits of rail stresses and limits
sealing compound is applied either directly or of rail fastener forces special design principles
through a hose pump up to a maximum of 500 m. have to be implemented in order to ensure the
The use of a self-compacting concrete joint sealing performance of the track-bridge system. The focus
compound enables an even and continuous of all these investigations is on interaction
embedding of the track base plate. As a result of between bridge structure and permanent way in
the vibration-free concreting process, the fine- longitudinal as well as in lateral direction,
tuning of the track unit won’t be affected. especially in areas of joints. If special
Furthermore, it is possible to install these slab requirements of the ballast-less track (e.g.
tracks during a short railway traffic interruption maximum end tangent angle and lateral offset)
are not being taken into account during bridge
1073
design, depending on the individual situation, • Rail fasteners: adjustment works, exchange of
special elements (e.g. special track plates, special angled guide plates, exchange of elastic pads,
rail fasteners) may be necessary between adjacent exchange of clips, exchange of screws
structures or between superstructure and
• Drainage system: cleaning of pipes, trenches
abutment in order to resist the vertical and lateral
forces. Figure 5 illustrates a procedure to handle It has been demonstrated in the past that ballast-
track-structure interaction between civil and less track systems have significant better track
track. geometry over the whole lifecycle [4].
The above mentioned long-term studies and

extrapolations of these results show that concrete
elements of ballast-less track will have a lifetime
of about 80 years without maintenance needs
caused by environmental conditions and regular
train operation.
Besides regular train operation results, the
occurrence of extraordinary situations has to be
considered. The derailment of a train e.g. may
lead to severe damage of the track system.
Therefore, the ease of reparability of a track is of
major importance. It is obvious that ballast-less
track systems are more difficult to repair than
Figure 5 – Track/Bridge-interaction (simplified ballasted tracks. The development of the
sketch illustrating the influence of the end tangent elastically supported slab track STA has been
angle) particularly driven by the reparability aspect.
The diagramme in Figure 6 illustrates the typical The system allows the following repair measures:
procedure to handle the track-structure
interaction between civil infrastructure and track. • Repair of rails, rail-welds, etc. and exchange of
rails
4. Maintenance and Lifecycle Costs • Repair/exchange of rail fasteners
As mentioned in section 1 high availability in • Repair of concrete slabs, e.g. of seats/shoulders
urban track systems is important and should for rail fasteners (e.g. after derailment of
therefore have an ability of low maintenance. Past bogies/trains)
experience has shown that ballast-less track
• Repositioning/replacement of concrete slabs
systems may need maintenance works during its
(e.g. in case of large settlements of sub-
system lifetime for the following parts:
construction)
• Rails: grinding or milling, repairing of welds,
To ensure maximum availability of the track it is
exchange of rails
important that all possible repair measures are
considered and necessary efforts are minimised.
1074
CIVIL STRUCTURE DESIGN TRACK DESIGN
Design of civil structures Determination of the limit values for the ballast-less track
The civil structures (bridges/viaducts) need to be designed in The track design determines the limit values for the rails (rail
respect of the requirements of the contractor. The requirements stresses, rail gap) and deflection and deformations (traffic safety
may specify the International Regulations as valid documents. and comfort and serviceability limit states of the track) and
E.g. acc. to EN 1991-2 track/structure (T/S) interaction needs to longitudinal resistance of rail fasteners (based on the input from
be considered in the civil structures design. the producer).
The Specifications for Track/Structure interaction are based on
this determinations.
Transmittal of civil structures data to track design

The civil design provides the track design with all necessary
information on civil structures (Overview, Span layout, bridge
joint details, pre-stressing layout, bearings layout, etc.) in form
of drawings or documents. Specification of input/output and limit values for T/S
Interaction determination
Track design provides specifications for Track/Structure
interaction calculation the input/output and limit values for
track/structure interaction determination for civil design.
T/S Interaction determination by Civil Contractor
Track/Structure Interaction determination based on the
Specifications from track design.
The determination has to be detailed, taking into account the
substructure deformations, usually done using FEM calculations.
The procedure of defining a rail fastening arrangement follows Simplified T/S Interaction determination by Track
the specifications. Track design performs an independent T/S Interaction (if
necessary also by means of a FEM Calculation, neglecting the
effect of the substructure). Track design checks the rail fastening
Coordination cycle arrangement of the civil design and the broken rail gap width.
In case a new arrangement is defined by track, the civil re-runs
Civil contractor forwards the results of T/S Interaction to track the T/S Interaction and forwards the results to track.
design When the final arrangement is specified by track design, the civil
With the specified input values and output results, defined in the design is informed and receives the arrangement in order to
specifications, such as: determine the final bearing forces from T/S Interaction.
 Assumed input for the T/S Interaction
 Applied loads
 Rail stresses
 Displacements and Deflections
Civil and track proceed

When the T/S Interaction is completed both civil and track can proceed, however still cooperating/coordinating on other features defined in
interface documents my be necessary.
Figure 6 – Example Procedure for handling Track-Structure Interaction between Civil and Track
1075
global warming potential (GWP) in a reliable way.

5. Sustainability The GWP or the standard unit for measuring
Sustainability principles and possible mitigation carbon footprints, or carbon dioxide equivalent
measures of environmental impacts are important (CO2e), is a factor describing the relative potential
issues in the early-design phase of any railway of chemical compounds influencing the
construction project. Particularly socio-economic greenhouse effect and expresses the amount of a
aspects of railway projects and increasing greenhouse gas influencing the global warming of
environmental awareness of concerned parties the atmosphere. The GWP describes the mean
along the railway route as well as ecological warming effect over a specific time interval,
aspects gained great importance during the last usually 100 years. Thus, different emission values
decades. are estimated by means of CO2e and assessed
according to their specific warming potential.
In relation to these tasks the strategy of the STA
track system for a successful railway project To solve this issue in a reliable way, the carbon
proposes solutions consisting of: footprint over the entire lifecycle was assessed for
the STA system. The different masses of the track
• A comprehensive preliminary consideration of slab elements were quantified and the CO2
environmental interests. equivalents (CO2e) of the track slab construction
• First, the interdisciplinary investigation of materials were determined according to existing
design, construction and maintenance of the GWP – GWP (100) to prove evidence of the
full lifecycle of the railway asset in relation to planned aim.
the possible global warming potential of The evaluation demonstrated that the slab track
construction materials and techniques is base plate contributes to 40% of the total GWP of
assured. Second, the consideration of effects the track slab system, offering potential for
on the ecological system along the track route minimisation of the carbon footprint. Due to the
due to construction logistics is guaranteed. high prefabrication grade of the STA system the
Third, evaluation of any sorts of pollutants carbon footprint could be optimized and the
during construction and operation phase, of impacts on site are minimised to increase the
noise and vibration effects of construction and benefits of the whole process.
railway in operation as well as effects of
maintenance measures during the lifetime of 5.2. Noise and Vibrations
the assets is considered.
From experience of previous urban traffic design
• Minimisation and optimisation strategies to projects the minimisation of impacts from noise
reduce the effects on the ecological system. and vibration to surrounding and neighbouring
This may include permanent measures in or objects was one of the most important and highly
besides the STA track system (barriers, controversial issues.
reduction measures, etc.) or measures to
optimise the maintenance process. It is in any case necessary to conduct an extensive
noise and vibration assessment during the early
These three main approaches also provide design stages of an urban railway project for the
evidence of how sustainability principles and entire network. Noise and vibration sensitive
mitigation measures are implemented. areas have to be determined with focus on highly
sensitive and historic environments.
5.1. Carbon Footprint
Projects in historic city centres confirm the ability
STA is designed to minimise the carbon footprint of STA to avoid any kind of negative influence on
through the entire lifecycle (design, construction, historic valuable objects. Particularly, impacts of
operation and maintenance, decommissioning). noise and vibration have to be considered in the
It was demonstrated in previous projects that the construction and operation phase.
Slab Track Austria STA System minimises the
1076
6. Conclusions
Ballast-less track systems feature important
advantages for modern railways such as high
speed lines and urban networks. They are
applicable for different cross sections ranging
from tunnels, at grade and bridges or viaducts.
The development of the Slab Track Austria STA
System covers the experience of numerous
projects and is able to deal with high demands.
7. References
[1] Schilder, R.: Feste Fahrbahn. Oral
presentation at the conference „Innovative
Betonkonstruktionen für den modernen
Verkehrswegebau“ in Graz, 13.11.2002.
[2] Schilder, R., 2005: “Experiences in
Ballastless Track gained on ÖBB”, European
Slab Track Symposium, Bruxelles.
[3] Eisenmann, J.; Leykauf, G., 2000: “Feste
Fahrbahn für Schienenbahnen“,
Betonkalender 2000, p. 291 – 326. Verlag
Ernst & Sohn (German).
[4] Mach, M.: “Zustandsbewertung und
Nutzungsdauerprognose von Festen
Fahrbahn Systemen im Netz der ÖBB”,
doctor‘s thesis certified at Vienna University
of Technology 2011 (German).
1077
APPLICATION OF SYNTHETIC WOOD SLEEPERS ON DOUBLE DECK STEEL

TRUSS BRIDGE
Henryk Zobel, Thakaa Al-Khafaji, Marcin Wróbel
Warsaw University of Technology, Institute of Roads & Bridges, Warsaw, Poland
Piotr Żółtowski
Yellow Line Engineering, Warsaw, Poland
Bartłomiej Papis, Paweł Sulik
Institute of Building Engineering, Warsaw, Poland
Lesław Dec
Protect S.j, Warsaw, Poland
Contact: h.zobel@il.pw.edu.pl
Abstract
The problem of bridge fire is growing. Because of bad experience in Warsaw, Poland local
government decided to prove fire resistance of all bridge structures across Vistula river which pass
through the city. One of such bridges is six spans continuous truss – 400 m long - with double
deck: upper is concrete highway deck and lower is timber tramway deck. Possibility of occurrence
of fire on tramway bridge with timber deck inclined the owner of the bridge to exchange whole
deck and sleepers in particular. Because the load capacity of the bridge was drew out it was not
possible to apply steel or concrete sleepers. Therefore the owner decided to fit up synthetic wood
sleepers. To be sure that this kind of sleepers mounted on the bridge is safe special research
program was introduced. The results of investigation proofed good structural material properties
and good fire resistance of sleepers. Proposal of new structural solution of the bridge is also given.
Keywords: Composite polymer sleepers; fire; thermal effects; steel truss bridges; tramways.
1078
1 Introduction
Gdanski bridge in Warsaw was build in 1959 (Fig.
1). It is double deck structure: upper is for
highway traffic and lower provide tramways. It is
continuous, 6 span, steel, riveted truss beam with
parallel chords. The spans are 66,81 + 4 x 67,59 +
66,36 = 403,53 m. The spacing of two girders is
equal to 7,6 m and their depth is 6,5 m.
Upper deck consists of concrete plate (thickness

18 cm) and steel grid. Its width is 17 m. The lover
deck consists of steel grid and timber deck (Fig. 2). Fig 2. Lower level - tramway timber deck of
Total width is 12,90 m. Gdanski bridge
Timber sleepers (180 x 22 x 24 cm) are placed on 2. Composite polymer sleepers

longitudinal ribs with spacing of 0,7 m. The space
between rails is fulfil with timber beams (thickness Composite polymer sleepers are produced with
5 cm). pultrusion technology (Fig. 3). This is “industrial” –
automated method, which produce 12,0 m long
The fire of another Warsaw bridges across Vistula elements. The dimensions of sleepers are: length
river led to decision to exchange timber deck on 260 cm, width 26 cm and different thickness from
Gdanski bridge. One of the option is to install 10 to 16 cm.
composite polymer sleepers.
Composite polymer element consists of
continuous glass fibers and resins. The properties
are reached during curing process in temperature
180 – 200oC.
Density of this material is in average 740 kg/m3. It
has good electrical insulation and good chemical
resistance. It do not absorb water. Also do not
brake in temperature up to – 20oC. Most important
values of properties are given in table 1
Fig. 1. View of the Gdanski bridge
1079
1 2
Glass fiber Impregnation, Molding Cooli Pulling Cuttin Finishing &

supply Spray ng g Inspection
Fig. 3. Pultrusion production scheme [3]
Table 1. Comparison of properties of timber and composite polymer sleepers [3]
FFU Synthetic sleeper

Beech Standard
Properties unit
new 10 years 15 years
New
Density kg/m3 750 740 740 740 JIS Z 2010

Bending 14.2 12.5 13.1 JIS Z 2010
kN/cm2 8
resistance
Bending 810 800 816 JIS Z 2010
kN/cm2 710
modulus
Compressive 5.8 6.6 6.3 JIS Z 2010
kN/cm2 4.0
resistance
Shear resistance kN/cm2 1.2 1.0 0.95 0.96 JIS Z 2010
Hardness kN/cm2 1.7 2.8 2.5 2.7 JIS Z 2010
Impact Bending +200C J/cm2 20 41 - - JIS Z 2010
resistance -200C J/cm2 8 41 - - JIS Z 2010

Water 3.3 - - JIS Z 2010
mg/cm2 137
absorption
Electrical dry 1.6x1013 2.1x1012 3.6x1012 JIS K 6852
Ω 6.6x107
insulation
resistance wet Ω 5.9x104 1.4x108 5.9x1010 1.9x109 JIS K 6852
Rail spike 28 28 23 PTRI
kN 25
extraction force
Rail screw 65 - - PTRI
kN 43
extraction force
Composite polymer sleepers are used from 1978.

The durability is assumed for 50 years. Relation
between value of load and number of loading
cycles is shown on Fig. 4.
1080
3. Resistance of composite polymer

sleepers against high temperature
Resistance of composite polymer sleepers against
high temperature is very important from
maintenance and security point of view.
Therefore, laboratory investigation was done
using individual, specially prepared procedure [1],
[4]. Different scenarios were considered:
Fig. 4. Relation load – number of cycles for
composite polymer sleepers with different  Fire of vehicle – tramway,
thickness for Shinkansen HSL [3]  Fire of timber deck caused by combustible
substance,
Relations between normal force and deflection
 Fire under the bridge.
depending on thickness of composite polymer
Investigation were done on real model with
sleepers is given on Fig. 5.
composite polymer sleepers named Eslon neo
lumber FFU 74 produced by Sekisui Chemical
GmbH (Fig. 7) with cross-section 260 x 160 mm.
The load was about 30 kg/m. The density of
material was 720 kg/m3.
Fig. 5. Relation normal load – deflection in

dependence of thickness of composite polymer
sleepers [3]
Fig. 7. Composite polymer sleeper named Eslon
neo lumber FFU 74 produced by Sekisui Chemical
GmbH [1]
Railway (tramway) subgrade realistic model was

prepared for investigation purpose (Fig. 8). Its
length was 2900 mm and width 2500 mm. The
spacing between rails was equal to 1435 mm. The
spacing between sleepers was 390 mm between
lateral surfaces. Steel grids are located between
Fig. 6. Comparison of deflection of timber and rails.
composite polymer sleepers [3]
1081
installed on the surfaces of each sleepers with fire.

The duration time of fire was 30 minutes.
Change of temperature in sleeper with flame

during fire according to scenario I is shown on Fig.
11 and on Fig 12 according to scenario II.
The fire was damaged sleepers only but not a steel

structure. The damages were located in the area
Fig. 8. Investigated model [1]
of direct action of fire, on the surface only. The
Two scenarios were checked. Source of fire was in sleepers were fire was acting were damaged only.
scenario I on the deck (Fig. 9) and in scenario II fire In scenario I on upper surface only (Fig. 13) and on
was placed under the structure (Fig. 10). lateral surface of sleepers in scenario II only. The
damages of upper and lower surface in scenario II
shown on Fig. 14 and 15 were relatively small.
The steel elements of subgrade were not

damaged. Two sleepers were cut to check what is
the condition of the material. The range of
damages was very small. There is not penetration
into the sleeper (not more than 2 cm).
Fig. 9. The location of fire in scenario I [1]
Fig. 10. The location of fire in scenario II [1]
The flame was generated by 500 ml of ethyl

alcohol. The wind with velocity from 0 to 4 m/s Fig. 11. Change of temperature during fire
was also implemented. Eight thermocouples were according to scenario I [1]
1082
Propagation of fire from sleeper to sleeper

because of action of wind were not noticed. The
maximal temperature measured on the lateral
surface of the sleeper was about 220°C. It means
that high temperature do not affect practically fire
security of sleepers. The material properties do
not changed after the occurrence of fire.
4. New tramway deck on the Gdanski

bridge in Warsaw
As it was mentioned before possibility of
occurrence of fire on tramway deck of the bridge
with timber deck inclined the owner of the bridge
to exchange whole deck and sleepers. Because the
load capacity of the bridge was drew out it was
not possible to apply steel or concrete sleepers.
Therefore the owner decided to fit up synthetic
(composite polymer) wood sleepers. The subgrade
Fig. 12. Change of temperature during fire is mounted on steel grid (cross- and longitudinal
according to scenario II [1] beams). The sleepers will be joined with
longitudinal beams. To reduce noise they will be
placed on neoprene sole-plates.
Fig. 13. Sleeper located directly under the fire

(scenario I) [1]
Fig. 16. Cross - section of the bridge. The lower

Fig. 14. Sleeper directly under the fire (scenario II) deck with composite polymer sleepers [2]
– lover surface [1]
Fig. 15. Sleeper directly under the fire (scenario II)

– upper surface [1]
1083
[3] Information materials of Sekisui Chemical

GmbH.
[4] Zobel H., Golubińska A.: Fire of Bridges.

Studies and Materials. Research Institute of
Roads & Bridges. Vol. 52, Warsaw 2000. pp..
73.
Fig. 17. View of the bridge with composite polymer

sleepers [3]
Dock rails with a profile 60R2 will be made of steel

R260. The spacing of sleepers is 70 cm. The space
between trucks and bridge structure will be fulfil
with composite polymer boards. Rails will be
mounted also on neoprene sole-plates [2].
5. Conclusions
Application of composite polymer in civil
engineering structures is growing very fast. One of
such example is presented in this paper. At the
moment the cost of composite polymer sleepers is
a few higher than ordinary sleepers but their
prices decrease in systematic way. Current
experience shows that properties and durability of
them remain for long time and the problem of fire
resistance does not exist.
References
[1] Technical opinion related to fire resistance
of tramway subgrade on Gdanski bridge in
Warsaw made of composite polymer
sleepers Eslon neo lumber FFU 74 Sekisui
Chemical GmbH no 1148/17/Z00NZP.
Institute of Building Engineering. 2017.
[2] Project of exchange of tramway subgrade

on Gdanski bridge in Warsaw. Yellow Line
Engineering. 2016.
1084

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Vol. 108, Creativity and Collaboration, IABSE Conference, Bath 2017
Vol. 107 Ignorance, Uncertainty, and Human Errors in Structural Engineering, Helsinki 2017
Vol. 106 Bridges and Structures Sustainability —Seeking Intelligent Solutions, Guangzhou 2016
Vol. 105 Structural Engineering, Providing Solution to Challenges, Geneva 2015
Vol. 104 Elegance in Structures, IABSE Conference, Nara 2015
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Vol. 102 Engineering for Progress, Nature and People, IABSE Symposium, Madrid 2014
Vol. 101 Long Span Bridges and Roofs – Development, Design and Implementation, IABSE Symposium, Kolkata
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Vol. 100 Safety, Failures and Robustness of Large Structures, IABSE Workshop, Helsinki 2013
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2012
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Symposium, Venice 2010
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Vol. 95 Recent Major Bridges, IABSE Workshop, Shanghai 2009
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Symposium, Helsinki 2008
Vol. 93 Improving InfrastructureWorldwide Bringing People Closer, IABSE Symposium, Weimar 2007
Vol. 92 Responding to Tomorrow’s Challenges in Structural Engineering, IASBE Symposium, Budapest 2006
Vol. 91 Operation, Maintenance and Rehabilitation of Large Infrastructure Projects, Bridges and Tunnels IABSE
Conference, Copenhagen 2006
Vol. 90 Structures and Extreme Events, IABSE Symposium, Lisbon 2005
1087

Vol. 89 Role of Structural Engineers towards Reduction of Poverty, IABSE Conference, New Delhi 2005
Vol. 88 Metropolitan Habitats and Infrastructure, IABSE Symposium, Shanghai 2004
Vol.87 Structure for High-Speed Railway Transportation, IABSE Symposium, Antwerp 2003
Vol. 86 Towards a Better Built Environment Innovation, Sustainability, Information Technology
IABSE SiMlb2002IABSE Symposium, Melbourne 2002
Vol. 85 Innovative Wooden Structures and BridgesIABSE Conference, Lahti 2001
Vol. 84 Cable-Supported Bridges Challenging Technical Limits, IABSE Conference, Seoul Korea 2001
Vol. 83 Structures for the Future The Search for Quality, IABSE Conference, Rio de Janeiro 1999
Vol. 81 Concrete Model Code for Asia Design, Materials and Construction, and Maintenance IABSE Colloquium,
Phuket 1999
Vol. 79 Long-Span and High-Rise Structures, IABSE Symposium, Kobe 1998
Vol. 77 Saving Buildings in Central and Eastern Europe, IABSE Colloquium, Berlin 1998
Vol. 76 Evaluation of Existing Steel and Composite Bridges, IABSE Workshop, Lausanne 1997
Vol. 73/1+2 Extending the Lifespan of Structures, IABSE Symposium, San Francisco 1995
Vol. 72 Knowledge Support Systems in Civil Engineering, IABSE Colloquium, Bergamo 1995
Vol. 71 Places of Assembly and Long-Span Building Structures, IABSE Symposium, Birmingham 1994
Vol. 70 Structural Preservation of the Architectural Heritage, IABSE Symposium, Rome 1993
Vol. 69 Structural Serviceability of Buildings, IABSE Colloquium, Göteborg 1993
Vol. 68 Knowledge-Based Systems in Civil Engineering, IABSE Colloquium, Beijing 1993
Vol. 67 Remaining Structural Capacity, IABSE Colloquium, Copenhagen 1993
Vol. 66 Length Effect on Fatigue of Wires and Strands, IABSE Workshop, Madrid 1992
Vol. 65 Structural Eurocodes, IABSE Conference, Davos 1992
Vol. 64 Bridges: Interaction between Construction Technology and Design, IABSE Symposium, St.
Petersburg/Leningrad 1991
Vol. 63 Interaction between Major Engineering Structures and the Marine Environment IABSE Colloquium, Nyborg
1991
Vol. 62 Structural Concrete, IABSE Colloquium, Stuttgart 1991
1088
Structural Lightweight Aggregate Concrete and Its Applications
Payam Shafigh
Department of Building Surveying, Faculty of Built Environment, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala
Lumpur, Malaysia
Contact: pshafigh@gmail.com
Abstract
Construction industry demands for high amount of raw material to produce concrete. The
continuous depletion of natural resources results in negative impact to the environment and
shortage of raw material. To reduce environmental impacts of concrete production one way is to
utilize by-product and waste materials as cement and/or aggregate replacement in the concrete
mixture. However, the next solution is the use of new structural systems and lightweight structural
materials to reduce overall weight of a structure. Structural lightweight aggregate concrete (SLWAC)
is a promising material to be used in high-rise buildings and long-span bridges to reduce the size of
piers, footings, walls and other load bearing elements in such structures. Therefore, application of
SLWAC not only reduces the cost of construction but it will have significant contribution in
sustainable construction.
Keywords: Structural lightweight aggregate concrete; lightweight concrete; lightweight aggregate;

density; compressive strength.
Low density concrete with a compressive strength

1 Summary of workshop less than 7 MPa and a density less than 1000 kg/m3
In construction industry, there is always special are aerated, cellular, foamed or gas concrete while
attention to the use of lightweight structures due another non-structural lightweight concrete is no-
to their significant advantages. For example, cable- fines concrete with a density in the range of 1600
stayed bridges are considered as lightweight to 1900 kg/m3 and low compressive strength
structures with longer span length and small between 1 to 7 MPa. However, for structural
structural members [1]. Also, the weight of a applications, the common method to produce
concrete structure can be reduced significantly if structural lightweight concrete is the use of
structural lightweight concrete is used instead of lightweight aggregates instead of normal
normal weight concrete in high-rise buildings and aggregates in concrete mixture. Lightweight
long-span bridges. aggregate concrete (LWAC) to be used in structural
elements must have a density less than 2000 kg/m3
Lightweight concrete (LWC) has been widely used and a cylinder compressive strength more than
in buildings as masonry blocks, wall panels, roof 17.5 MPa.
decks and precast concrete units [2]. LWCs could
be produced with a dry density ranging from 300 to In the most cases, the SLWAC has been made using
2000 kg/m3, with corresponding compressive a lightweight aggregate as coarse and normal sand
strengths from approximately 1 to over 60 MPa [3]. for the fine aggregate [4]. Lightweight aggregate
1085
are natural such as pumice, tuff and diatomite and Application of SLWAC in structures will significantly
artificial such as expanded clay, slate, shale, or blast reduce the dead weight and consequently result in
furnace slag. Not all types of lightweight aggregates a decrease in the cross section of steel reinforced
are suitable to produce SLWAC. Using a high columns, beams, and foundations. From the Figure
cement content and good quality lightweight 2, which was developed with CEB/FIP [6], the
aggregate of small size, i.e. 9 or 13 mm maximum, saving of concrete and reinforcement of a slab-
it has been possible in some precast and foundation for a superstructure can be calculated.
prestressing plants to produce 40-50 MPa Based on this figure, if a SLWAC with a density of
lightweight concrete [5]. Figure 1 shows 1700-1800 kg/m3 is used in a high rise building, a
Light Expanded Clay Aggregate (LECA) in different saving of concrete and reinforcement for a slab-
sizes. foundation of about 35-45% can be achieved.
Due to significant reduction in using raw materials
in a lightweight structure, Structural lightweight
aggregate concrete could be considered as a
promising construction material for sustainable
construction.
2 References
[1] Javanmardi A., Ibrahim Z., Ghaedi K.,
Jameel m., Khatibi H., Suhatril M. Seismic
response characteristics of a base isolated
Figure 1. Light Expanded Clay Aggregate in cable-stayed bridge under moderate and
different sizes strong ground motions. Archives of Civil
and Mechanical Engineering. 2017; 17:
419-432.
[2] Sari D., Pasamehmetoglu A.G. The effects
of gradation and admixture on the pumice
lightweight aggregate concrete. Cem Concr
Res. 2005; 35: 936-42.
[3] Newman J., Owens P. Properties of
lightweight concrete. Advanced concrete
technology set. Oxford: Butterworth-
Heinemann; 2003, 3–29.
[4] Boyd S.R., Holm T.A., Bremner T.W.
Performance of structural lightweight
concrete made with a potentially reactive
natural sand. ACI Spec Publ. 2006; 234:
737–746.
[5] Mehta P.K., Monteiro P.J.M. Concrete:
microstructure, properties, and materials.
3rd ed.New York: McGraw-Hill; 2006.
[6] CEB/FIP Manual of Design and Technology,
Figure 2. Saving of concrete and reinforcement of a Lightweight Aggregate Concrete. Longman
slab-foundation using lightweight concrete instead Inc, New York, 1977.
of ordinary concrete for superstructures [6].
1086

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Innovative Infrastructures - Toward Human Urbanism
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Creating and Renewing Urban Structures Tall Buildings, Bridges and Infrastructure
16th Congress Report, Lucerne 2000

Struct. Eng. for Meeting Urban Transportation Systems
15th Congress Report, Copenhagen 1996

Struct. Eng. in Consideration of Economy, Environment and Energy
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“Engineering the Developing World”

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Premier Partner Coffee Breaks

Supporting Organisations Media Partners

Do Structural Codes Stifle Creativity?

Bridge Design for India - from Kolkata to New Delhi

Brunei Temburong Link

Technical Risks to Major Infrastructure Development

Megaproject and Risk Management: A Case of Kuwait

System of Combined Foundation as Base For Mega-Structures

The All-Composite Road Bridge – A Proposal for Rapid Urbanisation

Seismic Behavior of Skew RC Bridges with CFRP piers

MAHBOUBI, shima ....................................................................................................................................... 119

Fully Stress Laminated Timber Bridge

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Advanced Bridge Bearing Technologies with a Special Focus on Railway Applications

Replacement of Bridge Expansion Joints: Challenges and Solutions

Helping Gasiza have a Bridge for Generations to Come

Integrated Engagement for Considered Infrastructure: Harmonising New with Old

The Conceptualization, Design and Locally-Appropriate Construction of a 127-Meter Suspension

The Kenyan Dream : Developing Concept of Nairobi MRTS

Mumbai Metro Line 2A – Challenges in Design and Construction

Digitally Enabling Design for Manufacture, Assembly and Maintenance of Bridges

A Rational Approach to Life Cycle Design of Infrastructure Developments in Malaysia

Towards Nonlinear Reliability Assessment of Concrete Transport Structures

Seismic Resilience of Aging Infrastructure Networks

Carbon Reinforced Concrete in Construction Practice

Future Applications in Carbon Reinforced Concrete

Challenges and innovation in large-scale infrastructure projects – the WHSD project

The Harbor Passage Bridge in Hamburg

Configuration Design of Viaduct Pier in Urban Highway

Standardized Manufacturable Steel Orthotropic Decks for Urban Bridges

Earthquake Resistance of Multistory Structure with Existing LLRS

Transitioning to Seismic Design

Rebuilding of Tokyo’s Suitengu Shrine

Reinforcement of Old Masonry by New Structure

Structural Feasibility of ISO Shipping Containers for Core-dwelling Housing

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Key Techniques Introduction to Maputo Bridge Steel Box Girders Construction

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Fast Tracking the Pulau Poh Cable-stayed Bridge

The Application Status and Developing Foreground of CRTS Ⅲ Ballastless Track

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KVMRT Viaduct Structural Design Development