Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 87 (2019) 78–90

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Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/tust

Nonlinear collapse simulation of Daikai Subway in the 1995 Kobe T

earthquake: Necessity of dynamic analysis for a shallow tunnel
Chih-Chieh Lua, , Jin-Hung Hwangb
⁎

a
National Center for Research on Earthquake Engineering, No. 200, Sec. 3, Xinhai Rd., Taipei 10668, Taiwan, ROC
b
Department of Civil Engineering, National Central University, No. 300, Jhongda Rd., Jhongli City, Taoyuan County 32001, Taiwan, ROC

A RT ICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: This research conducts dynamic time-history analysis and a modified cross-section racking deformation
Seismic performance (MCSRD) method to analyze the collapse mechanism of the Daikai Subway during the 1995 Kobe earthquake
Daikai using FLAC2D. A simplified approach to consider the nonlinear behavior of a structure element is imported and
Dynamic analysis combined with the FLAC2D built-in nonlinear soil constitutive models to accurately consider the nonlinear
MCSRD
interaction between the soil material and structure. Based on the proposed framework, the damage evolution
process of the Daikai Subway station can be traced by the dynamic time-history analyses. The collapse pattern
roughly agrees with field observation. Regarding the MCSRD method, the critical member of the “central
column” is identified but the internal forces did not reach its limit state; this may be because inertial force is
neglected, which is a characteristic of the pseudo-static method. Therefore, it is recommended to conduct dy-
namic time-history analysis for a shallow buried tunnel in soft soil because the inertial force may largely in-
fluence the seismic characteristics.

1. Introduction
Due to large number of the damaged tunnels observed from the
several catastrophic earthquake events such as the 1923 Kanto earth-
quake, 1995 Kobe earthquake, 1999 Chi-Chi earthquake, and 2008
Wenchuan earthquake, the seismic performance of an underground
structure is more concerned by many researchers (Abuhajar et al.,
2015; Amorosi and Boldini, 2009; Cilingir and Madabhushi, 2011;
Hatzigeorgiou and Beskos, 2010; Tsinidis, 2017; Tsinidis et al., 2016a,
2016b; 2016c; Yu et al., 2016, 2017). Among the damaged under-
ground structures, the serious damage to the Daikai subway station
during the 1995 Kobe earthquake was surprising to geotechnical en-
gineers, since in earthquake engineering, an underground structure is
thought to have higher earthquake resistance than a superstructure,
owing to the confinement of the surrounding ground, which results in a
smaller inertial force acting on the underground structure during
ground shaking. The catastrophic earthquake caused more than thirty
central columns of the Daikai subway station to buckle and completely
collapse (Iida et al., 1996). Based on preliminary estimates from Iida
et al. (1996) and An and Maekawa (1997), during the earthquake, there
were over 20 central columns seriously buckled due to strong ground
shaking. Fig. 1 shows the failure condition of the buckling columns.
Because of the collapse of the ceiling slab induced by the failure of the
supporting columns at the midspan, it is found that the ground right
above the failed underground structure seriously settled as shown in
Fig. 2.
The failure of the Daikai subway station is of great interest because
it is the first reinforced concrete (RC) underground structure reported
as having suffered complete collapse as a result of an earthquake (Huo
et al., 2005). Many researchers began to investigate the performance
and failure mode of the station. Due to the characteristics of this case,
commonly used pseudo-static approaches such as the cross-section
racking deformation (CSRD) and modified CSRD (MCSRD) methods
(Wang, 1993; Penzien 2000; Huo et al., 2006; Hwang and Lu, 2007;
Park et al., 2009; Lu and Hwang, 2017; Lu and Hwang, 2018) may not
be adequate for analyzing the collapse mechanism of the Daikai subway
station during the 1995 Kobe earthquake, because the complex
ground–structure interaction and seismic response of the soil–structure
system under cyclic loading may not be adequately considered. Fewer
researches used static or pseudo-static approaches to study the failure
mechanism of the case (Nishiyama et al.,1999). Most of researches
adopted conducted dynamic analysis to study the failure mechanism of
the station. Yamato et al. (1996) derived the ground response using
FLUSH program and then used the nonlinear static analysis to figure out
the failure mechanism of the central column. An and Maekawa (1997)
observed from numerical results that the failure of the middle column

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: chchlu@ncree.narl.org.tw (C.-C. Lu), hwangjin@cc.ncu.edu.tw (J.-H. Hwang).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tust.2019.02.007
Received 27 November 2018; Received in revised form 1 February 2019; Accepted 9 February 2019
0886-7798/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
C.-C. Lu and J.-H. Hwang
Fig. 1. Failure of columns supporting the roof at the midspan of Daikai subway
station (Uenishi and Sakurai, 2000).
Fig. 2. Substantial settlement of a roadway caused by the collapse of the Daikai
subway station underneath (Uenishi and Sakurai, 2000).
was caused by its low shear capacity and poor ductility. Nishiyama
et al. (1999) performed several shaking table tests, the dynamic ana-
lysis, seismic deformation method to study the response of soil-struc-
ture interaction. Iwatate et al. (2000) concluded that the collapse of the
station is due to the lack of the loading capacity against shear at the
middle column based on the results of shaking table tests with the
scaled subway station. Uenishi and Sakurai (2000) studied the re-
sonance of a column at midspan of the station based on the wave
propagation theorem. Chen et al. (2004) adopted SASSI2000 program
to build several substructures for the soil-underground system, and
conducted dynamic analysis to figure out the failure mechanism of the
station. Parra-Montesinos et al. (2006) used the commercial program
ABAQUS to conduct dynamic time-history analysis and rationally ex-
plained the failure mechanism of the central column accordingly. In the
study, the failure mechanism of the central column in the Daikai
subway station was analyzed using separate numerical models. Zhuang
et al. (2008) adopted a dynamic nonlinear viscoelastic model im-
plemented in ABAQUS to model the characteristics of soils under cyclic
loadings and traced the damage evolution process of Dakai subway
station. Yu and Li (2017) evaluate the damage mechanism of the Daikai
subway station using ABAQUS, and concluded that the damage of the
station mainly results from the horizontal motion. A brief summary of
the above researches regarding the evaluation of the failure mechanism
of the Daikai subway station is listed in Table 1.
Based on former studies, it is found that there is not any research
could well simulate the collapse evolution process of the Daikai subway
station during the 1995 Kobe earthquake and show the post failure
79
Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 87 (2019) 78–90
pattern observed from the filed observation (Figs. 1 and 2). It is also
undoubted that the simulation with the full consideration of the highly
nonlinear soil–structure interaction is never achievable with the avail-
able data. Therefore, the study did not intend to adopt a sophisticated
model but to propose a practical numerical framework requiring as less
parameters as possible to capture the nonlinear soil–structure interac-
tion of the Daikai subway station during the 1995 Kobe earthquake, and
further simulate the collapse evolution process of the damaged under-
ground structure. To this end, an approach to trace the nonlinear be-
havior of a structural member during the numerical simulation pro-
posed by Lu and Hwang (2017) was imported and combined with the
practical Mohr-Coulomb model and modulus degradation model. Thus,
the nonlinear interaction between soil material and structural member
could be considered while conducting numerical analysis. The other
purpose of this study is to further identify the differences between the
pseudo-static approach and the dynamic time-history analysis for a
shallow buried underground structure. To this end, the pseudo-static
MCSRD method and dynamic time-history analysis were both adopted
to simulate the seismic behavior of the Daikai subway station under the
1995 Kobe earthquake using the FLAC2D program. Based on the results,
the collapse evolution process of the Daikai subway station simulated
by the dynamic time-history analyses can be identified. The detailed
simulation results are addressed in this paper. With regard to the ana-
lysis of the MCSRD method, although the critical member of the “cen-
tral column” could be identified, the internal forces did not reach its
limit state. The discrepancies with the field observations may be at-
tributed to the MCSRD method neglecting the inertial forces of the
underground structure and surrounding ground during cyclic loading,
which is a characteristic of the pseudo-static method. Therefore, it is
recommended to conduct dynamic time-history analysis for a shallow
buried tunnel, particularly when the embedded material is soft soil,
since the inertial force may largely influence the seismic characteristics
of the soil–structure system.
2. Background of the Daikai subway station
2.1. Basic information of the station
The Daikai subway station is located in the region of Osaka Bay. A
satellite view of the region is shown in Fig. 3. The station is part of the
subway system of the Kobe Rapid Transit Railway, which is one of the
most important mass transportation systems in the city of Kobe in
Japan. During the design stage of the station, the provision of seismic
loading was not taken into account. The station was constructed using
the cut-and-cover method while employing soldier beams and
sheathing boards during the process of excavation. The construction
period was from August 1962 to January 1964.
Fig. 4 shows the geometry of a typical cross section of the subway.
As shown in the figure, the overburden, height, and width of the
subway are 4.8, 7.17, and 17 m, respectively. The total length of the
subway is approximately 120 m and there are thirty-five central col-
umns along the longitudinal direction of the subway. The interval be-
tween two neighboring columns is 3.5 m. Please refer to Iida et al.
(1996) for other relevant data for the station.
2.2. Geological conditions and parameters
Across the Kobe area, there are several northeast–southwest
trending strike-slip faults. The area can be approximately divided into
two parts: the north-west mountain region and the Osaka Bay region. In
the north-west mountain region, the geological age is in the Late
Cretaceous period and the Miocene epoch. The rock mass is mainly
composed of Rokko granite, accompanied by some other rock types
such as sandstone, gravel, mudstone, and tuff. In the leveled Osaka Bay
region, where the Daikai subway station is located, the geology mainly
consists of Holocene and Pleistocene deposits.
C.-C. Lu and J.-H. Hwang Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 87 (2019) 78–90

Table 1
Summary of the studies related to the failure analyses of the Daikai subway station subject to the 1995 Kobe earthquake.
No. Ref. Analyzed dimension Tool or software Analysis method

Pseudo-static Dynamic analysis

1 Yamato et al. (1996) 2D FEM (FLUSH) X O

2 An and Maekawa (1997) 2D FEM (WCOMD-SJ) X O
3 Nishiyama et al. (1999) 2D Shaking table and FEM (FLUSH) O O
4 Iwatate et al. (2000) 2D Shaking table and FEM (TDAP) X O
5 Uenishi and Sakurai (2000) 1D Analytical solution (Wave propagation theorem) X O
6 Chen et al. (2004) 2D FEM (SASSI2000) X O
7 Parra-Montesinos et al. (2006) 2D FEM (ABAQUS) X O
8 Zhuang et al. (2008) 2D FEM (ABAQUS) X O
9 Yu and Li (2017) 2D FEM (ABAQUS) X O

The earthquake lasted for approximately 20 s. One of the normalized

horizontal acceleration history records is shown in Fig. 7, which the
Rokko mountain region frequency content of the ground motion is mainly below 10 Hz and the
dominate frequency ranges from to 1.5 to 2.5 Hz based on the results of
Fourier Transform. This was the first earthquake where the seismic
intensity was certified to be over a VII on the Japan Meteorological
Agency (JMA) scale, and the peak ground acceleration (PGA) recorded
in the city of Kobe city was as high as 0.84 g. The severe ground shaking
caused approximately 6434 people to lose their lives, making it the
worst earthquake in Japan since the 1923 Kanto earthquake. Some
200,000 buildings collapsed, 1 km of the expressway collapsed, 120 of
the 150 quays in the port of Kobe were impaired, and some electricity
Daikai subway station supplies were disrupted. This earthquake caused approximately ten
trillion yen in damage.

2.4. Damage condition of the Daikai subway station

During the 1995 Kobe earthquake, the Daikai subway station was
Fig. 3. Satellite view of a part of Osaka Bay. unfortunately located in an area of JMA VII, and thus the underground
structure, without sufficient preparation for seismic loading during the
design stage, was seriously damaged by the earthquake. From field
investigations after the earthquake, the damage patterns in the long-
4.8 m

itudinal and transverse directions of the station are summarized and

shown in Figs. 8 and 9, respectively. There were clearly many obvious
cracks on the wall due to the squeezing of the strong ground motion.
Most of the central columns along the subway seriously buckled,
causing the collapse of the above roof slab, the maximum settlement of
which was measured to be as high as 2.5 m. However, no obvious li-
7.17 m

quefaction conditions happened here. For a more detailed failure si-

tuation of the Daikai subway station, the reader is referred to Iida et al.
(1996).

3. Establishment of the numerical model

17 m

Fig. 4. A typical cross section of the Daikai subway station. 3.1. Numerical model

In the case of the damaged Daikia subway station, the underground

Field investigations around the station before and after the 1995
Kobe earthquake are collected by Iida et al. (1996) and summarized in
Figs. 5 and 6. From the figures, the ground water level appears to be
lower after the earthquake; the ground formations from top to bottom
are backfill, Holocene alluvium, and Pleistocene alluvium. Further-
more, it can be seen that the deeper the soil, the stronger the soil, ac-
cording to results of standard penetration tests and seismic tests. Based
on the above results of field tests, the soil parameters are evaluated and
summarized in Table 2.
2.3. Ground motion
On January 17, 1995, the Kobe earthquake occurred in the southern
part of Hyogo Prefecture with Mw 6.8 on the moment magnitude scale.
structure is a line-shaped structure located in the layered soils, which
can be rationally and easily modeled by 2D plane strain condition to
reduce the simulation effort in practice. Therefore, in this study, the
commercial software FLAC2D was employed. For analyzing the seismic
behavior of the Daikai subway station, the numeral mesh was generated
first. After that, soil parameters were assigned to the solid elements,
which will be discussed later (as two different types of soil constitutive
models will be tested). The largest zone size of the numerical mesh is
2 m × 2 m in the numerical model, the maximum frequency which can
be rationally simulated is about 12.5 Hz according to the suggestion by
Kuhlemeyer and Lysmer (1973). The numerical model was assigned a
gravity of 9.81 m/s2 and then performed to simulate the in situ stress
for initial condition of the model. When the entire analyzed system
became stable, the underground structure could then be installed.

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28

Site A Daikai station

28

Site B
Municipal
Daikai apt.

N
m Hyogo station
0 200 400

Site A Site B
Depth SPT-N value Depth SPT-N value
Soil type Soil type
(m) 20 40 60 (m) 20 40 60 80 100
Surface soil Surface soil
Sandy Loam
2 Clayey Loam 2
w/ gravel w/ sand
Sandy Loam Clayey loam
4 w/ sand 4
Sand
6 w/ sand 6 Sand
w/ gravel
Clayey Loam
8 w/gravel 8
Silty loam
Clayey Loam Sandy loam
10 (humus) 10
w/ sand
Clay
12 12 Humus
Sand
Clay
Sandy Loam
14 w/ gravel
14 Sandy loam
w/ gravel

Fig. 5. Borehole investigation results before the earthquake (after Iida et al., 1996).

Since the cut-and-cover method with a sufficient retaining system or
soil improvement was used during the construction of the Daikai
subway station, the supporting system could effectively reduce the
deformation of neighboring ground. In the simulation of the construc-
tion of the Daikai subway station, the supporting system is considered
to effectively reduce the deformation of neighboring ground before the
construction of the main underground structure, and therefore, the
modelling of the installation of the structure was carried out im-
mediately after the excavation and the properties of soil-structure in-
terfaces were assumed to be the same as the neighboring soils.
Afterwards, the inner balance calculation of the program was con-
ducted again until the unbalancing force of the model became suffi-
ciently small. At this point, the initial state of the numerical model was
established. The generated numerical mesh and the dimensions of the
model are shown in Fig. 10. The prepared model was then used to
conduct the analysis of the MCSRD method or the dynamic time-history
analysis.
3.2. Simulation of the nonlinear behavior of structural members
A piece-wise beam element was employed to model the structure,
and some basic information of the structural members is shown in
Table 3. For simulating the nonlinear behavior of structural members, a
simplified approach proposed by Lu and Hwang (2017) was used here.
Note that the joints of the structure were assumed to be elastic. From
the concept of the simplified approach, axial force–moment–curvature
(A–M–C) surfaces were used to define the nonlinear mechanical beha-
vior of an RC section, which should be first derived and compiled in the
used program. Next, the prescribed behavior of the structural members
could be traced by frequently adjusting the “plastic moment,” a com-
mand of FLAC2D for structural elements, during the process of nu-
merical analysis. According to Iida et al. (1996), there were four types
of reinforcement at different locations in the Daikai subway station. The
corresponding A–M−C surfaces should be derived based on their re-
inforcement conditions. Fig. 11 shows the four A–M−C surfaces of RC

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C.-C. Lu and J.-H. Hwang Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 87 (2019) 78–90

No. D-1

National road no. 28

No. B-1(EL=+0.15m) No. B-2(EL=+0.22m)

-0.5

-2.0 2.0
-1.0
-1.5
N
2.5

1.5
1.0

No. B-4
0.5

No. B-3(EL=+0.28m) Borehole location

(a) Plan and contours of the settlement of the ground surface

PS logging
Depth B-1 N-value D-1 B-3 N-value 0.2 0.4 CS (km/s) B-2 N-value
(m) 0 20 40 0 20 40 1 2 CP (km/s) 0 20 40
0
B
Ac
As
5
Ds
Ds Dc
10
Ds

Dg Dc
15
Ds

20

Dg

25 B Fill Ds Pleistcene sand Dc

Ac Holocene clay Dc Pleistcene clay
As Holocene sand Dg Pleistcene gravel
30
B-3 CS
D-1 CP

(b) Soil profile

Fig. 6. Soil profile based on borehole investigation results after the earthquake and settlement of the ground surface (after Iida et al., 1996).

sections representing different locations in the Daikai subway station,
the databases of which were compiled in FLAC2D for the following
analyses. Because the central columns were installed in intervals of
3.5 m, the stiffness of the structure should be divided by 3.5 and the
internal forces should be multiplied by 3.5 for the analysis of plane
strain conditions.
3.3. Soil constitutive models
In the numerical model, the ground formations were modeled by
solid elements, and two different soil constitutive models, including the
Mohr–Coulomb model and the modulus degradation model, were tested
and assigned to the elements individually. Note that there are other

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C.-C. Lu and J.-H. Hwang Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 87 (2019) 78–90

Table 2
Soil parameters required by the different soil constitutive models.
Soil type Depth (m) γ (t/m3) G (MPa) B (GPa) VS (m/s) VP (km/s) MC modela MD modelb (sigmoid method)

c o a b x0

Backfill 1.6 1.95 20 0.15 100 0.3 0 20 1.020 −0.5044 −1.396

Clay 3.2 2.05 40 0.68 140 0.6 20 0 0.999 −0.4286 −1.419
Sand 4.8 2.00 97 3.79 220 1.4 0 25 1.014 −0.4792 −1.249
Sand 6.8 2.00 97 3.79 220 1.4 0 25 1.014 −0.4792 −1.249
Clay 12.0 2.00 76 5.97 190 1.7 50 0 0.999 −0.4286 −1.419
Sand 13.0 2.10 118 8.88 240 2.1 0 30 1.014 −0.4792 −1.249
Sand 17.0 2.05 118 8.88 240 2.1 0 30 1.014 −0.4792 −1.249
Gravel 35.0 2.20 198 9.44 300 2.1 50 35 1.015 −0.5245 −1.198

a
MC model is Mohr-Coulomb model.
b
MD model is the modulus degradation model

1.2 Sea Mountain

Normalized acceleration amplitude

1995/01 Kobe earthquake in E-W direction

0.8

0.4 2.93 3.09

0.0

-0.4
(a) Column 2
-0.8

-1.2
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (sec)
1.72 2.19
Fig. 7. Normalized acceleration history of the 1995 Kobe earthquake.

advanced dynamic soil models such as PM4Sand model (Boulanger and

Ziotopoulou, 2015) can better simulate nonlinear behavior of soil under
the small to medium strain level in practical problem. However, these (b) Column 10
advanced models usually need many parameters, which are not easily Fig. 9. Typical damage patterns in the transverse direction of the Daikai
available, and a lengthy calibration process. Besides, while conducting subway station during the 1995 Kobe earthquake (after Iida et al., 1996).
dynamic analysis, the characteristics of time-consuming to implement
the model would further limit its application in this study. Therefore,
interaction like the studied case, it is believed that the results based on
the commonly practical used Mohr-Coulomb and the built-in modulus
the used models and other advanced soil models are comparable.
degradation model are selection in this study. In addition, while en-
For the commonly used Mohr–Coulomb model, the soil elements
countering the complex problem with highly nonlinear soil-structure

100 80
0.2 5 0.2
5 50
10 250 10 2 0.4 0.3
200 20010 10
10 70 70 50 100 150 5 8 15 10 18 15 5 5 80 0.7 0.5
50 5 5 5 55 1.
50 50 1 55 5 5
100 8 20 40 8 0.55 0.25 5 0.4 0.7
5 5 5 2 200
10 5 400 0.7
10 30 20 20 5
0.4
30 25

2
(a) Ceiling slab (interior side)
Nagata st. Shinkaichi st.

Ceiling slab
h

Pillar no. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35

h 2.84 2.21 1.70 1.50 1.34 1.26 1.21 1.16 1.15 1.17 1.21 1.30 1.42 1.49 1.61 1.71 1.84 1.99 2.15 2.35 2.64 3.00 3.28 3.63 3.95 4.04 4.03 4.00 4.00 3.99 3.97 3.97 4.00 4.00 4.03
Base slab
(b) Center pillar
Fig. 8. Schematic damage patterns in the longitudinal direction of the Daikai subway station during the 1995 Kobe earthquake (after Iida et al., 1996).

83
C.-C. Lu and J.-H. Hwang
4.8 m
7.2 m
35 m
17 m
105 m
Fig. 10. Numerical model and mesh of the Daikai subway station.
Table 3
Structural parameters at different locations.
Location Unit weight (t/m3) fc′ (kg/cm2) Thickness (cm)
Ceiling roof 2.4 380 85
Side wall 2.4 380 81
Base 2.4 380 82
Central column 2.4 406 40
followed the Mohr–Coulomb failure criterion: while the stress state of
the element lies above the failure envelope, defined by the strength
parameters of cohesion and friction angle, the plastic deformation was
derived by the non-associated flow rule; otherwise, if the stress state
does not violate the failure criterion, then the element remains linear-
elastic and obeys Hooke’s law. For the case of the Daikai subway sta-
tion, the soil parameters of all soil formations required by the
Mohr–Coulomb model are listed in Table 2.
The other soil constitutive model, named the modulus degradation
model, was also one of the FLAC2D built-in models (Itasca, 2017), and
it may better define the nonlinear behavior of soil. The characteristics
of the strain-dependent modulus and hysteretic effect of the soil were
described using this model and obeying the well-known Masing rule.
Note that many dynamic tests should be performed in order to obtain
the dynamic properties of all soil layers. However, in this case, such
data are quite lacking, except for the layer of backfill, and therefore,
some literature results should also be consulted. Based on the features
of different soils, the modulus degradation curves individually sug-
gested by Seed and Idriss (1970), Zhang et al. (2005), and Rollins et al.
(1998) were adopted to delineate the dynamic characteristics of sand,
clay, and gravel, respectively. In addition, when adopting the modulus
degradation model, a regression method was performed to obtain the
regression parameters for describing the prescribed modulus degrada-
tion curve, and the sigmoid regression method provided by FLAC2D
was employed here. Figs. 12–15 show the prescribed curves and the
regression results. The soil parameters required by the two models are
summarized in Table 2.
4. Analysis of the modified cross-section racking deformation
method
4.1. Analysis procedure for MCSRD
The MCSRD method is a type of pseudo-static seismic assessment
approach for an underground structure. Its aim is to apply the pre-
scribed ground deformation stimulated by the earthquake on the nu-
merical boundaries and let the numerical program consider the
Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 87 (2019) 78–90
soil–structure interaction effect. Fig. 16 shows the conditions of the
prescribed ground motion acting on the boundaries of the numerical
model. While analyzing the MCSRD method, the quantity of the im-
posed seismic shear strain should be decided first. Based on one-di-
mensional wave propagation theory, the relationship between peak
ground velocity (PGV), design seismic shear strain, and shear wave
velocity can be derived as follows:
v
=
des
Vs (1)
where des is the design seismic shear strain, which is the maximum
shear strain of the site induced by the earthquake; v (cm/s) is the PGV
of the site during the earthquake; and Vs (cm/s) is the average shear
wave velocity of the ground.
From Eq. (1), the design seismic shear strain should be evaluated by
the PGV and Vs, which individually represent the characteristics of the
earthquake and the site. For the evaluation of PGV, using the conditions
of the Daikai subway station during the 1995 Kobe earthquake, the
intensity of the location was as high as VII on the JMA scale (Kawasumi,
1951), as shown in Table 4, which implies the PGV would be larger
than 63.7 cm/s at this site. Since the real number is not available, a PGV
of 70 cm/s was used in this study. For the evaluation of Vs, the shear
E (GPa) wave velocity of each layer listed in Table 2 was adopted, and the
average shear wave velocity was calculated to be approximately 250 m/
29
s. Finally, a design seismic shear strain of 0.28% was obtained from Eq.
29
29 (1).
31
4.2. Calibration of the applied shear strain on boundaries
It should be noted that, when conducting the MCSRD method, the
propagation of shear strain from the boundaries should be checked,
especially for the case where the shape of the numerical domain is not
close to square or a certain boundary is unavailable, such as in the case
of the Daikai subway station, where the upper boundary could not be
used because the underground structure is too close to the ground
surface. To obtain the real seismic shear strain acting on the under-
ground structure, this study first established a model without an un-
derground structure, which caused the model to regress to a free field,
and then assigned racking deformation on the available boundaries.
Meanwhile, the shear strains on the side boundary and the central line
of the model were simultaneously monitored for further calibration of
the applied shear deformation on the boundaries.
Fig. 17 displays the boundary conditions while applying the ground
motion and the displacement field of the free-field model after applying
the seismic shear strain, which demonstrates the imperfect results in
regions near the upper-left and upper-right corners, due to the afore-
mentioned constraints of the case. For calibration of the applied shear
strain on the boundaries, the shear strain history of the side boundary
and the one at the central line of the model based on two different soil
constitutive models are summarized in Fig. 18. It can be seen that when
the applied shear strains on the side boundaries reached 1.19% for the
case using the Mohr–Coulomb model and 1.65% for the case using the
modulus degradation model, the shear strains at the central line of the
model would just reach the design value (0.28%).
4.3. Results of analysis of MCSRD
After imposing the seismic shear strain on the boundaries, the un-
derground structure is obviously pressed to the left by the surrounding
ground under the application of a leftward seismic shear deformation.
The deformation near the underground structure can be further divided
into absolute and relative parts. Note that the absolute displacement
would not cause extra loading, owing to the concept of the pseudo-
static approach. However, the dynamic time-history analysis would
cause the inertial forces acting on the underground structure during the
cyclic loading of an earthquake. This implies that the internal forces of
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300
300
250

Moment (ton-m)
Moment (ton-m)

250
200
200
150 150

100 100

50 50
0 0

2000 2000
1500 0 1500 0
10 20
20 40
1000 30 1000 60
Axial force (ton) 40 80
500 50 Axial force (ton) 100
60 Curvature (rad/km) 500 120 Curvature (rad/km)
0 80 70 140
0 160

(a) Ceiling roof (b) Side wall

150 350
Moment (ton-m)

Moment (ton-m) 300

100 250
200
50 150
100
0 50
2000 0
1500 2500
0
1000 20
40 2000 0
500 60 1500 10
Axial force (ton) 80 20
0 100 30
120 Curvature (rad/km) Axial force (ton) 1000 40
-500 140 500 50
60 Curvature (rad/km)
160 70
-1000 0 80

(c) Central column (d) Base

Fig. 11. The A–M−C surfaces at different locations of the Daikai subway station.

1.2 60 1.2 60
Modulus reduction ratio, G/Gmax

50
Modulus reduction factor, G/Gmax

1.0 1.0 50

Damping ratio (%)

0.8 G/Gmax 40 0.8 40
Damping ratio (%)

G/Gmax
Iida et al. (1996)
Seed and Idriss (1970)
Fitting results 30
0.6 0.6 Fitting result 30

0.4 20 0.4 Damping ratio 20

Damping ratio
Seed and Idriss (1970)
Iida et al. (1996)
0.2 10 0.2 Fitting result
Fitting results 10

0.0 0
0.0 0
10-4 10-3 10-2 10-1 100 10-4 10-3 10-2 10-1 100 101
Shear strain (%)
Shear strain (%)
Fig. 12. Dynamic property of backfill and the fitting results.
Fig. 13. Dynamic property of sand and the fitting results.

the underground structure would be underestimated, especially in a

case surrounded by soft soil and with narrow overburden such as the for imposed free-field shear strains of 0%, 0.118%, and 0.28%, re-
Daikai subway station. Therefore, the increase of internal forces in the spectively. From the figure, it can be seen that the station sustained the
underground structure could just be attributed to the contribution of pressure of the surrounding ground before the application of seismic
the relative displacement only. shear strain (the initial condition), which would cause the station to
Fig. 19 shows the distribution of the bending moment on some have an initial interior loading before the shaking of the earthquake. In
critical parts of the structure based on the two soil constitutive models addition, the distribution of internal forces in the structure would be

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C.-C. Lu and J.-H. Hwang Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 87 (2019) 78–90

1.2 60

50
Modulus reduction ratio, G/Gmax

1.0

Damping ratio (%)

0.8 G/Gmax 40
Soil medium
Zhang et al. (2005)
0.6 Fitting results 30

Applied shear deformation

0.4 Damping ratio 20
Zhang et al. (2005)
0.2 Fitting results 10

0.0 0
10-4 10-3 10-2 10-1 100
Shear strain (%)

Fig. 14. Dynamic property of clay and the fitting results.

Fig. 17. Displacement field of the free-field model after applying the seismic
shear strain (Mohr–Coulomb model).
1.2 60

2.0
Modulus reduction ratio, G/Gmax

1.0 50
Side boundary

G/Gmax
Central line of Mohr-Coulomb model
Damping ratio (%)
0.8 40
1.6 Central line of Modulus degradation
Rollins et al. (1998)
model

Shear strain (%)

0.6 Fitting results 30
1.2
0.4 Damping ratio 20

Rollins et al. (1998)

0.8
0.2 Fitting results 10

0.0 0
0.4
10-4 10-3 10-2 10-1 100
Shear strain (%)

Fig. 15. Dynamic property of gravel and the fitting results. 0.0
Step

Fig. 18. Shear strain histories at different locations of the numerical model.

When the applied free-field shear strain reached 0.118%, the

bending moment at the central column largely increased as a result of
squeezing by the surrounding ground, and other parts of the structure
also exhibited increasing internal forces, except the left-side wall. This
Applied ground motion
is because the soil near the left-side wall tended to move away from the
Fig. 16. Numerical model to conduct the MCSRD method. left-side wall as a result of the direction of the applied shear strain, and
the initial interior force of the left-side wall was thus reduced. As the
affected by the shape of the structure system. Owing to the symmetric free-field shear strain continued to increase and reached 0.28%, the
shape of the station, the external load acting on the structure was internal forces of the structural members continued to accumulate and
symmetrical, and therefore, the distribution of bending moment in the became larger, including the member at the left-side wall, and the
figure has the same form. largest internal force at this stage was at the central column. According
to the figure, the Mohr–Coulomb model yielded more conservative

Table 4
PGV and PGA correlated with the seismic intensity on the JMA scale (1949) (Kawasumi, 1951).
Intensity Classification PGV (cm/s) PGA (gal) Explanation

0 Not perceptible < 0.13 < 0.8 Not perceptible. Shocks too weak to be felt by humans, registered only by seismographs
I Slight 0.13–0.40 0.8–2.5 Slight. Extremely weak shocks, felt only by persons at rest or by those who are very sensitive to earthquakes
II Weak 0.40–1.26 2.5–8.0 Weak. Shocks felt by most persons, slight shaking of doors and Japanese sliding doors (shoji)
III Rather strong 1.26–4.0 8.0–25 Rather strong. Slight shaking of houses and buildings, rattling of doors and Japanese sliding doors (shoji). Surface of water
in a vessel can be seen to ripple
IV Strong 4.0–12.6 25–80 Strong. Strong shaking of houses and buildings, overturning of unstable objects, and spilling of liquids out of vessels. Felt
by people walking outdoors, and many people inside rush outdoors. Considerable swinging of hanging objects such as light
fixtures
V Very strong 12.6–39.8 80–250 Very strong. Cracks in the walls, overturning of gravestones, stone lanterns, etc., damage to chimneys and stone fences
VI Disastrous 39.8–63.7 250–400 Disastrous. Collapse of less than 30% of all houses, landslides, and fissures open in the ground. Most people cannot remain
standing
VII Very disastrous > 63.7 > 400 Very disastrous. Collapse of more than 30% of all houses, intense landslides, large fissures open in the ground, and faulting

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C.-C. Lu and J.-H. Hwang
Soil constitutive model
Free-field
shear strain
Mohr Coulomb model
0.000 %
Max. moment of central column = 0 t-m
0.118 %
Max. moment of central column = 59 t-m Max. moment of central column = 45 t-m
0.280 %
Max. moment of central column = 101 t-m Max. moment of central column = 75 t-m
Fig. 19. Development of bending moment during the application of shear strain.
Free-field boundary
Free-field boundary
Fig. 20. Numerical model for dynamic time-history analysis.
results than the modulus degradation model, since the derived internal
forces in the structure are larger.
However, even though the critical member of the central column
could be identified during the process of the MCSRD method, the
yielding condition did not appear at any location of the underground
structure, based on either soil constitutive model, which obviously
disagrees with the real conditions. That is, although the trend of seismic
response of the Daikai subway station could be approximately captured,
the real collapse condition still could not be successfully simulated
using the pseudo-static MCSRD method. This may be because the
method omits the contribution of inertial force. To clarify this point, a
dynamic time-history analysis will be conducted and is addressed in the
following section.
5. Dynamic time-history analysis
5.1. Procedure for dynamic time-history analysis
When conducting the dynamic time-history analysis, the boundary
condition should be set first, which is quite different from the analysis
of MCSRD. Fig. 20 shows the numerical model for dynamic time-history
analysis of the Daikai subway station. As shown in the figure, the ac-
celeration history was imported on the lower boundary and the two side
boundaries were set to be free-field boundaries in order to avoid
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Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 87 (2019) 78–90
Modulus degradation model
Max. moment of central column = 0 t-m
reflection of the arriving energy and to simulate stress conditions in a
free field. During the dynamic time-history analysis, the ground motion
propagated upward through the soil media and the interaction between
the embedded underground structure and the surrounding ground was
considered simultaneously by the numerical program. In Mohr-Cou-
lomb model, the damping ratio of 1% was used to consider the energy
dissipation during small-strain condition. For the input motion, the
seismic motion shown in Fig. 7 was adopted, and the PGA of the motion
was enlarged to 0.58 g, according to the recommendation of Parra-
Montesinos et al. (2006). Note that the highest frequency of input
motion is 10 Hz, which is less than the maximum frequency (12.5 Hz)
which can be modeled accurately in the numerical model. The nu-
merical model can therefore propagate the input motion accurately.
5.2. Seismic behavior of the Daikai subway station
After the dynamic time-history analyses, the collapse of the Daikai
subway station during the earthquake was successfully simulated. For
clarifying the failure evolution process of the station, Fig. 21 shows the
displacement fields at different earthquake times based on the two
different soil constitutive models. From the figure, the distribution of
the displacement field is continuous (see the first subplot of Fig. 21),
whereas the ground motion is still light; this makes the structure and
surrounding ground remain elastic. As the earthquake approaches the
mainshock, the interaction between the soil and structure becomes
serious, owing to the difference in stiffnesses between the two and the
turbulent condition near the structure is obvious (see the second sub-
plot of Fig. 21). When the central column of the station bears too much
external loading, the yielding condition of the member occurs and the
crucial member gradually loses its bearing capacity. Meanwhile, the
soil above the station then settles due to the loss of support underneath
(see the third subplot of Fig. 21). Since the supporting system of the
structure would no longer be stable, deformation of the central column
quickly accumulates from then on until the total collapse of the station.
In addition, during the process of collapse of the central column, the
C.-C. Lu and J.-H. Hwang Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 87 (2019) 78–90

Time = 1.9 sec Time = 2.5 sec

Max. value = 3.94 x 10-2m Max. value = 8.95 x 10-2m

Time = 2.8 sec Time = 3.5 sec

Max. value = 2.22 x 10-1m Max. value = 2.75 x 100m

(a) Mohr – Coulomb model

Time = 1.0 sec Time = 2.2 sec

Max. value = 1.67 x 10-2m Max. value = 2.08 x 10-2m

Time = 3.5 sec Time = 4.0 sec

Max. value = 9.23 x 10-1m Max. value = 3.63 x 100m

(b) Modulus degradation model

Fig. 21. Displacement fields at different earthquake times.

soil above the station would be under a tensile state and easily fail,
owing to its weakness of tensile strength.
Fig. 22 shows the yielding condition at a certain stage of collapse of
the station. In Mohr-Coulomb model, the yielding of soil is categorized
by shear failure symbolized as “*” and tensile failure symbolized as “o”.
In modulus degradation model, only tensile failure is defined in this
model and symbolized as “o” since the nonlinear behavior of soil sub-
jected to shear stress is considered by the degradation of modulus rather
than by shear yield function. It demonstrates that the condition of
tensile failure is densely concentrated on the area above the station as a
result of the settlement condition. (Note that shear failure would not
occur in the modulus degradation model.)
5.3. Discussion of the collapse mechanism of the Daikai subway station
During the process of the failure of the structure, some critical

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1 3 4

2
1
1

Amplitude
Yield in shear 4

Yield in tension 3
1
Yield in past 2

0 1 2 3 4 5 6
(a) Mohr – Coulomb model Time (sec)
(a) Mohr –Coulomb model

1 1 4

2
3

Yield in tension
Amplitude

2
Yield in past 1
3
5
4

(b) Modulus degradation model

Fig. 22. Failure condition of the soil at a certain stage of collapse of the Daikai
subway station.
members would first fail and not be strong enough to bear the external
loading, and hence the original external loading borne by the yielding
members would be shared by the other members. Note that this would
cause the other members to become closer to their limit states or even
fail completely, and as this vicious cycle continues, the whole sup-
porting system would finally lose its bearing capacity and be completely
damaged. It is worth studying the entire damage sequence of a structure
during ground shaking, because the derived results could be a useful
reference for planning further reinforcement of critical members, which
can more effectively strengthen the structure.
To this end, the damage sequences based on the two different soil
constitutive models are summarized in Fig. 23. Regardless of which soil
constitutive model is used, the first yielding member would be found at
the lower part of the central column, and other yielding members
would gradually occur from then on. This demonstrates that the central
column of the Daikai subway station would be the most crucial
member, which complies with real conditions. However, the collapse
conditions were slightly different between the two used models. In the
Mohr–Coulomb model, the damage condition started to occur while the
earthquake approached its mainshock. It can be seen that not only the
central column and some critical joints yielded at this moment but also
the right-side wall was destroyed as a result of the violent squeezing by
the surrounding ground, the damage pattern of which is shown in
Fig. 22(a). In the modulus degradation model, the internal forces of the
structure accumulated as a result of the continuous squeezing by the
surrounding ground, and after entering the mainshock of the
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Time (sec)
(b) Modulus degradation model
Fig. 23. Development of the yielding condition of the structural members.
earthquake, the structure eventually failed and collapsed, since the
residual strength of the structure was not strong enough to sustain the
impact of the following earthquake wave. The damage pattern, ana-
lyzed by the modulus degradation model, is shown in Fig. 22(b), which
roughly agrees with the real damage condition shown in Fig. 9(b).
6. Conclusion
1. Basic information of the Daikai subway station was gathered and
summarized in this paper in order to determine the failure me-
chanism of the station during the 1995 Kobe earthquake. Based on
the compiled data, a series of numerical studies were performed to
test several factors, and the results derived by dynamic time-history
analyses agreed well with the real conditions. The collapse me-
chanism of the Daikai subway station was studied and discussed in
this paper.
2. From the analysis results, the inertial force was large in the case of
the Daikai subway station, which causes the dynamic time-history
analysis to have better analysis performance than the modified
cross-section racking deformation analysis, which is a kind of
pseudo-static approach. This case also demonstrated the necessity of
dynamic time-history analysis when an underground structure is
near the ground surface and surrounded by soft soil, which makes

89
C.-C. Lu and J.-H. Hwang
the effect of inertial force during earthquake very large due to the
lower confinement.
3. According to the results of dynamic time-history analyses, the two
nonlinear soil constitutive models can both traced the collapse
evolution process of the station. However, even with the use of a full
dynamic analysis, the predicted responses of both the soil response
and the collapse mechanism of the station are still different in the
examined system because of the use of the different nonlinear soil
constitutive models. Although the modulus degradation model
could better describe the mechanical behavior of soil, the hard-to-
obtain parameters of this sophisticated model may be an obstacle to
its practical use. In addition, the Mohr–Coulomb model yielded
more conservative results. Therefore, the Mohr–Coulomb model can
be considered when the dynamic properties of soil are not available.
4. It should be noted that even though the used dynamic time history is
recorded by the closest seismic station, it still 3 km from the studied
site. The input motion in this study is still different from the real
ground motion at the studied site. Besides, some assumptions were
made for the evaluation of soil parameters due to the limited field
testing results. Therefore, when comparing with the real damage
condition of the Daikai subway station, the numerical simulation
results would include certain degree of uncertainty and cannot fully
reflect the real behavior.
Appendix A. Supplementary material
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.tust.2019.02.007.
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