Refining-Petrochemicals-Chemicals-Engineering

———

HEAT EXCHANGER PERFORMANCE

I - HEAT BALANCE.............................................................................................................................1

II - HEAT TRANSMISSION LAW.........................................................................................................2

1 - Cocurrent heat exchangers..................................................................................................................2
2 - Countercurrent flow ..............................................................................................................................5
3 - Heat exchangers performances comparison ......................................................................................9
4 - Law of transmission for other modes of flow.....................................................................................14

III - HEAT EXCHANGE WITH A CHANGE IN PHASE OF ONE FLUID (or both)............................18

EN ECH - 00142_A_A - Rev. 2 04/05/2009

© 2009 - IFP Training
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I- HEAT BALANCE
The heat balance indicates the results of the exchange of heat. It indicates that the heat lost by the hot fluid is
gained by the cold fluid. However this is only valid when heat losses can be neglected, which generally
implies that the exchanger is satisfactorily insulated.

The table below gives the units of measurement used and their notations.

SI
Hot fluid Cold fluid Other units
Units

Mass flow rate M m kg/s t/h kg/h

Inlet temperature T1 t1
°C or K °C °C
Outlet temperature T2 t2

Inlet enthalpy H1 h1
J/kg th/t kcal/kg
Outlet enthalpy H2 h2

Average specific heat C c J/kg.K th/t.°C kcal/kg.°C

Heat flow rate W th/h kcal/h

The heat balance is written

Q = M (H1 - H2) = m (h2 - h1)

When exchange occurs without a change of phase of either of the two fluids, the heat balance may also be
written

Q = MC (T1 - T2) = m c(t2 - t1)

The heat exchanged Q is also called the duty of the heat exchanger.

The products MC and mc are called the heating capacities of the fluid.

The validation of the heat balance assumes the possibility of measuring the 2 mass flow rates and the 4 inlet
and outlet temperatures, and access to the fluid characteristics i.e. their enthalpy and specific heat under
operating conditions.

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II - HEAT TRANSMISSION LAW

1- COCURRENT HEAT EXCHANGERS
The two fluid flow in the same direction. This flow distribution is also called “anti-methodical flow”.

a - Temperatures profiles

T1 T T2

t1 t t2

D MTE 1154 A
0 A dA Al

For a heat exchange surface area A, mass balance is:

(1) Q = MC (T1 – T) = mc (t – t1)

And for the total installed area AT:

(2) QT = MC (T1 – T2) = mc (t2 – t1)

For an elemental heat exchange surface dA, law of local transmission and mass balance are:
(3) dQ = U (T – t) dA = – MC dT = mc dt

t – t1 t2 – t1 MC
(1) et (2) T1 – T = T1 – T2 = mc = R (heating capacities ratio)

and a linear equation between T and t :

(4) t – t1 = R (T1 – T)

From equations (3) and (4) we have:

U dA dT
(5) – MC = T (1 + R) – t1 – RT1

U dA R dt
(6) mc = t1 + RT1 – (1 + R) t

Equations (5) and (6) integration gives temperature profiles inside the heat exchanger:

mct + MCT 1 1
1 1 mc – + UA
(7) T= + T1 – t1 e MC mc
mc + MC mc + MC

mct1 + MCT1 MC – 1 + 1 UA
(8) t= – T1 – t1 e MC mc
mc + MC mc + MC

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T1

Δtoutlet
T
Δtinlet T2

t2
t

D MTE 2091 B
t1

0 A
dA

The thermal potential (or temperature difference between the two fluids) is always changing through
the heat exchanger. For each elemental area dA we have a different heat flow dQ = U dA (T – t).
Consequently the quantity of heat exchanged is not proportionnal to the heat exchange surface
installed but proportional to the area between two temperature profile curves.

b - Outlet temperatures profiles as a function of exchange surface area installed

For the Area A i installed, outlet temperatures are:

mct1 + MCT1
mc – 1 + 1 UAI
(9) T2 = + (T1 – t1) e MC mc
mc + MC mc + MC

mct1 + MCT1
MC – 1 + 1 UAI
(10) t2 = – (T1 – t1) e MC mc
mc + MC mc + MC
Approach

T1

T2
tm (mixing temperature)
Tlim = tlim t2
D MTE 2091 C

t1

0 A Al

When the surface installed increases, the thermal potential decreases. The temperature difference at
the outlet is called approach. Lower is the approach, lower is the marginal surface efficiency.

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The influence of the surface is damped since any additional surface automatically exchanges less than
any equivalent previously installed surface. For an infinite surface, outlet temperatures are equal to the
mixing temperature of fluids.

MCT1 + mct1
tm = MC + mc

c - Heat flow as a function of surface area

From equations (7) and (8) we can define equation between thermal potential and area:

– 1 + 1 UA
(11) T – t = T1 – t1 e MC mc

and from equation (3):

1
– + 1 UA
(12) dQ = U T1 – t1 e MC mc dA

Integration gives heat flow as a function of exchange area:

– 1 + 1 UAI
(13) Qcoc = MC . mc (T 1 – t1 ) 1 – e MC mc
MC + mc

Qmax Qmax
= MC (T1 – tm)

= mc (tm – t1)

MC . mc
= MC + mc (T1 – t1)
D MTE 2095 D

AI

Heat flow is not proportional to area. We have again an optimal area and a marginal area. The
maximum heat flow is given in the following equation:

MC . mc
Qmax = MC (T1 – tm) = mc (tm – t1) = MC + mc (T1 – t1)

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d - Heat flow as a function of overall transfer coefficient

Previous equations indicate that A and D have the same impact on heat transmission law.

Qmax

D MTE 2095 C
U

Again, heat flow is not proportional to heat transfer coefficient. Any change in U is damped in terms of
heat exchanged.

When the exchanger is dirty, each elemental surface works at a greater mean temperature difference.
The latter is thus more favorable and “damps” the deterioration of the heat transfer coefficient.

2- COUNTERCURRENT FLOW
The two fluid flow in opposite directions. This flow distribution is also called “methodical flow”.

a - Temperature profiles

T1 T T2

t1 t t2
D MTE 1154 B

0 A dA Al

For a heat exchange surface area A, mass balance is:

(1) Q = MC (T1 – T) = mc (t2 – t)

And for the total installed area AI:

(2) QT = MC (T1 – T2) = mc (t2 – t1)

For an elemental heat exchange surface dA:

(3) dQ = U (T – t) dA = – MC dT = – mc dt

t2 – t t2 – t1 MC
(1) and (2)
T – T = T – T = mc = R
1 1 2

and a linear equation between T and t:

(4) t2 – t = R (T1 – T)

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From equations (3) and (4) we have:

U dA dT
(5) – MC = T (1 – R) – (t – RT )
2 1

U dA R dt
(6) – mc = t (1 – R) – (t – RT )
2 1

Equations (5) and (6) integration gives temperature profiles inside the heat exchanger:

1
mct2 – MCT1
mc – – 1 UA
(7) T= + (T – t ) e MC mc
mc – MC mc – MC 1 2

mct2 – MCT1 MC – 1 – 1 UA
(8) t= + (T1 – t2) e MC mc
mc – MC mc – MC

Depending on heating capacities of the fluids, temperature profiles are:

MC = mc MC > mc
MC < mc T1
Cold T1
t2
ΔThot approach t2
T2
t2 T2 T2
t1

D MTE 1155 A
Hot t1 ΔTcold t1
approach
0 Al 0 Al 0 Al

Except in case of MC = mc; thermal potential is always changing but lower than a cocurrent
exchanger.

b - Outlet temperature profiles as a function of exchange area installed

For the area A i; outlet temperatures are:

mct2 – MCT1 1 1
mc – – UAI
(9) T2 = + (T – t ) e MC
1 2 mc
mc – MC mc – MC

– 1 – 1 UAI
(10) t1 = mct2 – MCT1 + MC (T1 – t2) e MC mc
mc – MC mc – MC

or:

1 1  1 1
 – MC – mc UAI
 – MC – mc
mc t1 1 – e + (mc – MC) T1 e UAI
(11) T2 = 1 1
– MC – mc UAI
mc – MCe

– 1 – 1 UA
(mc – MC) t1 + MCT1 1 – e MC mc I
(12) t2 =
– 1 – 1 UA
mc – MC e MC mc I

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If MC = mc we have:

mc T1 + UAI t1
(13) T2 = mc + UA I

mc t1 + UA I T1
(14) t2 = mc + UA I

Depending on heating capacities, temperatures limits are:

T1 MC < mc T1 MC > mc T1 MC = mc
t lim
t2 t2
T1 + t 1
t2 tm tm=
tm T2
T2 2 T2
T lim
t1 t1 t1
AI AI AI

D MTE 2090 A
Qmax = MC (T1 - t1) qmax = mc (T1 - t1) Qmax = MC (T1 - t1)
Qmax = mc (Tlim - t1) Qmax = MC (T1 - tlim) Qmax = mc (T1 - t1)

It is so possible to obtain an outlet temperature of the cold fluid lower than the hot fluid one. This
temperature cross is impossible with a cocurrent exchanger. Temperature cross is the mixing
temperature.

The fluid with the lowest heating capacity induces a constraint and limit temperature variation of the
other fluid.

In case of MC = mc, for an infinite area countercurrent exchange we have a “temperature exchanger”.

c - Heat flow as a function of surface area

From (7) and (8) equation between thermal potential and area is:

1 – 1 UA
–
(15) T – t = T1 – t2 e MC mc

and:

– 1 – 1 UA
(16) dQ = U T1 – t2 e MC mc dA

Integration gives:

1 1
– – UAI
(17) Qc c = MC . mc T1 – t2 1 – e MC mc
mc – MC

and (18) Qcc = UA I (T1 – t2) if MC = mc

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Using equations (10) and (14); t2 = f(Ai); it is possible to calculate Qcc by following equations:

1 – 1 UA –
I
MC mc 1–e
(19) Qcc = MC . mc T 1 – t1
– 1 – 1 UAI
mc – MC e MC mc

UAI UAI
(20) Qcc = MC (T1 – t1) MC + UA = mc (T1 – t1) mc + UA
I I
if MC =
mc

Q
max
Consequently, the heat flowrate is not
q or proportional to the installed surface. The
max
influence of the surface is damped, sine any
additional surface automatically “produces”
less than any equivalent previously installed
surface.

For an infinite heat exchange area, the heat

D MTE 2173 C

balance gives the maximum heat flow from

inlet temperatures and heating capacities.
Al

Qmax = MC – (T1 – t1) for MC > mc

or qmax = mc . (T1 – t1) for mc > MC

This maximum heat flow for a countercurrent heat flow is higher than this calculated for a cocurrent
exchanger. In that case, the lowest temperature possible for the hot fluid will be also the highest
temperature for the cold fluid witch is the mixing temperature.

d - Heat flow as a function of overall heat transfer coefficient

Q
max
q or
max

Again, heat transfer coefficient change are

damped by the thermal potential change.
D MTE 2173 D

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3- HEAT EXCHANGERS PERFORMANCES COMPARISON

Without change in phase, required performances are defined by the quantity of heat exchanged (duty)
or outlet temperature of one fluid.

a - “Duty-heat exchange area” and “outlet temperature-area” comparison - Limits

• Duty

maxi cc
Countercurrent flow interest is clear:
cc
for a same overall heat transfer
maxi co-c coefficient, a lower heat exchange
co-c area allow a higher duty. For a small
exchanger, difference between two

D MTE 2095 A
circulation modes is lower.

AI

The maximum quantity of heat exchanged is lower for a cocurrent exchanger.

• Outlet temperature

Depending on heating capacities, temperature profiles for both types of circulation modes are as
follow.

T1 T1 T1
t lim co. co.
co.c c c
cc cc
cc

tm tm tm
cc

cc

co.c co.c
cc

Tlim
t1 co.c
t1 t1
AI AI AI
MC < mc MC = mc MC > mc
D MTE 2092 A

MCT1 + mct1
tlim = t1 + MC x (T1 - t1) tm = Tlim = T1 -
mc
x (T1 - t1)
mc MC + mc MC

The cold fluid outlet temperature can be higher than hot fluid outlet temperature. This temperature
crossing is not possible with a cocurrent exchanger.

b - Efficiency

Reference is an infinite area countercurrent heat exchanger.

The maximum heat flow is:

QM = MC (T1 – t1) if MC < mc or T1 – T2 > t2 – t1

or
qM = mc (T1 – t1) if mc < MC or t2 – t1 > T1 – T2

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Efficiency is defined by the following formula:

Quantity of heat exchanged

Efficiency = Maximum possible heat flow

MC t2– t1
If MC < mc R = mc = T – T < 1
1 2

Q MC (T1 – T2) T 1– T 2
E = Q = MC (T – t ) = T – t
M 1 1 1 1

1 mc T1 – T2
If mc < MC r = R = MC = t – t < 1
2 1

Q mc (t2 – t1) t2 – t1
e = q = mc (T – t ) = T – t
m 1 1 1 1

These parameters are also related by:

E = er and e = ER

Heat exchanger efficiency can be calculated by knowledge of inlet and outlet temperatures.

During the design stage; required efficiency is defined. Value of U.A l is a function of circulation mode
and can be compared. For each mode, the general law of heat transfer can be written as an equation
between efficiency, heat transfer coefficient and area.

• Cocurrent flow

UAI
– 1+R
T2 – t2 = T1 – t1 e MC

or:

UAI 1 T1 – t1 1 1
MC = 1 + R ln T2 – T1 + T1 – t1 + t1– t2 = 1 + R ln – E + 1 – e

and:

UAI 1 1
NTUcoc = MC = 1 + R ln 1 – E (1 + R)

NTU is the Number of Transfer Units for the hot fluid.

We have the same equation for the cold fluid:

UAI 1 1
ntucoc = mc = 1 + r ln 1 – e (1 + r)

ntu is the Number of Transfer Units for the cold fluid.

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1
r =0
R or
E
1 1 Qmax is defined by a maximum
1+R or 1+r
or R or r
e efficiency:
R or r =1
1 1

D MTE 1156 D
Elim = 1 + R or e lim = 1 + r
NTUCO.C or ntuCO.C
0 0,5 1 2 3 4 5

1
For R = 0 (t2 – t1 = 0), the cold fluid is a vaporizing pure component and NTU = ln 1 – E

1
For r = 0 (T1 – T2 = 0), the hot fluid is a condensing pure component and ntu = ln 1 – e

For each case, limit efficiency is equal to 1: circulation mode is heedless in case of change in phase for
one fluid.

Efficiency as a function of NTU (or ntu) is shown in the chart N10.

• Countercurrent flow

UA
I
– 1–R
T2 – t1 = T1 – t2 e MC

or:

UAI 1 T1 – t1 – (t2 – t1) 1 1–e

MC = 1 – R ln T2 – T1 + T1 – t1 = 1 – R ln – E + 1

and:

UAI 1 1 – ER
NTUcc = = 1 – R ln 1 – E
MC
and
UAI 1 1 – er
ntucc = mc = 1 – r ln 1 – e

If MC = mc or R = r = 1 heat transfer law and mass balance give:

Q = UA I (T1 – t2) = MC (T1 – T2) = mc (T1 – T2) = mc (t2 – t1)

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and:

E e
NTU = 1 – E or ntu = 1 – e

1
R or
r =0 R or r
By definition, maximum efficiency is equal
E R or r =1 to 1 whatever values of R or r. For R or r =
or 0 (pure component change in phase) we
e have:

D MTE 1157 B
NTU = ln 1 – E and ntu = ln
NTUcc or ntucc
1
0 0,5 1 2 3 4 5 1–e

In that case, flow circulation is heedless.

Chart N10 gives relation between efficiency and NTU or ntu.

1
R cc
E
For a same efficiency (or same heat
or
R coc Elim flow) a cocurrent exchanger needs
e
more Number of Transfer Units.
Assuming same heat transfer
D MTE 1156 E

coefficient, the heat exchange area

NTU or ntu should be higher.
0 0,5 1 2 3 4 5

NTU nut cc (UA)cc A cc

cc
= = = <1
NTUcoc nut coc (UA)coc A coc

c - Mean thermal potential comparison

Heat balance gives:

Q = MC (T1 – T2) = mc (t2 – t1)

Mean thermal potential is a function of circulation mode and is given by the following formula:

Q = UAI MTD

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• Cocurrent flow

Mean thermal potential MTDco.c is:

T1 – T2
Q = UA I MTDco.c = MC (T1 – T2) or MTDco.c = NTU
co.c

with:
1 T1 – t1 t2 – t1
NTUco.c = 1 + R ln T – t and R = T – T
2 2 1 2

Mean thermal potential can be calculated from inlet and outlet temperatures:

T1

Δtoutlet

ti –
to T2
Qcoc = UAI Δtinlet

ti
ln
t

D MTE 2091 D
t2
o
t1

The mean temperature potential is also called LMTDcoc logarithmic mean thermal difference.

• Countercurrent flow

tcc is defined by:

T1 – T2
Q = UA I MTDcc = MC (T1 – T2) or MTDcc = NTU
cc

with:
1 T1 – t2 t2 – t1
NTUcc = 1 – R ln T – t and R = T –T
2 1 1 2

As a function of temperatures:
T1
Δtcold

thot –
tcold
Δthot

T2
Qcc = UAI .
thot
ln
t
D MTE 2091 E

cold t1 t2

Mean thermal potential is also called LMTDcc.

• Comparison

For a same heat flow, mean thermal potential comparison is in fact U.Ai factor comparison or, for a
same U; areas to install.

LMTDcoc (UAI)cc (AI)cc

Fcoc = LMTD = (UA ) = (A ) <1
cc I coc I coc

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Reference is LMTDcc. Fcoc is also a characteristic of a cocurrent flow.

Example

T1 = 150 °C

Δ thot = 110°C

D MTE 411 B
Δ ti = 130 °C
T2 = 60°C
Δ to = 20°C
t2 = 40°C Δ tcold = 40°C
t1 = 20 °C

130 – 20 110 – 40
LMTDcoc = 130 = 58.8°C LMTDcc = 110 = 69.2°C
ln 20 ln 40

LMTDcoc 58.8
Fcoc = LMTD = 69.2 = 0.85
cc

4- LAW OF TRANSMISSION FOR OTHER MODES OF FLOW

a - 1-2 heat exchangers

We can consider two different cases:

t2
t2
T1 T2 T1 T2
t' t''
t1 t1 D MTE 2094 A

First pass : co-current First pass : counter-current

Second pass : counter-current Second pass : co-current

We assume that in a 1-2 heat exchanger, tubes pass order is indifferent:

1 2 – E (1 + R – 1+R2 )
NTU1–2 = ln
1+R2 2 – E (1 + R + 1+R2 )

and:

1 2 – e (1 + r – 1+r2 )
ntu1–2 = ln
1+r2 2 – e (1 + r + 1+r2 )

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• “Efficiency - Number of Transfer Units” relation

1
r=0
R or
E For R or r = 0
Elim or elim
or R or r
e 2 1
R or r =1 2 + √2 NTU = ln 1 – E

D MTE 1156 F
1
NTU1-2 or ntu1-2 and ntu = ln 1 – e
0 0,5 1 2 3 4 5

For any value of R (or r):

2 2
Elim = or elim =
1+R+ 1+R2 1+r+ 1+r2

Chart N11 gives relation between E and NTU (or e and ntu) for a 1-2 exchanger.

• Outlet temperature cross

1-2 exchangers allow outlet temperature cross (t2
T2). General law of transmission is similar for both
cases, but temperature profiles are different.

Case 2 T1 Case 1
T1

t2 t2
T2
t" T2
D MTE 2093 A

t'
t1 t1

A A

In case 1, intermediate temperature t’ at the first pass outlet could be close to T2. Accordingly, thermal
potential is lower and, for a large part of the heat exchanger, a heat exchange area works with a poor
“efficiency”.

In case 2, temperature crossing involves that one part of the second pass “works backwards”, the cold
fluid playing the hot fluid rule.

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In both cases, economical performances are contestable. Some designers limit exchanger efficient to
prevent any temperature cross.

Close to temperature cross we have:

T1
T1 – t1 = T1 – T2 + t2 – t1
T2 = t2
T1 – T2 t2 – t1
so: 1 = T – t + T – t = E + e = E + ER
t' 1 1 1 1

D MTE 1159 A
1
t1 and: Ecross = 1 + R

Temperature cross
1
To avoid temperature cross (t2 < T2) we need:

T1 – t1 > T1 – T2 + t2 – t1

1 E
or 1 > E (1 + R) and E < 1 + R
t2
T2 =

efficiency should be:

D MTE 1160 B
NTU1-2
E < Ecross
0 1 2 3

• Comparison

Efficiency

1-2 heat exchanger performances are of course between these calculated for a cocurrent and
countercurrent flow:

1
c.c

E 1-2
or co.c
e
D MTE 318 D

NTU or ntu
0
0 1 2 3 4 5

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Mean thermal potential

Q = UA I
t1–2

For a same heat flow:

MTD1–2 (UAI)cc NTUcc ntucc

F1–2 = LMTD = (UA ) = NTU = ntu
cc I 1–2 1–2 1–2

1 – er
ln 1 – e
1+r2
or F1–2 = 1 – r
2 – e (1 + r – 1+r2 )
ln
2 – e (1 + r + 1 + r2)

b - Other modes of flow

For all modes of flow other than countercurrent, the mean heat potential MTD is lower than that of
countercurrent flow. This can be expressed by using the LMTDc.c with a correction factor F lower than
1 and characteristic of the mode of flow considered

MTD = F . LMTDcc

The factor F is a function of two parameters characteristic of the heat exchanger that involve inlet and
outlet temperatures:

- e is the temperature effectiveness, i.e. the increase in temperature of the cold fluid in
relation to the difference in the inlet temperatures of the two fluids

t2 – t1
e = T –t
1 1

- r is the ratio of the variations in fluid temperatures or heat capacities

T1 – T2 mc
r = t2 – t1 = MC (equality reflects the heat balance)

The value of the F factor can be found by reading the appropriate charts for the mode of flow. Figures
2 to 5 give the charts for the most common modes of flow.

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III - HEAT EXCHANGE WITH A CHANGE IN PHASE OF ONE FLUID (or both)
As previously mentioned, a change in physical state enhances the quality of heat exchange between the fluid
and the wall, resulting in a higher convection coefficient. Other aspects concerned are mainly the heat
balance and the law of exchange in the exchanger.

The heat exchanged by a fluid that changes phase includes the latent heat of the change in phase and is
expressed as a function of the variation in enthalpy of the fluid.

Q = M . (H1 - H2) for condensation of a hot fluid

Q = m . (h2 - h1) for the vaporisation of a cold fluid

Generally speaking, the heat exchanged includes three distinct forms of heat:

• QS1 - the sensible heat required to bring the fluid to phase change conditions when
these conditions do not exist initially.

This may involve de-superheating a vapour at the condenser inlet or reheating a

subcooled liquid at the inlet to a reboiler or a steam generator.

Obviously, Q S1 is zero when the fluid is initially saturated, i.e. vapour at its dew point
temperature or liquid at its bubble point temperature.

• QL - the latent heat from the change in state

If l denotes the mass heat of change in state, Ql is expressed

QL = M.
in condensation
or QL = m.
in vaporisation

At constant pressure the change in state of a pure substance takes place at constant
temperature, whereas for a mixture it takes place over a varying temperature interval.

• QS2 - the sensible heat required to remove the fluid from saturation conditions if its
physical state at the exchanger outlet is not that of a saturated fluid.

This may involve subcooling condensates or superheating steam. Obviously, Q S2 is

zero if the fluid is saturated on leaving the exchanger, i.e. liquid at its bubble point
temperature and steam at its dew point temperature.

The overall heat exchanged is the sum of these three items:

Q = QS1 + QL + QS2

The overall exchange is equivalent to three exchangers in series with the respective transfer functions of the
three items described.

equivalent to
D MTE 2050 A

Thermal duty Thermal duties

Q Q S1 + Q L + Q S2

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