Dept.

of Sanskrit
SREE SANKARA COLLEGE KALADY

INDIAN PHILOSOPHY
Heterodox Schools

LOKAYATHA/CHARVAKA

Carvaka / Barhaspatya /Lokayata

Founder- Brhaspati
Literature - Barhaspatya Sutra
Period - 600 BCE

Etymologically Charvaka…

1. Name of a sage who propounded materialism.

2. From the root ‘Carv’ –for the meanings eat, chew etc. Carvaka preaches ‘eat,
drink and be merry’.
3. The name of Brhaspati, the son of Loka – a spirit of revolt and free-thinking.
4. One who utter sweet and beautiful words – ‘Charu vak’.
5. A Cārvāka chews the self (carvatyātmānaṃ cārvākaḥ)
6. It was called Lokayata because it was prevalent (ayatah) among the people
(lokesu), and meant the world-outlook of the people

Epistemology – Perception and Criticism of Inference

1. Perception is the only source of knowledge.

2. Inference is an uncertain leap from the known to the unknown.
3. An invariable relation (Vyapti) can be established only if we have a
knowledge of all cases of Hetu and Sadhya
4. No Vyapti can be established by perception. Without right Vyapti Inference
will not produce right knowledge.
5. Inference always depended on testimony, no one could infer anything by
himself.
6. Causal relation is not ascertainable.

Critisism of Testimony.

1. Testimony relating to unperceived objects is not reliable.

2. Testimony consists of words. Words are heard through ears, they are
perceived.
3. Words giving knowledge of unperceived objects are not valid.
4. Vedas are the works of some cunning priests who earned their living by
duping the ignorant and the credulous.

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 5. Testimony supported by inference is as uncertain as inference, because people
think testimony to be reliable.
METAPHYSICS. - The World.

1. Matter is the only reality, because it alone is perceived.

2. Material objects are the only objects whose existence can be perceived.
3. The World is made of four elements – Air, Fire, Water and Earth.
4. Ether is non-existent because it is not perceived.
5. All living and non-living objects are composed with four elements

The Soul.

1. The Soul is nothing but Living Body, with the quality of consciousness.
2. Consciousness is a quality of body itself.
3. Non material Soul is not perceived. Judgements like ‘ I’m fat’, ‘ I’mlame’, ‘
I’m blind’ etc. are the evidences of the identity of the self with body.
4. Material elements combined in a particular way give rise to the conscious
living body. It is not independent from the body.
5. Death of the body means the death of the individual.
6. (Chaitanya visishta Deha eva Atma)

The GOD

1. The existence of GOD cannot be perceived.

2. There is no creator, the material elements produce the world.
3. The world comes into existence by the spontaneous combination of material
elements.
4. The material elements have their own Svabhava, and by these inherent natures
and laws in them, they combine together to form this world. There is no
necessity of God for that.
5. It is called mechanism (Yadrchavada) because it denies the existence of
conscious purpose behind the world.

ETHICS.

1. Heaven is a myth and cannot be the goal of life.

2. Liberation, as freedom from all pain, is an impossible ideal.
3. We can only try to minimize pain and enjoy as much pleasure as we can.
4. Liberation in the sense of complete cessation of sufferings can only mean
death.
5. Pleasure, though mixed with pain, is the only possible Good.
6. We should not throw away the opportunities of enjoying this life. “Rather a
pigeon today than a peacock tomorrow”.
7. Goal of life is to attain maximum amount of pleasure in this life, avoiding pain
as far as possible.
8. Pleasure is the ideal of life.
9. There is neither Virtue (Dharma) nor liberation (Moksha). Only two
Purusharthas are there – Artha and Kama.
10. Vedic rites are Useless.

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 11. If animals killed in a sacrifice are sure to reach heaven, why don’t rather
sacrifice priest’s parents instead of animals and make heaven sure for them.
12. Hedonism – Theory that pleasure is the highest Goal

BUDDHISM
GAUTAMA BUDDHA
Born : Lumbini, Nepal
Liberated : Kushinagar
Full Name: Siddhartha Gautama
Spouse : Yasodhara
Parents : Sudhodana, Maya
Era : 500 B.C.E

Literature

Tipitakas
1. Suttapitaka
2. Vinayapitaka
3. Abhidhamma Pitaka

Other Buddhist Preceptors

Nagarjuna (AD 300)

Aryadeva (AD 320)
Maitreya (AD 400)
Arya Asanga (AD 400-700)
Vasubandhu (AD-410-490)
Other Buddhist Preceptors
Sankara Swami, Dharmapala (AD 600-635)
Salibhadra (AD 635)
Acharya Dharmakirti (AD 635-650) ( Nyayabindu, Pramanavartika)
Devendra Bodhi (AD 650)
Sakya Bodhi (AD 675)
Ravigupta (AD 725)
Santarakshita (AD 750)

Four Noble Truths

The truth of Suffering (Dukha)

The truth of the origin of suffering (Samudaya)
The truth of the cessation of suffering (Nirodha)
The truth of the path to the cessation of suffering (Magga)

8 Fold Path

1. Right View

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 2. Right Intention
3. Right Speech
4. Right action
5. Right Livelihood
6. Right effort
7. Right concentration
8. Right mindfulness

Pratitya Samutpada (Dependent Origination)

The theory states that all dharmas arise in dependence upon other dharmas: "if
this exists, that exists; if this ceases to exist, that also ceases to exist.
Each thing in this ‘Samsara’ are relative, conditional, dependent and having birth
and death. Each result is dependant upon its cause.

also known as….

Dharmachakra
Samsarachakra
Janmamaranachakra
Bhavachakra
Pratitya Samutpada Chakra

(1) ignorance (Avijja)

(2) formations (Sankhara)
(3) consciousness (Vinnana)
(4) mentality-materiality (Namarupa)
(5) the six senses (Salayatana)
(6) contact (Phassa)
(7) sensations (Vedana)
(8) craving (Tanha)
(9) grasping (Upadana)
(10) becoming (Bhava)
(11) birth (Jati)
(12) old age and death. (Jaramarana)

Religious Sects in Buddhism

THERAVADA (HINAYANA)
MAHAYANA
VAJRAYANA

HINAYANA

The name Theravāda comes from the ancestral Sthāvirīya, one of the early
Buddhist schools, from which the Theravadins claim descent.
• The Middle Way
• The four noble truths
• The Noble Eightfold Path

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 • Three marks of existence (impermanence, suffering, not-self)
• Five aggregates
• Dependent arising
• Karma and rebirth
• Jhana
• The Bodhipakkhiyādhammā (37 factors conducive to awakening)
• Kleshas (mental defilements) and asavas
• Avidyā (Ignorance)
• Nirvana

MAHAYANA

"Mahāyāna" also refers to the path of the Bodhisattva seeking complete

enlightenment for the benefit of all sentient beings, also called "Bodhisattvayāna”
Bodhisattvas could reach nirvana, but they believe it is more important to help
others on their path of finding nirvana rather than committing fully to nirvana
themselves.
Six pāramitās are traditionally required for bodhisattvas
• dāna-pāramitā: the perfection of giving
• śīla-pāramitā: the perfection of behavior and discipline
• kṣānti-pāramitā: the perfection of forbearance
• vīrya-pāramitā: the perfection of vigor and diligence
• dhyāna-pāramitā: the perfection of meditation
• prajñā-pāramitā: the perfection of transcendent wisdom

VAJRAYANA

Vajrayana. Vajrayana, (Sanskrit: “Thunderbolt Vehicle” or “Diamond Vehicle”)

form of Tantric Buddhism that developed in India and neighbouring countries,
notably Tibet. Vajrayana, in the history of Buddhism
• The goal of spiritual practice within the Mahayana and Vajrayana
traditions is to become a Sammāsambuddha those on this path are
termed Bodhisattvas

PHILOSOPHICAL SCHOOLS OF BUDDHISM

1. Nihilists (Sunyavadi/Madhyamika)
2. Subjective Idealists (Vijanavadi/Yogachara)
3. Critical Realists (Bahyanumeyavadi/Sautrantika)
4. Direct Realists (BahyaPratyakshavadi/Vaibhashika)

Is there any Reality?

(Schools of Buddhism are classified according to the answers given to this
Question)

YOGACHARAS

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Only the Mental is Real. The non-mental or material world is all void of Reality.
They are called Vijnanavadins.

MADHYAMIKAS

There is no Reality. That all is Void (Sunya). So they are called Sunyavadins.

REALISTS

Both the mental and non-mental are Real. So that they are called Sarvastivadins.

How is External Reality known ?

(Schools of Buddhism are classified according to the answers given to this
Question)

VAIBHASHIKAS = External world is directly perceived

SAUTRANTIKAS = External objects are not perceived but known by inference.
Everything is Sunya. Knower-known-knowledge are mutually independent. All
the three are false. Sunyavadins doesn’t deny all reality, but the apparent
phenomenal world perceived. Behind this phenomenal world there is a Reality
which is indescribable by any character. The real nature of objects cannot be
ascertained by the intellect. Dependent objects cannot be real.

MADHYAMIKA SCHOOL of Sunyavada

Preceptor: Nagarjuna
Texts: Madhyamikasastra

An Unreal thing never come into existence. So, it is either real or unreal, at the
same time neither real nor unreal. Sunyata is the name for this indeterminable,
indescibable real nature of things. (Dependent origination). This view is called
middle (Madhyama) path. There is a transcendental reality behind the
phenomenal world, which is free from any change, conditionality and all other
phenomenal characters.

There is no truth, no essence in all phenomena that appear.

They are neither produced nor destroyed, they really neither come nor go.
They are merely the appearance of maya .
The sunya doesn’t mean pure negation, for that is relative to some kind of
position.
None of the appearances have any intrinsic nature of their own.
(Nihsvabhavatvam)

Mind cannot be regarded as Unreal.

The object perceived are all ideas in the mind, as in the case of Dream.
There is no external reality, The mind alone is real.
The object cannot be proved to have an existence independent of consciousness.

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It is not possible to perceive simultaneously all the sides and parts of the object,
so the perception regard to consciousness.

YOGACHARA SCHOOL of Vijnanavada

Preceptors: Asanga, Vasubandhu, Dignaga

Texts: Lankavatarasutra
Tatvasangraha of Santarakshita

An object perceived is not different from the subject or the perceiving mind.
Mind is a stream of momentary conscious states and within the stream there lie
Samskara of all past experience. Hence a particular object is perceived at a
particular time. The mind as the home of all latent ideas, is called Alayavijnana.
Culture and control of mind can stop the illusions of external objects and
attachment to them.

? Why it is called Vijnanavada

= It admits that there is only one kind of reality which is of the nature of
consciousness (Vijnana) and objects which appear to be material or external to
consciousness are really ideas or states of consciousness.

Whatever is existent is momentary.

Existence is defined as the capacity of producing anything (Arthakriyakaritva)
Whatever exists is momentary, by virtue of its existence.
All dharmas are strictly momentary.
Things came to view at one moment and the next moment they were destroyed.
Notion of permanence is derived from the notion of permanence of ourselves.
Self is the bundle of ideas, emotions and active tendencies manifesting at
particular moment.

Doctrine of Momentariness. (Kshanikavada)

Ratnakirti (950 AD)

Aswaghosha
Budhaghosha

SARVASTIVADA

1. SAUTRANTIKA SCHOOL
2. VAIBHASHIKA SCHOOL

= The term Sarvāstivāda, Sarva (all) + asti (exist) + Vāda (doctrine) means all
exists. In other words, it is a doctrine advocating that all, external and internal,
things are real. Thus Sarvāstivādin means one who upholds the doctrine that all
things exist.

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 1. Mind as well as External objects are real.
2. “If there were no object, it would be meaningless to say ‘consciousness
appears as the external object’.”
3. The Object is different from and not identical with the consciousness, unless
the perceiver may feel ‘ I’m the Pot’.

SAUTRANTIKA SCHOOL of Bahyanumeyavada

Preceptors: Kumaralata, Śrīlāta and his student Vasubandhu, Ghoshaka

Texts: Abhidharmakosabhashya, Abhidharmamrta rasasastra,
Sautrantikavibhasha.

Distinction between two objects is perceived because of the reality of external

objects.Ideas are not objects, but only copies of them. Hence objects outside can
be inferred from their mental pictures or ideas - Bahyanumeyavada

Perception of external objects depends on four factors: Object, Mind, Sense and
auxiliary conditions (light, position, magnitude etc.)
The effect of these conditions is the copy or idea of the object produced in the
mind. We infer the object from this idea.

Sautrantika: It attaches exclusive importance to the authority of the Sutra-pitaka.

Theory of Perception.
Text : Nyayabindu of Dharmakirti (635 AD)

1. Right knowledge is the invariable antecedent to the Purushartha sidhi.

2. Perception is a presentation which is generated by the objects alone,
unassociated by any names or relations (Kalpana)
3. There are 3 moments in the Pratysksha
a. The presentation
b. Prompting
c. Final realization of the object.
4. The validity of knowledge consists in the sameness that it has with the objects
presented by it.

Theory of Inference.

1. Inference is divided into two classes.

a. Swarthanumana
b. Pararthanumana
2. Validity of inference depended on copying the actually existing facts of the
external world.
3. Svabhavapratibandha (Inseparability of connection) of the effect with the
cause is the ground of all inference.
4. Branched off from Theravada
5. Vaibhashikas admits like Sautrantikas, the reality of both mind and external
objects.
6. But, external objects are directly known in perception and not inferred.

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 7. Vibhasha – The Vaibhashikas followed exclusively a commentary – Vibhasha
or Abhidhamma-Mahavibhasha on an Abhidhamma treatise (Abhidharma
Jnana Prasthana)

VAIBHASHIKA SCHOOL of Bahyapratyakshavada

Preceptors: Kanishka (c. 127–150 CE)
Texts: Mahavibhashasastra

1. Branched off from Theravada

2. Vaibhashikas admits like Sautrantikas, the reality of both mind and
external objects.
3. But, external objects are directly known in perception and not inferred.
4. Vibhasha – The Vaibhashikas followed exclusively a commentary –
Vibhasha or Abhidhamma-Mahavibhasha on an Abhidhamma treatise
(Abhidharma Jnana Prasthana)

Tathata Philosophy

Preceptor: Asvaghosha (80 A.D)

Text:Sraddhotpadasastra

1. 2 aspects may be distinguished in the soul

a. Thatness (Bhutatathata)
b. Cycle of birth and death (Samsara)
2. Bhutatathatha – Oneness of the totality of all things.
3. The essential nature of Tathatha is uncreate and external.
4. All things in their fundamental nature are not nameable or explicable. They
possess absolute sameness.
5. They are subject neither to transformation nor to destruction.
6. They are nothing but Soul (Tathata).

JAINISM

VARDHAMANA MAHAVIRA
Born c. 497 BCE
Liberated : 425 BCE
Parents: Sudhodana, Maya
Place: Pawapuri, Magadha (present-day Bihar, India)
Holiness: 24 th Tirthankara

Literature

JAINA AGAMAS
• 12 Angās
• 6 Chedasūtras
• 4 Mūlasūtras

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 • 10 Prakīrnaka sūtras
• 2 Cūlikasūtras

JAINA PHILOSOPHY

Introduction
• 24 Tirthankaras are the founders of Jainism.
• 1st one is Rsabhadeva and 24th is Vardhamana
• ‘Jina’ etymologically means a conqueror. They have conquered all
passions and have attained liberation.
• Jainas do not believe in God.
• Every Jiva should follow the path set by Tirthankaras to attain perfect
knowledge, power and joy.

Philosophical Outlooks

1. Realism and Pluralism.

2. Objects perceived are real.
3. World consists of 2 kinds of reality – Living and Non-Living.
4. Every living being has a Jiva.
5. Ahimsa plays an important role for liberation.
6. Anekantavada and Syadvada

Two sects in Jainism

1.SVETAMBARA
• More rigorous and puritanic
• Put on white clothes
• All human being can attain liberation

1.DIGAMBARA
• More accommodating to the common frailities of men.
• Ascetics should give up all possessions, even clothes
• A faint who has obtained perfect knowledge needs no food
• Women cannot obtain liberation
• Originated from Sivabhuti (A.D. 83)

JAINA METAPHYSICS

1. Every object is found to possess innumerable characters, positive and negative

2. Positive characters determine the object consist of what it is, as well as the
Negative characters determine the object consist of what it is not.
3. Qualities of things are changing every minute, but all qualities are not
changing.
4. Only an omniscient person can have such complete knowledge of an object.

The Doctrine of RELATIVE PLURALISM (Anekantavada)

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 1. All things are Anekanta
2. Nothing could be affirmed absolutely, as all affirmations are true only under
certain conditions and limitations.
3. All things possess an infinite number of qualities1. Each of which can only be
affirmed in a particular sense.

The Doctrine of NAYA in RELATIVE PLURALISM

The different standpoints from which things can be spoken of as possessing this or
that quality or as appearing in relation to this or that, are technically called Naya

1. Qualities are not separate from the things – Dravyanaya

2. Qualities are separate from the things – Paryayanaya
3. Looking at things from loose common sense view or as they appear at first
sight is called - Naigama Naya.
4. Looking at things merely from the most general and fundamental point of
view is called – Samgraha Naya.
5. Looking at a thing from the point of view of actual experience of thing is
called – Vyavahara Naya

The Doctrine of SYAD VADA

 The most contrary characteristics of infinite variety may be associated with a

thing.
 Affirmations made from whatever standpoint (Naya) cannot be regarded as
absolute.

1. Syad Asti – All affirmations are true.

2. Syad Nasti – All affirmations are false
3. Syad Avaktavya – All affirmations are indefinite.
4. Syad Asti Syad Nasti – All afirmations are true as well as false in some sense.
5. Syad Asti Avaktavya – All affirmations are true as well as indefinite.
6. Syad Nasti Avaktavya - All affirmations are false as well as indefinite.
7. Syad Asti Syad Nasti Syad Avaktavya - All affirmations are true and false and
indefinite in some sense.

KNOWLEDGE

Knowledge is that which helps us to get what is good and to avoid what is bad.
Text: Pramana-naya-tattvalokalamkara

1. External objects under certain conditions should have a Yogyata by which we

can have knowledge of them.
2. Knowledge reveals our own self as Subject as well as the objects known by us.
3. True perceptual knowledge is Nirvikalpa.
4. Savikalpa knowledge is derived by imagination.
5. False knowledge consists in the misrepresentation of objective facts in
experience.

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KNOWLEDGE as Revelation

1. Knowledge is a part and parcel of myself as the subject.

2. Knowledge is an expression of my own self.
3. Experiences comes as modifications of our own Self.
4. Knowledge is the manifestation of the Self independent of the senses.
5. Knowledge is a formless quality of the Self.

KNOWLEDGE - Theory of Perception

Perception reveals to us the external objects just as they are with most of their
diverse characteristics of colour, form etc.
Paroksha includes inference, recognition, implication, memory etc.

1. Knowledge arises in the soul from within it as by removing a veil which had
been covering it before.
2. Objects are not mere forms of knowledge but are actually existing.
3. External senses are distinguished from Soul. Soul alone deserves the name of
sense
4. Soul is in touch with all part of the body. Sense knowledge is generated in the
soul through that part of it which is associated with.
5. Perception of an object means that the veil of ignorance upon the self
regarding the object has been removed
6. There is no Nirvikalpa stage of perception

JIVA

 All things may be divided into

o Living and Non Living
 The principle of life is entirely distinct from the body. This principle is the Soul.
 The Soul is directly perceived by introspection just as the external things are.

1. The Soul in its pure state is possessed of infinite perception, infinite

knowledge, infinite bliss and infinite power.
2. The purity of Jiva is covered with a thin veil of Karma
3. Jivas are infinite in number.
4. Jivas are substances and eternal
5. Jivas are
6. Limited in Size (Madhyama Parimana)
7. Neither all pervasive (Not Vibhu)
8. Nor Atomic (Not Anu)
9. Jiva is called Jivastikaya
10. The Souls expand and contrast themselves according to the dimensions of the
body.
11. Particles of four elements are the bodies of souls.

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 12. They live and die and are born again in another elementary body.
13. The elementary lives are either gross or subtle.
14. The whole universe is full of minute beings called Nigoda – groups of infinite
number of souls forming very small clusters.
15. Jivas are divided according to the number of sense-organs they possess.
16. Plants-Worms-Ants-Bees-Vertebrates-Men-Denizen-Gods (Samjnin)

KARMA

Cause of the embodiment of soul is the presence of KARMA in it. The natural
perfections of Soul are sullied by the different kinds of KARMA.

1. By our actions of mind, speech and body, we are continually producing certain
subtle Karma – Bhava Karma
2. Bhava Karma transforms itself and pours into the soul and sticks there by
coming into contact with the passions (Kashaya) of the Soul – Dravya Karma
3. Karmas are coloured according to their goodness and badness. – Lesyas
4. Good – Golden, Lotus-pink, White, Bad- Black

Karmas are in four kinds.

1. Jnanavaraniya – Karmas obscure right knowledge.

2. Darsanavaraniya – Karmas obscure right perception.
3. Vedaniya – Karmas obscure the bliss nature of the soul and thus produce
pleasure and pain.
4. Mohaniya – Karmas obscure right attitude of the soul towards faith and right
conduct.

Other 4 kinds of Karma which determine -

1. Ayushka Karma - The length of life in any birth.

2. Nama Karma - The peculiar body with its general and special qualities and
faculties
3. Gotra Karma - The nationality, caste, family, social standing etc.
4. Antaraya Karma - The inborn energy of the Soul by the obstruction of which
it prevents the doing of a good action, when there is a desire to do it.

This Karma is the cause of bondage and Sorrow.

1. Bhava Lesya – The feelings generated by the accumulation of the Karma.

2. Dravya Lesya – The actual coloration of the Soul by the Karma.
3. Pleasure, pain etc. are the results of Karma.
4. Knowledge is the result of the effect of Karmas. Karma removes the particular
veil obscured that particular kind of knowledge.
5. Nirjara – After the effect of a Karma once produced, it is discharged from and
purged off the Soul.

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States of Soul in Karma

1. Audayika State – The state of Soul when Karma takes effect and produces its
proper results.
2. Aupasamika State – The state of Soul when Karma may be prevented from
taking effect, though it still continues to exist.
3. Kshayika State – The state of Soul when Karma is annihilated.
4. Kshayopasamika State – The state of Soul when some Karma is annihilated,
some neutralized and some active.

Asrava

The Karmas are certain sorts of infra-atomic particles of matter

The influx of Karma particles into the soul is called Asrava.

1. Karmasarira – After the death of each individual, his soul is accompanied

with Karmic Body to the rebirth.
2. Asravas are produced by body, mind and speech.
3. They are the channels through which Karmas enter the Soul.
4. Two kinds of Asravas are
5. Bhavasrava and Karmasrava
6. Bhavasrava – Thought activities of the soul through which the Karma particles
enter the Soul.
7. Karmasrava – Actual entrance of the Karma into the soul.

Asrava - Bhavasrava

1. Bhavasravas are of 5 kinds

a. Delusion (Mithyatva)
i. Ekanta, Viparita, Vinaya, Samsaya, Ajnana
2. Want of control (Avirati)
a. Himsa, Anrta, Cauryya, Abrahma, Parigrahakanksha
3. Inadvertence (Pramada)
a. Vikatha, Kashaya, Indriya, Nidra, Raga.
4. The activities of body, mind and speech (Yoga)
5. Passions (Kashayas)

Asrava - Dravyasrava

1. Dravyasrava affects the soul in eight different manners.

2. Jnanaaraniya
3. Darsanavaraniya
4. Vedaniya
5. Mohaniya
6. Ayu
7. Nama
8. Gotra
9. Antaraya

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These are the result of the bhavasrava or changes of the soul.

Bondage

1. Bhavabandha – The states of thought which condition the coming in of the

Karmas.
2. Dravyabandha – The actual bondage of the soul by the actual impure
connections of the Karma.
3. Bondage – Punya and Papa
4. Bondage – 4 kinds
5. Prakrti (Nature of Karma)
6. Sthiti (Duration of Bondage)
7. Anubhaga (Intensity)
8. Pradesa (Extension)

Controling the inrush of Karma into the Soul

Bhavasamvara and Dravyasamvara

1. The vows of
a. Ahimsa, Satya, Asteya, Brahmacharya, Aparigraha
2. Samitis to avoid injury to insects (irya), gentle and holy talk (bhasha),
receiving proper alms (esana) etc.
3. Guptis - restraints of body, speech and mind
4. Dharmas – Forgiveness, humility, straightforwardness, truth, cleanliness,
restraint, penance, abandonment, indifference to any kind of gain and loss,
supreme sex control.
5. Anupreksha – meditation about principles of jaina teachings
6. Parisahajaya – Dvandvajaya
7. Carita – Right conduct.

Nirjara –
Bhavanirjara
Dravyanirjara

1. Nirjara – Purging off of the Karmas or rather their destruction.

2. Two kinds –
3. Bhavanirjara – Change in the Soul by virtue of which the karma particles are
destroyed.
4. Dravyanirjara – The actual destruction of Karma particles either by the
reaping of their effects (Savipaka Nirjara) or by penances before their time of
fruition (Avipaka Nirjara)
5. When all the Karmas are destroyed, Moksa is effected.

PUDGALA (Non-living)

 Pudgala means matter and it is called ‘astikaya’ in the sense that it occupies
space.
 Pudgala is made up of atoms.

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  Pudgala (matter) may exist in 2 types Gross (Things we see around us) and
Subtle (Such as the Karma matter in the Soul)

The Ajiva (non-living) is divided into

1. Pudgalastikaya
2. Dharmastikaya
3. Adharmastikaya
4. Akasastikaya
5. Kala
6. Punya
7. Papa

 All material things are ultimately produced by the combination of Atoms.

They are eternal and have touch, taste, smell and color.
 The compounds of atoms combine with other compounds and produce the
gross things.
 They are liable to constant change (parinama) and lose some of their qualities
and acquire new ones.
 So the thing as a whole remain same. This sameness is called Urdhvasamanya.

Other philosophical concepts

ADHARMA

Adharma is a pervasive enitity which helps Jivas and pudgalas to keep

themselves at rest. No substance could move or could remain at rest if there
were no dharma

COSMOGRAPHY

The world is eternal, without beginning or end. It is composed of Urdhva,

Madhya and Adho. Lokakasa is pervaded with Dharma. Beyond Lokakasa there is
no Dharma, therefore no moment, but only space

DHARMA

Dharma is devoid of taste, touch, smell, sound and colour. It is conterminous

with the mundane Universe and pervades every part of it.

KALA AND SAMAYA

Time (Kala) consists of innumerable particles which never mix with one another.
Time perceived as moments, hours, days etc. is called Samaya

YOGA in Jainism

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Yoga is the cause of salvation.
Yoga consists of Jnana, Sradha and Charitra.

 Jnana – Knowledge of Reality

 Sradha – Faith in the teachings
 Charitra – cessation from doing all that evil.

1. Charitra consists of
a. Ahimsa
b. Sunrta
c. Asteya
d. Brahmacharya
e. Aparigraha
2. These rules of conduct apply to ascetics.
3. Householders should
a. Earn money honestly
b. Follow good people
c. Marry a good girl
d. Follow the customs of Country
4. Ahimsa is the root of all customs.

Duties of Householders

1. Digvirati (To carryout activities within a restricted area and thereby desist from injuring living
beings)
2. Bhogopabhogamana (To desist from liquors, flesh, butter, honey, figs, etc.)
3. Anarthadanda
a. Apadhyana (Cessation from inflicting bodily injuries etc.)
b. Papopadesa (Desisting from advising people leads to himsa)
c. Himsopakaridana (Desisting from giving implements leads to himsa)
d. Pramadacharana (Desisting from attending musical parties, theatres etc.)
4. Sikshapadabrata
a. Samayikabrata (Treat all being equally)
b. Desavakasikabrata (Digviratibrata)
c. Poshadhabrata
d. Athidhisamvibhagabrata.

 True self knowledge removes all sorrows.

 When by meditation all Karmas are burnt, the self becomes purified.
 The four Kashayas (Krodha, Mana, Maya, Lobha) are removed by the control
of Mind.
 Bhavana (Meditation) is the way to purify the mind.

BHAVANAS

1. Asaranabhavana – This world is full of misery and there is nothing which can
support us.
2. Ekatvahavana and Anyatvabhavana – We are all different from one another
by our surroundings, Karma, by our separate bodies
3. Asuchibhavana – The body is made up of defiled things, the flesh, the blood
etc. and therefore impure.

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 4. Asravabhavana – To think that if the mind is purified by the good thoughts
and passions are removed, then only will Subha accrue to me. On the contrary
all evil will befall me. Etc.
5. Dharmasvakhyatata Bhavana- Practice of the 10 Dharmas alone help in the acheivement of
the highest goal.
6. Dharma, Samyama, Sunrta, Saucha, Brahma, Akinchanata, Tapas, Kshanti, Mardava, Rjuta.
7. Lokabhavana and Bodhibhavana – Meditate on Jaina cosmology and also of the nature of the
influence of Karma in producing all the diverse conditions of men.
8. Make the mind steady by Bhavana one should think of Maitri, Pramoda, Madhyastha, and
Karuna

JAINA ATHEISM

Jaina philosophy denies the existence of GOD by criticizing the philosophy of

Naiyayika ie. the world is of the nature of an effect and it must have been created
by an intelligent agent which is Isvara

Arguments of Nyaya
1. The world is an effect created by an Intelligent cause ie. Iswara.
2. Effect is made up of parts (Savayava)
3. Effect is inherent in the cause and non-existent until it was created.
4. Effect is having been made.
5. Effect is liable to change.
6. Cause is an intelligent one. He creates the world by knowledge and will.
7. God has unchangeable will and knowledge.

Arguments of Jaina
1. World is not an effect. There is no cause as an Intelligent God.
2. Samanya should be an effect and destructable. But Naiyayikas regard it as
partless and eternal.
3. The elements of earth – atoms are regarded as eternal, not non-existent
4. When a man digs the ground, he thinks that he has made new space in the
hollow which he dug. Is he a creator?
5. God also liable to change. If God creates, he cannot be unchangeable with
reference to his creative activity.
6. If GOD is intelligent on the anallogy of a human being, he might also be
regarded as imperfect as human beings. Such an agent is invisible in worldly
effects. An agent should have a body. But god doesn’t. Knowledge and will
cannot be without a body.
7. Destruction and creation cannot be the result of an unchangeable will.

If GOD created the world……

1. Did he take to it in accordance with the moral and immoral actions of men?
2. There should have been only happiness in the world.
3. If the creation is His mere play, He must be a child who did things without
purpose.
4. He must harbour favoritism on behalf of someone and hatred against others.

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 5. And past actions of men lead them to pains and pleasure, that Adrsta should
take the place of GOD.
6. If Creation is his own nature, what is the Good of admitting him?

Moksa (Emancipation)

1. Anantajnana - State of pure and infinite knowledge.

2. Anantadarsana – Infinite perception
3. When the veil of Karma is eliminated there will be
4. Mati (Sarvajnata)
5. Sruta (Testimony)
6. Avadhi (Transe or Hipnotism)
7. Amanaparyaya (Direct knowledge of thoughts of others)
8. Kevalajnana – (Omniscience)
9. Anantavirya – (Omnipotence)

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