CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 GENERAL

Cement and aggregate, which are the most important constituents used in
concrete production, are the vital materials needed for the construction industry.
This inevitably led to a continuous and increasing demand of natural materials
used for their production. Parallel to the need for the utilization of the natural
resources emerges a growing concern for protecting the environment and a need
to preserve natural resources, such as aggregate, by using alternative materials
that are either recycled or discarded as a waste.

Concrete strength is greatly affected by the properties of its constituents and the
mix design parameters. Because aggregates represent the major constituent of the
bulk of a concrete mixture, its properties affect the properties of the final product.
An aggregate has been customarily treated as an inert filler in concrete. However,
due to the increasing awareness of the role played by aggregates in determining
many important properties of concrete, the traditional view of the aggregate as an
inert filler is being seriously questioned. It is possible, however, to take an
opposite view and to look on aggregate as a building material connected into a
cohesive whole by means of the cement paste, in a manner similar to masonry
construction. In fact aggregate is not truly inert and its physical, thermal, and
sometimes chemical properties influence the performance of concrete.

Among the many threats that affect the environment are the wastes which are
generated in the production process or discarded after a specific material ends its
life time or the intended use. The wastages are divided as solid waste, liquid waste
and gaseous wastes. There are many disposal ways for liquid and gaseous waste
materials. Some solid waste materials such as plastic bottles, papers, steel, etc can
be recycled without affecting the environment.

Tyre is a thermoset material that contains cross-linked molecules of sulphur and

other chemicals. The process of mixing rubber with other chemicals to form this
thermoset material is commonly known as vulcanization. This makes
postconsumer tyres very stable and nearly impossible to degrade under ambient
conditions. Consequently, it has resulted in a growing disposal problem that has
led to changes in legislation and significant researches worldwide. On the other
hand, disposal of the waste tyres all around the world is becoming higher and
higher through time. This keeps on increasing every year with the number of
vehicles, as do the future problems relating to the crucial environmental issues.

The increasing piles of waste tyres will create the accumulation of used tyres at
landfill sites and presents the threat of uncontrolled fires, producing a complex
mixture of chemicals harming the environment and contaminating soil and
vegetation. This is considered as one of the major environmental challenges the
World is facing because waste rubber is not easily biodegradable even after a long
period of landfill treatment. One of the solutions suggested was the use of tyre
rubber as partial replacement of coarse aggregate in cement-based materials.

If the tyre is burned, the toxic product from the tyre will damage the environment
and thus creating air pollution. Since it is not a biodegradable material, this may
affect the fertility of the soil and vegetation. Sometimes it may produce
uncontrolled fire. Similarly, the other challenge to the human society is in the
form of carbon dioxide emission and green house emission. These emissions are
considered as highly threatening wastes to the universe.
Hence, all the above studies suggest that there is a strong need to use recycled
materials in concrete and specifically waste tyres should be used in an environmental
friendly way. For this, concrete construction can be considered as a very realistic
and convenient area of application.

Fig no (i)

1.2 Statement of the problem

Concrete has been a major construction material for centuries. Moreover, it would
even be of high application with the increase in industrialization and the
development of urbanization. Yet concrete construction so far is mainly based on
the use of virgin natural resources. Meanwhile the conservation concepts of natural
resources are worth remembering and it is very essential to have a look at the
different alternatives. Among them lies the recycling mechanism. This is a twofold
advantage. One is that it can prevent the depletion of the scarce natural resources
and the other will be the prevention of different used materials from their severe
threats to the environment.

It has been well reported that about 1 billion of used automobile tyres are generated
each year globally. In addition to that, the traditional ways of recycling tyres in our
country like as a shoe making material and other tools is decreasing nowadays. This
is considered as one of the major environmental challenges facing municipalities
around the world because waste rubber is not easily biodegradable even after a long
period of landfill treatment. Utilization of scrap tyres should minimize
environmental impact and maximize conservation of natural resources. Scrap tyres
can be shredded into raw materials for use in hundreds of crumb rubber products.

The other part of the problem is that aggregate production for construction purpose
is continuously leading to the depletion of natural resources. Moreover, some
countries are depending on imported aggregate and it is definitely very expensive.
This concern leads to a highly growing interest for the use of alternative materials
that can replace the natural aggregates.

Therefore, the use of recycled waste tyres as an aggregate can provide the solution
for two major problems: the environmental problem created by waste tyres and the
depletion of natural resources by aggregate production consequently the shortage of
natural aggregates in India.
 CHAPTER 2

OBJECTIVES
2.1 Objectives of the study

2.1.1 General Objective

Most of the time, used tire rubber is not noticed to be applied in a useful way. It is
rather becoming a potential waste and pollutant to the environment. Moreover, the
collecting process of waste tires is not very costly as compared to the extraction or
production of mineral aggregates used in normal concrete. Hence, this study is
intended to show the feasibility of using crumb rubber concrete as a partial
replacement for coarse aggregate in concrete. The general objective of this project
is to evaluate the fresh and hardened properties of the concrete produced by replacing
part of the natural coarse aggregate with an aggregate produced from locally
available recycled tire rubber.

2.1.2 Specific Objectives

The specific objectives of the research are listed as follows:

1) With the increase in urbanization, the number of cars and consequently the
amount of used tire is going to increase significantly in the near future. Hence, the
non-environmental nature of these wastes is going to be a potential threat. This
study can show an alternative way of recycling tires by incorporating them into
concrete construction. Of course, the concept that the problem emerges from
urbanization and the solution goes along with it can also be appreciated.
2) Application of used tires in concrete construction is a new technology. Through
this study, percent replacement using locally available materials by partial
replacement of the natural coarse aggregates with recycled coarse rubber
aggregates. Hence the possibility of using waste tires as an alternative
construction material will be investigated.

3) By conducting different laboratory tests on prepared specimens, it is intended to

analyze the results. Moreover, from the properties of the concrete the advantages
and disadvantages of using it will be figured out.

2.2 Scope of the study

2.2.1 Main Scope

1) This study concentrated on the performance of a single gradation of crumb rubber.

The waste tires are collected from local sources and manually cut into pieces to
achieve a uniform size of 20 mm, which is the maximum aggregate size in the mix
design.

2) The influence of different gradations of the rubber aggregate on concrete

properties was not evaluated in this study but it should be considered in future
researches.

3) The properties of waste tires from other tire manufacturers were not included in
this study.

4) The study was done on M25 grades of concrete. The influence of using recycled
 tires in high strength concrete was not covered in the present study. The
percentage replacements were limited to three categories i.e. 5, 15 and 25%
replacement of the natural coarse aggregate.

2.3 Methodology of the study

The different methods utilized in this research include the following:

i) Background study

Literature survey was carried out to review previous studies related to this thesis.

ii) Collection of raw Materials

All the required materials were collected and delivered to the laboratory. These
are Cement, fine aggregate, coarse aggregate, used rubber tires and admixture.

iii) Material Tests

Tests were conducted on the raw materials to determine their properties and
suitability for the experiment.

iv) Specimen preparation

The concrete specimens were prepared in The prepared samples consist of

concrete cubes, cylinders and beams.
v) Testing of Specimens

Laboratory tests were carried out on the prepared concrete samples. The tests
conducted were slump, compressive strength, splitting tensile strength, impact
resistance and flexural strength tests.

vi) Data collection

The data collection was mainly based on the tests conducted on the prepared
specimens in the laboratory.

vii) Data Analysis and Evaluation

The test results of the samples were compared with the respective control
concrete properties and the results were presented using tables, pictures and
graphs. Conclusions and recommendations were finally forwarded based on the
findings and observations.
 CHAPTER 3
LITERATURE REVIEW

3.1 General Characteristics and Constituents of Concrete

3.1.1 Characteristics of Concrete

Concrete is a composite material composed of coarse granular material embedded in

a hard matrix of material that fills the space between the aggregate particles and
glues them together. In its simplest form, concrete is a mixture of paste and
aggregates. The paste, composed of Portland cement and water, coats the surface of
the fine and coarse aggregates. Through a chemical reaction called hydration, the
paste hardens and gains strength to form the rock-like mass known as concrete.

Concrete is the world’s most important construction material. The quality and
performance of concrete plays a key role for most of the infrastructures including
commercial, industrial, residential and military structures, dams, power plants and
transportation systems. Concrete is the single largest manufactured material in the
world and accounts for more than 6 billion metric tons of materials annually.

The ability of concrete to be cast to any desired shape and configuration is an

important characteristic that can offset other shortcomings. Good quality concrete is
a very durable material and should remain maintenance free for many years when it
has been properly designed for the service conditions and properly placed. Of
course, proper use of the structure for the intended function can have a significant
role. Through choice of aggregate or control of paste chemistry and microstructure,
concrete can be made inherently resistant to physical attack, such as from cycles of
freezing and thawing or from abrasion and from chemical attack such as from
dissolved sulfates or acids attacking the paste matrix or from highly alkaline pore
solutions attacking the aggregates. Judicious use of mineral admixtures greatly
enhances the durability of concrete. The main advantages of concrete as a
construction material are the ability to be cast, being economical, durability, fire
resistance, energy efficiency, on-site fabrication and its aesthetic properties.
Whereas the disadvantages are low tensile strength, low ductility, volume instability
and low strength to weight ratio.

Numerous advances in all areas of concrete technology including materials, mixture

proportioning, recycling, structural design, durability requirements, testing and
specifications have been made. Innovative contracting mechanisms have been
considered, explored and tried. Some progresses have been made in utilizing some
of these technology innovations.

3.1.2 Constituents of Concrete

3.1.2.1 Cement

Cement is a generic name that can apply to all binders. The chemical composition
of the cements can be quite diverse but by far the greatest amount of concrete used
today is made with Portland cements. For this reason, the discussion of cement in
this thesis is mainly about the Portland cement.

Portland cement, the basic ingredient of concrete, is a closely controlled chemical

combination of calcium, silicon, aluminum, iron and small amounts of other
ingredients to which gypsum is added in the final grinding process to regulate the
setting time of the concrete. Lime and silica make up about 85% of the mass.
Common among the materials used in its manufacture are limestone, shells, and
chalk or marl combined with shale, clay, slate or blast furnace slag, silica sand, and
iron ore. Each step in the manufacturing of portland cement is checked by frequent
chemical and physical tests in plant laboratories. The finished product is also
analyzed and tested to ensure that it complies with all specifications.

The term "Portland" in Portland cement originated in 1824 when an English mason
obtained a patent for his product. This was because his cement blend produced
concrete that resembled the color of the natural limestone quarried on the Isle of
Portland in the English Channel.
3.1.2.2 Aggregate

Aggregates generally occupy 70 to 80 % of the volume of concrete and can therefore

be expected to have an important influence on its properties. They are granular
materials derived for the most part from natural rock and sands. Moreover, synthetic
materials such as slag and expanded clay or shale are used to some extent, mostly in
lightweight concrete. In addition to their use as economical filler, aggregates
generally provide concrete with better dimensional stability and wear resistance.
Based on their size, aggregates are divided into coarse and fine fractions. The coarse
aggregate fraction is that retained on the 4.75 mm sieve. While the fine aggregate
fraction is that passing the same sieve.
Based on their origin, aggregates can be classified as natural aggregates and non
natural aggregates.
3.1.2.2.1 Natural Aggregate

Mineral aggregates consist of sand and gravel, stones and crushed stone.
Construction aggregates make up more than 80 percent of the total aggregates
market, and are used mainly for road base, rip-rap, cement concrete, and asphalt.
The sources of mineral aggregates are by directly extracting from the original
sources like river basins or by manufacturing them into a desired shape from the
parent rock in a crasher mill. It was also found out that manufactured sand offers a
viable alternative to the natural sand by providing a higher compressive strength and
delivering environmental benefits.

All natural aggregate particles are originally formed as part of a larger parent mass.
This may have been fragmented by natural processes of weathering and abrasion or
artificially by crushing. Thus, many properties of the aggregate depend entirely on
the properties of the parent rock, e.g. chemical and mineral composition, specific
gravity, hardness, strength, physical and chemical stability, pore structure, and color.
On the other hand, there are some properties possessed by the aggregate but absent
in the parent rock: particle shape and size, surface texture and absorption. All these
properties may have a considerable effect on the quality of the concrete, either in the
fresh or in the hardened state.

3.1.2.2.2 Non Natural Aggregate

This category consists of aggregates that are artificial in origin. The reasons for
their advent in concrete construction are:
i) Environmental considerations are increasingly affecting the supply of
aggregate.
ii) There are strong objections to opening of pits as well as to quarrying.
iii) At the same time, there are problems with the disposal of construction
demolition waste and with dumping of domestic waste.

However, these types of waste can be processed into aggregate for use in concrete
and this is increasingly being done in a number of countries. Wide varieties of
materials come under the general heading of solid wastes. These range from
municipal and household garbage, or building rubble, such as brick and concrete,
through unwanted industrial byproducts such as slag and fly ash or discarded or
unused materials such as mine tailings. Recycled tire rubbers can be categorized
under municipal wastes. Table 3.1 below shows the different solid wastes that
have been considered as aggregates for concrete with their composition and the
 associated industry.

Material Composition Industry

Mineral wastes Natural rocks Mining and mineral

processing

Blast furnace slags Silicates or alumino silicates of Iron and Steel

calcium and magnesium silicate
Glasses

Silicates, aluminosilicates and

Metallurgical slags glasses Metal refining

Bottom ash Silica glasses Electric power

Fly ash Silica glasses Electric power

Commercial
and
Municipal wastes Paper, glass, plastics, metals household
wastes

Incinerator Container glass and metal and

residues silica Municipal and Industrial
Glasses wastes

Building rubble Brick, concrete, reinforcing steel Demolition

Table 3.1 Typical solid wastes that have been considered as aggregate for Concrete

3.1.2.3 Water

Water is a key ingredient in the manufacture of concrete. Attention should be given

to the quality of water used in concrete. The time-honored rule of thumb for water
quality is “If you can drink it, you can make concrete with it.” A large amount of
concrete is made using municipal water supplies. However, good quality concrete
can be made with water that would not pass normal standards for drinking water.

Mixing water can cause problems by introducing impurities that have a detrimental
effect on concrete quality. Although satisfactory strength development is of primary
concern, impurities contained in the mix water may also affect setting times, drying
shrinkage, or durability or they may cause efflorescence. Water should be avoided
if it contains large amounts of dissolved solids, or appreciable amounts of organic
materials.

3.2 The Use of Recycled Materials in Concrete Construction

3.2.1 General

Waste materials are common problems in modern living. Waste accumulates from a
number of sources including domestic, industrial, commercial and construction.
These waste materials have to be eventually disposed of in ways that do not endanger
human health. In light of this, waste minimization is increasingly seen as an
ecologically sustainable strategy for alleviating the need for the disposal of waste
materials, which is often costly, time and space consuming, and can also have
significant detrimental impacts on the natural environment. Nowadays governments
and organizations have been concerned with developing policies and programs to
bring about successful outcomes to waste minimization. This is seen as being
essential to reduce the total amount of waste materials going into landfill, especially
in the urban areas where land is very scarce. The use of recycled materials is often
cheaper for the consumers of the end product. Hence, there is also an economic
justification for promoting its use.

Construction is the largest consumer of natural resources. In addition to being a

major consumer of natural resources, the construction industry is also one of the
largest generators of waste.

The use of recycled materials generated from transportation, industrial, municipal

and mining processes in transportation facilities is an issue of great importance.
Recycled concrete aggregates and slag aggregates are being used where appropriate.
As the useable sources for natural aggregates for concrete are depleted, utilization
of these products will increase. Utilization of fly ash and ground granulated blast
furnace slag in concrete addresses

It was also emphasized that the possibility of using solid wastes as aggregates in
concrete serves as one promising solution to the escalating solid waste problem. The
use of concrete for the disposal of solid wastes has concentrated mostly on
aggregates, since they provide the only real potential for using large quantities of
waste materials. The effect of waste materials on concrete properties must be
considered.

All of these applications greatly emphasize the different attempts of using recycled
materials in concrete and their respective advantages achieved so far. One of today’s
major problems and which will continue to do so for the foreseeable future is the
environmental pollution resulting from industrial wastes and waste living materials.
Particularly among the waste materials in the advancement of civilization are
discarded waste tires. The main reason for this is that the amount of waste tires is
increasing at an alarming rate due to the large number of cars and trucks.

3.2.2.1 Composition of a Tire

A tire is an assembly of numerous components that are built up on a drum and then
cured in a press under heat and pressure. Heat facilitates a polymerization reaction
that crosslink rubber monomers to create long elastic molecules. These polymers
create the elastic quality that permits the tire to be compressed in the area where the
tire contacts the road surface and spring back to its original shape under high-
frequency cycles.

The fundamental materials of modern tires are rubber and fabric along with other
compound chemicals. Their constructive make-up consists of the tread and the body.
The tread provides traction while the body ensures support. Before rubber was
invented, the first versions of tires were simply bands of metal that fit around wooden
wheels in order to prevent wear and tear. The most recent and popular type of tire is
pneumatic, pertaining to a fitted rubber based ring that is used as an inflatable
cushion and generally filled with compressed air. Pneumatic tires are used on many
types of vehicles. Table 3.2 below shows the typical composition of a passenger tire
and track tire respectively by listing the major classes of materials used to
manufacture tires with the percentage of the total weight of the finished tire that each
material class represents. From the percentage values of the composition, it can be
observed that the main difference between the passenger car and truck car is in the
composition of natural rubber and synthetic rubber. Otherwise, the other constituent
materials are added in the same quantity for both types.
 Material passenger car Truck car

Natural rubber 14 % 27 %

Synthetic rubber 27 % 14 %

Carbon black 28 % 28 %

Steel 14-15 % 14-15 %

Fabric, fillers, accelerators, 16-17 % 16-17 %

antiozonants, etc.

Table 3.2 Percentage Composition of Materials for a Passenger and a Truck car

3.2.2.2 Benefits of Recycled Tires

A wide range of potential sectors which can benefit from using rubber from waste
tires are identified. The areas were grouped into five classes.
a) Civil engineering, non-road
b) Civil engineering, road and infrastructure
c) Sport, safety and outdoor surfaces
d) Consumer and industrial products, and
e) Energy
The proposed benefits of using waste tires in construction are three-fold:
a) They can offer distinct engineering benefits over traditional aggregates.
b) They can be used as an alternative to primary materials thereby reducing an
environmental burden on extraction.
c) Their use can help to reduce burden of waste disposal (including illegal
stockpiling and disposal, such as fly-tipping, with their associated risks) and the
 impacts on the environment associated with some other uses of tires.

Waste tires have hardness and elasticity properties superior to those of rubber, good
resistance to weathering, can be used for preventing impact damage, and as a
pavement making material, because of their low specific gravity which is lower than
most construction materials. Crumb rubber from shredded tires has been
successfully added to asphalt and is widely used. For example, it was used as a
wearing course in Arizona and in two Colorado pilot projects. However, the addition
of rubber to concrete is a newer technology.

3.3 Applications of Rubberized Concrete

There is a growing evidence for the feasibility of substituting waste tire rubber with
a portion of natural aggregate in concrete production. While very little rubber from
used tires goes into the production of new tires, hosts of other products made from
recycled tire rubber have come to market in many areas of applications.

Chips of shredded tire rubber are used as a fill in engineering projects. More finely
cut and screened tire rubber is used in playground and landscaping areas. Crumb
rubber is used to make better asphalt, while rubber mixed with urethane is used to
make athletic track surfaces and a variety of molded products. The crumb rubber
market has been one of the fastest-growing scrap tire markets over the last few years.

The introduction of waste tire rubber considerably increased toughness, impact

resistance, and plastic deformation of concrete, offering a great potential for it to be
used in sound/crash barriers, retaining structures and pavement structures. A study
revealed that it is possible to fabricate block containing rubber up to 30 % by sand
volume using chemical and mineral admixtures, which gives better bonding
characteristics to rubber and significantly improves the performance of crumb rubber
concrete paving block.

There are also uses of rubberized concrete in building applications. It has been
shown that crumb rubber additions in structural high strength concrete slabs
improved its fire resistance, reducing its spalling damage under fire. This material
provides a good mechanical behavior under static and dynamic actions and is being
used for road pavement applications. The results of recycled tire rubber-filled
concrete (RRFC) under fatigue loads show the feasibility of using this composite
material as a rigid pavement for roads on elastic sub grade.
 CHAPTER 4
MATERIAL PROPERTIES

4.1 General

Concrete mixtures with and without rubber aggregates for different compressive
strength values were prepared in this research work. The materials used to develop
the concrete mixes in this study were fine aggregate, coarse aggregate, rubber
aggregate, cement, water and admixture. A concrete grades M25 with partial
replacements of the coarse aggregate by 5, 15 and 25 of the rubber aggregate.
Moreover, a control mix with no replacement of the coarse aggregate was produced
to make a comparative analysis. In the subsequent parts, the different materials used
in this study are discussed.

4.2 Cement

The cement type used in this Project was imported OPC cement manufactured in
Chennai. The main reason for using Ordinary Portland Cement (Type I) in this study
is that, this is by far the most common cement in use and is highly suitable for use
in general concrete construction when there is no exposure to sulphates in the soil or
groundwater.

4.3 Aggregates

The relevant tests to identify the properties of the aggregates that were intended to
be used in this research were carried out. After that, corrective measures were taken
in advance before proceeding to the mix proportioning. In general, aggregates should
be hard and strong, free of undesirable impurities, and chemically stable. Soft,
porous rock can limit strength and wear resistance; it may also break down during
mixing and adversely affect workability by increasing the amount of fines.
Aggregates should also be free from impurities: silt, clay, dirt or organic matter.

Description Test Result

Moisture content 1.37 %

Unit weight of coarse aggregate 1533.25 kg/m3

Bulk Specific gravity 2.79

Bulk specific gravity 2.84

Apparent specific gravity 2.93

Absorption capacity 1.72 %

Crushing value of aggregate 17.83 %

Abrasion Test 14.9 %

Table 4.1 Physical Properties of the Coarse Aggregate.

4.4 Rubber aggregate

The source of the rubber aggregate was recycled tires which were collected from the
local market commonly known as APOLLO TIRES. For uniformity of the concrete
production and convenience, all the tires collected were from those which were
originally produced from Tire factory and the type was a medium truck tire as shown
in figure 4.1.
This study has concentrated on the performance of a single gradation of crumb
rubber prepared by manual cutting. The maximum size of the rubber aggregate was
20 mm as shown in figure 4.2. The rubber aggregates used in the present
investigation were made by manually cutting the tire in to the required sizes. It was
very laborious, time consuming and was not easy to handle at the initial stages.
However, all this complications can be easily sorted out if a large scale production
is devised and proper cutting tools and machineries are made for this particular
usage.

Fig. 4.1 Used medium truck tires Fig. 4.2 20 mm size Rubber aggregate

To come up with a rough cohesive surface of the rubber aggregate, surface treatment
was done using cement paste. Rubber aggregates coated with cement paste were
produced as follows:
After thoroughly washing the sample to remove dusts and impurities from the
surface of the particles.
 4.3 (a) 4.3 (b)
Fig. 4.3 Rubber aggregates

4.5 Water

The quality of the water plays a significant role in concrete production. Impurities
in water may interfere with the setting of the cement, may adversely affect the
strength of the concrete or cause staining of its surface, and may also lead to
corrosion of the reinforcement. For these reasons, the suitability of water for mixing
and curing purposes should be considered.

4.6 Testing Arrangement

In this study, A mixes consisting of M25 types of concrete grade were produced with
partial replacements of the coarse aggregate by 5, 15 and 25 of the rubber aggregate.
Moreover, a control mix with no replacement of the coarse aggregate was produced
to make a comparative analysis.

The mixture proportions of the basic ingredients i.e. cement, water, and fine
aggregate, were the same for the control concrete and rubberized concrete. However,
a certain amount of the coarse aggregate was replaced by an equal volume of rubber
aggregate to form rubberized concrete. The main reason for selecting this concrete
grade is that these are by far the most commonly used concrete grade for most of the
concrete construction works and hence application of the research can be more
feasible.

4.7 Batching of Materials

Saturated Surface dry aggregates were used for the concrete mixes under research.
Cement and aggregates were batched by weight while water were batched by
volume. All the replacement for the coarse aggregate was done on a volume basis.
To come up with the required volume of concrete to be produced, the total number
of test specimens has to be to be determined primarily.

4.8 Mixing and Test Sample Preparation

It is essential that the mix ingredients are properly mixed so as to produce fresh
concrete in which the surface of all aggregate particles is coated with cement paste
and which is homogeneous on the macro-scale and therefore possessing uniform
properties. Thorough mixing is essential for the complete blending of the materials
that are required for the production of homogeneous, uniform concrete. The type of
mixer used in the laboratory for this research is a pan type as shown in Figure 4.4
below.
All the dry ingredients were blended together prior to adding water. All batches
were then wet-mixed by adding the required water.
 CHAPTER 5

TEST RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

5.1 General

This section describes the results of the tests carried out to investigate the various
properties of the rubberized concrete mixes prepared in contrast with the control
mixes. In the succeeding parts, the results for workability, unit weight, compressive
strength, splitting tensile strength impact resistance and flexural strength tests are
presented. Analysis and discussions are also made on the findings.
5.2 Hardened Concrete Properties

The different tests that have been carried out to establish the hardened properties of
the concrete samples produced were; determination of compressive strength,
splitting tensile strength and flexural strength tests.
5.3 Compressive strength Test
The compressive strengths of concrete specimens were determined after 7,14 and 28
days of standard curing. For rubberized concrete, the results show that the addition
of rubber aggregate resulted in a significant reduction in concrete compressive
strength compared with the control concrete. This reduction increased with
increasing percentage of rubber aggregate.
The reason for the compressive strength reductions could be attributed both to a
reduction of quantity of the solid load carrying material and to the lack of adhesion
at the boundaries of the rubber aggregate. Soft rubber particles behave as voids in
the concrete matrix. Considering the very different mechanical properties of mineral
aggregates and rubber aggregates, mineral aggregates usually have high crushing
strength and they are relatively incompressible, whereas rubber aggregates are
ductile, compressible and resilient. Rubber has a very low modulus of elasticity of
about 7MPa and a Poisson’s ratio of 0.5.Another observation while carrying out the
compressive strength test was the nature of crack formation. In rubberized concrete,
crack formation is different from plain concrete because bond strength between
rubber and cement paste is poor than that of between aggregate and cement paste.
Therefore, initial cracks were formed around rubber aggregates and cement paste in
rubberized concrete.

5.3 splitting tensile strength Test

The common method of estimating the tensile strength of concrete is through an
indirect tension test. The splitting tensile test is carried out on a standard cylinder
tested on its side in diametral compression. The horizontal stress to which the
element is subjected is given by the following equation.

Horizontal tension σt= 2P/πLD

Where: P - the applied compressive load
L- the cylinder length,
D- the cylinder diameter
Figure 5.5 below shows the testing method for splitting tensile strength test and
Table 5.4 shows the splitting tensile strength test results. The relative percentage of
strength loss with respect to the control mixes are also tabulated together.
5.3 flexural strength Test

This test gives another way of estimating tensile strength of concrete. During pure
bending, the member resisting the action is subjected to internal actions or stresses
(shear, tensile and compressive). For a bending force applied downward on a
member supported simply at its two ends, fibers above the neutral axis are, generally,
subjected to compressive stresses and those below the neutral axis to tensile stresses.

For this load and support system, portions of the member near the supports are
subjected to relatively higher shear stresses than tensile stresses. In this test, the
concrete member to be tested is supported at its ends and loaded at its interior
locations by a gradually increasing load to failure. The failure load (loading value at
which the concrete cracks heavily) is then recorded and used to determine the tensile
stress at which the member failed.

The prepared beam samples were tested after 28 days of standard curing and the
results of flexural strength tests for the control concretes and the rubberized
concretes are summarized below in Table 5.6. The calculation of the flexural stress
at failure is as follows:

C =D/2 cm; M=PL/3 N.m ; I=bd3/12 m4 ; σ=Mc/I MPa

Where: P = Failure Load σ = Bending Strength
M = Maximum Moment L = Span of Specimen
I = Moment of Inertia D = Depth of specimen
C = Centroidal depth B = Width of the specimen
 CHAPTER 6

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The general objective of this research was to evaluate the fresh and hardened
properties of a concrete produced by replacing part of the natural coarse aggregates
with an aggregate produced from locally available recycled waste tire and subjected
to local conditions. From the test results of the samples, as compared to the
respective conventional concrete properties, the following conclusions and
recommendations are drawn out.
The low specific gravity of the rubber chips as compared to the mineral coarse
aggregates produced a decrease in the unit weight of the rubberized concrete. Crumb
rubber is nearly two and half times lighter than the conventional mineral coarse
aggregate and hence it can be expected that the mass density of the mix would be
relatively lower. Rubberized concrete can be used in non load bearing members such
as lightweight concrete walls, building facades, or other light architectural units, thus
the rubberized concrete mixes could give a viable alternative to the normal weight
concrete.
For rubberized concrete, the test results show that the addition of rubber aggregate
resulted in a significant reduction in concrete compressive strength compared with
the control concrete. This reduction increased with increasing percentage of rubber
aggregate. Losses in compressive strength ranging from 11.38 % to 64.02 % were
observed. The reason for the strength reduction could be attributed both to a
reduction of quantity of the solid load carrying material and lack of adhesion at the
boundaries of the rubber aggregate, soft rubber particles behave as voids in the
concrete matrix.
Although the compressive strength values have considerably decreased with the
addition of waste tire pieces, their values are still in the reasonable range for a 5 %
and 15 % replacement values because the intended compressive strengths of 15, 25,
30 and 40 MPa were achieved in this categories.
The results of the splitting tensile strength tests show that, there is a decrease in
strength with increasing rubber aggregate content like the reduction observed in the
compressive strength tests. However, there was a smaller reduction in splitting
tensile strength as compared to the reduction in the compressive strength.
One of the reasons that splitting tensile strength of the rubberized concrete is lower
than the conventional concrete is that bond strength between cement paste and
rubber tire particles is poor. Besides, pore structures in rubberized concretes are
much more than conventional concrete.
A significant advantage of increase in flexural strength was achieved in lower
strength concretes, M25, by limiting the replacement amount to only 5 % of the
coarse aggregate. In these two categories of concretes, for rubber aggregate contents
of 15 and 25 % a flexural strength reduction was observed compared to the control
mixes. The reduction indicates that improvements in flexural strength are limited to
relatively small rubber aggregate contents. Since the tendency of the flexural
strength test results are a bit different from the other strength test results, this needs
to be investigated through more research. In general, it can be concluded that as the
amount of rubber content increases, the reduction in the flexural strength also
increases
A reduced compressive strength of concrete due to the inclusion of rubber aggregates
limits its use in some structural applications. Nevertheless, it has few desirable
characteristics such as lower density, higher impact and toughness resistance,
enhanced ductility, and a slight increase in flexural strength in the lower strength
concretes.

The use of rubber aggregates from recycled tires addresses many issues. These
include; reduction of the environmental threats caused by waste tires, introduction
of an alternative source to aggregates in concrete, enhancing of the weak properties
of concrete by the introduction of different ingredients other than the conventionally
used natural aggregates and ultimately leading to the conservation of natural
resources. In addition to meeting recycling and sustainability objectives, it aims is
to produce products with enhanced properties in specific applications.
In some applications of concrete, it is demanded that concrete should have Medium
strength. Although concrete is the most commonly used construction material, it
does not always fulfill these requirements. One of the ways to improve these
properties can be the addition of the rubber into concrete as an aggregate. The overall
results of this study show that it is possible to use recycled rubber tires in concrete
construction as a partial replacement for coarse aggregates. However, the percentage
replacement should be limited to specified amounts as discussed above and the
application should be restricted to particular cases where the improved properties
due to the rubber aggregates outweigh the corresponding demerits that may occur
due to them.
6.2 Recommendations

Even though the use of waste tires for various applications by traditional recyclers
has been a common practice in Ethiopia so far, with the increase in urbanization and
the change in the living conditions of the society, the old ways cannot continue with
time. Hence, there will be a potential accumulation of waste tires especially in the
larger cities of the country.
Since the use of rubber aggregates in concrete construction is not a common trend
in our country, more studies and research works need to be done in this area and
academic institutions should play a great role.
Tire manufacturers and importers in the country should be aware of the
environmental consequences of waste tires and they should have research centers
that promote an environmental friendly way of tire reprocessing.

Most of the time, it is observed that designers and contractors go to a high strength
and expensive concrete to get few improved properties such as impact resistance in
parking areas and light weight structures for particular applications. Nevertheless,
these properties can be achieved through the application of rubberized concrete by
first conducting laboratory tests regarding the desired properties. Therefore, the use
of rubberized concrete as an alternative concrete making material needs an attention.

Future studies should be continued in the following areas as part of the extension of this research
work.
i) In this research, a constant dosage of admixture was used for a particular mix category.
It will be more helpful if the effects of various dosages of admixtures are investigated.
ii) The effect of using de-airing agents to decrease the entrapped air in rubberized concrete
should be studied. Consequently, a considerable increase in compressive strength can
be achieved.

iii) The existence of any chemical reactions between the rubber aggregate and other
constituents of the rubberized concrete to make sure that there is no undesirable effects
that are similar to alkali-silica and alkali-carbonate reactions in natural aggregates needs
to be investigated.
This research was done by preparing single graded rubber aggregates of size 20 mm. The effect of
different sizes should be studied in the future. Besides to this, the effects in different percentage
replacements other than those made in this research needs to be investigated.

The test results in this study are based on results taken after 7th, 28th and 56th days of standard
curing of the test samples. The long-term effects of rubberized concrete needs to be studied to find
out the relevant properties associated with the age of the concrete.