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where the functions f, g and h are continuous and the range of the parameter t is some interval (finite or infinite)
of the real axis. The positive direction of a space curve is the direction of increasing t. i.e Δs/Δt > 0.
If we interpret t as time, 1) can be regarded as defining the path of a moving point. The point may pass through
the same point in space several times which means that the curve may intersect itself. This definition that we
have given gives a curve that is very general and one that may not be very smooth. For example, it could include
things like the track of a tiny particle in Brownian movement over a long period of time (a very random path
going first in one direction and then abruptly changing to another direction — randomly and suddenly changing
from one direction to another).
Def. Arc of a curve. A curve that does not intersect itself, which has two distinct ends, and which can be
represented in the form 1) with a finite range of the parameter t, say a t b, where a < b. A semicircle is an
arc but an entire circle is not.
Def. Closed curve. A curve that is defined by 1) with a finite range of the parameter t, say a t b, in
which the points corresponding to t = a and t = b are coincident.
Def. Simple closed curve (or Jordan curve). A closed curve without self-intersections.
The prototype of an arc is the unit interval 0 x 1, while the prototype of a simple closed curve is the unit
2 2
circle x + y = 1. Continuous deformation (bending, twisting, stretching, shrinking) of an arc leaves it still an
arc and the same can be said about simple closed curves.
Def. Smooth curve. A curve is said to be smooth if two conditions are met; a)
b) the curve has a tangent at each point whose direction varies continuously as the point moves along the curve.
The second condition is satisfied if the functions f, g, and h of 1) above have continuous derivatives which do
not vanish together for any value of t.
Important fundamental relationships. The differential of arc length ds is related to dx, dy, and
dz by
ds2 = dx2 + dy2 + dz2 .
Let C be a smooth arc represented by a vector function f(t) = x(t) i + y(t) j + z(t) k, a t b. Let s be the arc
length measured along C from point t = a to a variable point t. Then the following holds:
(which is obtained directly from the formula ds2 = dx2 + dy2 + dz2 by dividing by dt 2).
Length of a smooth arc. Let C be a smooth arc represented by a vector function f(t) = x(t) i + y(t) j
+ z(t) k, a t b . Then its length, from point t = a to t = b, is given by
The distance along the curve, measured from point t = a to some variable point t, is given by
where the parameter s represents the arc length measured from some fixed point on the curve. Then the unit
tangent vector to the curve at a particular point P is given by
6) T = dR/ds
That this is so can be seen from Fig. 1 which shows R and R + ΔR at points P and P'. The quotient ΔR/Δs is a
vector along the line of the chord PP'. Since the length of
ΔR is the length of the chord PP', we see that when P'
approaches P the limit of the length of ΔR/Δs is unity.
Furthermore, the limiting direction of PP' is that of the
tangent at P. Therefore
From 5) we obtain
Principal normal. The principal normal, denoted by N , at a point P on a curve C, is a unit vector in the
direction of dT/ds (providing dT/ds is not zero, in which case the principal normal is not defined). The principal
normal is necessarily perpendicular to the unit tangent vector T. From 7) above we obtain
Curvature of a curve at point P. The curvature κ of a curve at a point P is given by the magnitude
of dT/ds:
Thus
10) dT/ds = κN
Radius of curvature. The radius of curvature ρ is the reciprocal of the curvature:
11) ρ = 1/κ
Center of curvature. The tip of the vector ρN, drawn from point P as initial point, is called the center of
curvature of the curve at point P.
Torsion. The torsion τ at a point P on a curve is given, to within sign, by the magnitude of the vector dB/ds.
The vector dB/ds is perpendicular to vectors T and B and thus is some multiple of vector N. The sign of τ is
chosen so that dB/ds = -τN. The torsion measures, to some extent, the amount by which the curve is twisted.
Note. Some authors define torsion by the formula dB/ds = τN instead of dB/ds = -τN and some use 1/τ rather
than τ to denote torsion.
If P is a fixed point, and P' a variable point, on a directed space curve C, Δs the length of arc C from P to P', and
Δψ the angle between the positive directions of the binormals of C at P and P', then the torsion τ of C at P is
defined, to within sign, by
3] dB/ds = -τN
where T, N and B are the three unit vectors of the moving trihedral, the unit tangent, principal normal and the
binormal vectors.
Formulas. Let R(t) be a vector function of t and let primes denote differentiation with respect to t.
Plane curves. If the curve r = r(t) is a plane curve (not a straight line), the plane of the curve is the
osculating plane at every point.
Theorem 1. A necessary and sufficient condition that a curve (not a straight line), be a plane curve is that its
torsion be identically zero.
Theorem 2. A necessary and sufficient condition that a curve r = r(t) (not a straight line) be a plane curve is
that r' r''∙ r''' = 0.
Spherical indicatrices of a space curve.
Spherical indicatrix (or tangent indicatrix) of a space curve. As a
point moves along a space curve C envision a unit vector t located at
the origin of the coordinate system moving in conjunction with the
unit tangent T, always parallel to it. As one moves along C the unit
vector t will trace out a curve Γ on a unit sphere centered at the
origin. This curve Γ is called the spherical indicatrix (or tangent
indicatrix) of curve C. See Fig. 3. If curve C is a plane curve, its
spherical indicatrix lies on a great circle of the sphere. Hence, for a
space curve, the amount of deviation of the spherical indicatrix from
a great circle gives some idea of the amount of deviation of the curve
from being a
plane curve i.e. of the amount of torsion of the curve.
Let a curve C be given by
where s represents arc length measured from some point on the curve. Then the spherical indicatrix Γ of curve C
is given by
Principal normal indicatrix on a space curve. The curve Γ traced out on a unit sphere located at the origin by
a unit vector t moving in conjunction with (parallel to) the principal normal as a point moves along some curve
C i.e. it is the same as the tangent indicatrix except that the unit vector t moves in conjunction with the principal
normal instead of the unit tangent.
Binormal indicatrix on a space curve. Same as the tangent indicatrix except that the unit vector t moves in
conjunction with (parallel to) the binormal instead of the unit tangent.