CEG-4011 Geotechnical Engineering

Lecture #15

Soil Improvement

Compaction
 One of the most common and economical techniques of soil improvement is
compaction.

In essence, compaction reduces the voids in the soil, which in turn increases its
density. A higher density increases the soil shear strength and bearing capacity, and decreases
settlement.

Compaction is measured by the increased dry unit weight γd. The higher the
compaction energy, the higher γd.

Water is used to aid compaction. A small amount of water helps lubricate the re-
arrangement of the solid particles. Too much water will separate the solid particles, and
thereby reduce the soil shear strength. In cohesive soils water reduces cohesion, and in
granular soils adding water reduces the inter-particle friction.

Humans have compacted soils for thousands of years. Roman engineers, without a
doubt were the first to study compaction in a rational and methodical way. Romans became
the first true road builders of the World by building 90,000 km of highways throughout their
empire, and probably over 0.8 million km of secondary roads.
The Proctor Compaction Test.

In 1933, R. R. Proctor, an engineer working with the City of Los Angeles, developed a
standard method of measuring the degree of compaction of a soil. This standard is in use
today all around the World, and is referred to as the Standard Proctor Test. In essence, the
test consists of compacting a soil sample in a laboratory in a specific way to obtain a measure
of the sample’s maximum dry unit weight γd. Then, samples are obtained from the same type
of soil compacted in the field and compared with the laboratory sample.

The procedure is as follows:

1. A sample of the soil to be compacted in the field is sent to a geotechnical laboratory. A first
layer of the sample is placed in a special mold, shown in Figure 1. This first layer is about
40% of the height of the mold. A standard hammer of 5.5 lb (24.47 N) is dropped 25 times
upon this layer from a height of 12 in (305 mm).

2. A second layer of soil is placed in the mold to a height of about 75% of its height. Repeat
the compaction as in Step 1 above. Place a third layer of soil in the mold, exceeding the height
of the mold extension by about 4”. Repeat the compaction by 25 blows.
Determine the unit weight of the soil from
the formula,

Wms − Wm
γ=
Vm
where γ is in lb/ft3 (or pcf) in the British,
or kN/m3 in the S.I. system. Wms is the
weight of the mold plus soil, Wm is the
weight of the empty mold, and Vm is the
volume of the mold, 1/30 ft3.

3. Perform a moisture test on the soil

sample, in order to find the γd from,

γ Gγ Gγ s w s w
γ =
d = =
1+ w 1+ e 1+ G w / S s
4. Repeat this sequence four or five times, and plot, as shown below.
Example 1: Find (a) the maximum dry unit weight of crushed limestone fill to be used as
road base material, (b) its OMC, and (c) the moisture range for 95% of Standard Proctor.
Standard Proctor compaction test for a silty clay (Das ’98)
Comparison of the compaction of four different types of soils (ASTM D-698).
This figure shows the zero air voids curve (S=100%) and the 80% curves for three different
types of soil. Note that the equation for the zero air voids plots as Gsγw
γ =
zav
1 + wG
s
Example 2. Find (a) The dry unit weight and water content at 95% Std. Proctor; (b) The degree of saturation at
maximum dry density, and (c) plot the zero air voids line.

Given: Water content w (%) 6.2 8.1 9.8 11.5 12.3 13.2
Unit weight γ (kN/m3) 16.9 18.7 19.5 20.5 20.4 20.1

Solution: Dry unit weight γ 15.9 17.3 17.8 18.4 18.2 17.8
γd =
1+ w
Zero air voids
Gγ s w
22.8 21.8 20.8 20.0 19.2
γ =
zav
1 + wG s

From graph, (γd)max = 18.4 kN/m3 at womc = 11.5%

At 95% compaction γd = 18.4 x 0.95 = 17.5 kN/m3 and

w = 9.2%

The degree of saturation at the OMC is,

wGs(γd)max/γw 0.115 x 2.7 x (18.4 / 9.8)

S= = = 0.71 = 71%
Gs − ( γd)max/γw 2.7 − (18.4 / 9.8)
Example 3. (a) Give two reasons why a Proctor test curve appears to cross the ZAV curve, and (b) what is the
approximate water content range, in gallons, and volume range, in CY, to build 1000 ft of a compacted base, 16”
thick, 24 ft wide, to Standard Proctor.
The effect of compaction energy on the dry density of a sandy clay (Das ’98).
Example 4. The term relative compaction, or RC, is used to express the degree of compaction
achieved in the field when compared to the laboratory Proctor. Consider a practical problem: a
sample of crushed oolitic limestone is used as a 3-foot thick foundation mat for a small office
building. The laboratory obtains a maximum dry unit weight of 102 pcf (Gs=2.66). A field nuclear
test showed the compacted fill to have a density of 110.5 pcf at a moisture content of 14%. Find
(a) its relative compaction RC, and (b) the degree of saturation of the field sample.

The dry density of the field compacted fill is,

γmoist 110.5 pcf

γd = = = 96.9 pcf
1+ w 1 + 0.14
Therefore, the relative compaction RC is, γd(field) 96.9 pcf
RC = = = 95%
γd(max) 102 pcf
The voids ratio is,
Gsγw (2.66)(62.4 pcf )
e= −1 = − 1 = 0.713
γd (96.9 pcf )

The degree of saturation is,

wGs (0.14)(2.66)
Se = wGs S= = = 52%
e (0.713)
Growth curves for a silty clay. Dry density versus number of passes of a 9.5 ton three-wheeled roller
with 9” (230 mm) lifts at different moisture contents (from Johnson and Sallberg ’60).
Vibratory compaction of sand. Figure on left is a plot of dry density versus the number of
roller passes with each lift of 8 feet (2.44 m). The figure on the right is an estimate of the
required compaction lift thickness for a minimum relative density of 75% with five passes.
A family of heavy fill movement and compaction equipment.
A 1914 road in New York.
A typical U.S. road in 1936. More than 30 million vehicles were on the roads that year. Yet, the July 1938
issue of Automotive Industries said “the flattening of the registration curve for passenger cars very
definitely indicates that the motor industry has reached its period of stability, in which 85 to 90% of its
annual market will be replacements…”.
Motor-scarifier cuts and lays fill in 8’ to 24” “lifts” for compaction.
140-hp three axle motor grader.
Motor grader spreading a soil-cement base material.
A water truck is providing the optimum moisture for compaction of the sub-grade.
A 1931 sprinkler/oiler manufactured by Etnyre, in use at Maquoketa Street Department, Iowa.
CAT500 sheep’s-foot roller used in cohesive sub-grades.
Hypac C700 smooth roller is used for granular sub-grades and the finish asphalt coats.
Slip-forming a concrete (“rigid”) pavement for State Road 9A close to Jacksonville.
Small smooth drum roller for asphalt finish coats.
MBW vibratory roller attached to small crane (or a backhoe blade)
Hand-held tamper for tight areas, such as this pot hole repair.
Testing
Sand cone apparatus and diagram.
 Sand cone method of testing. Site is selected A sample is removed and weighed.

From the ratio W/V a unit weight is obtained.

A controlled volume refills sample hole.

A Seaman Nuclear meter on the left. The older balloon gauge method on the right.
Nuclear meter checking the in-situ density of a compacted fill for a slab on grade.
The new H4140 density meter does not require a radioactive source.
New pavements
“Perpetual” flexible pavement profile vs conventional flexible pavement.
Full depth reclamation.
 A porous asphalt parking lot starts (1) by gently exposing the soil layer that is porous enough to drain
the parking lot; (2) earthen berms are provided between infiltration beds; (3) a non-woven geotextile is
laid upon the graded soil, and (4) clean and uniform coarse aggregate is spread as the storage medium.
(5) The asphalt is laid just like a
conventional asphalt pavement.

(6) Although the finished parking lot

looks like a conventional lot, it does
not require drainage structures.
When it rains, compare the difference
of the conventional approach to the
porous parking lot behind.
Large excavations
Deep excavation machinery.