Electricity PDF

electromagnetism EM refers to phenomena involving electricity, magnetism, and light
physical theory that describes electromagnetic
electromagnetic theory EMT phenomena from the microscopic point of view
to be discussed first
the physical theory that corresponds to
circuit theory
EMT in the macroscopic point of view
electromagnetic interaction EMI produces electromagnetic phenomena
electric charges carriers of EMI
electric charge or
a physical property of matter a scalar like mass and volume
simply charge Q
coulomb C unit of charge in the SI/MKS system
Four Basic Properties of Electric Charges
• Charge comes in two varieties, namely “plus” and “minus” , having exactly the
same magnitude of 1.6 10 C.
• Unlike charges and attract each other while like charges both or both repel.
• The total charge is conserved locally. Charge in a certain region of space cannot simply
appear from nothing or just disappear by itself.
• Charge is always quantized so that any charge where is an integer.
Kinds of Charges
• point charge a charged point particle, one with zero linear dimension, like the
electron the smallest negative charge and the proton the smallest
positive charge
• ionized atom an atom with deficit cation or excess anion of electrons an
ordinary atom has the same number of electrons and protons so it
has zero net charge neutrally charged , like the neutron
• ionized molecule positively charged cation or negatively charged anion
• ordinary charged body an ordinary sized body with unequal number of positive
and negative constituent charged particles
electrostatics interaction between charges at rest stationary charges
Coulomb force force of interaction between two stationary charges and separated
by a distance
magnitude of
⁄ 11.1
Coulomb force
where the constant 9 10 N m ⁄C
direction of away from the charges if they are like charges

Coulomb force or toward each other if the charges are unlike
Notice that 0 repulsion if and are like charges while 0 attraction for
unlike charges. We keep the sign in the magnitude of the force to help us keep in mind if
the force is attracrive or repulsive
Handout 11 [Col. Physics 2 (Summer 2019, AY1819) … Lec: RMadridejos] Total of 13 pages Page 1

Moreover magnitude of Coulomb force on charge due to charge
magnitude of Coulomb force on charge due to charge
first subscript refers to the body acted upon by the force
Validity of Coulomb Force
• for two point charges only each one having zero linear dimension;
• not for extended charges bodies with nonzero linear dimensions since 1 the separation
distance between them is not well defined and 2 the interactions attraction or
repulsion of the parts cause redistribution of charges within the bodies that lead to
complicated variation of force with distance;
• for the charge at rest only if the other charge happens to be moving with any possible
velocity
• not for any of the two charges if both of them happen to be moving.
the concept of field simplifies understanding of EMI
a set of functions of the coordinate of a point
field in the sense
in space whose range specifies the values of
that we will use it
an idealized physical quantity of interest
a field that requires a magnitude and a direction to
vector field be given at each point the domain of the function
describing the field for complete characterization
Coulomb Force of Interaction from the Field Point of View
• one charge, called the source charge, say , creates a certain condition in space called
the electric field vector P whose magnitude is given by
⁄
P P 11.2
where is the constant whose value was given right after eq. 11.1 , and P is the distance
of , located at the source point, to point P, the field point something like being at
the center of a circle with radius P and point P being any point on the circle . Notice
that P 0 in eq. 11.2 if was a positive point charge while P 0 if was a
negative point charge.

direction of the electric
…
field vector at the field

point on the circle …
Note: It is simpler to look at the magnitude and direction of the electric field vector
separately, just like in the Coulomb force.
• the other charge, called the test charge point charge in this case shows the condition
created by the source charge by moving away from point P, if it was initially located
there, as a response to the force exerted by the electric field produced by the first charge:
magnitude of the force acting on the
test charge due to the electric field P 11.3
at P produced by the source charge

⁄ ⁄
which gives exactly the Coulomb force P since
charge is located at point P.
Since the test charge produces an electric field vector of its own that will combine vectorially and
modify the electric field vector produced by the source charge, we find that
P lim ⁄ lim ⁄ 11.4
indicating that the electric field due to the source charge is there even in the absence of the
test charge.
unit of electric field N

according to eq. 11.4 C
If we keep in mind that the force given in eq. 11.3 is acting on one charge due to the
electric field produced by another charge, then we find the vector form of the equation is
11.5
where refers to the test charge while refers to the source charge.
it simplifies the complications in keeping
advantage of the

field point of view
track of the proper electric field to use
in eq. 11.5 to get the correct force
it is not instantaneously transmittedted from the
complication in
source charge to the test charge because of a
Coulomb force
certain time delay in the propagation of the force
With the source charge remaining at rest and the test charge moving from P to another
point S closer to the source charge distance S P , the test charge will not immediately
notice the increase in the Coulomb force because of its finite speed of propagation. Only
after a certain time has elapsed will the test charge become aware of the increase in the
magnitude of the force. That is
while the Coulomb force is still
P
traveling the distance from Q to S
where P ⁄ P is the expression given in eq. 11.2 , although the test charge is
already at point S. But
upon arrival of the propagating
S
Coulomb force at point S
where now S ⁄ S P since S P .
as long as the source charge remains at rest
we find electric effects only
the test charge may or may not be moving
once the source charge we begin to get magnetic effects

begins to move too, in addition to electric effects
What is important is to know what the source charge is doing. What the test charge is doing
is irrelevant; it is only there to show the effects produced by the source charge.


knowing the importance
makes us realize the importance of knowing
of force in determining how
the electric field in the equation
a given body will move
the electric field in a depends on the configuration of

certain region in space the source charge distribution
Two Kinds of Charge Distribution
• discrete distribution one where only certain points in a region of space are occupied
by point charges, so that between any two occupied points is
just empty space
• continuous distribution one where all points in a particular region of space are
occupied by point charges
Examples of Discrete Charge Distribution of Particular Interest
• an electric monopole a single point charge, either positive or negative, which clearly
shows the direction of the electric field lines without any distortion
electric field lines nonexistent lines, imagined to originate from a positive charge
and/or terminate on a negative charge, used to indicate the
direction followed by a positive test charge, as a response to the
Coulomb force, when placed in the neighborhood of a source
charge, and to help visualize the strength of the electric field in
the region field lines close together signify a strong electric field
relation of the electric field the electric field vector at a point is tangent to

vector to an electric field line the electric field line passing through that point

Fig. 11‐1

Electric field lines surrounding Electric field vectors at points Electric field lines surrounding
a positive charge. in electric field lines of a negative charge.
a positive charge.
• an electric dipole one consisting of two point charges, both having the same magnitude
but opposite in sign, separated by a certain distance
electric dipole physical quantity that measures the

moment electric field produced by the dipole
molecules with permanent
polar molecules
electric dipole moment

polar molecule with an unusually =
water molecule
large electric dipole moment

the O atom with higher
both electron pairs are more strongly attracted
electronegativity than the H
by the O atom than any of the two H atoms
atom in a water molecule
one electron pair spending more time in the O atom forms an electric dipole with

the O atom than in one of the H atom with one H atom, producing a polar bond
the other electron pair is also water molecule consists of two electric
spending more time in the O dipoles forming two polar O―H bonds
atom than in the other H atom as can be seen below in Fig. 11‐ 2

, O
,

H
°

1 2

Fig. 11‐2
3
positive side
Fig. 11‐3

The electric field lines of an electric dipole showing the electric
negative side field vectors at three points tangent to the electric field lines at
their corresponding points

Two like

Two charges with charges
unequal magnitude repeling

Fig. 11‐4
attracting each other, each other.

f ,
water molecules in

dissolving many ionic
,

compounds in water

result of the electrostatic ,

tug of war that follows

,

the electrostatic attraction among the ions
in some ionic compounds
in the compound is just too great for the
that do not dissolve in water
water molecules to pull them apart

transmitting antennas to be

discussed a little more later

,
,
• an electric quadrupole third example of a discrete distribution of point charges
or simply a quadrupole consisting of two electric dipoles with the same electric
dipole moments two and two charges

electric quadrupole moment

0 for a spherically

symmetric nucleus
2

0

prolate ellipsoid
planar quadrupole 0
2 nuclear shape
oblate ellipsoid
2 for a Fig. 11‐5 nuclear shape
linear quadrupole

Superposition Principle for the Electric Field
With each point charge shown in Fig. 11‐6 producing
an electric field of its own, with magnitudes
⁄ … ⁄ … P
⁄ … ⁄ … etc.
where 9 10 N m ⁄C constant, and
distance of charge , 1, 2, 3, 4, to the
field point P, as if the other charges were not
Fig. 11‐6
present, then, the vector sum
P 11.6

gives the total electric field at point P, which can be evaluated using the sum of vectors in
component form. However, it must be kept in mind that
direction of vector towards starting from point P if 0…

at point P away from starting from point P if 0
Eq. 11.6 can be extended to any number of point charges.

Examples of Continuous Charge Distribution
• an infinite line of positive charge with the electric field directed radially away from the line
• an infinite plate that is positively charged with the electric field directed away to the plate
• two infinite plates || to each other, one positively charged, the other with negative charges
• two coaxial cylinders, the outer cylimder positively charged, the inner cylinder with negative charges
∞ Between the plates
∞
∞ = 0

∞
∞

∞
an infinite
line of charge ∞
∞
Outside the cylinders

= 0 Not between the plates ∞

∞
= 0
∞ Note:

∞

coaxial ∞
∞
cylinders

Between the cylinders

= 0

∞
∞
discharge

Capacitance switching contact ∞

in computer keyboards ∞
moving
Depressing a key capacitor

decreases the distance plate

between the capacitor
plates, increasing the fixed

capacitance. The capacitor

change in capacitamce plate Front view of a parallel plate capacitor with
triggers the circuitry to
finite surface area showing the distortions
enter the information. charging of the electric field lines near the edges of

contact the charge distribution.


Computation of the Electric Field of a Continuous Charge Distribution
There are several ways of computing the electric field of a continuous charge distribution.
One of them, of course, is by using the definition of for a point charge. But it must first be
written in vector form and that requires time for some explanations and integral calculus
for its evaluation. A method using Gauss’s law, one of the four laws of eletromagnetism,
requires relatively fewer explanations and needs only simple mathematics when applied to
some special cases.
f

Gauss’s Law f

Q
S
n

imaginary
Gauss’s law Gaussian
⁄ 11.7 surface S
mathematically
where 8.85 10 C ⁄ N m constant, known
as the electric constant vacuum permittivity or permittivity of
free space , which is an ideal baseline physical constant that
measures the lowest possible ability of a medium to store an
electric field in that medium:
more electric flux is
low permittivity charge distribution

larger for any given charge
Fig. 11‐7
less electric flux is
high permittivity
smaller for any given charge
unit of electric flux
⁄ C⁄ C ⁄ N m N m ⁄C 11.8
according to eq. 11.7
where the notation indicates units only.
left hand side
n 1 cos cos 11.9
of eq. 11.7
where is a vector representing the small enough area element on the imaginary
Gaussian surface S with unit outward normal vector perpendicular to the area element
n
. The symbol in eq. 11.9 denotes an integral over the closed Gaussian surface, so that
.
usually in connection with flow of fluid …
the word flux as
positve flux denotes an inward flow …
normally used
negative flux signifies an outward flow …
flux of a vector field tells the number of vector arrows coming from
through a surface having one side of the surface, piercing through the
nothing to do with flow surface and finally sticking out of the surface
more arrows coming from one side
the greater the flux of the vector field
and then sticking out of the surface
varies, in general, from one point to another
and cos in eq. 11.9 on the Gaussian surface, so it cannot
simply be taken out of the integral sign

and cos in eq. 11.9 do not vary on
for some charge distributions with
the imaginary Gaussian surface so they
a certain symmetry property
can be taken out of the integral sign
eq. 11.9 reducing to cos
or equivalently to cos cos area 11.10
when a symmetry property applies
Knowing the constant value of the angle and having a familiar geometric figure with
known surface area in eq. 11.10 , we can get the magnitude of the electric field by using
Gauss’s law in the form of eq. 11.7 :
⁄ area cos θ ⁄ area cos θ 11.11
obtaining charge Q in eq. 11.11 for
requires using the concept of charge density
a continuous charge distribution
Three Kinds of Charge Density
• line charge density 1D case
⁄ charge⁄unit length
for a straight line

total charge
• surface charge density 2D case
⁄ ⁄ charge⁄unit area

total charge ,
• volume charge density 3D case Fig. 11‐8
⁄ charge⁄unit volume

total charge , ,

Example
• a positively charged, infinite, thin plate: ∞
With the electric field in each side of
the infinite plate having one direction
only, we can get the electric field at point P,
located at a perpendicular distance ∞
n
to the right side of the plate, by taking n
an imaginary Gaussian surface S with
its axis || to and containing the point
P
P on one part of its surface as shown
S
in Fig. 11‐9. According to the definition
of flux of a vector field Fig. 11‐9
flux through flux through flux at

surface S lateral side 2 ends

According to eq. 11.9
flux through
0 since along the cylinder radius is
n to cylinder axis || to
lateral side
Likewise, according to eqs. 11.9 and 11.10
flux at flux at one
2 2 cos 0° 2
2 ends circular end
since constant at all points on the circular end with radius , all having the same
distance from the plate. Furthermore, according to Gauss’s law eq. 11.7
⁄ ⁄
due to the circular charge element on the plate enclosed by the Gaussian surface S.
Finally, we get using Gauss’ law eqs. 11.7 and 11.10
0 2 ⁄ ⁄ 2 11.12
which is independent of the distance of the field point P from the infinite plate.
Another Gaussian surface applicable to this problem would be a parallelepiped. With the
axis of the parallelepiped oriented || to the electric field, the four lateral rectangular faces
do not contibute to the total flux since their uit outward normal vectors n
are to .
Only the two square faces at the ends contribute to the total flux. Result: same as before.
∞ ∞

Fig. 11‐10
side view
n n 90°
S

n
n
n
0°
S

S
n A Gaussian surface in

45°
the form of a sphere n
A Gaussian surface does not work in the
in the form of a simplified form of Note:
constant
∞ parallelopiped Gauss’s law for the
∞
works also for the infinite plate.
infinite plate.
definition of a conservative force a force whose work done is independent of the path taken
Recall that
work done in lifting a
independent of the path taken so that
body to a certain height
gravitational force is a conservative force
work done against gravity
characteristic property the force vector can be obtained from a

of a conservative force scalar function of energy by differentiation
scalar function of energy in the case of gravitational force gravitational potential energy

The same work done along
two different paths.
Lifting crate
vertically
upward.
Fig. 11‐11
Lifting crate along

an inclined surface.
0

work done by gravity: work done by gravity:
cos 180° cos 90° ⁄sin
– – sin ⁄sin
–

GPE GPE ,
, – ,
– – GPE – –

Notice that

GPE
,
,
– – GPE ⁄

That is true, in general, for a scalar function of energy associated with any conservative force
a component
always in the direction of decreasing value
of conservative
of the scalar potential energy function
force vector
a scalar potential energy function
and only
decreases along the axis only
a scalar potential energy
function decreases along , and the force has both and components
both the and axis
Note: Weight is a special case of the gravitational force law ⁄
exactly with the same form as the Coulomb force , where 6.67 10 – N m ⁄kg ,
known as the gravitational constant, and is the distance between the two
interacting masses and , that is valid on the surface of the earth only.
With E 6.37 10 m for the mean radius of the Earth, E 5.98 10 kg for
the mass of the Earth, and for the mass of the body, then, we find that
E ⁄ E E ⁄ E 6.67 10 – 5.98 10 6.37 10
which gives the value 9.83 m⁄s for the acceleration due to Earth’s gravity.
Coulomb force with exactly the same Coulomb force is a conservative force
inverse square of the distance force like too, that can be derived from a scalar
gravitational force a conservative force potential energy function

electric potential energy ⁄
scalar function from which the
where is the separation distance
Coulomb force vector can be obtained
between the two interacting charges
Definition of electric potential energy: ⁄ 11.13

where 9 10 N m ⁄C . Notice that multiplying by ⁄ gives the unit N m J.
setting one charge, say , fixed at the origin
gives rise to two possibilities
and allowing the other charge to move
Case 1: and are like charges repulsion is pushed away from and the origin
0 0 decreases with increasing away from the origin and
force of repulsion is in the direction of decreasing
Case 2: and are unlike charges attraction is pulled towards and the origin
0 0 increases becomes a smaller negative number with increasing
away from the origin and
0 decreases becomes a larger negative number with decreasing
towards the origin and
force of attraction is in the direction of decreasing
In both cases, we find that
The force vector is in the direction of decreasing
11.14
scalar function of electric potential energy .
Note: ⁄ ⁄
decreases along the axis only – ⁄ , 0

decreases along both the and axes , – ⁄ , – ⁄
decreases along – ⁄
⁄ and ⁄ mean the same thing as ⁄ and ⁄ ⁄ denotes differentiation of
a function of one independent variable only whereas ⁄ , denoting differentiation of a
function of several independent variables, treats the other variables as constants.
Note that
⁄ 0
for like charges
needed to assemble the pair of repeling charges a
repeling each other
distance apart starting from infinity
⁄ 0
for unlike charges
released in assembling the pair of attracting charges a
attracting each other
distance apart starting from infinity

f the sum of ⁄ for each possible

pair of and taken only once, with


with on the left hand side of the on the right hand side of the equality

equality derivable from a scalar function

must also be derivable from a scalar
electric potential
scalar function from which the electric field vector can be obtained
measured in volts V
definition of the electric
⁄ 11.15
potential for a point charge
where again 9 10 N m ⁄C . Notice that by multiplying with ⁄ gives the unit
V N m ⁄C J⁄C energy⁄charge ⁄ ⁄ 11.16
That is, with the source charge S – producing the electric field which can be obtained from
the electric potential S ⁄ – interacting with the test charge T a distance away from
it, we find that
T S ⁄ T S ⁄ T
so that in eq. 11.16 refers to one charge – the test charge T – while there refers to
another charge – the source charge S producing the electric field which can be obtained from .
Setting the source charge S at the origin, we see that
for S 0 – away from the decreases as increases, going

charge and S⁄ 0 away from the charge S
for S 0 – towards the increases – becomes a smaller negative

charge and S⁄ 0 number as increases, going away from S
decreases – becomes a larger negative

number as decreases, going towards S
so that for whatever charge we have
The electric field vector is in the direction
11.17
of decreasing electric potential.
Note: ⁄ ⁄
decreases along the axis only – ⁄ , 0

decreases along both the and axes , – ⁄ , – ⁄
decreases along – ⁄
From the preceding results, together with eq. 11.16 , wherein we find the unit
V N m ⁄C N ⁄C m V⁄m N⁄C
as an indication of equivalent units for the magnitude of the electric field.
the absolute value of the addition of a constant to the absolute value of
electric potential at a does not change the electric potential difference
point is not important ∆
– γ – γ –
The important quantity is the electric potential difference ∆ between two points used in
the computation of the electric field.


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Definition of electric potential energy: ⁄ 11.13

decreases along the axis only – ⁄ , 0

for S 0 – away from the decreases as increases, going

for S 0 – towards the increases – becomes a smaller negative

decreases along the axis only – ⁄ , 0

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