12 History EM PDF

GOVERNMENT OF TAMILNADU
HIGHER SECONDARY
SECOND YEAR
HISTORY
VOL-1
A publication under Free Textbook Programme of Government of Tamil Nadu
Department of School Education

Untouchability is Inhuman and a Crime
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Government of Tamil Nadu
First Edition - 2019
(Published under new syllabus)
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The wise
possess all
State Council of Educational

Research and Training
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Printing & Publishing
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Services Corporation
www.textbooksonline.tn.nic.in
(ii)

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lesson for clarity
References List of books and net sources for further reading
Using technology for learning activities, which enables the

ICT Corner students to access digital sources relevant to their lessons.
(iii)

CONTENTS
HISTORY
Unit 1 Rise of Nationalism in India 1
Unit 2 Rise of Extremism and Swadeshi Movement 16

Unit 3 Impact of World War I on Indian Freedom Movement 31
Unit 4 Advent of Gandhi and Mass Mobilisation 43
Unit 5 Period of Radicalism in Anti-imperialist Struggles 63
Unit 6 Religion in Nationalist Politics 76
Unit 7 Last Phase of Indian National Movement 89
Unit 8 Reconstruction of Post-colonial India 105
Unit 9 Envisioning A New Socio-Economic Order 121
Timeline 138
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(iv)

UNIT
Rise of Nationalism in India
1
Learning Objectives
To acquaint ourselves with

Changes in agrarian conditions and import of British manufactures ruin
Indian handicrafts and the artisanal class Q.R.Code
Periodical outbreak of famines force landless labourers and jobless
artisans to emigrate
Introduction of Western education and birth of national awakening.
Other contributory factors for the rise of Nationalism in India
Modern Indian intelligentsia lays the foundation of Indian National Congress
Early Nationalists and their contribution, especially of Naoroji and his Drain Theory
Introduction movement in 1919 Indian nationalism entered

a mass phase.
The political and economic centralisation
Prior to Gandhi, prominent leaders like
of India achieved by the British for the better
Dadabhai Naoroji, Gopal Krishna Gokhale,
exploitation and control of India inevitably
Bipin Chandra Pal, Lala Lajpat Rai, Bal
led to the growth of national consciousness
Gangadhar Tilak, and others took the early
and the birth of the national movement. The
initiative to educate the Indians about their
history of nationalism in India begins with the
national identity and colonial exploitation.
campaigns and struggles for social reforms in
In this chapter, while tracing the origin and
the nineteenth century followed by the Western-
growth of Indian Nationalism, we focus on the
educated Indians’ prayers and petitions for
contribution of these leaders who are known as
political liberties. With the return of Mohandas
the early nationalists.
Karamchand Gandhi from South Africa in 1915,
and his leadership of the Indian nationalist
1.1 Socio-economic
Background
Broadly, nationalism means loyalty and
devotion to a nation. It is a consciousness (a) Implications of the New Land
or tendency to exalt and place one nation
Tenures
above all others, emphasising promotion of
its culture and interests as opposed to those The British destroyed the traditional
of other nations. basis of Indian land system. In the pre-
British days, the land revenue was realised by
1
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sharing the actual crop with the cultivators. jute and silks from India were taken to Britain.
The British fixed the land revenue in cash The finished products made from those raw
without any regard to various contingencies, materials were then transported back to the
such as failure of crops, fall in prices and Indian markets. Mass production with the help
droughts or floods. Moreover, the practice of of technological advancement enabled them
sale in settlement of debt encouraged money to flood the Indian market with their goods.
lenders to advance money to landholders It was available at a comparatively cheaper
and resorting to every kind of trickery to rob price than the Indian handloom cloth. Prior
them of their property. to the arrival of the British, India was known
There were also two other major for its handloom products and handicrafts. It
implications of the new land settlements commanded a good world market. However, as
introduced by the East India Company. They a result of the colonial policy, gradually Indian
institutionalised the commodification of land handloom products and handicrafts lost there
and commercialisation of agriculture in India. market, domestic as well as international.
As mentioned earlier, there was no private Import of English articles into India threw the
property in land in pre-British era. Now, land weavers, the cotton dressers, the carpenters,
became a commodity that could be transferred the blacksmiths and the shoemakers out of
either by way of buying and selling or by way employment. India became a procurement
of the administration taking over land from area for the raw material and the farmers were
holders, in lieu of default on payment of forced to produce industrial crops like indigo
tax/rent. Land taken over in such cases was and other cash crops like cotton for use in
auctioned off to another bidder. This created British factories. Due to this shift, subsistence
a new class of absentee landlords who lived agriculture, which was the mainstay for
in the cities and extracted revenue from the several hundred years, suffered leading to food
lands without actually living on the lands. In scarcity.
the traditional agricultural set-up, the villagers
produced largely for their consumption among
themselves. After the new land settlements,
agricultural produce was predominantly for the
market.
The commodification of land and
commercialisation of agriculture did not
improve the lives and conditions of the peasants.
Instead, this created discontent among the
peasantry and made them restive. These
peasants later on turned against the imperialists
and their collaborators.
(b) Laissez Faire Policy and

De-industrialization: Impact
on Indian Artisans
The policy of the Company in the wake of
Industrial Revolution in England resulted in the
de-industrialization of India. This continued
until the beginning of the World War I. The
British Government pursued a policy of free
Indigo cultivation
trade or laissez faire. Raw materials like cotton,
Rise of Nationalism in India 2

The Indigo revolt of 1859-60 was one years (1891-1900), nineteen
of the responses from the Indian farmer to million had died in India in
the oppressive policy of the British. Indian famines alone.
tenants were forced to grow indigo by their Q.R.Code
Sadly when people were
planters who were mostly Europeans. Used dying of starvation millions
to dye the clothes indigo was in high demand of tonnes of wheat was
in Europe. Peasants were forced to accept exported to Britain. During
meagre amounts as advance and enter into the 1866 Orissa Famine, for instance, while
unfair contracts. Once a peasant accepted the a million and a half people starved to death,
contract, he had no option but to grow indigo the British exported 200 million pounds of
on his land. The price paid by the planter was rice to Britain. The Orissa Famine prompted
far lower than the market price. Many a times, nationalist Dadabhai Naoroji to begin his
the peasants could not even pay their land lifelong investigations into Indian poverty.
revenue dues. Hoping that the authorities The failure of two successive monsoons caused
would address their concerns, the peasants a severe famine in the Madras Presidency
wrote several petitions to authorities and during 1876-78. The viceroy Lytton adopted a
organised peaceful protests. As their plea for hands-off approach similar to that followed in
reform went in vain, they revolted by refusing Orissa. An estimated 3.5 million people died in
to accept any further advances and enter into the Madras presidency.
new contracts. Peasants, through the Indigo
revolt of 1859-60, were able to force the
planters to withdraw from northern-Bengal.
(c) Famines and Emigration of

Indians to Overseas British
Colonies
Famines
As India became increasingly de-
industrialised and weavers and artisans engaged
in handicrafts were thrown out of employment, Madras Famine
there were recurrent famines due to the neglect
of irrigation and oppressive taxation on land. Indentured Labour
Before the arrival of the British, Indian rulers The introduction of plantation crops such as
had ameliorated the difficulties of the populace coffee, tea and sugar in Empire colonies such as
in times of famines by providing tax relief, Ceylon (Sri Lanka), Mauritius, Fiji, Malaya, the
regulating the grain prices and banning food Caribbean islands, and South Africa required
exports from famine-hit areas. But the British enormous labour. In 1815, the Governor of
extended their policy of non-intervention Madras received a communication from the
(laissez faire) even to famines. As a result, Governor of Ceylon asking for “coolies” to
millions of people died of starvation during the work on the coffee plantations. The Madras
Raj. It has been estimated that between 1770 Governor forwarded this letter to the collector
and 1900, twenty five million Indians died in of Thanjavur, who reported that the people
famines. William Digby, the editor of Madras were very much attached to the soil and unless
Times, pointed out that during 1793-1900 alone some incentive was provided it was not easy to
an estimated five million people had died in all make them move out of their native soil. But
the wars around the world, whereas in just ten the outbreak of two famines (1833 and 1843)
forced the people, without any prompting from
3 Rise of Nationalism in India

the government, to leave for Ceylon to work 1.2 Western Education
as coolies in coffee and tea plantations under
the indentured labour system. The abolition of
and its Impact
slavery in British India in 1843 also facilitated the
processes of emigration to Empire colonies. In (a) Education in Pre-British India
1837 the number of immigrant Tamil labourers Education in pre-colonial India was
employed in Ceylon coffee estate was estimated characterised by segmentation along religious
at 10,000. The industry developed rapidly and and caste lines. Among the Hindus, Brahmins
so did the demand for Tamil labour. In 1846 its had the exclusive privilege to acquire higher
presence was estimated at 80,000 and in 1855 at religious and philosophical knowledge. They
128,000 persons. In 1877, the famine year, there monopolised the education system and
were nearly 380,000 Tamil labourers in Ceylon. occupied positions in the society, primarily as
priests and teachers. They studied in special
seminaries such as Vidyalayas and Chatuspathis.
The medium of instruction was Sanskrit,
which was considered as the sacred language.
Technical knowledge – especially in relation
to architecture, metallurgy, etc. – was passed
hereditarily. This came in the way of innovation.
Another shortcoming of this system was that it
barred women, lower castes and other under-
Indentured labour privileged people from accessing education.
Besides Ceylon, many Indians opted to The emphasis on rote learning was another
emigrate as indentured labour to other British impediment to innovation.
colonies such as Mauritius, Straits Settlements,
(b) Contribution of Colonial
Caribbean islands, Trinidad, Fiji and South
State: Macaulay System of
Africa. In 1843 it was officially reported that
30,218 male and 4,307 females had entered Education
Mauritius as indentured labourers. By the end The colonial government aided the spread
of the century some 500,000 labourers had of modern education in India for a different
moved from India to Mauritius. reason than educating and empowering the
Indians. To administer a large colony like
Indentured Labour: Under this penal contract India, the British needed a large number of
system (indenture), labourers were hired for a personnel to work for them. It was impossible
period of five years and they could return to their for the British to import the educated lot,
homeland with passage paid at the end. Many
needed in such large numbers, from Britain.
impoverished peasants and weavers went hoping
With this aim, the English Education Act was
to earn some money. It turned out to be as worse
passed by the Council of India in 1835. T.B.
than slave labour. The colonial state allowed agents
Macaulay drafted this system of education
(kanganis) to trick or kidnap indigent landless
introduced in India. Consequently, the colonial
labourers. The labourers suffered terribly on the
administration started schools, colleges and
long sea voyages and many died on the way. The
universities, imparting English and modern
percentage of deaths of indentured labour during
education, in India. Universities were
1856-57, in a ship bound for Trinidad from
established in Bombay, Madras and Calcutta in
Kolkata is as follows: 12.3% of all males, 18.5% of
the females, 28% of the boys 36% of the girls and 1857. The colonial government expected this
55% of the infants perished. section of educated Indians to be loyal to the
British and act as the pillars of the British Raj.

(c) Role of Educated Middle Class
T. B. Macaulay
The economic and administrative
was India’s first
transformation on the one side and the
law member of the
growth of Western education on the other
Governor General
gave the space for the growth of new social
in Council from
classes. From within these social classes, a
1834 to 1838. Before
modern Indian intelligentsia emerged. The
Macaulay arrived in
“neo-social classes” created by the British
India the General
T.B. Macaulay Raj, which included the Indian trading and
Committee of
business communities, landlords, money
Public Instruction was formed in 1823 with
lenders, English-educated Indians employed
the responsibility to guide the East India
in imperial subordinate services, lawyers and
Company on the matter of education and the
doctors, initially adopted a positive approach
medium of instruction. The Committee was
towards the colonial administration. However,
split into two groups. The Orientalist group
soon they realised that their interests would
advocated education in vernacular languages.
be better served only in independent India.
The Anglicists advocated Western education
People of the said social classes began to play
in English.
a prominent role in promoting patriotism
Macaulay was on the side of Anglicists amongst the people. The consciousness of
and wrote his famous ‘Minute on Indian these classes found articulation in a number
Education’ in 1835. In this Minute, he of associations prior to the founding of the
argued for Western education in the English Indian National Congress at the national
language. His intention behind supporting level.
the Anglicists was that he wanted to create a
Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra
class of persons from within India who would
Vidyasagar, Swami Vivekananda, Aurobindo
'be Indian in blood and colour, but English in
Ghose, Gopala Krishna Gokhale, Dadabhai
taste, in opinion, in morals and in intellect'.
Naoroji, Feroz Shah Mehta, Surendra Nath
Banerjea and others who belonged to modern
The British created an educated Indian Indian intelligentsia led the social, religious
middle class for their own ends but sneered at and political movements in India. Educated
it as the Babu class. That very class, however, Indians had exposure to ideas of nationalism,
became the progressive intelligentsia of India democracy, socialism, etc. articulated by John
and played a leading role in mobilising the Locke, James Stuart Mill, Mazzini, Garibaldi,
people for the liberation of the country. Rousseau, Thomas Paine, Marx and other
western intellectuals. The right of a free
press, the right of free speech and the right
of association were the three inherent rights,
which their European counterparts held dear
to their heart, and the educated Indians too
desired to cling to. Various forums came
into existence, where people could meet and
discuss the issues affecting their interests. This
became possible now at the national level, due
to the rapid expansion of transport network
and establishment of postal, telegraph and
wireless services all over India.
University of Madras

(d) Contribution of Missionaries The reformers of nineteenth century
One of the earliest initiatives to impart responded to the challenge posed by Western
modern education among Indians was taken up Enlightenment knowledge based on reason.
by the Christian missionaries. Inspired by the Indian national consciousness emerged as
proselytizing sprit, they attacked polytheism a result of the rethinking triggered by these
and caste inequalities that were prevalent among reforms. The Brahmo Samaj was founded
the Hindus. One of the methods adopted by the by Ram Mohan Roy in 1828. Other socio-
missionaries, to preach Christianity, was through cultural organisations like the Prarthana Samaj
modern secular education. They provided (1867), the Arya Samaj (1875) were founded
opportunities to acquire education to the subsequently. Roy’s initiative was followed up by
underprivileged and the marginalised sections, reformers like Keshav Chandra Sen and Iswar
who were denied learning opportunities in the Chandra Vidyasagar. Abolition of sati and child
traditional education system. However only a marriage and widow remarriage became the
very small fraction converted to Christianity. main concerns for these reformers. The Aligarh
But the challenge posed by Christianity led to movement played a similar role among the
various social and religious reform movements. Muslims. Slowly, organisations and associations
of political nature came up in different parts of
British India to vent the grievances of the people.
1.4 Other Decisive
Factors for the Rise of
Nationalism
Mission School
(a) Memories of 1857
1.3 Social and Religious Indian national movement dates its birth
from the 1857 uprising. The outrages committed
Reforms
by the British army after putting down the revolt
The English educated intelligentsia felt the remained “un-avenged”. Even the court-martial
need for reforming the society before involving law and formalities were not observed. Officers
the people in any political programmes. The who sat on the court martial swore that they
reform movements of nineteenth century are would hang their prisoners, guilty or innocent
categorised as 1. Reformist movements such and, if any dared to raise his voice against such
as the Brahmo Samaj founded by Raja Ram indiscriminate vengeance, he was silenced by
Mohan Roy, the Prarthana Samaj, founded his angry colleagues. Persons condemned to
by Dr Atmaram Pandurang and the Aligarh death after the mockery of a trial were often
Movement, represented by Syed Ahmad Khan; tortured by soldiers before their execution,
2. Revivalist movements such as the Arya Samaj, while the officers looked on approvingly. It is
the Ramakrishna Mission and the Deoband worth recalling what Elphinstone, Governor of
Movement. 3. There were social movements Bombay Presidency, wrote to Sir John Lawrence,
led by Jyotiba Phule in Pune, Narayana Guru future Viceroy of India (1864) about the British
and Ayyankali in Kerala and Ramalinga siege of Delhi during June-September, 1857:
Adigal, Vaikunda Swamigal and later Iyothee ‘...A wholesale vengeance is being taken without
Thassar in Tamilnadu. All these reformers distinction of friend or foe. As regards the
and their contributions have been dealt with looting, we have indeed surpassed Nadirshah.’
comprehensively in the XI Std. text book.

(b) Racial Discrimination of nationalist and vernacular news papers came
The English followed a policy of racial to be launched to build public opinion and
discrimination. The systematic exclusion of the they did yeomen service in fostering nationalist
Indians from higher official positions came to be consciousness. Among them Amrit Bazaar
looked upon as an anti-Indian policy measure Patrika, The Bombay Chronicle, The Tribune, The
and the resultant discontent of the Indian upper Indian Mirror, The Hindu and Swadesamitran
classes led the Indians to revolt against the were prominent.
British rule. When civil service examinations
were introduced the age limit was fixed at (e) Invoking India’s glorious
twenty one. When Indians were making it, with Past
a view to debarring the Indians from entering Orientalists like William Jones, Charles
the civil services, the age limit was reduced Wilkins and Max Muller explored and
to nineteen. Similarly, despite requests from translated religious, historical and literary
Indian educated middle class to hold the civil texts from Sanskrit, Persian and Arabic into
service examinations simultaneously in India, English and made them available to all.
the Imperial government refused to concede Influenced by the richness of Indian traditions
the request. and scholarship, many of the early nationalists
made a fervent plea to revive the pristine
(c) Repressive as well as glory of India. Aurobindo Ghose would write,
Exploitative Measures ‘The mission of Nationalism, in our view, is
against Indians to recover Indian thought, Indian character,
Repressive regulations like Section 124A Indian perceptions, Indian energy, Indian
of the Indian Penal Code (1870), punishing greatness and to solve the problems that
attempts to excite disaffection towards the perplex the world in an Indian spirit and from
Government, and the Vernacular Press the Indian standpoint.’
Act (1878), censoring the press, evoked
protest. Abolition of custom duty on cotton
manufactures imported from England and levy 1.5 Birth of Indian
of excise duty on cotton fabrics manufactured Associations
in India created nationwide discontent. During
the viceroyalty of Ripon the Indian judges (a) Madras Native Association
were empowered through the Ilbert Bill to try One of the
Europeans. But in the face of resistance from first attempts to
the Europeans the bill was amended to suit the organise and vent the
European interests. grievances against the
British came through
(d) Role of Press
the formation of
The introduction of printing press in India the Madras Native
was an event of great significance. It helped people Association (MNA)
to spread, modern ideas of self-government, on 26 February 1852. Gajula Lakshminarasu
democracy, civil rights and industrialisation. The An association of landed and business classes
press became the critic of politics. It addressed of the Madras Presidency, they expressed
the people on several issues affecting the country. their grievances against the Company’s
Raja Rammohan Roy’s Sambad Kaumudi (1821) administration in the revenue, education
in Bengali and Mirat-Ul-Akbar (1822) in Persian and judicial spheres. Gajula Lakshminarasu,
played a progressive role in educating the people who inspired the foundation of MNA, was a
on issues of public importance. Later on a number prominent businessman in Madras city.

The Association presented its grievances redress. The Indian National Congress filled
before British Parliament when it was discussing this void.
the East India Company’s rule in India before
the passing of the Charter in 1853. In a petition (b) Madras Mahajana Sabha (MMS)
submitted in December 1852, the MNA pointed After the Madras Native Association
out that the ryotwari and zamindari systems had became defunct there was no such public
thrown agricultural classes into deep distress. It organisation in the Madras Presidency. As many
urged the revival of the ancient village system educated Indians viewed this situation with
to free the peasantry from the oppressive dismay, the necessity for a political organisation
interference of the zamindars and the Company was felt and in May 1884 the Madras Mahajana
officials. The petition also made a complaint Sabha was organised. In the inaugural meeting
about the judicial system which was slow, held on 16 May 1884 the prominent participants
complicated and imperfect. It pointed out that were: G. Subramaniam, Viraraghavachari,
the appointment of judges without assessing Ananda Charlu, Rangiah, Balaji Rao and Salem
their judicial knowledge and competence in Ramaswamy. With the launch of the Indian
the local languages affected the efficiency of National Congress, after the completion of
the judiciary. The diversion of state funds to the second provincial conference of Madras
missionary schools, under the grants-in-aid Mahajana Sabha, the leaders after attending the
system, was also objected to in the petition. first session of the Indian National Congress
The MNA petition was discussed in the (INC) in Bombay amalgamated the MMS with
Parliament in March 1853. H. D. Seymour, the INC.
Chairman of the Indian Reform Society, came to
Madras in October 1853. He visited places like (c) Indian National Congress (INC)
Guntur, Cuddalore, Tiruchirappalli, Salem and The idea of forming
Tirunelveli. However, as the Charter Act of 1853 a political organisation
allowed British East India Company to continue that would raise issues
its rule in India, the MNA organised an agitation and grievances against
for the transfer of British territories in India to the colonial rule did not
the direct control of the Crown. MNA sent its emerge in a vacuum.
second petition to British Parliament, signed Between 1875 and
by fourteen thousand individuals, pleading the 1885 there were many
termination of Company rule in India. agitations against British A.O. Hume
The life of MNA was short. Lakshminarasu policies in India. The Indian textile industry
died in 1866 and by 1881, the association ceased was campaigning for imposition of cotton
to exist. Though the MNA did not achieve import duties in 1875. In 1877, demands for
much in terms of reforms, it was the beginning the Indianisation of Government services were
of organised effort to articulate Indian opinion. made vociferously. There were protests against
In its lifetime, the MNA operated within the Vernacular Press Act of 1878. In 1883, there
the boundaries of Madras Presidency. The was an agitation in favour of the Ilbert Bill.
grievances that the MNA raised through its But these agitations and protests were
petitions and the agitations it launched were sporadic and not coordinated. There was a
from the point of view of the elite, particularly strong realisation that these protests would
the landed gentry of Madras Presidency. What not impact on the policy makers unless a
was lacking was a national political organisation national political organisation was formed.
representing every section of the society, an From this realisation was born the Indian
organisation that would raise the grievances National Congress. The concept of India as a
and agitate against the colonial power for their nation was reflected in the name of the

Indian National Congress
Sessions 1885-1947 N
W E
S
Lahore Amritsar
1893 1919
1900
1909 Meerut
1929 Delhi 1946
1918
(Special) 1923 Lucknow
Kanpur
1932 1899
1925 1916
1947 Guwahati
Allahabad 1936 Patna
Karachi 1888 Benaras 1912 1926
1892 1905 Gaya
1913
1931 Ahmedabad Tripuri 1910 1922
1902 Ramgarh
1939
1921 Haripura 1940
1938 Calcutta
Surat Faizpur 1886
1937 Nagpur 1890
1907
Amravati 1891 1896
1897 1920 1901
Bombay 1906
1885 Poona 1911
1889 1895 1917
1904 1920 (Special)
Kakinada
1915 1928
1923
1918 (Special) Belgaum 1933
1934 1924
1942 (Special)
Madras
1887
1894
1898
1903
1908
1914
1927
Not to Scale
No Session - 1930, 1935, 1941-1945

organisation. It also introduced the concept Constitutional
of nationalism. Opportunity for participation in the
In December government was one of the major demands
1884, Allan of the Indian National Congress. It
Octavian Hume, a demanded Indian representation in the
retired English ICS government.
officer, presided Economic
over a meeting of High land revenue was one of the major
the Theosophical factors that contributed to the oppression
Society in Madras. of the peasants. It demanded reduction in
The formation the land revenue and protection of peasants
of a political W.C. Bonnerjee against exploitation of the zamindars. The
organisation that Congress also advocated the imposition of
would work on an all India basis was discussed heavy tax on the imported goods for the
and the idea of forming the Indian National benefit of swadeshi goods.
Congress emerged in this meeting. The Administrative
Indian National Congress was formed on 28 Higher officials who had responsibility
December 1885 in Bombay. Apart from A.O of administration in India were selected
Hume, another important founding member through civil services examinations
was W C. Bonnerjee, who was elected the conducted in Britain. This meant that
first president. educated Indians who could not afford to go
Though the activities of the INC then to London had no opportunity to get high
revolved around petitions and memoranda, administrative jobs. Therefore, Indianisation
from the very beginning the founders of of services through simultaneous Indian
the INC worked to bring every section of Civil Services Examinations in England and
the society into its ambit. One of the main India was a major demand of the Congress.
missions of the INC was to weld the Indians Judicial
into a nation. They were convinced that the Because of the partial treatment against the
struggle against the colonial rule will be Indian political activists by English judges
successful only if Indians saw themselves it demanded the complete separation of the
as the members of a nation. To achieve Executive and the Judiciary.
this, the INC acted as a common political
platform for all the movements that were (d) Contributions of Early
being organised in different parts of the Nationalists (1885–1915)
country. The INC provided the space where The early nationalists in the INC came
the political workers from different parts of from the elite sections of the society. Lawyers,
the country could gather and conduct their college and university teachers, doctors,
political activities under its banner. Even journalists and such others represented the
though the organization was small with Congress. However, they came from different
less than a hundred members, it had an all- regions of the country and this made INC a
India character with representation from all truly a national political organisation. These
regions of India. It was the beginning of the leaders of the INC adopted the constitutional
mobilisation of people on an all-India basis. methods of presenting petitions, prayers and
The major objectives and demands of INC memorandums and thereby earned the moniker
were of “Moderates”. It was also the time some sort of
an understanding about colonialism was
evolving in India. There was no ready-made

anti-colonial understanding available for stalwarts of the early
reference in the late nineteenth century when freedom movement
the INC was formed. It was the early nationalists were involved
who helped the formulation of the idea of we as in journalism.
a nation. They were developing the indigenous Dadabhai Naoroji
anti-colonial ideology and a strategy on their founded and edited
own which helped future mass leaders like M. K two journals called
Gandhi. Voice of India
From the late 1890s there were growing and RastGoftar.
differences within the INC. Leaders like Bipin S u r e n d r a n a t h Surendranath Banerjea
Chandra Pal, Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Lala Banerjea edited the
Lajpat Rai were advocating radical approaches newspaper called Bengalee. Bal Gangadhar
instead of merely writing petitions, prayers Tilak edited Kesari and Mahratta. This is the
and memorandums. These advocates of radical means that they used to educate the common
methods came to be called the “extremists” as people about the colonial oppression and
against those who were identified as moderates. spread nationalist ideas. News regarding the
Their objective became clear in 1897 when initiatives taken by the INC were taken to the
Tilak raised the clarion call “Swaraj is my birth masses through these newspapers. For the
right and I shall have it”. Tilak and his militant first time, in the history of India, the press
followers were now requesting Swaraj instead was used to generate public opinion against
of economic or administrative reforms that the oppressive policies and acts of the colonial
the moderates were requesting through their government.
petitions and prayers. Bal Gangadhar
Though they criticised each other, it would Tilak was a firm
be wrong to place them in the opposing poles. believer that the
Both moderates and militants, with their own lower middle classes,
methods, were significant elements of the larger peasants, artisans
Indian nationalist movement. In fact, they and workers could
contributed towards the making of the swadeshi play a very important
movement. The partition of Bengal in 1905, by role in the national
the colonial government, which you will be movement, He used Bal Gangadhar Tilak
studying in the next lesson, was vehemently his newspapers to
opposed by the Indians. The swadeshi movement articulate the discontent among this section
of 1905, directly opposed the British rule and of the people against the oppressive colonial
encouraged the ideas of swadeshi enterprise, rule. He called for national resistance against
national education, self-help and use of Indian imperial British rule in India. On 27 July
languages. The method of mass mobilisation 1897, Tilak was arrested and charged under
and boycott of British goods and institutions Section 124 A of the Indian Penal Code. Civil
suggested by the radicals was also accepted by liberty, particularly in the form of freedom of
the Moderates. expression and press became the significant
Both the Moderates and the Radicals were part of Indian freedom struggle.
of the same view when it came to accepting the 1.6 Naoroji and his Drain
fact that they needed to fulfil the role of educators.
They tried to instil nationalist consciousness
Theory
through various means including the press. Dadabhai Naoroji, known as the ‘Grand
When the INC was founded in 1885, one- Old Man of Indian Nationalism’, was a
third of the members were journalists. Most prominent early nationalist. He was elected to

the Bombay Municipal Landless labourers and jobless artisans
Corporation and emigrating to Empire colonies to escape
Town Council during starvation deaths.
the 1870s. Elected to The unintended result of Western
the British Parliament education introduced by the British was
in 1892, he founded the emergence of a new class of educated
the India Society Indians who strove for the reforms of
(1865) and the East Indian society.
India Association Dadabhai Naoroji
Factors like the bitter memories of 1857,
(1866) in London. He was elected thrice as
policy of racial discrimination, repressive
the President of the INC.
measures against dissension contributed
His major contribution to the Indian to the growth of nationalism.
nationalist movement was his book Poverty and
Un-British Rule of the British in India (1901). In Modern intelligentsia formed political
this book, he put forward the concept of ‘drain organisation like Madras Native
of wealth’. He stated that in any country the tax Association (1852), Madras Mahajana
raised would have been spent for the wellbeing Sabha (1884) and Indian National
of the people of that country. But in British Congress (1885) to voice their opinions
India, taxes collected in India were spent for the and grievances.
welfare of England. Naoroji argued that India An important role of these leaders was
had exported an average of 13 million pounds to educate the common mass about the
worth of goods to Britain each year from 1835 to exploitative colonial rule and its impact
1872 with no corresponding return. The goods on their day to day life. Drain of wealth
were in lieu of payments for profits to Company theory enunciated by Dadabhai Naoroji
shareholders living in Britain, guaranteed exposed the British loot of the resources
interest to investors in railways, pensions to of India.
retired officials and generals, interest for the
money borrowed from England to meet war
expenses for the British conquest of territories
in India as well as outside India. All these, going
in the name of Home Charges, Naoroji asserted,
made up a loss of 30 million pounds a year. EXERCISE
Summary Q.R.Code
The land and revenue reforms implemented I. C hoose the

by the East India Company since late correct answer
eighteenth century had its impact on the 1. When did Gandhi return to India from South
agrarian conditions in India. Africa?
The growth of heavy machine industries (a) 1915 (b) 1916 (c) 1917 (d) 1918
in Britain allowed East India Company to 2.
In which year English Education was
export raw materials from India to Britain introduced in India?
and take back the finished products – a
(a) 1825 (b) 1835 (c) 1845 (d) 1855
process that led to the decline of Indian
handicrafts, making the artisans go 3. Find the odd one.
jobless. (a) William Jones (b) Charles Wilkins
(c) Max Muller (d) Aurobindo Ghose

4. ‘Swaraj is my birth right and I shall have it’ 9. The first President of the Indian National
was said by Congress was
(a) Bala Gangadhar Tilak (a) Surendranath Bannerjea
(b) Dadabhai Naoroji (b) Badruddin Tyabji
(c) Subhash Chandra Bose (c) A.O. Hume
(d) Bharathi (d) W.C. Bonnerjee
5. Match and choose the correct answer from 10 Who was called the ‘Grand Old Man of India?
the code given below. (a) Bala Gangadhar Tilak
(A) Bala Gangadhar Tilak - 1. Voice of India (b) M.K. Gandhi
(B) Dadabhai Naoroji - 2. Madras Time (c) Dadabhai Naoroji
(C) Macaulay - 3. Kesari (d) Subhash Chandra Bose
(D) William Digby - 4. Minute Who wrote the book - ‘Poverty and Un-
11
on Indian British Rule in India’ ?
Education (a) Bala Gangadhar Tilak
Code (b) Gopala Krishna Gokhale
(a) 2, 4, 1, 3 (b) 3, 1, 4, 2 (c) Dadabhai Naoroji
(c) 1, 3, 2, 4 (d) 4, 2, 3, 1 (d) M.G. Ranade
6.
Which one of the following is correctly 12. A
ssertion (A): The British Government
matched? pursued a policy of free trade (or) laissez
fair.
(a) English Education Act - 1843
Reason(R): India had comparative advantage
(b) The abolition of slavery - 1859
from England's free trade policy.
(c) Madras Native Association - 1852
(a) A is correct but R does not explain A.
(d) Indigo revolt - 1835 (b) A is correct and R explains A.
7. Which is the correct chronological sequence (c) A is correct and R is incorrect.
of the following associations?
(d) Both A and R are wrong.
(i) East India Association
13.
Which of the following statements are
(ii) Madras Mahajana Sabha correct on Orissa famine?
(iii) Madras Native Association Statement I: In 1866 a million and a half
(iv) The Servants of India Society people of Orissa died of starvation.
Statement II: During that time the British
Select the answer from the codes given below:
exported 200 million pounds of rice to
(a) ii, i, iii, iv (b) ii, iii, i, iv Britain.
(c) iii, iv, i, ii (d) iii, iv, ii, i Statement III: The Orissa famine prompted
Dadabai Naoroji to begin a life long
8. The Indian National Congress was founded
investigation of poverty in India.
by _________
(a) I & II
(a) Subhash Chandra Bose (b) I & III
(b) Gandhi (c) None of the above
(c) A.O. Hume (d) All of the above
(d) B.G. Tilak

14. A
ssertion(A): Dadabhai Naoroji was 6. Attempt a brief account of early emigration of
elected thrice as the President of the Indian labourers to Ceylon.
National Congress. 7. What were the items which constituted Home
Reason(R): The Indian National Charges?
Movement upto 1905 was dominated by
Constitutionalists. IV. Answer the following in detail
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct 1 . Discuss the impact of Western education on
explanation of A. Indian Middle Class, highlighting the latter’s
(b) Both A and R are true but R is not the role in reforming and regenerating Indian
correct explanation of A. Society.
(c) A is true but R is false. 2. Examine the Socio-economic causes for the
rise of nationalism British in India.
(d) A is false but R is true.
3. To what extent the repressive and racist policy
II. Write brief answers measures of the British were responsible for
the national awakening in India.
1. What is nationalism ?
4. Explain the objectives of the Indian National
2. Describe the implications of the new land
Congress and contributions of the early
tenures?
nationalists to the cause of India’s liberation
3. W
rite a note on Indigo revolt? from the colonial rule.
4. D
iscuss the importance of Illbert Bill.
5. Highlight the contribution of missionaries to V. Activity
modern education. 1. A debate on what would have happened if
6. What were the grievances represented by the western system of education had not been
Madras Native Association in their petition introduced by the British in India.
to the British Parliament? 2. Compiling a volume containing biographical
7.
Make a list of the important political account of the erarly nationalists from Tamil
associations formed in India prior to the Nadu with images and pictures.
Indian National Congress.
VI. Map Work
8.
Identify the prominent early Indian
nationalists. Mark the following on the outline map of India.
Venues of Congress Sessions.
III. Write short answers 1. Bombay 2. Calcutta 3. Madras
1.
Analyse Macaulay's ‘Minute on Indian 4. Ahmedabad 5. Lucknow 6. Kanpur
Education’. 7. Surat 8. Lahore 9. Poona
2. What do you know of the Madras visit of the 10. Allahabad
chairman of Indian Reform Society in 1853?
3. Point out the role played by press in creating REFERENCES
nationalist consciousness in British India
4. Describe the way in which indentured labour Bipan Chandra, et al., India’s Struggle for
was organized in British India? Independence, Penguin, New Delhi, 2016.
5.
Name the prominent participants in the Desai, A.R., Social Background of Indian
inaugural meeting of Madras Mahajana Nationalism, Popular Prakashan, Bombay,
Sabha held in May 1884? 6th Edition 2011.

R. Suntharalingam, Politics and
Nationalist Awakening in South India, INTERNET RESOURCES
1852–1891, University of Arizona Press,
Tucson, 1974. www.brittanica.com
Sashi Tharoor, An Era of Darkness: The
British Empire in India, Aleph, New
Delhi, 2016.
GLOSSARY
Non-interference of the government
laissez faire in the economic affairs of individuals தடையில்லா வாணிகக் க�ொள்கை
and society
ameliorate to make better சீராக்கு, மேன்மையாக்கு
indentured
a debt bondage worker on a contract ஒப்பந்தத் த�ொழிலாளர்
labour
someone from the west studying
Orientalist the language, culture and history of கீழ்த்திசை நாடுகளின் ம�ொழி,
countries in eastren Asia பண்பாடு, வரலாறு கற்றவர்
an authority on or student of English ஆங்கில ம�ொழி இலக்கியம்

Anglicists
languages and literature கற்றவர்
attempting to convert someone from
proselytizing one religion, belief, or opinion to மதம் மாற்றும் முயற்சி
another
the belief in or worship of more than
polytheism
one god பல தெய்வ நம்பிக்கை
language commonly spoken by the

vernacular people of a particular a region or a சுதேச ம�ொழி
particular group

UNIT Rise of Extremism and
2 Swadeshi Movement
Learning Objectives
To understand the nature and significance of the Swadeshi Movement in
Bengal
To know the repressive measures of the government of British India
To trace the events leading up to the Surat Split (in the Indian National Congress) in 1907
To familiarise ourselves with revolutionary extremism in Bengal
To acquaint ourselves with the Swadeshi Struggles in Tamil Nadu
To examine the role played by V.O. Chidambaram, V.V. Subramaniam, Subramania Siva
and Subramania Bharati
Introduction were improvised for the Swadeshi campaign.

Swadeshi constructive programme included
By the last decade of the nineteenth century, boycott of foreign goods and government-
there was conspicuous resentment against administered educational institutions. The
moderate politics within the Indian National Swadeshi movement (1905–1911) is the
Congress. This feeling of resentment eventually most important phase of the Indian National
evolved into a new trend, referred to as the Movement in the pre-Gandhian era, as, during
‘Extremist’ trend. The extremist or what we may the course of the movement, the character
call radical or militant group was critical of the of the Indian national movement changed
moderates for their cautious approach and the significantly in terms of the stated objectives,
“mendicant policy” of appealing to the British methods and in its social base.
by way of prayers and petitions. This form of
militancy developed under the leadership of
Bal Gangadhar Tilak in Maharashtra, Bipin
Chandra Pal in Bengal and Lala Lajpat Rai in
the Punjab. The primary reasons for the rise of
this trend were: factionalism in the Congress,
frustration with the moderate politics, anger
against Lord Curzon for dividing Bengal.
The partition of Bengal in 1905 – a prime
example of the British divide and rule policy
– acted as the catalyst for the growth of anti-
colonial swadeshi nationalism. The partition
plan was first opposed by moderates but as the
movement progressed, different techniques Swadeshi Movement
16

The mass base of the movement was
expanded by exposing the problems of various
social groups under the British governance and
the underlying commonality in their lives - that
is colonial exploitation. For the first time, in the
history of Indian national movement, women,
workers, peasants, and marginalised groups
were exposed to modern nationalist ideas and
politics. It was a period when the elite made a
conscious effort to address the common people,
Partition of Bengal
calling upon them to join politics. The other
prominent development during the Swadeshi
was increasing due to the impact of recurring
period was the growth of the vernacular press
famine and the plague. Curzon did little to
(newspapers published in Indian languages)
change the opinion of the educated Indian class.
in various parts of India. The nationalistic
Instead of engaging with the nationalist
tone of the vernacular press became more
intelligentsia, he implemented a series of
pronounced during this time. The role played
repressive measures. For instance, he reduced
by Swadesamitran in Tamil Nadu, Kesari in
the number of elected Indian representatives in
Maharashtra, Yugantar in Bengal are a few
the Calcutta Corporation (1899). The University
examples.
Act of 1904 brought the Calcutta University
As the movement gained support among under the direct control of the government. The
the people, the government passed a series of Official Secrets Act (1904) was amended to curb
repressive Acts such as the Public Meetings Act the nationalist tone of Indian newspapers.
(1907), the Explosive Substance Act (1908), Finally, he ordered partition of Bengal in 1905.
the Newspaper (Incitement and Offence Act The partition led to widespread protest all across
1908) and the Indian Press Act (1910) to crush India, starting a new phase of the Indian
the nationalistic activities of any nature. One national movement.
such measure was recording and monitoring
Bengal Presidency as
of public meetings which were considered a
an administrative unit was
matter of judicial scrutiny. (Shorthand was used
indeed of unmanageable in
by the police for the first time to record political Q.R.Code
size; the necessity of partition
speeches.) In this lesson, while discussing
was being discussed since
the Bengal as well as national scenarios, the
the 1860s. The scheme of
Swadeshi Campaigns conducted in Tamil nadu
partition was revived in
with particular focus on the role played by V.O.
March 1890. In Assam, when Curzon went on a
Chidambaram, V.V. Subramaniam, Subramania
tour, he was requested by the European planters
Siva and Subramania Bharati.
to make a maritime outlet closer to Calcutta
to reduce their dependence on the Assam–
2.1 Partition of Bengal
Bengal railways. Following this, in December
On January 6, 1903, Curzon drew up a scheme in his Minutes
1899, Lord Curzon on Territorial Redistribution of India, which
was appointed the new was later modified and published as the
Governor General and Risely Papers. The report gave two reasons in
Viceroy of India. This support of partition: Relief of Bengal and the
was a time when improvement of Assam. The report, however,
British unpopularity concealed information on how the plan was
Lord Curzon
17 Rise of Extremism and Swadeshi Movement

originally devised for the convenience of British Tagore as the central figure. The growth of
officials and the European businessmen. regional language newspapers played a role in
From December 1903 and 1905 this initial building the narrative of solidarity. Similarly,
idea of transferring or reshuffling some areas recurring famines, unemployment, and a slump
from Bengal was changed to a full-fledged plan in the economic growth generated an anti-
of partition. The Bengal was to be divided colonial feeling.
into two provinces. The new Eastern Bengal
and Assam were to include the divisions of 2.2 Anti-Partition Movement
Chittagong, Dhaka, parts of Rajshahi hills of Both the militants and the moderates were
Tippera, Assam province and Malda. critical of the partition of Bengal ever since it
was announced in December 1903. But the anti-
Aimed at Hindu Muslim Divide partition response by leaders like Surendranath
The intention of Curzon was to suppress Banerjee, K.K. Mitra, and Prithwishchandra
the political activities against the British rule Ray remained restricted to prayers and petitions.
in Bengal and to create a Hindu–Muslim The objective was limited to influencing public
divide. The government intentionally ignored opinion in England against the partition.
alternative proposals presented by the civil However, despite this widespread resentment,
servants, particularly the idea of dividing partition of Bengal was officially declared on 19
Bengal on linguistic basis. Curzon rejected July 1905.
this proposal as this would further consolidate
the position of the Bengali politicians. Curzon
was adamant as he wanted to create a clearly
segregated Hindu and Muslim population in
the divided Bengal. Curzon, like many before
him, knew very well that there was a clear
geographical divide along the river Bhagirathi:
eastern Bengal dominated by the Muslims, and
western Bengal dominated by the Hindus and Bipin Chandra Pal Aswini Kumar Dutta
in the central Bengal and the two communities
balancing out each other. There was a conscious With the failure to stop the partition of
attempt on the part of British administration Bengal and the pressure exerted by the radical
to woo the Muslim population in Bengal. In leaders like Bipin Chandra Pal, Aswini Kumar
his speech at Dhaka, in Februry 1904, Curzon Dutta, and Aurobindo Ghose, the moderate
assured the Muslims that in the new province leaders were forced to rethink their strategy,
of East Bengal, Muslims would enjoy a unity, and look for new techniques of protest. Boycott
which they had never enjoyed since the days of of British goods was one such method, which
old Muslim rule. after much debate was accepted by the moderate
The partition, instead of dividing the leadership of the Indian National Congress. So,
Bengali people along the religious line, united for the first time, the moderates went beyond
them. Perhaps the British administration had their conventional political methods. It was
underestimated the growing feeling of Bengali decided, at a meeting in Calcutta on 17 July
identity among the people, which cut across 1905, to extend the protest to the masses. In
caste, class, religion and regional barriers.By the same meeting, Surendranath Banerjee
the end of the nineteenth century, a strong gave a call for the boycott of British goods and
sense of Bengali unity had developed among intuitions. On 7 August, at another meeting at
large sections in the society. Bengali language the Calcutta Town Hall, a formal proclamation
had acquired literary status with Rabindranath of Swadeshi Movement was made.
Rise of Extremism and Swadeshi Movement 18

However, the as ‘a revolt against
agenda of Swadeshi their state of
movement was still dependence…in all
restricted to securing branches of their
an annulment of the national life’. In
partition and the the words of Gopal
moderates were very Krishna Gokhale,
much against utilizing ‘the swadeshi
the campaign to start Aurobindo Ghose movement is not only G. Subramaniam
a full-scale passive resistance. The militant for the improvement of our industry but for
nationalists, on the other hand, were in favour an allround enhancement of our national life
of extending the movement to other provinces ....’ As the movement progressed, different
too and to launch a full-fledged mass struggle. definitions of Swadeshi appeared. However,
for the larger part, the movement of Swadeshi
Spread of the Movement and Boycott was practiced as an anti-colonial
Besides the organized efforts of the leaders, political agitation and not as a viable method
there were spontaneous reactions against the to achieve dignity and freedom in life, a
partition of Bengal. Students, in particular, definition which would be later infused with
came out in large numbers. Reacting to the the entry of Mahatma Gandhi.
increased role of the students in the anti-
partition agitation, British officials threatened
Evolution of the idea of Swadeshi
to withdraw the scholarships and grants to
those who participated in programmes of direct During the freedom struggle, the idea of
Swadeshi movement was conceptualized first
action. In response to this, a call was given to
during 1905 by a string of Congress leaders and
boycott official educational institutions and it
then later in the 1920s under the leadership of
was decided that efforts were to be made to open Mahatma Gandhi.
national schools. Thousands of public meetings
Swadeshi means ‘of one’s own country’. The
were organized in towns and villages across
origin of the idea can be traced to 1872 when
Bengal. Religious festivals such as the Durga Mahadev Govind Ranade, in a series of lectures
Pujas were utilized to invoke the idea of boycott. in Poona, popularised the idea of Swadeshi.
The day Bengal was officially partitioned – According to Ranade, the goods produced in
16 Oct 1905 – was declared as a day of mourning. one’s own country should be given preference
Thousands of people took bath in the Ganga even if the use of such goods proved to be less
and marched on the streets of Calcutta singing satisfactory.
Bande Mataram. In the 1920s Gandhi gave a new meaning
to the idea of Swadeshi by linking it to the
2.3 Boycott and Swadeshi fulfilment of a duty that all Indians owed to the
Movements in Bengal land of their birth. For Gandhi, Swadeshi did
(1905–1911) not merely mean the use of what is produced
in one’s own country. Gandhi defined Swadeshi
Such efforts, both organized and
in following words “Swadeshi is that spirit in us
spontaneous, laid the foundation for a which restricts us to the use and service of our
sustained campaign against the British. The immediate surroundings to the exclusion of
boycott and swadeshi were always interlinked more remote. I should use only things that are
to each other and part of a wider plan to produced by my immediate neighbours and
make India self-sufficient. G. Subramaniam, serve those industries by making them efficient
a nationalist leader from Madras, succinctly and complete where they may be found wanting.”
explained the aim of the swadeshi movement

(a) Constructive Swadeshi in a range of activities such as physical and
The constructive moral training of members, philanthropic work
Swadeshi programmes during the famines, epidemics, propagation
largely stressed upon of Swadeshi message during festivals, and
self-help. It focused organization of indigenous arbitration courts,
on building alternative and schools. By its very nature boycott was
institutions of self- passive action and its aim was to refuse to
governance that would cooperate with the British administration.
operate entirely free But these mass mobilization efforts failed
from British control. Rabindranath Tagore to flourish as they could not extend their base
It also laid emphasis on the need for self- among the Muslim peasantry and the “Depressed
strengthening of the people which would help Classes”. Most of the samitis recruited from the
in creating a worthy citizen before the launch of educated middle class and other upper caste
political agitations. Hindus. Besides this, the swadeshi campaigners
often applied coercive methods, both social and
Rabindranath Tagore was one of the central
physical. For instance, social boycott of those
figures who popularised such ideas through
purchasing foreign goods was common and
his writings. He outlined the constructive
taken up through caste associations and other
programme of atmashakti (self-help). Tagore
nationalist organisations.
called for economic self- development and
insisted that education should be provided in (c) Passive Resistance
swadeshi languages. He also made the call for From 1906, when the abrogation of partition
utilising melas, or fairs, to spread the message of was no longer in sight, the Swadeshi Movement
atmashakti. This became the creed of the whole took a different turn. For many leaders, the
of Bengal and swadeshi shops sprang all over movement was to be utilized for propagating
the place selling textiles, handlooms, soaps, the idea of the political independence or Swaraj
earthenware, matches and leather goods. across India. The constructive programmes came
under heavy criticism from Aurobindo Ghose,
The idea of education in Bipin Chandra Pal, and other militant leaders.
vernacular language made Under their new direction, the swadeshi agenda
its appearance much before included boycott of foreign goods; boycott of
the swadeshi movement with government schools and colleges; boycott of
the foundation of Dawn Society by Satish courts; renouncing the titles and relinquishing
Chandra in 1902. government services; and recourse to armed
struggle if British repression went beyond the
On 5 November 1905, at the initiative limits of endurance. The programme of this
of the Dawn Society, the National Council of nature required mass mobilization. Using
Education was formed. In August 1906, Bengal religion, combined with the invocation of a
National College and a School were founded. A glorious past, became the essential features of
passionate appeal was made by Satish Chandra their programmes.
to the students to come out of ‘institutions of
slavery.’ Such efforts, however, failed to attract 2.4 Militant Nationalism
many due to the bleak job prospects.
As pointed out earlier, thanks to the
(b) Samitis campaigns conducted by Bal Gangadhar Tilak
The other successful method of mass Bipin Chandra Pal and Lala Lajpat Rai, often
mobilization was the formation of samitis referred to as the Lal–Bal–Pal triumvirate,
(corps of volunteers). The samitis were engaged Maharashtra, Bengal, Punjab, emerged as the

epicentres of militant nationalism during the the patriotic sentiments of the people using the
Swadeshi phase. Aurobindo Ghose was another religious symbols.
influential figure in the militant leadership. The
nationalism of this form was more assertive Swaraj or Political Independence
compared to the early Indian nationalism. One of the common goals of the militant
leaders was to achieve Swaraj or Self Rule.
However, the leaders differed on the meaning
of Swaraj. For Tilak, Swaraj was restricted to the
Indian control over the administration or rule
by the natives, but not total severance of relation
with Britain. In Bipin Chandra Pal’s view, Swaraj
was the attainment of complete freedom from
any foreign rule.
Triumvirate : Lal–Bal–Pal The other point of departure of the
militants from the moderates was over the rising
Both the groups, moderate and militant, extremism in Bengal, Punjab, and Maharashtra.
were well aware of the evils or the wrong doings Unlike the moderates, who were critical of the
of the British rule. The moderates, however, reckless revolutionaries, militant nationalists
worked under the belief that the British rule were sympathetic towards them. However,
in India could be reformed by convincing the the political murders and individual acts of
rulers through representation and petitioning. terrorism were not approved of by the militant
The militant nationalist, on the other hand, was leaders and they were cautious of associating
of the opinion that the colonial rulers would themselves with the cause of revolutionaries.
never be amenable to reason, as they would not
The patriotism glued with the assertion of
like to give up the advantages of an empire.
Hindu beliefs was not accepable to the Muslims.
Sometime around 1905, Aurobindo Also much like their predecessors the leaders of
Ghose was asked by a man as to how to become the swadeshi movement failed to penetrate the
a patriot. In response Aurobindo pointed to larger section of the society. By 1908 militant
a wall map of India, and said “Do you see nationalism was on the decline. The Surat split
this map? It is not a map but the portrait of of 1907 was another contributing factor to this
Bharat Mata: its cities and mountains rivers decline.
and jungles form her physical body. All her
children are her nerves, large and small…. Surat Split
Concentrate on Bharat as a living mother,
worship her with nine-fold bhakti.”
Militant nationalism also changed the

nature of political pressure from the earlier force
of public opinion of educated Indians to the
protesting masses. Despite these changes, the
militant nationalism phase retained a continuity
from the moderate phase. This continuity
was evident in the inability to transcend the
peaceful method of struggle and for the most
parts militant nationalism remained tied to the
idea of non-violence. However, they appealed to Congress Split at Surat

The tension between the militants and the
moderates became more pronounced with the
2.5 Revolutionary Extremism
appointment of Lord Minto as the new Secretary
of State to India in 1906. As the tension was Around 1908, the
rising between the two groups, a split was decline of the militant
avoided, in the 1906 Calcutta session, by nationalists and the
accepting demands of moderate leaders and rise of revolutionary
electing Dadabhai Naoroji as president. Most of activities marked an
the moderates, led by Pherozeshah Mehta, were important shift from
defeated in the election. The militants managed non-violent methods
to pass four resolutions on Swadeshi, Boycott, to violent action. It
also meant a shift from Bankim Chandra
National Education, and Self-Government. Chatterjee
mass-based action
The next session of Congress was originally
to elite response to the British rule. In Bengal,
planned to be held in Poona, considered to be
revolutionary terrorism had developed even
a stronghold of the militants. Fearing a repeat
earlier; around the 1870s, when the akharas or
of the Calcutta session, the moderates shifted
gymnasiums were setup in various places to
the venue to Surat. The militants proposed
develop what Swami Vivekananda had described
Lala Lajpat Rai’s name for the next Congress
as strong muscles and nerves of steel. Bankim
presidency opposing the moderate’s candidate
Chandra Chatterjee’s novel, Anandmath also
Rash Behari Ghosh. Lala Lajpat Rai, however,
had a significant impact. Anandmath was widely
turned down the offer to avoid the split. The
read by the revolutionaries in Bengal. The Bande
matter finally boiled down to the question of
Mataram song, which is part of the novel, became
retaining the four resolutions that were passed
the anthem of the swadeshi movement.
in the Calcutta session in 1906. The Pherozeshah
Mehta group sought removal of those items from During the Swadeshi movement three factors
the agenda. In order contributed to the upsurge in the individual acts
to counter Mehta’s of violence:
manoeuvering, the Th
e apolitical constructive programmes
militants decided to had little acceptance among the youth who
oppose the election of was growing impatient under the repressive
Rash Behari Gosh as foreign rule.
president. The session The failure of the militant nationalists to
ended in chaos. lead the young people into a long-term mass
The Indian Pherozeshah Mehta movement also contributed to the growth of
National Congress, born in December 1885, individual action.
was now split into two groups – militant and The revolutionary action was part of an
moderate. The Congress which emerged after effort towards the symbolic recovery of
the Surat split was more loyal to the British than Indian manhood, which the revolutionaries
they were before. The new Congress, minus the believed was often challenged and looked
militants, came to be known as Mehta Congress down upon by the British.
and the 1908 session of the Congress was
attended only by the moderates who reiterated Such actions, however, did not lead to
their loyalty to the Raj. The politics of militants, any organised revolutionary movement as was
on the other hand, could not crystallize into a the case in Russia. The revolutionary actions
new political organization. The primary reason were mostly attempts to assassinate specific
was the repressive measures of the government oppressive British officers.
by putting all the prominent leaders in jail.

(a) Alipore Bomb Case thirty-five other comrades, were arrested.
In Bengal, the story of revolutionary Chittaranjan Das took up the case. It came to be
terrorism begins in 1902 with the formation known as the Alipore Bomb case.
of many secret societies. Most notable among The judgement observed that there was
them all was the Anushilan Samity of Calcutta, no evidence to show that Aurobindo Ghose
founded by Jatindernath Banerjee and was involved in any conspiracy against the
Barindarkumar Ghose, brother of Aurobindo British rule. Ghose was acquitted of all the
Ghose. Similarly, the Dhaka Anushilan Samity charges. Barindra Ghose and Ullaskar Dutt
was born in 1906 through the initiative of were given the death penalty (later commuted
Pulin Behari Das. This was followed by the
to the transportation of life), with the rest being
launch of the revolutionary weekly Yugantar.
condemned to transportation for life. The
The Calcutta Anushilan Samity soon started
year-long hearing of Alipore Bomb case made
its activities and the first swadeshi dacoity,
a great impact and portrayed the nationalist
to raise funds, was organised in Rangpur in
August 1906. revolutionaries as heroes to the general public.
In the same year, Hemchandra Kanungo Trial and the Aftermath

went abroad to get
After his acquittal, Aurobindo Ghose
military training in
took to a spiritual path and shifted his base
Paris. After his return
to Pondicherry, where he stayed until his
to India in 1908, he
established a bomb death in 1950. The idea of bringing an armed
factory along with a revolution, envisaged by Aurobindo Ghose,
religious school at a never materialized. The reason for the gradual
garden house in decline in the revolutionary activities in
Maniktala. In the same Khudiram Bose Bengal was a combination of government
garden house, young inmates underwent repression and alienation from the people.
various forms of physical training, reading Beside this, revolutionary terrorism suffered
classic Hindu text, and reading literature on from certain social limitations too as most of
revolutionary movement across the world. the revolutionaries were drawn from the three
A conspiracy was hatched there to kill upper castes – Brahmin, Kayastha, and Vaishya.
Douglas Kingsford, notorious for his cruel ways
of dealing with the swadeshi agitators. Two (b) British Repression
young revolutionaries - 18-year-old Khudiram In December 1908 the Morley-Minto
Bose and 19-year-old Prafulla Chaki – were constitutional reforms were announced. The
entrusted with the task of carrying out the moderates welcomed the reforms. However,
killing. On 30 April 1908, they mistakenly threw they soon realised that there was hardly any
a bomb on a carriage, that, instead of killing shift of power. In fact, measures taken by Minto
Kingsford, killed two English women. Prafulla were highly divisive as it institutionalised
Chaki committed communal electorates creating Hindu-Muslim
suicide and Khudiram
divide. Beside this, the colonial government
Bose was arrested and
also introduced certain repressive laws such as:
hanged for the murder.
Th
e Newspapers (Incitement to Offence) Act,
Aurobindo
1908. This act empowered the magistrate to
Ghose, along with
his brother Barinder confiscate press property which published
Kumar Ghose and objectionable material making it difficult to
Prafulla Chaki publish anything critical of British rule.

Indian Press Act 1910 made it mandatory the students with shouts of Vande Mataram. In
for publishers and the printers to deposit 1907, Bipin Chandra Pal came to Madras and
a security that could be seized in case they his speeches on the Madras Beach electrified
printed ‘obnoxious material’. the audience and won new converts to the
The Indian Criminal Law Amendment Act nationalist cause. The visit had a profound
allowed summary trails and also imposed impact all over Tamil Nadu. The public speeches
the prohibition of ‘association dangerous to in the Tamil language created an audience
the public peace’. which was absent during the formative years of
Even with the widespread repression, the the political activities in Tamil Nadu.
charm of revolutionary action never disappeared (b) V.O.C. and Swadeshi
from the Indian national movement. The Steam Navigation Company
centre of activities moved from Bengal to Uttar (SSNC)
Pradesh and Punjab.
The Swadeshi
2.6 Swadeshi Campaign in movement in Tamil
Nadu came to
Tamil Nadu national attention
Swadeshi movement in Tamil Nadu, in 1906 when V.O.
notably in Tirunelveli district, generated a lot Chidambaram
of attention and support. While the Swadeshi mooted the idea of
movement in Tamil Nadu had an all India launching a swadeshi
flavour, with collective anger against the shipping venture in V.O. Chidambaranar
British rule remaining the common thread, opposition to the monopoly of the British in
it was also underpinned by Tamil - pride and navigation through the coast.
consciousness. There was a deep divide in the In 1906, V.O.C. registered a joint stock
Tamilnadu congress between the moderates company called The Swadeshi Steam Navigation
and the extremists. Company (SSNC) with a capital of Rs 10 Lakh,
(a) D evelopment of Vernacular divided into 40,000 shares of Rs. 25 each.
Oratory Shares were open only to Indians, Ceylonese
and other Asian nationals. V.O.C. purchased
Initially, the movement was more of a
two steamships, S.S. Gallia and S.S. Lawoe.
reaction to the partition of Bengal and regular
When in the other parts of India, the response
meetings were held to protest the partition.
to Swadeshi was limited to symbolic gestures
The speakers, in such meetings, spoke mostly
of making candles and bangles, the idea of
in the vernacular language to an audience
forging a Swadeshi Steam Navigation Company
that included students, lawyers, and labourers
was really spectacular. V.O.C invoked the rich
at that time. The shift from English oratory
history of the region and the maritime glory
to vernacular oratory was a significant
of India’s past and used it as a reference point
development of this time, which had a huge
to galvanize the public opinion in favour of a
impact on the mass politics in Tamil Nadu.
Swadeshi venture in the sea.
Swadeshi meetings at the Marina beach in
Madras were a regular sight. The Moore Market The initiative of V.O.C. was lauded by
complex in Madras was another venue utilised the national leaders. Lokmanya Tilak wrote
for such gatherings. During the period (1905- about the success of the Swadeshi Navigation
1907) there are police reports calling students Company in his papers Kesari and Mahratta.
dangerous and their activities as seditious. Aurobindo Ghose also lauded the Swadeshi
Europeans in public places were greeted by efforts and helped to promote the sale of shares

of the company. The major shareholders Tuticorin. Finally, the mill owners decided to
included Pandithurai Thevar and Haji Fakir negotiate with the workers and concede their
Mohamed. demands.
This victory of the workers generated
excitement among the militants in Bengal and
it was hailed by the newspapers in Bengal. For
instance, Aurobindo Ghosh’s Bande Matram
hailed the strike as “forging a bond between
educated class and the masses, which is the
first great step towards swaraj…. Every victory
of Indian labour is a victory for the nation….”
V.O.C. Ship
(d) Subramania Bharati: Poet
The initial response of the British
administration was to ignore the Swadeshi and Nationalist
company. As patronage for Swadeshi Company The growth of
increased, the European officials exhibited newspapers, both in
blatant bias and racial partiality against the English and Tamil
Swadeshi steamship. language, aided the
swadeshi movement
(c) The Coral Mill Strike in Tamil Nadu. G.
After attending the session of the Indian Subramaniam was
National Congress at Surat, V.O.C. on his one of the first among
return decided to work on building a political the leaders to use Subramania Bharati
organisation. While looking for an able orator, newspapers to spread the nationalist message
he came across Subramania Siva, a swadeshi across a larger audience. Subramaniam, along
preacher. From February to March 1907, both with five others, founded The Hindu (in English)
the leaders addressed meetings almost on a and Swadesamitran (which was the first ever
daily basis at the beach in Tuticorin, educating Tamil daily). In 1906 a book was published by
the people about swadeshi and the boycott Subramaniam to condemn the British actions
campaign. The meetings were attended by during the Congress Conference in Barsal.
thousands of people. These public gatherings Swadesamitran extensively reported nationalist
were closely monitored by the administration. activities, particularly the news regarding
In 1908, the abject working and living V.O.C. and his speeches in Tuticorin.
conditions of the Coral Mill workers attracted Subramania Bharati became the sub-
the attention of V.O.C and Siva. In the next editor of Swadesamitran around the time
few days, both the leaders addressed the mill (1904) when Indian nationalism was looking
workers. In March 1908, the workers of the for a fresh direction. Bharati was also editing
Coral Cotton Mills, inspired by the address went Chakravartini, a Tamil monthly devoted to the
on strike. It was one of the earliest organised cause of Indian women.
labour agitations in India. Two events had a significant impact
The strike of the mill workers was fully on Subramania Bharati. A meeting in 1905
backed by the nationalist newspapers. The with Sister Nivedita, an Irish woman and a
mill owners, however, did not budge and was disciple of Vivekananda, whom he referred
supported by the government which had to as Gurumani (teacher), greatly inspired his
decided to suppress the strike. To further nationalist ideals. The churning within the
increase the pressure on the workers, the leaders Congress on the nature of engagement with
were prohibited from holding any meetings in the British rule was also a contributory factor.

As discussed earlier in this lesson, the militants life sentence for his own seditious speech.
ridiculed the mendicancy of the moderates This draconian sentence reveals how seriously
who wanted to follow the constitutional the Tirunelveli agitation was viewed by the
methods. Bharati had little doubt, in his mind, government.
that the British rule had to be challenged with In the aftermath of this incident, the
a fresh approach and methods applied by the repression of the British administration was not
militant nationalists appealed to him more. For limited to the arrest of a few leaders. In fact, people
instance, his fascination with Tilak grew after who had actively participated in the protest were
the Surat session of the Congress in 1907. He also punished and a punitive tax was imposed on
translated into Tamil Tilak’s Tenets of the New the people of Tirunelveli and Tuticorin.
Party and a booklet on the Madras militants’
trip to the Surat Congress in 1907. Bharati Excerpts from the Judgment in the
edited a Tamil weekly India, which became the case of King Emperor versus V.O.C. and
voice of the radicals. Subramania Siva (4 November 1908).“It
(e) Arrest and imprisonment seems to me that sedition at any time is a
of V.O.C. and Subramania most serious offense. It is true that the case is
the first of its kind in the Presidency, but the
Siva
present condition of other Presidencies where
On March 9, 1907, the crime seems to have secured a foothold
Bipin Chandra Pal was
would seem to indicate that light sentences
released from prison
of imprisonment of a few months or maybe
after serving a six-
a year or two are instances of misplaced
month jail sentence.
leniency. ...The first object of a sentence is
The swadeshi leaders
that it shall be deterrent not to the criminal
in Tamil Nadu planned
alone but to others who feel any inclination to
to celebrate the day of
Subramania Siva follow his example. Here we have to deal with
his release as ‘Swarajya
a campaign of sedition which nearly ended in
Day’ in Tirunelveli. The local administration
revolt. The accused are morally responsible
refused permission. V.O.C., Subramania Siva
for all the lives lost in quelling the riots that
and Padmanabha Iyengar defied the ban and
ensured on their arrest”.
went ahead. They were arrested on March 12,
1908, on charges of sedition.
The local public, angered over the arrest (f) Ashe Murder
of the prominent swadeshi leaders, reacted Repression of the Swadeshi efforts in
violently. Shops were closed in a general show Tuticorin and the subsequent arrest and
of defiance. The municipality building and the humiliation of the swadeshi leaders generated
police station in Tirunelveli were set on fire. anger among the youth. A plan was hatched to
More importantly, the mill workers came out in avenge the Tirunelveli event. A sustained
large numbers to protest the arrest of swadeshi campaign in the newspapers about the repressive
leaders. After a few incidents of confrontation measures of the British administration also
with the protesting crowd, the police open fired, played a decisive role in building people’s anger
and four people were killed. against the administration.
On 7 July 1908, V.O.C. and Subramania In June 1911, the collector of Tirunelveli,
Siva were found guilty and imprisoned on Robert Ashe, was shot dead at Maniyachi
charges of sedition. Siva was awarded a sentence Railway station by Vanchinathan. Born in the
of 10 years of transportation for his seditious Travancore state in 1880, he was employed as a
speech whereas V.O.C. got a life term (20 years) forest guard at Punalur in the then Travancore
for abetting him. V.O.C. was given another

state. He was one of Besides building new techniques of
the members of a political propaganda, the movement also
radical group called gave impetus to carry on a sustained
Bharata Mata resistance even in the Gandhian phase of
Association. The aim freedom movement.
of the association was It was also a communication revolution
to kill the European as the Swadeshi movement resulted in a
officers and inspire shift from English to swadeshi language
Vanchinathan
Indians to revolt, (regional language) as the medium of
which they believed would eventually lead to political propaganda.
Swaraj. Vanchinathan was trained in the use of
a revolver, as part of the mission, by V.V. The swadeshi movement also led to
Subramanianar in Pondicherry. the emergence of youth who remained
fascinated by the idea of taking to violence.
After shooting
Ashe at the The swadeshi atmosphere richly
Maniyachi Junction, contributed to an interest in history,
Vanchinathan shot literature, and poetry on patriotism and
himself with the nationalism in vernacular languages.
same pistol. A letter The militants, however, failed to connect
was found in his the nationalist slogans with larger
pocket which helps economic grievances and the mass contact
to understand the programmes, as the British unleashed
strands of inspiration violence against the nationalists.
V.V. Subramanianar
for the revolutionaries
like Vanchinathan. The use of religion and religious symbols
to mobilize the Hindus alienated Muslims.
The aftermath of the
Assassination
During the course of the trial, the British
government was able to establish that V.V.S
and other political exiles in Pondicherry were EXERCISE
in close and active association with the accused Q.R.Code
in the Ashe murder conspiracy. The colonial I. C
hoose the correct
administration grew more suspicious with the answer
Pondicherry groups and their activities. Such 1. In the Surat session of the
an atmosphere further scuttled the possibility Congress, whose name was proposed by
of nationalistic propaganda and their activities militant nationalists for the next Congress
in Tamil Nadu. As a fall-out of the repressive Presidency?
measure taken by the colonial government, the A. Aurobindo Ghose
nationalist movement in Tamil Nadu entered a
B. Dadabhai Naoroji
period of lull and some sort of revival happened
only with the Home Rule Movement in 1916. C. Pherozesha Mehta
D. Lala Lajpat Rai
Summary 2. Consider the following statements
The swadeshi campaigns in the wake of (i) The partition of Bengal in 1905 was the
partition of Bengal are watershed moments most striking example of the British
in the history of anti-colonial struggles. divide and rule policy.

(ii)
In the Calcutta meeting 1905, (c)
Jatindernath Banerjee and Barindar
Surendranath Banerjea gave a call for the Kumar Ghose
boycott of British goods and institutions. (d) Khudiram Bose and Prafulla Chaki
(iii) On 7 August 1905 at Town Hall meeting 6. A
ssertion (A): 16 October 1905 was declared
a formal proclamation of Swadeshi as a day of mourning.
Movement was made.
Reason (R): That day Bengal was officially
Which of the statements given above is/are
divided into two provinces.
correct?
(a) (i) only (b) (i) and (iii) only (a) A and R are true and R is the correct
explanation of A.
(c) (i) and (ii) only (d) All of the above.
(b) A and R are true and R is not the correct
3. Match List I and List II and select answer
explanation of A.
with the help of the codes given below.
(c) A is correct and R is wrong.
List I List II
(d) A is wrong and R is correct.
A. I ndian Press
Act 1910 - 1. Self-rule 7. A
ssertion (A): V.O. Chidambaram established a
B. Dawn Society - 2. a revolt against Swadeshi Steam Navigation Company.
their state of Reason (R): He wanted to oppose the
dependence monopoly of the British in navigation
C. Swaraj - 3. crushed the through the coast
nationalistic (a) A and R are true and R is the correct
activities explanation of A
D. Swadeshi - 4. The National
(b) A and R are true and R is not the correct
Council of
explanation of A
education
(c) A is correct and R is wrong
Codes
(d) A is wrong and R is correct
A B C D
(a) 3 1 4 2 8. Which of the following statement is not true
(b) 1 2 3 4 about Subramania Bharati?
(c) 3 4 1 2 (a)
Bharati was the sub–editor of
(d) 1 2 4 3 Swadesamitran
4.
Which one of the following is correctly (b) He translated Tilak’s Tenets of the New
paired? Party into Tamil
(a) B
ankim Chandra (c)
Bharati’s Gurumani was Swami
Chatterjee - Anandmath Vivekananda
(b) G. Subramaniam - Dawn Society (d) He was editor of a woman’s magazine by
name Chakravartini
(c) Lord Minto - The University
Act of 1904
II Write brief answers
(d) Epicentre of
1. What was called the mendicant policy of the
militant nationalism - Madras
Moderates?
5. Anushilan Samity of Calcutta was founded by
2. How did M.G. Ranade explain the idea of
(a) Pulin Behari Das Swadeshi?
(b) Hemachandra Kanungo 3.
Identify the leaders of the epicenters of
militant nationalism in British India

4. Why was militant nationalism was on the IV. Answer the following in detail
decline by 1908?. 1.
Evaluate the contributions of Lal-Bal-Pal
5. What were the repressive measures adopted triumvirate to Indian National Movement.
by the colonial government to crush the 2. Attempt an account of Swadshi movement in
nationalist movements? Tamilnadu
III. Write short answer V. Activity

1. Give an account of the proceedings of Surat 1. Conduct a discourse on the vision of Poet
session that ended in the split of the Congress. Subramaia Bharati.
2. Explain the reasons for the spurt in individual 2
The Tamil movie Kappalotiya Tamilan be
acts of violence during the Swadeshi arranged to be screened.
movement.
3. Highlight the methods used by samitis for
REFERENCES
mass mobilization.
4. What do you know of Coral Mill Strike of 1. Bipan Chandra, etal. India’s Struggle for
1908? Independence, Penguin Books, New Delhi,
5. Outline the essence of the Alipore Bomb 2016.
Case. 2. Sumit Sarkar, Modern India 1885-1947,
6. What was the outcome of the plan of the Pearson, New Delhi, 2018.
Swadeshi leaders to celebrate the release of 3. Sekhar Bandopadhyay, From Plassey to
Bipin Chandra Pal from prison as Swarajya Partition and After: A History of Modern
Day in Tirunelveli? India, Orient BlackSwan, Hyderabad, 2009.
7. W rite about the swadeshi venture of V.O. C. 4. A.R. Venkatachalapathy, 'In Search of Ashe,
8. Why was Collector Ashe killed by 'Ecnomic & Political Weekly, 9 Janauary 2009.
Vanchinathan.
GLOSSARY
difference of opinion or disagreement
factionalism between two groups within a political உட்கட்சி பூசல்
organization.
highly educated or the intellectual
intelligentsia
elite of a society அறிவு ஜீவிகள் / கற்றறிந்ேதார்
annulment invalidation, nullification நீக்கம், ஒழிப்பு, ரத்து செய்தல்
Swadeshi made in one’s own country தனது நாட்டில் உற்பத்தி செய்த

பெருள்
refusal to take part in an activity or to
Boycott
buy a foreign product புறக்கணிப்பு
a group of three persons dominating
triumvirate
or holding control மும்மூர்த்திகள்
Inciting people to rebel against the
seditious
authority of a state அரசுக்கு எதிராக / ஆட்சி எதிர்ப்பு
punitive tax a tax intended as punishment தண்டனை வரி

ICT CORNER
Rise of Extremism and Swadeshi Movement
Through this activity you will

know about the historical and
Political Maps of India
Step - 1 Open the Browser and type the URL given below (or) Scan the QR Code.
Step - 2 Click on ‘World History’ and Select ‘India’ in menu
Step - 3 Click the topics one by one and explore the maps (Ex.1903)
Step1 Step2 Step3
Web URL: https://www.euratlas.net/history/index.html
*Pictures are indicative only

*If browser requires, allow Flash Player or Java Script to load the page

UNIT Impact of World War I on
3 Indian Freedom Movement
Learning Objectives
To acquire knowledge in
The conditions created by World War I: Moderates and Militants putting up
a united struggle against the British through the Home Rule Leagues of Tilak
and Annie Besant.
Repressive Measures of the British: Enactment of Defence of India Act.
Lucknow Pact facilitating Hindu-Muslim unity.
Jallianwalah Bagh Massacre and Hindu-Muslim solidarity in Khilafat Movement.
The impact of World War I and Russian Revolution on the Indian Labour Movement
Introduction The nationalist politics was in low key,

since the Indian National Congress had split
Several events that preceded the First into moderates and extremists, while the
World War had a bearing on Indian nationalist Muslim league supported British interests in
politics. In 1905 Japan had defeated Russia. In war. In 1916 “the extremists” led by Tilak had
1908 the Young Turks and in 1911 the Chinese gained control of Congress. This led to the rise
nationalists, using Western methods and ideas, of Home Rule Movement in India under the
had overthrown their governments. Along with leadership of Dr Annie Besant in South India
the First World War these events provide the and Tilak in Western India. The Congress was
background to Indian nationalism during 1916 reunited during the war. The strength of Indian
and 1920. nationalism was increased by the agreement
Europe was the main theatre of the War, signed between Hindus and Muslims, known as
though fighting took place in others parts of the Lucknow Pact, in 1916.
the world as well. The British recruited a vast During the War, western revolutionary
contingent of Indians to serve in Europe, Africa ideas were influencing the radical nationalists
and West Asia. After the War, the soldiers came and so the British tried to suppress the national
back with new ideas which had an impact on the movement by passing repressive acts. Of all
Indian society. India had to cough up around the repressive acts, the most draconic was the
£ 367 million, of which £ 229 million as direct Rowlatt Act. This act was strongly criticized by
cash and the rest through loans to offset the the Indian leaders and they organised meetings
war expenses. India also sent war materials to to protest against the act. The international
the value £ 250 million. This caused enormous events too had its impact on India, such as
economic distress, triggering discontent the revolution in Russia. The defeat of Turkey
amongst Indians.
31

in World War I and the severe terms of the headquarters, Adyar in Chennai, and gained the
Treaty of Sevres signed thereafter undermined support of a number of educated followers such
the position of Sultan of Turkey as Khalifa. as Jamnadas Dwarkadas, George Arundale,
Out of the resentment was born the Khilafat Shankerlal Banker, Indulal Yagnik, C.P.
Movement. Ramaswamy and B.P. Wadia.
India and Indians had taken an active part In 1914 was when Britain announced its
in the War believing that Britain would reward entry in First World War, it was claimed that
India's loyalty. But only disappointment was it fighting for freedom and democracy. Indian
in store. Thus the War had multiple effects on leaders believed and supported the British
Indian society, economy and polity. In this war efforts. Soon they were disillusioned as
lesson we discuss the role played by Home there was no change in the British attitude
Rule League, factors leading to the signing towards India. Moreover, split into moderate
of Lucknow Pact and its provisions, the and extremist wings, the Indian National
repressive measures of the British culminating Congress was not strong enough to press for
in Jallianwala Bagh Massacre, the Khilafat further political reforms towards self-rule. The
Movement and the rise of an organized labour Muslim League was looked upon suspiciously
movement. by the British once the Sultan of Turkey entered
the War supporting the Central powers.
3.1 All India Home Rule It was in this backdrop that Besant entered
into Indian Politics. She started a weekly The
League Commonweal in 1914. The weekly focussed
We may recall on religious liberty, national education, social
that many foreigners and political reforms. She published a book
such as A.O. Hume How India Wrought for Freedom in 1915. In
had played a pivotal this book she asserted that the beginnings of
role in our freedom national consciousness are deeply embedded in
movement in the its ancient past.
early stages. Dr Annie She gave the call, 'The moment of England's
Besant played a similar difficulty is the moment of India's opportunity'
Annie Besant
role in the early part of and wanted Indian leaders to press for reforms.
the twentieth century. She toured England and made many speeches
Besant was Irish by in the cause of India's freedom. She also tried
birth and had been to form an Indian party in the Parliament but
active in the Irish home was unsuccessful. Her visit, however, aroused
rule, fabian socialist sympathy for India. On her return, she started
and birth control a daily newspaper New India on July 14, 1915.
movements while in She revealed her concept of self-rule in a speech
Britain. She joined George Arundale at Bombay: “I mean by self-government that the
the Theosophical country shall have a government by councils,
Society, and came to India in 1893. She founded elected by the people, and responsible to the
the Central Hindu College in Benaras (later House”. She organized public meetings and
upgraded as Benaras Hindu University by conferences to spread the idea and demanded
Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya in 1916). that India be granted self-government on the
With the death of H. S. Olcott in 1907, Besant lines of the White colonies after the War.
succeeded him as the international president On September 28, 1915, Besant made a
of the Theosophical Society. She was actively formal declaration that she would start the
spreading the theosophical ideas from its Home Rule League Movement for India with
Impact of World War I on Indian Freedom Movement 32

objectives on the lines of the Irish Home Rule
League. The moderates did not like the idea of Home Rule: It refers to a self-government
establishing another separate organisation. She granted by a central or regional government
too realised that the sanction of the Congress to its dependent political units on condition
party was necessary for her movement to be that their people should remain politically
successful. loyal to it. This was a common feature in
the ancient Roman Empire and the modern
In December 1915 due to the efforts
British Empire. In Ireland the Home Rule
of Tilak and Besant, the Bombay session of
Movement gathered force in the 1880s and
Congress suitably altered the constitution of the
a system of Home Rule was established by
Congress party to admit the members from the
the Government of Ireland Act (1920) in six
extremist section. In the session she insisted on
counties of Northern Ireland and later by the
the Congress taking up the Home Rule League
Anglo-Irish Treaty (1921) in the remaining
programme before September 1916, failing
26 counties in the south.
which she would organize the Home Rule
League on her own.
In 1916, two Home Rule Movements were (b) Besant's Home Rule League
launched in the country: one under Tilak and Finding no signs from the Congress, Besant
the other under Besant with their spheres of herself inaugurated the Home Rule League at
activity well demarcated. The twin objectives of Madras in September 1916. Its branches were
the Home Rule League were the establishment established at Kanpur, Allahabad, Benaras,
of Home Rule for India in British Empire and Mathura, Calicut and Ahmednagar. She made an
arousing in the Indian masses a sense of pride extensive tour and spread the idea of Home Rule.
for the Motherland. She declared that "the price of India's loyalty
is India's Freedom". Moderate congressmen
(a) Tilak Home Rule League who were dissatisfied with the inactivity of the
Tilak Home Rule League was set up at Congress joined the Home Rule League. The
the Bombay Provincial conference held at popularity of the League can be gauged from
Belgaum in April 1916. It League was to work the fact that Jawaharlal Nehru, Muhammad Ali
in Maharashtra (including Bombay city), Jinnah, B. Chakravarti and Jitendralal Banerji,
Karnataka, the Central Provinces and Berar. Satyamurti and Khaliquzzaman were taking up
Tilak's League was organised into six branches the membership of the League.
and Annie Besant's League was given the rest of As Besant’s Home Rule Movement became
India. very popular in Madras, the Government
Tilak popularised the demand for Home of Madras decided to suppress it. Students
Rule through his lectures. The popularity of were barred from attending its meetings.
his League was confined to Maharashtra and In June 1917 Besant and her associates, B.P.
Karnataka but claimed a membership of 14,000 Wadia and George Arundale were interred in
in April 1917 and 32,000 by early 1918. On 23 Ootacamund. The government’s repression
July 1916 on his 60th birthday Tilak was arrested strengthened the supporters, and with
for propagating the idea of Home Rule. renewed determination they began to resist.
To support Besant, Sir S. Subramaniam
renounced his knighthood. Many leaders like
Madan Mohan Malaviya, and Surendranath
Banerjea who had earlier stayed away from
the movement enlisted themselves. At the
AICC meeting convened on 28 July 1917 Tilak
advocated the use of civil disobedience if they
33 Impact of World War I on Indian Freedom Movement

were not released. Jamnadas Dwarkadas and
Shankerlal Banker, on the orders of Gandhi, The Indian Home Rule League was
collected one thousand signatures willing renamed the Commonwealth of India League
to defy the interment orders and march and used to lobby British MPs in support
to Besant’s place of detention. Due to the of self-government for India within the
growing resistance the interned nationalists empire, or dominion status along the lines of
were released. Canada and Australia. It was transformed by
V.K. Krishna Menon into the India League in
On 20 August 1917 the new Secretary of
1929.
State Montagu announced that 'self-governing
institutions and responsible government' was
the goal of the British rule in India. Almost 3.2 Impact of the War
overnight this statement converted Besant During the years
into a near-loyalist. In September 1917, when prior to First World
she was released, she was elected the President War the political
of Calcutta session of the Indian National condition of the India
Congress in 1917. was in disarray. In
order to win over the
(c) Importance of the Home Rule “Moderates” and the
Movement Muslim League with a
view to isolating the Minto
The Home Rule Leagues prepared the
ground for mass mobilization paving the “Extremists” the British passed the Minto–
way for the launch of Gandhi’s satyagraha Morley Reforms in 1909. The Moderates
movements. Many of the early Gandhian observed a policy of wait and watch. The Muslim
satyagrahis had been members of the Home League welcomed the separate electorate
Rule Leagues. They used the organisational accorded to them. In 1913 a new group of
networks created by the Leagues to spread the leaders joined the League. The most prominent
Gandhian method of agitation. Home Rule among them was Muhammad Ali Jinnah who
League was the first Indian political movement was already a member of the Congress and
to cut across sectarian lines and have members demanded more reforms for the Muslims.
from the Congress, League, Theosophist and The First World War provided the objective
the Laborites. conditions for the revolutionary activity in
India. The revolutionaries wanted to make use
(d) Decline of Home Rule of Britain's difficulty during the War to their
Movement advantage. The Ghadar Movement was one of
Home Rule Movement declined after its outcomes.
Besant accepted the proposed Montagu– The First World
Chelmsford Reforms and Tilak went to Britain War had a major
in September 1918 to pursue the libel case that impact on the
he had filed against Valentine Chirol, the author freedom movement.
of Indian Unrest. Initially, the British
didn't care for Indian
support. Once the war
theatre moved to West
Morley Asia and Africa the
British were forced to
look for Indian support. In this context Indian

Parallel to this, Tilak and Besant were
Lala Hardayal, advocating Home Rule. Due to their efforts
who settled in the Bombay session accepted to take back
San Francisco, the extremist section and, consequently, the
founded Pacific constitution of the Congress was altered. 1916
Coast Hindustan was therefore a historic year since the Congress,
Association in Muslim League and the Home Rule League
1913, with Sohan held their annual sessions at Lucknow. Ambika
Singh Bhakna as Charan Mazumdar, Congress president
its president. This Lala Hardayal
welcomed the extremists: "… after ten years
organization was popularly called Ghadar of painful separation … Indian National Party
Party. (‘Ghadar’ means rebellion in Urdu.) have come to realize the fact that united they
The members of this party were largely stand, but divided they fall, and brothers have
immigrant Sikhs of US and Canada. The at last met brothers..." The Congress got its old
party published a journal called Ghadar. It vigour with extremists back into it.
began publication from San Francisco on
Besant and Tilak also played an important
November 1, 1913. Later it was published in
role in bringing the Congress and the Muslim
Urdu, Punjabi, Hindi and other languages.
League together under what is popularly known
The Ghadar Movement was an important as the Congress–League Pact or the Lucknow
episode in India’s freedom struggle. A ship Pact. Jinnah played a pivotal role during the Pact.
named Komagatamaru, filled with Indian The agreements accepted at Calcutta in November
immigrants was turned back from Canada. 1916 were confirmed by the annual sessions of
As the ship returned to India several of the Congress and the League in December 1916.
its passengers were killed or arrested in a
clash with the British police. This incident 3.3 Provisions of the
left a deep mark on the Indian nationalist
Lucknow Pact
movement.
i) Provinces should be freed as much as possible
leaders decided to put pressure on the British from Central control in administration and
Government for reforms. The Congress and finance.
Muslim League had their annual session at ii)
Four-fifths of the Central and Provincial
Bombay in 1915 and spoke on similar tones. In Legislative Councils should be elected, and
October 1916, the Hindu and Muslim elected one-fifth nominated.
members of the Imperial Legislative Council iii) Four-fifths of the provincial and central
addressed a memorandum to the Viceroy on the legislatures were to be elected on as broad a
post-War reforms. The British Government was franchise as possible.
unmoved. The Congress and the League met iv) Half the executive council members,
at Calcutta in November 1916 and deliberated including those of the central executive
on the memorandum. council were to be Indians elected by the
It also agreed on councils themselves.
the composition v) The Congress also agreed to separate
of the legislatures electorates for Muslims in provincial
and the number of council elections and for preferences in their
representation to be favour (beyond the proportions indicated
allowed to the two by population) in all provinces except the
communities in the Punjab and Bengal, where some ground
post-War reforms. A.C. Mazumdar was given to the Hindu and Sikh minorities.

This pact paved the way for Hindu–Muslim In order to crush the growing nationalist
cooperation in the Khilafat Movement and movement, the government adopted many
Gandhi’s Non–Cooperation Movement. measures. Lord Curzon created the Criminal
vi) The Governments, Central and Provincial, Intelligence Department (CID) in 1903 to
should be bound to act in accordance with secretly collect information on the activities
resolutions passed by their Legislative of nationalists. The Newspapers (Incitement
Councils unless they were vetoed by the to Offences) Act (1908) and the Explosives
Governor-General or Governors–in– Substances Act (1908), and shortly thereafter the
Council and, in that event, if the resolution Indian Press Act (1910), and the Prevention of
was passed again after an interval of not less Seditious Meetings Act (1911) were passed. The
than one year, it should be put into effect; British suspected that some Indian nationalists
vii) The relations of the Secretary of State with were in contact with revolutionaries abroad. So
the Government of India should be similar the Foreigners Ordinance was promulgated in
to those of the Colonial Secretary with the 1914 which restricted the entry of foreigners.
Governments of the Dominions, and India A majority of these legislations were passed in
should have an equal status with that of the order to break the base of the revolutionary
Dominions in any body concerned with movements. The colonial state also resorted
imperial affairs. to banning meetings, printing and circulation
The Lucknow Pact paved the way for of seditious materials for propaganda, and by
Hindu Muslim Unity. Sarojini Ammaiyar called detaining the suspects.
Jinnah, the chief architect of the Lucknow Pact,
“the Ambassador of Hindu–Muslim Unity”.
The Lucknow Pact proved that the educated 3.5 The Defence of India
class both from the Congress and the League Act, 1915
could work together with a common goal. This
unity reached its climax during the Khilafat and Also referred to as the Defence of India
the Non-Cooperation Movements. Regulations Act, it was an emergency criminal
law enacted with the intention of curtailing the
3.4 Repressive Measures nationalist and revolutionary activities during
the First World War. The Act allowed suspects
of the Colonial State
to be tried by special tribunals each consisting
Parallel to the Congress of three Commissioners appointed by the Local
there emerged revolutionary Government. The act empowered the tribunal
groups who attempted to to inflict sentences of death, transportation for
overthrow away the British life, and imprisonment of up to ten years for
government through the violation of rules or orders framed under
violence methods. The the act. The trail was to be in camera and the
revolutionary movements decisions were not subject to appeal. The
constituted an important landmark in India's act was later applied during the First Lahore
freedom struggle. It began in the end of the Conspiracy trial. This Act, after the end of First
nineteenth century and gained its momentum World War, formed the basis of the Rowlatt Act.
from the time of the partition of Bengal.
The revolutionaries were the first to demand
complete freedom. Maharashtra, Bengal, Punjab 3.6 Khilafat Movement
were the major centers of revolutionary activity. In the First World War the Sultan of
For a brief while Madras presidency was also an Turkey sided with the Triple Alliance against
active ground of the revolutionary activity. the allied powers and attacked Russia. The

Sultan was also the Caliph and was the 3. The Sultan must be left with sufficient territory
custodian of the Islamic sacred places. After to enable him to defend the Islamic faith and
the war, Britain decided to weaken the position 4. The Jazirat-ul-Arab (Arabia, Syria, Iraq,
of Turkey and the Treaty of Sevres was signed. Palestine) must remain under his sovereignty.
The eastern part of the Turkish Empire such as
Syria and Lebanon were mandated to France, Gandhi had been honoured with Kaisari-
while Palestine and Jordan became British Hind gold medal for his humanitarian work
protectorates. Thus the allied powers decided in South Africa. He had also received the
to end the caliphate. Zulu War silver medal for his services as an
officer of the Indian volunteer ambulance
corps in 1906 and Boer War silver medal for
his services as assistant superintendent of
the Indian volunteer stretcher-bearer corps
during Boer War of 1899–1900. When Gandhi
launched the scheme of non-cooperation
in connection with Khilafat Movement, he
returned all the medals saying, ‘…events that
have happened during the past one month
have confirmed in me the opinion that the
Imperial Government have acted in the
Khilafat matter in an unscrupulous, criminal
and unjust manner and have been moving
Khilafat Movement from wrong to wrong in order to defend their
The dismemberment of the Caliphate was immorality. I can retain neither respect nor
seen as a blow to Islam. Muslims around the affection for such a government.’
world, sympathetic to the cause of the Caliph,
decided to oppose the move. Muslims in India The demands of the movement had nothing
also organised themselves under the leadership do to with India but the question of Caliph
of the Ali brothers – Maulana Muhammad Ali was used as a symbol by the Khilafat leaders
and Maulana Shaukat Ali started a movement to unite the Indian Muslim community who
known as Khalifat Movement. The aim was to were divided along regional, linguistic, class
the support the Ottoman Empire and protest and sectarian lines. In Gail Minault's words:
against the British rule in India. Numerous "A pan-Islamic symbol opened the way to pan-
Muslim leaders such as Maulana Abul Kalam Indian Islamic political mobilization." It was
Azad, M.A. Ansari, Sheikh Shaukat Ali Siddiqui anti-British, which inspired Gandhi to support
and Syed Ataullah Shah Bukhari joined the this cause in a bid to bring the Muslims into
movement. the mainstream of Indian nationalism. Gandhi
also saw this as an opportunity to strengthen
The demands of the Khilafat Movement Hindu–Muslim unity.
were presented by Mohammad Ali to the The Khilafat issue was interpreted
diplomats in Paris in March 1920. They were: differently by different sections. Lower-class
1.
The Sultan of Turkey's position of Caliph Muslims in U.P. interpreted the Urdu word
should not be disturbed. khilaf (against) and used it as a symbol of general
revolt against authority, while the Mappillais
2. The Muslim sacred places must be handed
of Malabar converted it into a banner of anti-
over to the Sultan and should be controlled
landlord revolt.
by him.

A wave of ideas of
class consciousness
and enlightenment
swept the world
of Indian labours.
The Indian soldiers
who had fought in
Europe brought the
Sasipada Banerjee
news of good labour
conditions. The industrial unrest that grew
up as a result of grave economic difficulties
created by War, and the widening gulf
Mappilla Uprising in Malabar between the employers and the employees,
and the establishment of International Labour
3.7 Rise of Labour Organisation of the League of Nations brought
Movement mass awakening among the labours.
Madras played a pivotal role in the
Introduction
history of labour movement of India. The first
of machinery, new
trade union in the modern sense, the Madras
methods of production,
concentration of Labour Union, was formed in 1918 by B.P.
factories in certain Wadia. The union was formed mainly due
big cities gave birth to the ill-treatment of Indian worker in the
to a new class of wage Buckingham and Carnatic Mills, Perambur.
earners called factory The working conditions was poor. Short
N.M. Lokhanday interval for mid-day meal, frequent assaults
workers. In India, the
factory workers, mostly drawn from villages, on workers by the European assistants and
initially remained submissive and unorganised. inadequate wages led to the formation of
Many leaders like Sorabjee Shapoorji and N.M. this union. This union adopted collective
Lokhanday of Bombay and Sasipada Banerjee bargaining and used trade unionism as a
of Bengal raised their voice for protecting the weapon for class struggle.
interests of the industrial labourers. This wave spread to other parts of India
In the aftermath of Swadeshi Movement and many unions were formed at this time such
(1905) Indian industries began to thrive. as the Indian Seamen’s Union both at Calcutta
During the War the British encouraged Indian and Bombay, the Punjab Press Employers
industries which manufactured war time goods. Association, the G.I.P. Railway Workers Union
As the war progressed they wanted more goods Bombay, M.S.M. Railwaymen’s Union, Union of
so more workers were recruited. Once the war the Postmen and Port Trust Employees Union at
ended workers were laid off and production cut Bombay and Calcutta, the Jamshedpur Labour
down. Further prices increased dramatically in Association the Indian Colliery Employees
the post-War situation. India was also in the Association of Jharia and the Unions of
grip of a world-wide epidemic of influenza. In employees of various railways. To suppress the
response labourers began to organize to fight labour movement the Government, with the
and trade unions were formed to protect the help of the capitalists, tried by all means to
interests of the workers. subdue the labourers. They imprisoned strikers,
The success of the Bolshevik Revolution burnt their houses, and fined the unions, but the
of 1917 also had its effect on Indian labour. labourers were determined in their demands.

Nationalist leaders and intellectuals were Summary
moved by the plight of the workers, and many
of them worked towards organizing them The events that took place in the first two
into unions. Their involvement also led to the decades of the twentieth century including
politicization of the working class, and added to the outbreak of the First World War had a
the strength of the freedom movement as most major impact on Indian nationalist politics.
of the mills were owned by Europeans who were The political vacuum created as a result
supported by the government. of the split in the Congress paved the way
On 30 October 1920, representatives for the rise of Home Rule League by Annie
of 64 trade unions, with a membership of Besant.
140,854, met in Bombay and established the The Home Rule Movement of both Tilak
All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC) and Besant demanded self-governing
under the Chairmanship of Lala Lajpat Rai. It status for India.
was supported by national leaders like Motilal The War provided an opportunity for the
Nehru, Jawaharlal Nehru, C.R. Das, Vallabhbhai Congress and the Muslim League to come
Patel, Subhash Chandra Bose and others from together and sign the famous Lucknow
the Indian National Congress. Pact, resulting in Hindu–Muslim unity.
The trade unions slowly involved During the War the British passed many
themselves in the national movement. In repressive acts aimed at curbing any
April 1919 after the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre activity towards India’s freedom from the
and Gandhi’s arrest, the working class in British rule.
Ahmedabad and other parts of Gujarat resorted
While the crushing defeat of Turkey and
to strikes, agitations and demonstrations. Trade
the humiliating peace treaty imposed on
unions were not recognised by the capitalists
it led to Khilafat Movement, the Russian
or the government in the beginning. But the
Revolution paved the way for the rise of
unity of the workers and the strength of their
Trade Union Movement in India.
movement forced the both to recognise them.
From 1919–20 the number of registered trade The First World War indirectly prepared
unions increased from 107 to 1833 in 1946–47. the ground for the launch of new form of
protest under the leadership of Gandhi.
2. Which of the following about Annie Besant

EXERCISE are correct?
1. Annie Besant was elected the international
I. C
hoose the president of the Theosophical Society, after
correct answer. Col. H.S. Olcott.
1. The Home Rule Movement in south India 2. She started a weekly The Commonweal in
was started by 1914.
(a) Tilak (b) Annie Besant 3. She published a book How India Wrought
for Freedom in 1915.
(c) B.P. Wadia (d) Col. H.S. Olcott
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
(c) 1 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3

3 A
ssertion: Sarojini Ammaiyar called Jinnah II. Write brief answers
‘the Ambassador of Hindu-Muslim Unity’. 1. What were the repressive measures adopted
Reason: Jinnah was the chief architect of the by colonial government to crush the growing
Lucknow pact. nationalist movement during 1903-1914?
(a) A is correct R does not explain A. 2. What was the background for the launch of
(b) A is correct and R explanations A. the Khilafat movement?
(c) A is wrong and R is correct. 3.
Name the book and weekly published by
Annie Besant.
(d) Both A and R are wrong
4. Describe the Defence of India Act, 1915.
4. Who founded the Banaras Hindu University?
(a) Mahatma Gandhi III. Write short answer
(b) Madan Mohan Malaviya 1. Discuss the twin objectives of the Home Rule
League?
(c) Tilak
2. Why is Ghadar Movement considered an
(d) B.P. Wadia
important episode in India’s freedom struggle.
5. Th
e Lucknow session of 1916 is noted for
3.
What were the demands of the Khilafat
(a) Resurgence of Muslim League Movement presented to the Paris peace
(b)
Temporary merger of Muslims League conference held in March 1920?
into Congress 4. What was the impact and significance of the
(c) Congress’ acceptance of League’s demand Madras Labour Union?
for separate electorates for Muslims
(d) Jinnah’s negative role in the joint-session IV. Answer the following in detail
of the League and the Congress 1.
Highlight the important provisions of
6. Match the following with the help of codes Lucknow Pact.
given below 2. Narrate the work done by two Home Rule
(A) Ghadar Party - (i) 1916 Movements one under Tilak and another
under Annie Besant.
(B) New India - (ii) 1913
3. Discuss the causes and the tragic outcome of
(C) Home Rule - (iii) 1909
outbreak of Mappillai revolts in Malabar.
(D) Minto-Morley Reforms - (iv) 1915
V. Activity
(a) ii, iv, i, iii b) iv, i, ii, iii
1. Debate why unions are important in today's
(c) i, iv, iii, ii d) ii, iii, iv, i
society to be organised in classes
e author of the book Indian Unrest was
7. Th
2. The major association and unions be
(a) Lala Lajpat Rai (b) Valentine Chirol identified and their activits recorded
(c) Tilak (d) Annie Besant through group projects.
8. Th
e Ghadar Party was started by
(a) Lala Lajpat Rai (b) A.C. Mazumdar REFERENCES
(c) Lala Hardayal (d) Sankarlal Banker 1. Bipan Chandra, India's Struggle for
9. Who was the president of the first All-India Independence, Penguin, 2016.
Trade Union Congress? 2. Sumit Sarkar, Modern India: 1885–1947,
(a) B.P. Wadia (b) Jawaharlal Nehru Pearson, 2014.
(c) Lala Lajpat Rai (d) C.R. Das

3. Sekar Bandyopadhyay, From Plassey to INTERNET RESOURCES
Partition and After: A History of Modern
India, Orient BlackSwan, 2014.
www.brittanica.com
4. Jaswant Singh, Jinnah: India, Partition,
Independence. Rupa, 2009.
5. Ramachandra Guha, Gandhi: The Years that
Changed the World, 1914–1948, Penguin,
2018.
GLOSSARY
draconic very harsh and severe கடுமையான, க�ொடுமையான
a group of police or military

contingent
personnel காவலர் / ராணுவப் பிரிவு
a secret plan by a group of people to

conspiracy
do something illegal இரகசிய கூட்டம் / சதித்திட்டம்
moderate avoiding extremes மிதவாதி

a person given a rank of honour by
knighthood a British king or queen because of his வீரதிருத்தகைப்பட்டம்
or her special achievement
a person who holds a radical view in
extremist
politics or religion. தீவிரவாதம்
a petition that is presented to a

memorandum person or committee on a particular குறிப்பாணை
issue
a person who arrives to take up
immigrant
permanent residence in a country குடிபுகுபவர்

ICT CORNER
Impact of World War I on Indian Freedom Movement
Through this activity you

will learn about Role of
India in the World War - I
Step - 2 Scroll down, Click on ‘Timeline’
Step - 3 Drag the Time line bar and click to see the events
Step1 Step2 Step3
Web URL: http://indiaww1.in/index.aspx


UNIT Advent of Gandhi and
4 Mass Mobilisation
Learning Objectives
To acquire knowledge of
Champaran movement and Kheda satyagraha
Montague-Chelmsford reforms
The non-Brahmin movement and non-cooperation movement
Jallianwalah Bagh Massacre and Swaraj party and its activities
Simon Commission, The Round Table Conferences
Gandhi - Irwin pact and Ambedker in politics
‘Satya’ and ‘Ahimsa’ i.e, truth and non-violence,

Introduction
to fight the racist South African regime. Even
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was while resisting evil and wrong a Satyagrahi
born in the coastal town of Porbandar in had to be at peace with himself and not hate
1869. When he returned to India in 1915 he the wrongdoer. A Satyagrahi would willingly
had a record of fighting against inequalities accept suffering in the course of resistance, and
imposed by the racist government of South hatred had no place in the exercise. Truth and
Africa. Gandhi certainly wanted to be of nonviolence would be weapons of the brave
help to forces of nationalism in India. He was and fearless and not cowards. For Gandhi there
in touch with leaders India as he had come was no difference between precept and practice,
into contact with Congress leaders while faith and action.
mobilizing support for the South African
Indian cause earlier. Impressed by activities 4.1 Gandhi’s Experiments
and ideas of Gopala Krishna Gokhale, he
of Satyagraha
acknowledged him as his political Guru.
On his return to India, following Gokhale’s (a) Champaran Movement (1917)
advice, Gandhi, who was away from India for
The first attempt at mobilizing the Indian
over two decades, spent a year travelling all
masses was made by Gandhi on an invitation
over the country acquainting himself with
by peasants of Champaran. Before launching
the situation. He established his Sabarmati
the struggle he made a detailed study of the
Ashram at Ahmedabad but did not take active
situation. Indigo cultivators of the district
part in political movements including the
Champaran in Bihar were severely exploited
Home Rule movement.
by the European planters who had bound the
While in South Africa, Gandhi, gradually peasants to compulsorily grow indigo on lease
evolved the technique of ‘Satyagraha,’ based on on 3/20th of their fields and sell it at the rates
43

worker’s strike and Gandhi’s fast ultimately
forced the mill owners’ to concede the demand.
(c) The Kheda Struggle (1918)

The peasants of Kheda district, due to
the failure of monsoon, were in distress. They
had appealed to the colonial authorities for
remission of land revenue during 1918. As per
government’s famine code, in the event of crop
yield being under 25 percent of the average the
cultivators were entitled for total remission.
But the authorities refused and harassed them
Gandhi in Champaran
demanding full payment. The Kheda peasants
fixed by the planters. This system squeezed who were also battling the plague epidemic, high
the peasants and eventually reduced them to prices and famine approached the Servants of
penury. Accompanied by local leaders such India Society, of which Gandhi was a member,
as Rajendra Prasad, Mazharul Huq, Acharya for help. Gandhi, along with Vithalbhai Patel,
Kripalani and Mahadeva Desai, Gandhi intervened on behalf of the poor peasants and
conducted a detailed enquiry. The British advised them to withhold payment and ‘fight
officials ordered Gandhi to leave the district. unto death against such a spirit of vindictiveness
But he refused and told the administration that and tyranny.’ Vallabhbhai Patel, a young lawyer
he would defy the order because it was unjust and Indulal Yagnik joined Gandhi in the
and face the consequences. movement and urged the ryots to be firm. The
Subsequently an enquiry committee government repression included attachment
with Gandhi also as a member was formed. of crops, taking possession of the belongings
It was not difficult for Gandhi to convince of the ryots and their cattle and in some cases
the committee of the difficulties of the auctioning them.
poor peasants. The report was accepted and
implemented resulting in the release of the
indigo cultivators of the bondage of European
planters who gradually had to withdraw from
Champaran itself.
(b) Mill Workers’ Strike and
Gandhi’s Fast at Ahmedabad
(1918)
Thus Gandhi met with his first success in
his homeland. The struggle also enabled him to
closely understand the condition of peasantry.
The next step at mobilizing the masses was
the workers of the urban centre, Ahmedabad.
There was a dispute between the textile Kheda Satyagraha
workers and the mill owners. He met both the The government authorities issued
parties and when the owners refused to accept instructions that revenues shall be collected
the demands of the low paid workers, Gandhi only from those ryots who could afford to pay.
advised them to go on strike demanding a 35 On learning about the same, Gandhi decided to
percent increase in their wages. To bolster the withdraw the struggle.
morale of the workers he went on fast. The
Advent of Gandhi and Mass Mobilisation 44

The three struggles led by Gandhi, Governors. Other subjects such as health,
demonstrated that he had understood where educations and local self-government were
the Indian nation lay. It was the poor peasants ‘transferred’ to elected Indian representatives.
and workers of all classes and castes, who Ministers holding ‘transferred subjects’ were
constituted the pith and marrow of India, whose responsible to the legislatures; but those in-
interests Gandhi espoused in these struggles. charge of ‘reserved’ subjects were not further
He had confronted both the colonialist and the Governor of the province could overrule
Indian exploiters and by entering into dialogue the ministers under ‘special (veto) powers,’
with them, he had demonstrated that he was a thus making a mockery of the entire scheme.
leader who could mobilize the oppressed and The part dealing with central legislature in
at the same time negotiate with the oppressors. the act created two houses of legislature (bi-
These virtues made him the man of the masses cameral).
and soon he was hailed as the Mahatma. The Central Legislative Assembly was to
have 41 nominated members, out of a total of
Servants of India Society was founded 144. The Upper House known as the Council of
by Gopal Krishna Gokhale in 1905 to unite States was to have 60 members, of whom 26 were
and train Indians of different castes, regions to be nominated. Both the houses had no control
and religions in welfare work. It was the first over the Governor General and his Executive
secular organization in the country to devote Council. But the Central Government had full
itself to the betterment of underprivileged, control over the provincial governments. As
rural and tribal people. The members involved a result, power was concentrated in the hands
themselves in relief work, the promotion of of the European / English authorities. Right to
literacy, and other social causes. Members vote also continued to be restricted.
would have to go through a five-year training The public spirited men of India, who
period and agree to serve on modest salaries. had extended unconditional support to the
The organization has its headquarters in war efforts of Britain had expected more. The
Pune (Maharashtra) and notable branches scheme, when announced in 1918, came to
in Chennai (Madras), Mumbai (Bombay), be criticized throughout India. The Indian
Allahabad and Nagpur. National Congress met in a special session at
Bombay in August 1918 to discuss the scheme.
The congress termed the scheme ‘disappointing
4.2 Montagu–Chelmsford and unsatisfactory.’
Reforms The colonial government followed a ‘carrot
Edwin Montagu and Chelmsford, the and stick policy.’ There was a group of moderate
Secretary of State for India and Viceroy / liberal political leaders who wanted to try and
respectively, announced their scheme of work the reforms. Led by Surendranath Banerjee,
constitutional changes for India which came they opposed the majority opinion and left the
to be known as the Indian Councils Act Congress to form their own party which came
of 1919. The Act enlarged the provincial to be called Indian Liberal Federation.
legislative councils with elected majorities.
The governments in the provinces were 4.3 The Non-Brahmin
given more share in the administration Movement
under ‘Dyarchy.’ Under this arrangement
all important subjects like law and order The hierarchical Indian society and the
and finance ‘reserved’ for the whitemen contradictions within, found expression in the
and were directly under the control of the formation of caste associations and movements
to question the dominance of higher castes. The
45 Advent of Gandhi and Mass Mobilisation

higher castes also were controlling the factors their caste brethren and helped their educated
of production and thus the middle and lower youth in getting jobs. In the meantime,
castes were dependent on them for livelihood. introduction of electoral politics from the 1880s
Liberalism and humanism which influenced gave a fillip to such organisations. The outcome
and accompanied the socio-religious reform of all this was the expression of socio-economic
movements of the nineteenth century had tensions through caste consciousness and caste
affected the society and stirred it. The symptoms solidarity.
of their awakening were already visible in the Two trends emerged out of the non-
last quarter of the nineteenth century. The Brahmin movements. One was what is called
Namasudra movement in the Bengal and eastern the process of ‘Sanskritisatian’ of the ‘lower’
India, the Adidharma movement in North castes and the second was a radical pro-poor
Western India, the Satyashodhak movement in and progressive peasant–labour movements.
Western India and the Dravidian movements While the northern and eastern caste movements
in South India had emerged and raised their by and large were Sanskritic, the western and
voice by the turn of the century. They were all southern movements split and absorbed by the
led by non Brahmin leaders who questioned the rising nationalist and Dravidian–Left
supremacy of the Brahmins and other ‘superior’ movements. However all these movements were
castes. critical of what they called as ‘Brahmin
It first manifested itself, through Jyoti Rao domination’ and attacked their ‘monopoly’, and
Phule’s book of 1872 titled Gulamgiri. His pleaded with the government through their
organization, Satyashodak Samaj, underscored associations for justice. In Bombay and Madras
the necessity to relieve the lower castes from the presidencies clear-cut Brahmin monopoly in
tyranny of Brahminism and the exploitative the government services and general cultural
scriptures. The colonial administrators and the arena led to non-Brahmin politics.
educational institutions that were established The pattern of the movement in south
indirectly facilitated their origin. Added to the was a little different. The Brahmin monopoly
growing influence of Brahmin – upper caste was quite formidable as with only 3.2% of the
men in the colonial times in whatever population they had 72% of all graduates. They
opportunity was open to natives, the colonial came to be challenged by educated and trading
government published census reports once a community members of the non-Brahmin
decade. These reports classified castes on the castes. They were elitist in the beginning and
basis of ‘social precedence as recognized by their challenge was articulated by the Non-
native public opinion’. The censuses were a Brahmin Manifesto issued at the end of 1916.
source of conflict between castes. There were They asserted that they formed the ‘bulk of the
claims and counterclaims as the leaders of caste tax payers, including a large majority of the
organizations fought for pre-eminence and zamindars, landlords and agriculturists’, yet
many started new caste associations. These they received no benefits from the state.
attempts were further helped by the emerging The colonial
political scenario. government made
Leading members of use of the genuine
castes realized that it was grievances of the
important to mobilise their non-Brahmins to
castes in struggles for social divide and rule India.
recognition. More than the This was true with
recognition, many of them, the Brahmanetara
as years passed by, started Parishat, and the Ambedkar and Periyar
Jyotiba Phule
providing for education of Justice Party of

Bombay and Madras presidencies respectively such as meetings, boycott of foreign cloth and
at least till 1930. Both the regions had some schools, picketing of toddy shops, petitions
socially radical possibilities as could be seen and demonstrations, a novel method was
in the emergence of a radical Dalit-Bahujan adopted. Now ‘Satyagraha’ was the weapon to
movement under the leadership of Dr be used with the wider participation of labour,
Ambedkar and the Self-Respect Movement artisan and peasant masses. The symbol of this
under the leadership of Periyar Ramaswamy. change was to be khadi, which soon became the
The nationalists were unable to understand uniform of nationalists. India’s Swaraj would be
the liberal democratic content in the awakening a reality only when the masses awakened and
among the lower strata of Indian society. While became active in political work. Almost the
a section of the nationalists simply ignored the entire country was electrified when Gandhi
stirrings, a majority of them and particularly called upon the people to observe ‘hartal’ in
the so-called extremists–radicals were opposed March–April 1919 against the Rowlatt Act.
to the movements. A few of them were even He combined it with the Khilafat issue which
hostile and labelled them as stooges of British, brought together Hindus and Muslims.
anti-national etc. The early leaders of the non-
Brahmin movement were in fact using the same (b) Jallianwalla Bagh Massacre
tactics as the early nationalist leaders in dealing
The colonial government was enraged at
with the colonial government.
the mass struggles and the enthusiasm of the
masses as evidenced in the upsurge all over
4.4 Non-cooperation the country. On 13th April 1919, in Amritsar
Movement town, in the Jallianwala enclave that the most
(a) Rowlatt Act heinous of political crimes was perpetrated
It was as part of the on an unarmed mass of people by the British
British policy of ‘rally the regime. More than two thousand people had
moderates and isolate the assembled at the venue to peacefully protest
extremists’ that the Indian against the arrest of their leaders Satyapal and
Councils Act 1919 and the Saifudding Kitchlew. Michael O’Dwyer was
Rowlatt Act of the same the Lt. Governor of Punjab and the military
year were promulgated. commander was General Reginald Dyer. They
Throughout the World Rowlatt decided to demonstrate their power and teach
War, the repressive measures against the a lesson to the dissenters. The part where
terrorists and revolutionaries had continued. the gathering was held had only one narrow
Many of them were hanged or imprisoned for entrance. Dyer ordered firing on the trapped
long terms. As the general mood was restive, crowd with machine guns and rifles till the
the government decided to arm itself with ammunition was exhausted. While the official
more repressive powers. Despite every elected figures of the dead was only about 379 the
member of the central legislature opposing real number was over a thousand. Martial law
the bill, the government passed the Rowlatt was imposed all over Punjab and people were
Act in March 1919. This Act empowered the subject to untold indignities.
government to imprison any person without The entire country was horrified at the
trial. brutalities. In Bombay, Calcutta, Delhi, Lahore
Gandhi and his associates were shocked. there were widespread protests against the
It was the ‘Satyagraha Sabha’ founded by Rowlatt Act where the protesters were fired
Gandhi, which pledged to disobey the Act first. upon. There was violence in many towns and
In the place of the old agitational methods cities. Protesting against the brutalities many

celebrities renounced their titles, of whom
Ravindranath Tagore was one. A Sikh teenager
who was raised at
Khalsa Orphanage
named Udham Singh
saw the happening
in his own eyes. To
avenge the killings
of Jallianwalla Bagh,
Udham Singh
on 30 March 1940,
he assassinated Michael O'Dwyer in Caxton
Hall of London. Udham Singh was hanged at
Jallianwalla Bagh Massacre Pentonville jail, London
Rabindranath Tagore renounced his

knighthood immediately after the Jallianwalla
Bagh massacre. In his protest letter to the
viceroy on May 31, 1919, Tagore wrote "The
time has come when the badge of honour
makes our shame glaring in their incongruous
context of humiliation, and, I for my part,
wish to stand shorn of all special distinctions,
by the side of those of my countrymen who
for their so-called insignificance are liable to Ali Brothers
suffer degradation not fit for human beings."
(c) Launch of Non-Cooperation
The two immediate causes responsible Movement
for launching the non-cooperation movement The Khilafat Conference, at the instance of
were the Khilafat and the Punjab wrongs. While Gandhi, decided to launch the non-cooperation
the khilafat issue related to the position of the movement from 31 August 1920. Earlier
Turkish Sultan vis-a- vis the holy places of Islam, an all party meet at Allahabad had decided
the Punjab issue related to the exoneration of on a programme of boycott of government
the perpetrators of the Jallianwala massacre. educational institutions and their law courts.
While the control over holy places of Islam The Congress met in a special session at
was taken over by non-Islamic powers against Calcutta in September 1920 and resolved to
the assurances of the British rulers, the British accept Gandhi’s proposal on non-cooperation
courts of enquiry totally exonerated Reginald with the colonial state till such time as Khilafat
Dyer and Michael O’Dwyer of the crime and Punjab grievances were redressed and self-
perpetrated at Jallianwala. government established.
Gandhi and the Congress, who were bent Non-cooperation movement included
upon Hindu-Muslim unity, now stood by their boycott of schools, colleges, courts, government
Muslim compatriots who felt betrayed by the offices, legislatures, foreign goods, return
British regime. The Ali brothers – Shukha of government conferred titles and awards.
and Muhammed – and Maulana Abul Kalam Alternatively, national schools, panchayats were
Azad were the prime movers in the Khilafat to be set up and swadeshi goods manufactured
movement. and used. The struggle at a later stage was
to include no tax campaign and mass civil

disobedience, etc. A regular Congress session to several cities in India was also boycotted. The
held at Nagpur in 1920 endorsed the earlier calculation of the colonial government that the
resolutions. Another important resolution at visit of the Prince would evoke loyal sentiments
Nagpur was to recognize and set up linguistic of the Indian people was proved wrong.
Provincial Congress Committees which drew a Workers and peasants had gone on strike across
large number of workers into the movement. In the country. Gandhi promised Swaraj, if Indians
order to broad base the Congress, the workers participated in the non-cooperation movement
were to reach out to the villages and enroll on non-violent mode within a year.
the villagers in the Congress on a nominal fee South India surged forward during this
of four annas (25 paise). The overall character phase of the struggle. The peasants of Andhra,
of the Congress underwent change and an withheld payment of taxes to the zamindars and
atmosphere where a large majority of the masses the whole population of Chirala-Perala refused
could develop a sense of belonging to the nation to pay taxes and vacated the town en-mass.
and the national struggle developed. But it also Hundreds of village Patels and Shanbogues
led to some conservatives who were opposed to resigned their jobs. Non-Cooperation
mass participation in the struggle to leave the movement in Tamil Nadu was organised and
Congress. Thus the Congress under Gandhi was led by stalwarts like C. Rajagopalachari, S.
shedding its elitist character, becoming a mass Satyamurthi and Periyar E.V.R. In Kerala,
organization and in a real sense ‘National’. peasants organized anti-jenmi struggles.
The Viceroy admitted in a letter to the
Secretary of State that the movement had
seriously affected lower classes in certain areas
of UP, Bengal, Assam, Bihar and Orissa the
peasants have been affected. Impressed by the
intensity of the movement, in a special session
the Congress reiterated the intensification of the
movement.In February 1922 Gandhi announced
that he would lead a mass civil disobedience,
including no tax campaigns, at Bardoli, if the
Non-Cooperaors with Gandhi
government did not ensure press freedom and
release the prisoners within seven days.
(d) Impact of Gandhi’s
Leadership (e) Chauri Chaura Incident and
Thousands of schools and hundreds of Withdrawal of the Movement
colleges and vidyapeethas were established by The common people and the nationalist
the natives as alternatives to the government workers were exuberant that Swaraj would dawn
institutions. Several leading lawyers gave up soon and participated actively in the struggle. It
their practice. Thousands of school and college had attracted all classes of people including the
students left the government institutions. The tribals living in the jungles. But at the same time
Ali brothers were arrested and jailed on sedition sporadic violence was also witnessed along with
charges. The Congress committees called upon arson. In Malabar and Andhra two very violent
people to launch civil disobedience movement, revolts also took place. In the Rampa region of
including no tax movements if the Congress coastal Andhra the tribals revolted under the
committees of their region were ready. The leadership of Alluri Sitarama Raju. In Malabar,
government as usual resorted to repression. Muslim (Mapilla) peasants rose up in armed
Workers were arrested indiscriminately and put rebellion against upper caste landholders and the
behind bars. The visit of Prince of Wales in 1921 British government.

Chauri-Chaura, a village in Gorakhpur legislature by capturing them and arousing
district of UP had an organized volunteer nationalist spirit. This group came to be
group which was participating and leading called the ‘Swarajists and pro-changers’. In
the picketing of liquor shops and local bazaar Tamil Nadu, Satyamurti joined this group.
against high prices. On 5 February 1922, a There was another group which opposed
Congress procession, 3000 strong, was fired council entry and wanted to continue the
upon by police Enraged by the firing, the mob Gandhian line by mobilizing the masses.
attacked and burnt down the police station. This team led by Rajagopalachari, Vallabhai
22 policemen lost their lives. It was this incident Patel and Rajendra Prasad was called ‘No
which made Gandhi announce the suspension changers.’ They argued that electoral politics
of the non-cooperation movement. would divert the attention of nationalists
The Congress Working Committee ratified and pull them away from the work of
the decision at Bardoli, to the disappointment mass mobilization and their issues. They
of the nationalist workers. While the younger favoured the continuation of the Gandhian
workers resented the decision, the others who constructive programme of spinning,
had faith in Gandhi considered it a tactical temperance, Hindu-Muslim unity, removal
retreat. Both Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas of untouchability and mobilise rural masses
Bose were critical of Gandhi, who was arrested and prepare them for new mass movements.
and sentenced to 6 years in prison. Thus ended The pro-changers launched the Swarajya
the non-cooperation movement. party as a part of the Congress. A truce
The Khilafat issue was made redundant was soon worked out and both the groups
when the people of Turkey under the leadership would engage themselves in the Congress
of Mustafa Kamal Pasha rose in revolt and programmes and their work should
stripped the Sultan of his political power and complement each other’s activities under
abolished the Caliphate and declared that the leadership of Gandhi, though Gandhi
religion and politics could not go together. personally favoured constructive work.
The Swarajya party did reasonably well
4.5 Swarajist Party and its in the elections to Central Assembly by
Activities winning 42 of the 101 seats open for election.
With the cooperation of other members
Following the suspension of Non- they were able to stall many anti-people
cooperation the question was what next? legislations of the colonial regime, and were
Chittaranjan Das and Motilal Nehru successful in exposing the inadequacy of the
proposed a new line of activity. They wanted Act of 1919. But their efforts and enthusiasm
to return to active politics which included petered out as time passed by and consciously
entry into electoral politics and demonstrate or unconsciously they came to be co-opted
that the nationalists were capable of by the Government as members of several
obstructing the working of the reformed committees constituted by it.
In the absence
of nationalist mass
struggle, fissiparous
tendencies started
rising their head.
There were a series
of communal riots
with fundamentalist
Chitaranjan Das Motilal Nehru elements occupying the Satyamurti

space. Even the Swaraj party was affected by were started and thousands of youngmen and
the sectarianism as one group in the name of women became active anti-colonialists and
‘responsivists’ started cooperating with the revolutionaries. Youth and student conferences
government, claiming to safeguard “Hindu were organized all over the country.
interests”. The Muslim fundamentalists Meanwhile Ramprasad Bismil and Ashfaq-
similarly seized the space created by the ullah were convicted to death and 17 others
lull in national struggle and started fanning were sentenced to long term imprisonment
communal feeling. Rise of Left Radicalism in the Kakori conspiracy case. Bhagat Singh,
Gandhi was pained at the developments. To Chandrashekar Azad and Rajguru, enraged at
contain the communal frenzy he went on a 21 the police brutality and death of Lajpat Rai,
day fast. killed Saunders, the British police officer who
Left Movement led the lathi charge at Lahore. Bhagat Singh
Meanwhile socialist ideas and its activists and Batukeswar Dutt threw a bomb into the
also had filled some space through their work central Assembly hall on 8 April 1929. In 1929
among peasants and workers. The labour the Meerut conspiracy case was filed and three
and peasant movements were organized dozen communist leaders were sentenced to
by the ‘leftists’. Marxism as an ideology to long spells of jail terms. All these developments
criticise colonialism and capitalism had and incidents are discussed in detail in the next
gained ground. It manifested itself in the lesson.
organization of students and youth apart from
trade unions. Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas 4.6 Simon Commission–
Bose contributed to the spread of leftist Nehru Report – Lahore
ideology. They argued that both colonial Congress
exploitation and the internal exploitation by
the emerging capitalists should be fought. A The British were due to consider and
group of youngsters with S A. Dange, M.N announce another instalment of constitutional
Roy, Muzaffar Ahmed along with elderly reforms some time in 1929–30. In preparation,
persons such as Singaravelu form Tamilnadu
founded the peasants and worker’s parties.
The government came down heavily on the
communist-socialists and the revolutionaries
a series of ‘conspiracy cases’ such as Kanpur,
Meerut, Kakori were booked.
It was at this juncture Bhagat Singh,
Chandrashekar Azad, Rajguru and Sukhdev
Sukhdev Chandrashekar Azad
emerged on the scene. The Naujawan Bharat
Sabha, Hindustan Republican Association
it announced the setting up of Indian Statutory
commission (known as ‘Simon Commission’
after its chairman). The commission had only
whitemen as members and it was an insult
to Indians. The Congress at it annual session
in Madras in 1927 resolved to boycott the
commission. The Muslim league and the Hindu
Mahasabha also supported the decision. A series
of conferences were held and the consensus
Bhagat Singh Rajguru was to work for an alternative proposal. Most

of the parties agreed to challenge the colonial It was also announced that civil disobedience
attitude towards India and the result was would be started under the leadership of
the Motilal Nehru Report. However the All- Gandhi.
Parties meet held in 1928 December at Calcutta
failed to accept it on the issue of communal Dandi March
representation. As a part of the movement
Gandhi announced the ‘Dandi
Simon Go Back March’. It was a protest against
the unjust tax on salt, which
is used by all. But the colonial
government was taxing it and
had a near monopoly over it.
The Dandi March was to cover 375 kms from
Gandhi’s Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi on the
Gujarat coast. Joined by a chosen band of 78
followers from all regions and social groups, after
informing the colonial government in advance,
Gandhi set out on the march and reached Dandi
on the 25th day i.e. 6 April 1930. Throughout the
period of the march the press covered the event
Simon Go Back Demonstration in such a way that it had caught the attention of
the entire world. He broke the salt law by picking
But the most important development
up a fist full of salt. It was symbolic of the refusal
was the popular protest against the Simon
of Indians to be under the repressive colonial
Commission. Whenever the commission went
government and its unjust laws.
protests were held and the slogan ‘Simon Go
Back’ rent the air. The movement demonstrated
that the masses were gearing up for the next
stage of the struggle. It was at Calcutta that the
Congress met in December 1928. To conciliate
the left wing it was announced that Jawaharlal
would be the President of the next session in
1929. Thus Jawaharlal Nehru, son of Motilal
Nehru, who presided over Congress in 1928,
succeeded his father.
Lahore Congress Session-Poorna

Swaraj Gandhi’s Salt March in Dandi
Lahore session of the Congress has Vedaranyam Salt Satyagraha
a special significance in the history of the
In Tamilnadu, a salt march was led by
freedom movement. It was at the Lahore session
Chakravarthi Rajagopalachari (Rajaji) to
that the Congress declared that the objective of
Vedaranyam. Vedaranyam, situated 150 miles
the Congress was the attainment of complete
from Tiruchirapalli from where march started
independence. On 31 December 1929 the
was an obscure coastal village in Thanjavur
tricolour flag of freedom was hoisted at Lahore.
district. Rajaji had just been elected president
It was also decided that 26 January would be
of the Tamilnadu Congress. The march started
celebrated as the Independence day every year.

N
W E
S
Kashmir
Indian National Movement
Peshawar (1917 - 1930)
Amritsar
Meerut
Delhi
Lucknow
Chauri Chaura
Gwalior Kanpur Champaran
Allahabad Patna Manipur
Jhansi Varanasi
Sabarmati Ashram
Kheda (Ahmedabad)
Calcutta
Myanmar
Dandi Nagpur (Burma)
Bombay
Poona
Madras
Vedaranyam
Ker
al
Thoothukudi
a
Not to Scale

on 13th April and reached Vedaranyam on 28th
April 1930.
Second Round Table Conference with Gandhi

Thus negotiations with Congress were
started and the Gandhi-Irwin pact was signed
Salt Satyagraha (Vedaranyam) on March 5, 1931. It marked the end of civil
The Thajavur collector J.A Thorne had disobedience in India. The movement had
warned the public of severe action if the generated worldwide publicity, and Viceroy
marchers were harboured. But the Satyagrahis Irwin was looking for a way to end it. Gandhi
were warmly welcomed and provided with food was released from custody in January 1931,
and shelter. Those who dared to offer food and and the two men began negotiating the terms
shelter were severely dealt with. The Satyagrahis of the pact. In the end, Gandhi pledged to give
marched via Kumbakonam, Semmangudi, up the satyagraha campaign, and Irwin agreed
Thiruthuraipoondi where they were given good to release tens of thousands of Indians who had
reception. been jailed during the movement.
The Vedaranyam movement stirred the That year Gandhi attended the Second
masses in south India and awakened them to Round Table Conference in London as the sole
the colonial oppression and the need to join the representative of the Congress. The government
struggle. agreed to allow people to make salt for their
consumption, release political prisoners who
4.7 The Round Table had not indulged in violence, and permitted the
Conferences picketing of liquor and foreign cloth shops. The
Karachi Congress ratified the Gandhi–Irwin
The Simon Commission had submitted pact. However the Viceroy refused to commute
the report to the government. The Congress, the death sentence of Bhagat Singh and his
Muslim league and Hindu Mahasabha had comrades.
boycotted it. The British regime went ahead
Gandhi attended the Second RTC but
with the consideration of the report. But in the
the government was adamant and declined
absence of consultations with Indian leaders
to concede his demands. He returned empty
it would have been useless. In order to secure
handed and the Congress resolved on renewing
some legitimacy and credibility to the report, the
the civil disobedience movement. The economic
government announced that it would convene a
depression had worsened the condition of
Round Table Conference (RTC) in London with
the people in general and of the peasants in
leaders of different shades of Indian opinion.
particular. There were peasant protests all over
But the Congress decided to boycott it, on
the country. The leftists were in the forefront
the issue of granting independence. Everyone
of the struggles of the workers and peasants.
knew, more so the government, that it would
The government was determined to crush the
be an exercise in futility if the Congress did not
movement. All key leaders including Nehru,
participate.

Khan Abdul Gafar Khan and finally Gandhi were the untouchables be given separate electorates
all arrested. The Congress was banned. Special and reserved seats. Under this scheme only
laws were enacted to crush the agitations. Over untouchables could vote in the constituencies
a lakh of protesters were arrested and literature reserved for them. Ambedkar felt that if any
relating to nationalism was also declared illegal untouchable candidate contesting elections
and confiscated. It was a reign of terror that was were to depend on non-untouchable voters he
unleashed on the unarmed masses participating or she would be more obliged to the latter and
in the movement. would not therefore be in a position to worker at
The movement started waning and it was freely for the good of the untouchables. If only
officially suspended in May 1933 and withdrawn untouchable voters were to vote and elect in the
in May 1934. reserved seats, those elected would be their real
representatives.
4.8 Emergence of Dr. B.R. Ambedkar’s Activism
Ambedkar and the
Separate Electorates
Dr. Ambedkar came to the centre stage
of the struggles of the oppressed world in the
1920’s. Born in the then so-called “untouchable”
caste called Mahar in Central India as the son of
an army man, he was a brilliant student and was
the first to matriculate from his community.
Ambedkar’s Academic
Mahad Satyagraha
Accomplishments
Ambedkar joined the Elphinston College, Ambedkar launched news journals and
with the help of a scholarship and graduated in organizations. Mook Nayak (leader of the dumb)
1912. With the help of a scholarship from the was the journal to articulate his views and the
Maharaja of Barona he went to United States and Bahishkrit Hitakarini Sabha (Association for the
secured a post-graduate degree, and doctorate, welfare of excluded) spearheaded his activities.
from the Columbia University. Then he went to As a member of the Bombay legislative council
London to study law and economics. he worked tirelessly to secure removal of
disabilities imposed on untouchables. He
Ambedkar’s brilliance caught the attention
launched the ‘Mahad Satyagraha’ to establish the
of many. Already in 1916, he had participated
civic right of the untouchables to public tanks
in an international conference of Anthropology
and wells. Ambedkar’s intellectual and public
and presented a research paper on ‘Castes in
activities drew the attention of all concerned.
India’, which was published later in the Indian
His intellectual attacks were directed against
Antiquary. The British government which was
leaders of the Indian National Congress and
searching for talents among the downtrodden
the colonial bureaucracy. In the meanwhile
of India invited him to interact with the
the struggle for freedom under Congress and
Southborough or the Franchise Committee
Gandhi’s leadership had reached a decisive
which was collecting evidence on the quantum
phase with their declaration that their objective
and qualifications to be fixed for the Indian
was to fight for complete independence or
voters.
‘Purna Swaraj’.
It was in these interactions that Ambedkar
first spoke about separate electorates. He argued

N
Mass Mobilisation W E
in Freedom Movement S
Jallianwala Bagh
Champaran
Chauri - Chaura
Ahmedabad Noakhali Riots

Kheda
Dandi
Mumbai
Madras
Jallianwala Bagh Jallianwala Bagh Massacre
(Punjab)
Vedaranyam
Chauri - Chaura (UP)
Movement
Dandi (Gujarat) Civil Disobedience Movement
Champaran (Bihar) Movement of Indigo Culvators
Kheda (Gujarat) Peasant Satyagraha
Ahmedabad (Gujarat) ill Workers’
Satyagraha
Not to Scale Mahad (Maharastra) Mahad Satyagraha

Ambedkar on Separate Electorate The Poona Pact took away separate
for “Untouchables” electorates but guaranteed reserved seats for
Ambedkar was concerned about the the untouchables. The provision of reserved
future of “untouchables” and the oppressed seats was incorporated in the constitutional
in an independent India which was certain to changes which were made. It was also built
be under the control of Congress under the into the Constitution of independent India.
hegemony of the caste Hindus. He renewed
Ambedkar and Party Politics
his demand for separate electorates, be it
before the All-Parties conference or the Simon Ambedkar launched two political parties.
commission or at the Round Table Conference. The first one was the Independent Labour
The Congress and Gandhi were worried that party in 1937 and the second Scheduled Caste
separate electorates for untouchables would Federation in 1942. The colonial government
further weaken the national movement, as recognizing his struggles and also to
separate electorates to Muslims, Anglo Indians balance its support base used the services of
and other special interests had helped the Ambedkar. Thus he was made a member of
British to successfully pursue its divide and the Defence Advisory Committee in 1942, and
rule policy. Gandhi feared that the separation a few months later, a minister in the Viceroy’s
of untouchables from other Hindus politically cabinet.
would also have its social impact. The crowning recognition of his services
to the nation was electing him as the chairman
Communal Award of the Drafting Committee of the independent
A meeting between Gandhi and India’s Constitution. After independence
Ambedkar on this issue of separate electorates Ambedkar was invited to be a member of the
before they went to London to attend the Nehru cabinet.
Second Round Table Conference ended in
failure. There was an encounter between the Summary
two again in the RTC about the same issue. Gandhi’s entry into politics, bringing
It ended in a deadlock and finally the issue in its wake a new impulse, and his
was left to be arbitrated by the British Prime experiment of Satyagraha in peasant
Minister Ramsay McDonald. The British movements of Champaran and Kheda
government announced in August 1932 what and in Ahmedabad mill workers’ strike
came to be known as the Communal Award. provided the base for the launch of non-
Ambedkar’s demands for separate electorates cooperation movement.
with reserved seats were conceded. The shortcomings of Dyarchy, introduced
in provinces through the Indian Councils
Poona Pact
Act of 1919 and the challenges posed by
Gandhi was deeply upset. He declared non-brahmin movements to mainstream
that he would resist separate electorates to nationalist politics bothered the Congress
untouchables ‘with his life’. He went on a fast during this period.
unto death in the Yervada jail where he was
Gandhi’s call for protest on the issues
imprisoned. There was enormous pressure on
of Khilafat, and Rowlatt Act and as
Ambedkar to save Gandhi’s life. Consultations,
a response the British government’s
confabulations, meetings, prayers were held all
repressive measures leading to the
over and ultimately after a meeting with Gandhi
Jallianwalla Bagh massacre prompted
in the jail, the communal award was modified.
the Congress to launch non-cooperation
The new agreement, between Ambedkar and
movement.
Gandhians, called the ‘Poona Pact’ was signed.

The withdrawal of non-cooperation (c) It had excluded Indians from its fold.
movement after Chauri Chaura incident (d)
It did not hold any promise for total
resulted in the birth of a short-lived
independence
Swarajist Party that carried on the
struggle in the legislatures. 4.
When was the tri-colour flag of freedom
The Congress boycotted the Simon hoisted?
Commission and the first Round Table (a) December 31, 1929 (b) March 12, 1930
Conference and intensified the struggle by
(c) January 26, 1930 (d) January 26, 1931
launching civil disobedience movement,
in the wake of fruitless outcome of Second 5. What was the name of the party formed by
Round Table Conference. Motilal Nehru and C.R. Das in 1923?
Gandhi’s Dandi March and Rajaji’s Salt (a) Swaraj Party (b) Ghadar Party
March to Vedaranyam in Tamilnadu
(c) Swantara Party (d) Communist Party
succeeded in mobilizing the masses for
the nationalist cause. 6.Match List I with List II and select answer
The emergence of Ambedkar as a leader from the codes given below
of the Depressed Classes and his support (A) The Namasudra
of separate electorate proclaimed by the Movement - 1. North Western India
British under Communal Award prompted
(B) The Adidharma
Gandhi to undertake a fast unto death that
Movement - 2. South India
ended with the signing of Poona Pact.
(C) The Satyashodhak
I. Choose the correct answer Movement - 3. Eastern India
1. W
ho was the political guru of Gandhiji? (D) The Dravidian
Movement - 4. Western India
codes
EXERCISE
(a) 3, 1, 4, 2 (b) 2, 1, 4, 3
(a) Tilak ( b ) (c) 1, 2, 3, 4 (d) 3, 4, 1, 2
Gokhale 7.
Arrange the different stages of Non-
(c) W.C.Bannerjee ( d ) Cooperation Movement in chronological
M.G. Ranade order.
2. After returning from South Africa Gandhi 1. The most heinous of political crime was
launched his first successful Satyagraha in perpetrated on an unarmed mass by the
British regime at Amritsar town.
(a) Kheda (b) Dandi
2. Rowlatt Act was promulgated to imprison
(c) Champaran (d) Bardoli
any person without trial by a law court.
3. Why was the Simon Commission boycotted
3. Chauri Chaura incident of mob violence
by the Congress?
made Gandhi announce the suspension of
(a)
There was no recommendation for Non-Cooperation Movement.
bestowing dominion status on India in its
4. A special session held at Calcutta resolved
report.
to accept Gandhi’s proposal on non-
(b)
It did not provide any safeguards for cooperation with the colonial state.
minorities.

(a) 2, 1, 4, 3 (b) 1, 3, 2, 4 Choose the correct answer from the codes
(c) 2, 4, 1, 3 (d) 3, 2, 4, 1 given below.
8. Which of the following is not correctly paired? (a) A and B (b) B and C
(a) Lt. Governor of (c) A and D (d) C and D

Punjab - Reginad Dyer 12. A
ssertion (A) : B.R. Ambedkar launched
(b) Dalit-Bahujan Mahad Satyagraha.
Movement - Dr. Ambedkar Reason (R) : He wanted to unite Hindus
(c) Self Respect and Muslims.
Movement - Periyar E.V.R. (a) A is correct R explains A
(d) Satyagraha Sabha - Rowlatt Act (b) A is correct does not explain R
9. Arrange the launching of the following events (c) Both are correct
in chronological order (d) Both are wrong
i) The Kheda Satyagraha 13. Assertion (A): The Indian Council Act and
ii) Champran Movement the Rowlatt Act were passed in 1919.
iii) Non-Brahman Movement Reason (R): It was part of the British policy
iv) Vedaranyam Salt Satyagraha of winning over the moderates and isolating
the extremists
Choose the correct answer from the codes
below. (a) Both A and R are correct R is the correct
explanation of A
(a) ii, iii, i, iv (b) iii, ii, i, iv
(b) Both A and R are correct R is not the
(c) ii, i, iv, iii (d) ii, i, iii, iv
correct explanation of A
10. Which of the following is/are not true?
(c) A is correct and R is wrong
i) Gandhiji established Sabarmathi Ashram at
(d) A wrong and R is correct.
Ahmedabad.
14. Which of the undermentioned personality
ii) Vallabhai Patel was a lawer
is unrelated to Swaraj Party?
iii) Simon Commission was welcomed by the
(a) Rajaji (b) Chitaranjan Das
Muslim League
(c) Motilal Nehru (d) Sathya murthi
iv)
Gandhiji attended the Second Round
Table Conference 15. Gandhi set out on the March and reached
Dandi on________
Choose the answer from the code given below
(a) 6th April 1930 (b) 6th March 1930
(a) i (b) i and iv
(c) 4th April 1939 (d) 4th March 1930
(c) ii and iii (d) only iii
II. Write brief answers
11. Non-Cooperation movement included
1. How was the visit of Prince of Wales to India
(A)
boycott of government schools and
received?
colleges
2. Who were the local leaders to accompany
(B) return of government conferred titles
Gandhiji to Champran ?
(C) observing protest fasts
3. Why was Servants of India Society founded?
(D) conducting underground movements

4. Write about Bahishkrit Hitakarini Sabha. 2. In what way was the Civil Disobedient
5. Why was the Rowlatt Act opposed by the Movement different from Non-cooperation
nationalists? Movement?
3. Estimate the role of Mahathma Gandhi in the
6. What do you know of the Mahad Satyagraha
Indian Freedom Struggle.
launched by Dr. Ambedkhar.
4. Sketch the educational career of Dr. B.R.
7. What was agreed upon according to Gandhi- Ambedkar with particular focus on his
Irwin Pact? activism to secure social justice to the
III. Write short answers depressed classes?
V. Activity
1. Write a note on the Jallianwala Bagh massacre.
1.
Make a time line of important events of
2. W
rite about the Dyarchy in provinces.
Gandhian era of Indian National Movement.
3. W
hat is the importance of the Poona Pact?
2. Conduct a debate on the relevance of Gandhi
4. “The leaders of the non-Brahman movement in the present socio-politico and economic
were using the same tactics as the early context.
nationalist in dealing with the colonial
government.” Elaborate.
REFERENCES
5. Point out the difference between pro-
changers and no changers. 1. Bipan chandra - History of Modern India
6. Write about Communal Award of British 2. Dhananjay Keer - Ambedkar Life and Mision
Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald. 3. Sumit Sarkar - Modern India 1885-1947
7. Why was the Congress banned in the
4. Bipan chandra - India’s struggle for
aftermath of the unsuccessful conclusion of
Independence
three round table conferences?
5. Bikhu parekh - Gandhi
IV. Answer the following in detail
6. Rajmohan Gandhi - The Rajaji Story
1. Discuss the context of launching of the Non-
Cooperation movement and its outcome. 7. Christopher Jafferlot - Analyzing and
Fighting Caste Ambedkar and Untouchability.

GLOSSARY
vindictiveness desire for revenge பழிவாங்கும் எண்ணம்
tyranny crelty or oppression க�ொடுங்கோன்மை / வல்லாட்சி

government shared by two different
Dyarchy
independent authorities இரட்டையாட்சி
arranging, according to various
hierarchial
criteria, into successive ranks or grades படிநிலை/ வர்க்கப் படிநிலை
system of thought giving importance
humanism
to human rather than devine. மனிதநேயக் க�ோட்பாடு
an exclusive control over the trade or
monopoly
service through exclusive possession. ஏகப�ோக உரிமை
the act of closing shops or suspending
hartal
work கடையடைப்பு
martial warlike ப�ோர்க்குணம் வாய்ந்த
ammunition quantity of bullets and shells வெடி ப�ொருட்கள்
fissiparous causing division பிளவுண்டாக்குகிற

ICT CORNER
Advent of Gandhi and Mass Mobilization
Through this activity you

will learn about Collection of
Mahatma Gandhi's rare photos,
documents and vedios.
Step - 2 Change language options, go to ‘Mahatma’s Collection’
Step - 3 Select ‘Newspaper’ and click to see the events
Step1 Step2 Step3
Web URL: http://gandhiworld.in/english/index.html


UNIT
Period of Radicalism in
5 Anti-imperialist Struggles
Learning Objectives
To Acquire Knowledge about

The Kanpur Conspiracy Case
Meerut Trial
Bhagat Singh– Kalpana Dutt
The Karachi Session of Indian National Congress
The Great Depression and its impact on India
Industrial development in India
Conspiracy case in (1924) and the most famous,

Introduction the Meerut Conspiracy case (1929). Meanwhile,
The influence of the Left-wing in the the CPI was formally founded on Indian soil in
Indian National Congress and consequently 1925 in Bombay.
on the struggle for independence was felt in Various revolutionary groups were
a significant manner from the late 1920s. The functioning then in British India, adopting
Communist Party of India (CPI) was formed, socialist ideas but were not communist
by M.N. Roy, Abani Mukherji, M.P.T. Acharya, parties. Two revolutionaries – Bhagat Singh
Mohammad Ali and Mohammad Shafiq, in of the Hindustan Revolutionary Socialist
Tashkent, Uzbekistan then in the Soviet Union Association and Kalpana Dutt of the Indian
in October 1920. This opened a new radical era Republican Army that organised repeated raids
in the anti-imperialist struggles in India. on the Chittagong Armoury in Bengal will
Even though there were many radical be the focus of the next section. The Karachi
groups functioning in India earlier the presence Session of the INC and its famous resolutions
of a Communist state in the form of USSR greatly especially on Fundamental Rights and Duties
alarmed the British in India. The first batch of is dealt with next. The last two topics are
radicals reached Peshawar on 3 June 1921. They about the world-wide economic depression
were arrested immediately under the charges of popularly known as Great Depression and its
being Bolshevik (Russian communist agents) impact on India and Tamil Society and the
comeing to India to create troubles. A series Industrial Development registered in India in
of five conspiracy cases were instituted against its aftermath. The Great Depression dealt a
them between the years 1922 and 1927. The severe blow to the labour force and peasants
first of these was the Peshawar Conspiracy case. and consequently influenced the struggle for
This was followed by the Kanpur (Bolshevik) independence in a significant way.
63

5.1 K
anpur Conspiracy
13 persons were
Case, 1924 originally accused
in the Kanpur case:
(1) M.N. Roy, (2)
Muzaffar Ahmad, (3)
Shaukat Usmani, (4)
Ghulam Hussain, (5) M.N. Roy
S.A. Dange, (6) M. Singaravelu, (7) R.L.
Sharma, (8) Nalini Gupta, (9) Shamuddin
Hassan, (10) M.R.S Velayudhun, (11)
Kanpur Conspiracy Case Prisoners Doctor Manilal, (12) Sampurnananda, (13)
Satyabhakta. 8 persons were charge-sheeted:
The colonial administrators did not take the
M.N. Roy, Muzaffar Ahmad, S.A. Dange,
spread of communist ideas lightly. Radicalism
Nalini Gupta, Ghulam Hussain, Singaravelu,
spread across the British Provinces – Bombay,
Shaukat Usmani, and R.L. Sharma. Ghulam
Calcutta and Madras - and industrial centres like
Hussain turned an approver. M.N. Roy and
Kanpur in United Province (UP) and cities like
R.L. Sharma were charged in absentia as they
Lahore where factories had come up quite early.
were in Germany and Pondicherry (a French
As a result, trade unions emerged in the jute and
Territory) respectively. Singaravelu was
cotton textile industries, the railway companies
released on bail due to his ill health. Finally
across the country and among workers in the
the list got reduced to four.
various municipal bodies. In order to curb the
radicalisation of politics, especially to check what
was then called Bolshevism, repressive measures
were adopted by the British administration. The M. Singaravelu (18 February
Kanpur Conspiracy case of 1924 was one such 1860 – 11 February 1946), was
move. Those charged with the conspiracy were born in Madras. He was an
communists and trade unionists. early Buddhist, and like many
The accused were arrested spread over a other communist leaders,
period of six months. Eight of them were charged he was also associated with M. Singaravelu
under Section 121-A of the Indian Penal Code – Indian National Congress initially. However,
‘to deprive the King Emperor of his sovereignty after sometime he chose a radical path.
of British India, by complete separation of India Along with Thiru. V. Kalyanasundaram, he
from imperialistic Britain by a violent revolution’, organised many trade unions in South India.
and sent to various jails. The case came before On 1 May 1923, he organised the first ever
Sessions Judge H.E. Holmes who had earned celebration of May Day in the country. He
notoriety while serving as Sessions Judge of was one of the main organisers of the strike
Gorakhpur for awarding death sentence to 172 in South Indian Railways (Golden Rock,
peasants for their involvement in the Chauri Tiruchirappalli) in 1928 and was prosecuted
Chaura case. for that.
In the Kanpur Conspiracy case, Muzaffar to raise funds and engage lawyers for the defence
Ahmed, Shaukat Usmani, Nalini Gupta and S. A. of the accused. Apart from these, the native
Dange were sent to jail, for four years of rigorous press in India reported the court proceedings
imprisonmentl. The trial and the imprisonment, extensively.
meanwhile, led to some awareness about the The trial in the conspiracy case and
communist activities in India. A Communist the imprisonment of some of the leaders,
Defence Committee was formed in British India
Period of Radicalism in Anti-imperialist Struggles 64

rather than kill the spirit of the radicals gave Determined to wipe out the radical
a fillip to communist activities. In December movement, the government resorted to several
1925, a Communist Conference of different repressive measures. They arrested 32 leading
communist groups, from all over India, was activists of the Communist Party, from different
held.SingaraveluChettiar from Tamil Nadu took parts of British India like Bombay, Calcutta,
part in this conference. It was from there that Punjab, Poona and United Provinces. Most of
the Communist Party of India was established, them were trade union activists though not all
formally, with Bombay as its Headquarters. of them were members of the Communist Party
of India. At least eight of them belonged to the
5.2 M
eerut Conspiracy Indian National Congress. The arrested also
Case, 1929 included three British communists-Philip Spratt,
Ban Bradley and Lester Hutchinson – who had
Communist Activities been sent by the Communist Party of Great
Britain to help build the party in India. Like those
The Meerut Conspiracy Case of 1929,
arrested in the Kanpur Conspiracy Case they
was, perhaps, the most famous of all the
were charged under Section 121A of the Indian
communist conspiracy cases instituted by the
Penal Code. All the 32 leaders arrested were
British Government. The late 1920s witnessed
brought to Meerut (in United Province then) and
a number of labour upsurges and this period
jailed. A good deal of documents that the colonial
of unrest extended into the decade of the Great
administration described as ‘subversive material,’
Depression (1929–1939). Trade unionism spread
like books, letters, and pamphlets were seized
over to many urban centres and organised labour
and produced as evidence against the accused.
strikes. The communists played a prominent role
in organising the working class throughout this
period. The Kharagpur Railway workshop strikes The British government conceived of
in February and September 1927, the Liluah conducting the trial in Meerut (and not, for
Rail workshop strike between January and July instance in Bombay from where a large chunk
1928, the Calcutta scavengers’ strike in 1928, of the accused hailed) so that they could get
the several strikes in the jute mills in Bengal away with the obligations of a jury trial. They
during July-August 1929, the strike at the Golden feared a jury trial could create sympathy for
Rock workshop of the South Indian Railway, the accused.
Tiruchirappalli, in July 1928, the textile workers’
strike in Bombay in April 1928 are some of the Trial and Punishment
strikes that deserve mention.
Meanwhile, a National Meerut Prisoners’
Defence Committee was formed to coordinate
Government Repression
defence in the case. Famous Indian lawyers like
Alarmed by this wave of strikes and the K.F. Nariman and M.C. Chagla appeared in the
spread of communist activities, the British court on behalf of the accused. Even national
Government brought two draconian Acts - the
Trade Disputes Act, 1928 and the Public Safety
Bill, 1928. These Acts armed the government
with powers to curtail civil liberties in general and
suppress the trade union activities in particular.
The government was worried about the strong
communist influence among the workers and
peasants.
K.F. Nariman M.C. Chagla

65 Period of Radicalism in Anti-imperialist Struggles

leaders like Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru visited Bhagat Singh was born to Kishan Singh
the accused in jail. All these show the importance (father) and Vidyavati Kaur (mother) on 28
of the case in the history of our freedom struggle. September 1907 in Jaranwala, Lyallpur district,
The Sessions Court in Meerut awarded Punjab, now a part of Pakistan. His father
stringent sentences on 16 January 1933, four years was a liberal and his family was a family of
after the arrests in 1929. 27 were convicted and freedom fighters. The Jallianwala Bagh massacre
sentenced to various duration of transportation. happened when Bhagat Singh was 14 years.
During the trial, the Communists made use of Early in his youth, he was associated with the
their defence as a platform for propaganda by Naujawan Bharat Sabha and the Hindustan
making political statements. These were reported Republican Association. The latter organisation
widely in the newspapers and thus lakhs of was founded by Sachin Sanyal and Jogesh
people came to know about the communist Chatterji. It was reorganised subsequently
ideology and the communist activities in India. in September 1928 as the Hindustan Socialist
There were agitations against the conviction. Republican Association (H.S.R.A) by Bhagat
That three British nationals were also accused in Singh and his comrades. Socialist ideals and the
the case, the case became known internationally October Revolution in Russia of 1917 were large
too. Most importantly, even Romain Rolland influences on these revolutionaries. Bhagat Singh
and Albert Einstein raised their voice in support was one of the leaders of the H.S.R.A along with
of the convicted. Chandrashekhar Azad, Shivaram Rajguru and
Under the national and international Sukhdev Thapar.
pressure, on appeal, the sentences were Bhagat Singh’s Bomb Throwing
considerably reduced in July 1933. The image that comes to our mind at the very
mention of Bhagat Singh’s name is that of the bomb
5.3 B
hagat Singh and
he threw in the Central Legislative Assembly on
Kalpana Dutt April 8, 1929. The bombs did not kill anybody. It
was intended as a demonstrative action, an act of
Bhagat Singh’s Background
protest against the draconian laws of the British.
Bhagat Singh represented a distinct strand of They chose the day on which the Trade Disputes
nationalism. His radical strand complemented, Bill, an anti-labour legislation was introduced in
in a unique way, to the overall ideals of the the assembly.
freedom movement.
Lahore Conspiracy Case
Bhagat Singh along with Rajguru, Sukhdev,
“I began to study. My previous faith and Jatindra Nath Das and 21 others were arrested
convictions underwent a remarkable and tried for the murder of Saunders (the case
modification. The romance of the violent was known as the Second Lahore Conspiracy
methods alone which was so prominent Case). Jatindra Nath Das died in the jail after 64
among our predecessors was replaced by days of hunger strike against the discriminatory
serious ideas. No more mysticism, no more practices and poor conditions in jail. The verdict
blind faith. Realism became our cult. Use of in the bomb throwing case had been suspended
force justifiable when resorted to as a matter until the trial of Lahore Conspiracy trials was
of terrible necessity: non-violence as a policy over. It was in this case that Bhagat Singh,
indispensable for all mass movements. So Rajguru and Sukhdev were sentenced to death
much about methods. The most important on 7 October 1930.
thing was the clear conception of the ideal
A letter from them to the Governor of
for which we were to fight….. from Bhagat
Punjab shows their courage and their optimism
Singh’s “Why I am an Atheist”.
over the future of India even while facing death

for the cause of freedom
of their country. It says, The H.S.R.A was a renewed chapter of the
‘the days of capitalism Hindustan Republican Association. Its aim was
and imperialism are the overthrow of the capitalist and imperialist
numbered. The war government and establish a socialist society
neither began with us through a revolution. The H.S.R.A involved
nor is going to end with a number of actions such as the murder of
our lives… According to Saunders in Lahore. In that, Saunders was
the verdict of your court mistaken for the Superintendent of Police,
we had waged a war and Lahore, James A. Scott who was responsible for
Jatindra Nath Das seriously assaulting Lajpat Rai, in December
we are therefore war
prisoners. And we claim to be treated as such 1928, and Rai’s subsequent death. They also
i.e., we claim to be shot dead instead of being made an attempt to blow up the train in which
hanged.” Lord Irwin (Governor General and Viceroy of
India, 1926-1931) was travelling, in December
Some narratives describe Bhagat Singh
1929, and a large number of such actions in
and his fellow patriots as terrorists. This is a
Punjab and UP in 1930.
misconception. The legendary Bhagat Singh
clarified how his group is different from the
terrorists. He said, during his trial, that revolution To understand the
is not just the cult of bomb and pistol…Revolution heroism of Kalpana
is the inalienable right of mankind. Freedom is Dutt, you should
the imperishable birth-right of all. The labourer understand the
is the real sustainer of society.. To the altar of this revolutionary strand
revolution we have brought our youth as incense, of nationalism that
for no sacrifice is too great for so magnificent a attracted women like
cause.’ Symbolically, they also shouted Inquilab her to these ideals. You
Zindabad after this defence statement of his in have already learnt
Kalpana Dutt
the court. that there existed
Bhagat Singh, Rajguru and Sukhdev were many revolutionary groups in British India.
hanged early in the morning of March 23, 1931 The character of these organisations gradually
in the Lahore Jail. They faced the gallows with changed from being ones that practiced
courage, shouting Inquilab Zindabad and Down individual annihilation to organising collective
with British Imperialism until their last breath. actions aimed at larger changes in the system.
The history of freedom struggle is incomplete As Surya Sen, the revolutionary leader of
without the revolutionary strand of nationalism Chittagong armoury raid, told Ananda Gupta,
and the ultimate sacrifice of these revolutionaries. ‘a dedicated band of youth must show the
One more name in the list of such fighters is path of organised armed struggle in place of
Kalpana Dutt. individual action. Most of us will have to die
in the process but our sacrifice for such noble
Kalpana Dutt (1913–1995) cause will not go in vain.’ When revolutionary
In the late 1920s a young woman, Kalpana groups like the Yugantar and the Anushilan
Dutt (known as Kalpana Joshi after her marriage Samiti began stagnating in the mid-1920s,
to the communist leader P.C. Joshi), fired the new groups sprang out of them. Among them,
patriotic imagination of young people by her the most important group was the one led
daring raid of the Chittagong armoury. by Surya Sen, a school teacher by profession,
in Bengal. He had actively participated in
the Non-cooperation movement and wore

Khadi. His group was closely working with villages and the villagers, gave food and shelter
the Chittagong unit of the Indian National to the revolutionaries and suffered greatly at the
Congress. hands of police for this. Due to the continuous
nature of the actions, there was an Armoury
Chittagong Armoury Raid Raid Supplementary Trial too. It took three
Surya Sen’s revolutionary group, the years to arrest Surya Sen, in February 1933,
Indian Republican Army, was named after and eleven months before he was sent to the
the Irish Republican Army. They planned a gallows on 12 January 1934. Kalpana Dutt was
rebellion to occupy Chittagong in a guerrilla- among those who participated in the raids.
style operation. The Chittagong armouries
were raided on the Women in Action
night of 18 April While Bhagat Singh represented young
1930. Simultaneous men who dedicated their lives to the freedom
attacks were launched of the country, Kalpana Dutt represented
on telegraph offices, the young women who defied the existing
the armoury and the patriarchal set up and took to arms for the
police barracks to cut liberation of their motherland. Not only did
off all communication they act as messengers (as elsewhere) but they
Surya Sen networks including also participated in direct actions, fought along
the railways to isolate with men, carrying guns.
the region. It was aimed at challenging the Kalpana Dutt’s active participation in the
colonial administration directly. revolutionary Chittagong movement led to her
The revolutionaries hoisted the national arrest. Tried along with Surya Sen, Kalpana was
flag and symbolically shouted slogans such as sentenced to transportation for life. The charge
Bande Matram and Inquilab Zindabad. The was “waging war against the King Emperor.”
raids and the resistance continued for the next As all their activities started with the raid on
three years. Often, they operated from the the Armoury, the trial came to be known as the
Chittagong Armoury Raid Trial.
On 13 June 1932 in a face-to-face battle Kalpana Dutt recalls in her book
against government forces, two of the Chittagong Armoury Raiders Reminiscences the
absconders of the Armoury Raid were killed, revolutionary youth of Chittagong wanted “to
while they in turn killed Capt. Cameron, inspire self-confidence by demonstrating that
Commander of the government forces in even without outside help it was possible to fight
the village of Dhalghat in the house of a the Government.
poor Brahmin widow, Savitri Debi. After the
incident the widow was arrested together 5.4 K
arachi Session of
with her children. Despite many offers and the Indian National
temptations, not a word could the police get
Congress, 1931
out of the widow. They were uneducated
and poor, yet they resisted all the temptation The Indian National Congress, in contrast
offers of gold and unflinchingly could bear all to the violent actions of revolutionaries,
the tortures that were inflicted upon them. mobilised the masses for non-violent struggles.
—From Kalpana Dutt’s autobiography The Congress under the leadership of Gandhi
Chittagong Armoury Raiders’ Reminiscences. gave priority to the problems of peasants. In the
context of great agrarian distress, deepened by
world-wide economic depression, the Congress

mobilised the peasantry. The Congress adopted a The existing social relations, especially the
no-rent and no-tax campaign as a part of its civil caste system and the practice untouchability,
disobedience programme. Under the pressure were also challenged with a promise to ensure
of Great Depression, socio-economic demands equal access to public places and institutions.
were sharply articulated in its Karachi Session of The Fundamental Rights, in fact, found a
the Indian National Congress. place in the Part III of the Constitution of India–
Fundamental Rights - and some of them went
into Part IV, the Directive Principles of the State
policy. You will study more on these in unit 13
of the second volume in the discussion on the
Constitution of India.
5.5 T
he Great Depression
and its Impact on India
Karachi Session
The freedom struggle was taking a new
shape. Peasants organised themselves into Kisan
Sabhas and industrial workers were organized by
the trade unions, made their presence felt in a big
way in the freedom struggle. The Indian National
Congress had become a mass party during the
1930s. The Congress leadership, which was
now taking a left turn under Nehru’s leadership,
began to talk about an egalitarian society based
on social and economic justice. Stock Market Crash in US Wall Street
The Karachi session held in March 1931, The Great Depression was a severe and
presided over by Sardar Valabhbhai Patel, prolonged economic crisis which lasted for
adopted a resolution on Fundamental Rights about a decade from 1929. The slowdown of
and Duties and provided an insight into what the economic activities, especially industrial
the economic policy of an independent India. production, led to crises like lockouts, wage
In some ways, it was the manifesto of the cut, unemployment and starvation. It began in
Indian National Congress for independent North America and affected Europe and all the
India. These rights and the social and economic industrial centres in the world. As the world was
programmes were derived from a firm integrated by the colonial order in its economic
conviction that political freedom and economic sphere, developments in one part of the world
freedom were inseparable. affected other parts as well.
Even a cursory look at the fundamental
rights resolution will tell you that all the basic The crash in the Wall Street (where the
rights that the British denied to the Indians American Stock Exchange was located) triggered
found a prominent place in the Resolution. an economic depression of great magnitude. The
The colonial government curtailed civil Depression hit India too. British colonialism
liberties and freedom by passing draconian aggravated the situation in India. Depression
acts and ordinances. Gandhian ideals and affected both industrial and agrarian sectors.
Nehru’s socialist vision also found a place Labour unrest broke out in industrial centres
in the list of rights that the Indian National such as Bombay, Calcutta, Kanpur, United
Congress promised to ensure in free India. Province and Madras against wage cuts, lay-offs

and for the betterment of living conditions. In both Ahmedabad
the agriculture sector, prices of the agricultural and Bombay became
products, which depended on export markets like prominent centres of
jute and raw cotton fell steeply. The depression cotton mills. By 1914,
brought down the value of Indian exports from there were 129 spinning,
Rs. 311 crores in 1929–1930 to Rs 132 crores in weaving and other
1932–33. Therefore, the 1930s witnessed the cotton mills within
emergence of the Kisan Sabhas which fought for Bombay presidency.
rent reduction, relief from debt traps and even Between 1875–76 and
for the abolition of Zamindari. 1913-14, the number of
The only positive impact was on the Indian cotton textile mills in Cowasjee Nanabhoy
industrial sector that could use the availability of India increased from 47 Davar
land at reduced prices and labour at cheap wage to 271.
rates. The weakening ties with Britain and other
capitalist countries created a condition where
growth was recorded in some of the Indian
industries. Yet only the industries which fed the
local consumption thrived.
5.6 I
ndustrial
Development in India
The British trade policy took a heavy toll
on the indigenous industry. Industrialization of
India was not part of British policy. Like other
An important landmark in the establishment
colonies, India was treated as a raw material
of industries in India was the expansion of the
procurement area and a market for their finished
railways system in India. The first passenger train
goods.
ran in 1853, connecting Bombay with Thane.
Despite this, industrial expansion took By the first decade of the twentieth century,
place in India, because of certain unforeseen railways was the biggest engineering industry
circumstances, first during the course of the in India. This British-managed industry, run by
First World War and then during the Great railway companies, employed 98,723 persons in
Depression. 1911. The advent of railways and other means of
The first Indian to start a cotton mill was transport and communication facilities helped
Cowasjee Nanabhoy Davar (1815–73), a Parsi, in the development of various industries.
Bombay in 1854. This was known as the Bombay Jute was yet another industry that picked up
Spinning and Weaving Company. The city’s in India in the late nineteenth and early twentieth
leading traders, mostly Parsis, contributed to this century. The first jute mill in Calcutta was founded
endeavour. The American Civil War (1861–65) in 1855. The growth of jute industry was so rapid
was a boon to the cotton farmers. But after the and by 1914, there were 64 mills in Calcutta
Civil War when Britain continued to import Presidency. However, unlike the Bombay textile
cotton from America, Indian cotton cultivators industry, these mills were owned by Europeans.
came to grief. But Europeans started textile Though the industrial development in the
mills in India, taking advantage of the cheapness nineteenth century was mainly confined to very
of cotton available. Ahmedabad textiles mills limited sectors like cotton, jute, etc., efforts were
were established by Indian entrepreneurs and made to diversify the sectors. For example, the

Bengal Coal Company
was set up in 1843 in Jamsetji Nusserwanji
Raiganj by Dwarakanath Tata, popularly known
Tagore (1794–1847), as J. N. Tata (1839–
grandfather of 1904), came from a
Rabindranath Tagore. Parsi (Zoroastrian)
The coal industry business family in
picked up after 1892 Navsari, Baroda. The
first successful Indian J. N. Tata
and its growth peaked
Dwarakanath Tagore entrepreneur, he is called the father of the Indian
during First World War
years. modern industry. In order to help his father’s
business, he travelled all over the world and this
It was in the early twentieth century,
exposure helped him in his future endeavours.
industries in India began to diversify. The first
His trading company, established in 1868,
major steel industry – Tata Iron and Steel Company
evolved into the Tata Group. A nationalist, he
(TISCO) – was set up by the Tatas in 1907 as a
called one of the mills established in Kurla,
part of swadeshi effort in Sakchi, Bihar. Prior to
Bombay “Swadeshi”. His children Dorabji Tata
this, a group of Europeans had attempted in 1875
and Ratanji Tata followed his dream and it was
to found the Bengal Iron Company. Following
Dorabji Tata who finally realised the long term
this, the Bengal Iron and Steel Company was
dream of his father to establish an iron and steel
set up in 1889. However, TISCO made a huge
company in 1907. His enthusiasm was such
headway than the other endeavourers in this
that he spent two years in US to learn from the
sector. Its production increased from 31,000 tons
American Iron Industrialists. His yet another
in 1912–13 to 1,81,000 tons in 1917–18.
dream to set up a hydroelectric company did
The First World War gave a landmark not materialize during his life time. However,
break to the industrialisation of the country. the first major Hydroelectric project – Tata
For the first time, Britain’s strategic position in Hydroelectric Company–was set up in 1910.
the East was challenged by Japan. The traditional With great foresight the Tatas founded the
trade routes were vulnerable to attack. To meet Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore.
the requirements, development of industries in
India became necessary. Hence, Britain appointed in 1916. During the war-period, the
loosened its grip and granted some concessions cotton and jute industries showed much
to the Indian capitalists. Comparative relaxation growth. Steel industry was yet another sector
of control by the British government and the marked by substantial growth.
expansion of domestic market due to the War,
Other industries
facilitated the process of industrialisation. For
showing progress were paper,
the first time, an industrial commission was
chemicals, cement, fertilisers,
tanning, etc. The first Indian
owned paper mill – Couper
Paper Mill – was set up in 1882
in Lucknow. Following this,
Itaghur Paper Mill and Bengal Paper Mill, both
owned by Europeans, were established. Cement
manufacturing began in 1904 in Madras with
the establishment of South Indian Industries Ltd.
Tanning industry began in the late nineteenth
century and a government leather factory was
Tata Iron and Steel Company

set up in 1860 in Kanpur. The first Indian-owned
National Tannery was established in 1905 in
Calcutta. The gold mining in Kolar also started in
the late nineteenth century in the Kolar mining
field, Mysore.
The inter-war period registered growth
in manufacturing industries. Interestingly the
growth rate was far better than Britain and even
better than the world average. After a short
slug in 1923–24, the output of textile industry
began to pick up. During the interwar period,
the number of looms and spindles increased
Coimbatore Stanes Mill
considerably.
In 1929–30, 44 per cent of the total in the state. The number of sugar factories in the
amount of cotton piece goods consumed in province rose from two to eleven between 1931
India came from outside, but by 1933–34, and 1936. There were also proliferation of rice
after the Great Depression, the proportion mills, oil mills and cinema enterprise during this
had fallen to 20.5 percent. Other two period.
industries which registered impressive
growth were sugar and cement. The Interwar Summary
years saw a growth in the shipping industry The 1920s and 30’s witnessed a surge of
too. The Scindia Steam Navigation Company radicalism, a totally different strand of
Limited (1919) was the pioneer. In 1939, they nationalism.
even took over the Bombay Steam Navigation
Communist Party of India was founded
Company Ltd., a British concern. Eight Indian
and the communist activities ended
concerns were operational in this sector.
in Kanpur Conspiracy and Meerut
A new phase of production began with the
Conspiracy Cases
Second World War, which led to the extension
of manufacturing industries to machineries, Young women also participated in the
aircrafts, locomotives, and so on revolutionary movements and Kalpna
Dutta was one among them
Industrial Development in Great revolutionaries like Bhagat Singh,
Tamilnadu during the Depression Rajguru, Sukdev and Surya Sen attained
The industrial growth in the Madras martyrdom for the cause of Indian
Presidency was substantial. In Coimbatore, after independence.
Stanes Mill (Coimbatore Spinning and Weaving 1930s was a period of Great Depression
Mills) was established in 1896, no other mill could which had impacted globally. India as
come up. The objective conditions created by the a colony of Great Britain was worst hit.
Depression like fall in prices of land, cheapness of India’s industrial development from the
labour and low interest rates led to the expansion second half of the nineteenth century to
of textile industry in Coimbatore. Twenty nine the end of the inter-war years was without
mills and ginning factories were floated in the any prompting from the British and was
Coimbatore area during 1929-37. A cement mainly due to the conditions created first
factory started at Madukkarai in Coimbatore by the First World War and later by the
district in 1932 gave fillip to the cement industry Great Depression.

7. Find out which of the following statements
EXERCISE are correct with the help of the the code
given below.
I. C
hittagong Armoury Raiders’ Reminiscences
IC
hoose the correct
was written by Kalpana Dutt.
answer
II. Kalpana Dutt fought carrying guns for the
1. Communist Party of India liberation of her mother land.
was formed in the year
III. She was charged with ‘waging war against
(a) 1920 (b) 1925 the King Emperor’.
(c) 1930 (d) 1935 (a) Only I (b) I and II
2. Kalpana Dutt was associated with (c) II and III (d) all the above
(a)
Hindustan Socialist Republican 8. The first passenger train ran in 1853 between
Association
(a) Madras – Arakkonam
(b) Bengal Association
(b) Bombay – Pune
(c) Communist Party of India
(c) Bombay – Thane
(d) I ndian Republican Army
(d) Kolkata – Hoogly
3. Match the following
9. The first Jute Mill in Calcutta was founded in
(A) Kanpur Conspiracy Case - 1. Fundamental (a) 1855 (b) 1866
rights
(c) 1877 (d) 1888
(B) Meerut Conspiracy Case - 2. Surya Sen
10. Who among the following was arrested in
(C) Chittagong Armoury Ride - 3. 1929 the Kanpur Conspiracy Case?
(D) Karachi Session of (a) M.N. Roy (b) Baghat Singh
Indian National Congress - 4. 1924
(c) S.A. Dange (d) Ram Prasad Bismil
(a) 1, 2, 3, 4 (b) 2, 3, 4, 1
11. Which of the following statements about the
(c) 3, 4, 1, 2 (d) 4, 3, 2, 1 Kanpur conspiracy case are true?
4. Who died in jail after 64 days of hunger strike? i)
Trade unions emerged in the jute and
(a) Pulin Das (b) Sachin Sanyal cotton textile industries.
(c) Jatindra Nath Das (d) Preet Waddadar ii) The Communists and trade unionists were
5.
Which of the following about Great charged
Depression are true? iii) The case came before session Judge H.E.
i) It started in North America Holmer
iv) The trial and the imprisonment led to
ii) The crash in the Wall Street triggered the
some awareness of the Congress activities
Depression
in India
iii) Depression hit only the rich
Codes
iv) Labourers enjoyed better living conditions (a) i, ii and iii (b) i, iii and iv
during the Depression because of fall in (c) ii, iii and iv (d) i, ii and iv
prices.
(a) i and ii (b) i, ii and iii II Write brief answers
(c) i and iv (d) i, iii and iv 1. Name the three British communists sent by
6. The First Cotton Mill in Bombay was started in the Communist Party of Great Britain to help
(a) 1852 (b) 1854 build the party in India.
(c) 1861 (d) 1865

2.
Identify the persons who appeared and V. Activity
defended the accused in the Meerut 1. A group project exploring the role played by
Conspiracy Case. women in India’s struggle for independence.
3. What do you know of the notorious Sessions 2. Also an assignment to each student be given
Judge of Gorakhpur H.E. Holmes? in the class to attempt an account of the role
4. Which incident was known as the Second played by prominent women activists in
Lahore Conspiracy Case? Tamilnadu during the Gandhian Era.
5. Why is J.N. Tata called the father of Indian
modern industry? REFERENCES
III. Write short answers 1. Bipan Chandra, etal., India’s Struggle for
Independence, Penguin Books, New Delhi,
1.
Explain how Surya Sen organised the
2016.
Chitagong Armoury Raid.
2. K.A. Manikumar, A Colonial Economy in
2. Write a short note on TISCO.
the Great Depression: Madras, 1929-37,
3. Write about the contribution of Singaravelu Orient Longman, 2002.
to the promotion of trade unionism in South 3. Irfan Habib, Indian Economy 1858-1914, A
India. People’s History of India, Tulika Books, New
Delhi. 2016.
IV. Answer the following in detail 4. Bhagat Singh, Why I am an Atheist, National
1.
Discuss Bhagat Singh’s radical strand of Book Trust, New Delhi, 2006
nationalism, and his revolutionary activitsm 5. Cambridge Economic History of India,
that led to his hanging. Vol-2.
2.
Write an account of the industrial 6. Kalpana Dutt, Chittagong Armoury Raiders
development in colonial India during 1919- Reminiscences, People’s Publishing House
1939. Bombay, 1940.
7. Documents of the Communist Movement in
3. Examine the importance of Karachi session
India, vol. II, Meerut conspiracy case (1929),
of India National Congress in articulating the
National Book Agency Calcutta
socio-economic political aspirations, under
the pressure of Great Depression.

GLOSSARY
a political and economic system in which

1 there is no private ownership of property or ப�ொதுவுடைமைக்
Communism
industry and people of all social classes are க�ொள்கை
treated equally.
வலிமையின்
a member of the majority faction of the மூலம் உடனடியாக
2 Bolshevik Russian Communist Party, which seized அதிகாரத்தைக்
power in the October Revolution of 1917. கைப்பற்ற வேண்டும்
என்ற கருத்துடையவர்
3 fundamental
civil liberties of the people. அடிப்படை
Rights உரிமைகள்
4 Great
a deep and prolonged economic crisis. ப�ொருளாதார
Depression பெருமந்தம்
social or political movements that aim at
5 radicalism fundamental change in the structure of புரட்சிகர க�ோட்பாடு
society.
6 draconian severe. கடுமையான
personal freedom which cannot be denied
7 civil liberties
without due process of law. சிவில் உரிமைகள்
8 armoury a place where weapons are kept. ஆயுதக்கிடங்கு;

க�ொத்தளம்
the policy or technique of
9 non-violence அகிம்சை
refraining from the use of violence.
the condition of being an
10 untouchablity
untouchable, tainted by one’s birth into a தீண்டாமை
caste system that deems him or her impure.

UNIT Religion in
6 Nationalist Politics
Learning Objectives

The emergence of religious nationalism in pre-independent India
Use of religion as instrument for political mobilisation by Muslim League and Hindu
Mahasabha
British Divide and Rule policy to promote their imperial interests
The failure of Indian National Congress, representing secular nationalism, to contain
communalism
Grant of separate electorate by the British for Muslims encouraging the League and Jinnah
to press their demand for a separate state for Muslims
Acceptance of office by Congress, under Government of India Act, 1935, and the increasing
gap between Congress and Muslim League
Campaigns of Hindu Mahasabha and R.S.S. for Hindu Rashtra and the Congress Party’s
inability to handle them creating distrust of Muslim League in Congress
Call for Direct Action Day given by Jinnah and the resultant communal violence in Calcutta
The partition of the country into India and Pakistan
lost everything, their land, their job and other

Introduction
opportunities and were reduced to the state of
Before the establishment of British Raj, penury. Unable to reconcile to the condition
Mughals and their agents had ruled large to which they were reduced, the Muslims
parts of the country. Large sections of the retreated into a shell. And for the first few
Muslims therefore enjoyed the advantages of generations after 1857 they hated everything
being the co-religionists of the ruling class British. Besides they resented competing with
many of whom were sovereigns, landlords, the Hindus who had taken recourse to the
the generals and officials. The official and new avenues opened by colonialism. With the
court language was Persian. When the British emergence of Indian nationalism especially
gradually replaced them they introduced among the educated Hindu upper castes, the
a new system of administration. By the British saw in the Muslim middle class a force
mid-nineteenth century English education to keep the Congress in check. They cleverly
predominated. The 1857 rebellion was the last exploited the situation for the promotion
gasp of the earlier ruling class. Following the of their own interests. The competing
brutal suppression of the revolt, the Muslims three strands of nationalism namely Indian
76

nationalism, Hindu nationalism, and Muslim Muslim consciousness developed due to
nationalism are dealt with in this lesson. other reasons as well. The Bengal government’s
order in the 1870s to replace Urdu by Hindi,
6.1 Origin and Growth and the Perso-Arabic script by Nagri script in
of Communalism in the courts and offices created apprehension in
British India the minds of the Muslim professional group.
(a) Hindu Revivalism (c) Divide and Rule Policy of

British
Some of the early nationalists believed
that nationalism could be built only on a Hindu The object of the
foundation. As pointed out by Sarvepalli British was to check
Gopal, Hindu, revivalism found its voice in the development of a
politics through the Arya Samaj, founded in composite Indian identity,
1875, with its assertion of superior qualities of and to forestall attempts
Hinduism. The organization of cow protection at consolidation and
leagues in large parts of North India in the unification of Indians.
late nineteenth century gave a fillip to Hindu The British imperialism
communalism. The effort of organizations followed the policy of Elphinstone
such as Arya Samaj was strengthened by the Divide and Rule. Bombay
Theosophical movement led by Annie Besant Governor Elphinstone wrote, ‘Divide at
from 1891. Besant identified herself with Impera was the old Roman motto and it
Hindu nationalists and expressed her ideas should be ours.’ The British government lent
as follows: ‘The Indian work is first of all the legitimacy and prestige to communal ideology
revival, strengthening and uplifting of ancient and politics despite the governance challenge
religions. This has brought with it a new self- that communal riots posed. The consequence
respect, a pride in the past, a belief in the of such sectarian approaches by all parties led
future and as an inevitable result, a great wave to increasing animosity between Hindus and
of patriotic life, the beginning of the rebuilding Muslims in northern India which had its fall
of a nation.’ out in other parts of India as well. The last
decades of the nineteenth century was marked
(b) Rise of Muslims by a number of Hindu–Muslim riots. Even in
Consciousness south India, there was a major riot in Salem in
Islam on the other hand, to quote Sarvepalli July–August 1882.
Gopal again, was securing its articulation
through the Aligarh movement. The British, by (d) Cow Slaughter and
building the Aligarh college and backing Syed Communal Riots
Ahmed Khan, had assisted the birth of a Muslim In July 1893, a dispute arose between
national party and Muslim political ideology. Hindus and Muslims in Azamgarh district in the
The Wahabi movement had also created cleavage North-West Provinces. The riots that followed
in Hindu–Muslim relations. The Wahabis spread over a vast area, encompassing the
wanted to take Islam to its pristine purity and to United Provinces, Bihar, Gujarat and Bombay,
end the superstition which according to them claiming over a hundred lives. Gaurakshini
had sapped its vitality. From the Wahabis to Sabhas (cow protection leagues) were becoming
the Khilafatists, grassroots activism played a more militant and there were reports of forcible
significant role in the politicization of Muslims. interference with the sale or slaughter of cows.
The riots over cow-slaughter became frequent
after 1893 and 15 major riots of this type broke
77 Religion in Nationalist Politics

out in the Punjab alone between 1883 and Congressmen to pass a resolution in the third
1891. Cow protectionists in the Punjab, the session of the Indian National Congress, making
activities of Gaurakshini Sabhas in the Central cow killing a penal offence, the Congress
Provinces, the campaigners for the recognition leadership refused to entertain it. The Congress
of Devanagiri as official language in courts and subsequently resolved that if any resolution
government offices in the United Provinces were affecting a particular class or community was
also involved in the Congress organization. objected to by the delegates representing that
community, even though they were in minority,
(e) Failure of Congress and it would not be considered by the Congress.
Government to combat
Communalism (g) Role of Syed Ahmed Khan
The Indian National Congress, despite its Sir Syed Ahmed
secular and nationalist claims was unable to Khan, the founder of
prevent the involvement of its members in the Aligarh movement was
activities of Hindu communal organisations. initially supportive of
This was a major factor in the Muslim distrust the Congress. Soon
of the Congress. Congressmen’s participation he was converted to
in shuddhi and sangathan campaigns of the the thinking that in
Arya Samaj further estranged Hindus and a country governed
Muslims. The British government could have by Hindus, Muslims
Sir Syed Ahmed khan
adopted measures to outlaw Cow Protection would be helpless, as
Associations or to arrest the rank communalists they would be in a minority. However, there
who were causing distrust among the people. were Muslim leaders like Badruddin Tyabji,
But the British deliberately dodged the issue, Rahmatullah Sayani in Mumbai, Nawab Syed
as the identification of the Congressmen with Mohammed Bahadur in Chennai and A. Rasul
revivalist and communal causes provoked in Bengal who supported the Congress. But the
anti-Congress feelings among Muslims in majority of Muslims in north India toed the
North India. The Secretary of State Hamilton line of Syed Ahmed, and preferred to support
considered the development a happy augury the British. The introduction of representative
for he was earlier worried over the growing institutions and of open competition to
solidarity among various social and religious government posts gave rise to apprehensions
groups in the context of the foundation of the amongst Muslims and prompted Syed and
Indian National Congress. his followers to work for close collaboration
with the Government. By collaborating with
‘One hardly knows what to wish for, unity of the Government Syed Ahmed Khan hoped
ideas and action would be very dangerous to secure for his community a bigger share
politically; divergence of ideas and collision are than otherwise would be due according to the
administratively troublesome. Of the two, the principles of number or merit.
latter is the least risky, though it throws anxiety The foundation of the Indian National
and responsibility upon those on the spot where Congress in 1885 was an attempt to narrow the
the friction exists.’- Hamilton to the Viceroy Elgin Hindu-Muslim divide and place the genuine
grievances of all the communities in the country
(f) Moves of the Congress before the British. But Sir Syed Ahmed Khan
and other Muslim leaders like Syed Ameer
Though many congress men had
Ali, the first Indian to find a place in London
involvement in Hindu organisations like
Privy Council, projected the Congress as a
Arya Samaj, the Congress leadership was
representative body of only the Hindus. Of the
secular. When there was an attempt by some
Religion in Nationalist Politics 78

seventy-two delegates attending the first session the view that the history of Muslim rule in India
of the Congress only two were Muslims. Muslim was characterised by degradation of the Hindus
leaders opposed the Congress tooth and nail on through forcible conversion, imposition of
the plea that Muslims’ participation in it would jizya, strict application of the shariat and the
create an unfavourable reaction among the destruction of the places of worship. History
rulers against their community. textbooks and literature based on the prejudiced
views of British writers added fuel to such views.
(h) Religion in Local Body
Elections Hindu and Muslim Communalism were
Democratic politics had the unintended products of middle class infighting utterly
effect of fostering communal tendencies. Local divorced from the consciousness of the Hindu
administrative bodies in the 1880s provided the and Muslim masses. —Jawaharlal Nehru
scope for pursuing communal politics.
The situation took a turn for the worst in the
Municipal councillors acquired vast powers of
first decade of the twentieth century when political
patronage which were used to build-up one’s
radicalism went hand in hand with religious
political base. Hindus wresting the control of
conservatism. Tilak, Aurobindo Gosh and Lala
municipal boards from the Muslims and vice-
Lajpat Rai aroused anti-colonial consciousness by
versa led to communalisation of local politics.
using religious symbols, festivals and platforms.
Lal Chand, the principal The most aggravating factor was Tilak’s effort to
spokesperson of the Punjab mobilise Hindus through the Ganapati festival.
Hindu Sabha and later The Punjab Hindu Sabha founded in 1909 laid the
the leader of Arya Samaj, foundation for Hindu communal ideology and
highlighted the extent to politics. Lal Chand spared no efforts to condemn
which some Municipalities the Indian National Congress of pursuing a policy
were organised on communal of appeasement towards Muslims.
lines: ‘The members of Lal Chand
the Committee arrange 6.2 Formation of All India
themselves in two rows, around the presidential
Muslim League
chair. On the left are seated the representatives of the
banner of Islam and on the right the descendants On 1 October 1906, a 35-member
of old Rishis of Aryavarta. By this arrangement the delegation of the Muslim nobles, aristocrats,
members are constantly reminded that they are legal professionals and other elite sections
not simply Municipal Councillors, but they are as of the community mostly associated with
Muhammedans versus Hindus and vice-versa....’. Aligarh movement gathered at Simla under the
leadership of Aga Khan to present an address
(i) Week-kneed Policy of the to Lord Minto, the viceroy. They demanded
Congress proportionate representation of Muslims in
At the dawn of twentieth century, during government jobs, appointment of Muslim
the Swadeshi Movement in Bengal (1905–06), judges in High Courts and members in Viceroy’s
Muslim supporters of the Swadeshi movement council, etc. Though the Simla deputation failed
were condemned as “Congress touts.” The silence to obtain any positive commitment from the
of the Congress and its refusal to deal with such Viceroy, it worked as a catalyst for the foundation
elements frontally not only provided stimulus of the All India Muslim League (AIML) to
to communal politics but also demoralized and safeguard the interests of the Muslims in 1907.
discouraged the nationalist Muslims. Hindu A group of big zamindars, erstwhile Nawabs and
communalism had also gathered strength ex-bureaucrats became active members of this
round this time. It derived its sustenance from movement. The League supported the partition

of Bengal, demanded separate electorates into separate constituencies so that they voted
for Muslims, and pressed for safeguards for communally, thought communally, judged the
Muslims in Government Service. representatives communally and expressed
their grievances communally.
Objectives of All India Muslim
That the British did this with ulterior
League
motive was evident from a note sent by one of
The All India Muslim League, the first the British officers to Lady Minto: ‘I must send
centrally organized political party exclusively for your Excellency a line to say that a very big thing
Muslims, had the following objectives: has happened to-day. A work of statesmanship,
To promote among the Muslims of India that will affect Indian History for many a long
feelings of loyalty to the British Government, year. It is nothing less than pulling of 62 million
and remove any misconception that may people from joining the ranks of seditious
arise as to the instruction of Government opposition.’
with regard to any of its measures.
To protect and advance the political rights Communalism: Organising a religious
and interests of Muslims of India, and
group on the basis of its hostility towards
to respectfully represent their needs and
the followers of other religions to fight
aspirations to the Government.
even material issues. Communalism as an
To prevent the rise among the Muslims ideology or movement has been defined in
of India of any feeling of hostility towards various ways by various scholars. According
other communities without prejudice to the to Nehru, communalism is one of the
aforementioned objects of the League. obvious examples of backward-looking
Initially, AIML was an elitist organization people trying to hold on to something that
of urbanized Muslims. However, the support of is wholly out of place in the modern world
the British Government helped the League to and is essentially opposed to the concept of
become the sole representative body of Indian nationalism. According to another scholar,
Muslims. Within three years of its formation, communalism denotes ‘organised attempt
the AIML successfully achieved the status of of a group to bring about change in the
separate electorates for the Muslims. It granted face of resistance from other groups or the
separate constitutional identity to the Muslims. government through collective mobilisation
The Lucknow Pact (1916) put an official seal on a based on a narrow ideology.’
separate political identity to Muslims.
The announcement of separate electorates

Separate Electorate or Communal Electorate:
Under this arrangement only Muslims could vote and the incorporation of the principle of
for the Muslim candidates. Minto-Morely Reforms, “divide and rule” into a formal constitutional
1909 provided for eight seats to Muslims in the arrangement made the estrangement between
Imperial Legislative Council, out of the 27 non- Hindus and Muslims total.
officials to be elected. In the Legislative Council
of the provinces seats reserved for the Muslim 6.3 Emergence of the All
candidates were: Madras 4; Bombay 4; Bengal 5.
India Hindu Mahasabha
(a) Separate Electorates and the In the wake of the formation of the Muslim
Spread of Communalism League and introduction of the Government
The institution of separate electorate of India Act of 1909, a move to start a Hindu
was the principle technique adopted by the organisation was in the air. In pursuance of
Government of British India for fostering and the resolution passed at the fifth Punjab Hindu
spreading communalism. The people were split Conference at Ambala and the sixth conference

at Ferozepur, the first all Indian Conference of The bloody Malabar
Hindus was convened at Haridwar in 1915. The rebellion of 1921, where
All India Hindu Mahasabha was started there Muslim peasants were pitted
with headquarters at Dehra Dun. Provincial against both the British
Hindu Sabhas were started subsequently in UP, rulers and Hindu landlords,
with headquarters at Allahabad and in Bombay gave another reason for
and Bihar. While the sabhas in Bombay and the renewed campaign of
Bihar were not active, there was little response the Hindu Mahasabha. Though the outbreak
in Madras and Bengal. was basically an agrarian revolt, communal
Predominantly urban in character, the passion ran high in consequence of which
Mahasabha was concentrated in the larger Gandhi himself viewed it as a Hindu-Muslim
trading cities of north India, particularly in conflict. Gandhi wanted Muslim leaders to
Allahabad, Kanpur, Benares, Lucknow and tender a public apology for the happenings in
Lahore. In UP, the Mahasabha, to a large extent Malabar.
was the creation of the educated middle class
leaders who were also activists in the Congress.
The Khilafat movement gave some respite to
the separatist politics of the communalists. As a
result, between 1920 and 1922, the Mahasabha
ceased to function.
The entry of ulema into politics led Hindus
to fear a revived and aggressive Islam. Even
important Muslim leaders like Ali brothers had
always been Khilafatists first and Congressmen Malabar Rebellion, 1921
second. The power of mobilisation on religious (a) Communalism in United
grounds demonstrated by the Muslims during Provinces (UP)
the Khilafat movement motivated the Hindu The suspension of the non-cooperation
communalists to imitate them in mobilising movement in 1922 and the abolition of the
the Hindu masses. Suddhi movement was not Caliphate in 1924 left the Muslims in a state
a new phenomenon but in the post-Khilafat of frustration. In the aftermath of Non-Co-
period it assumed new importance. In an effort operation movement, the alliance between
to draw Hindus into the boycott of the visit of the Khilafatists and the Congress crumbled.
Prince of Wales in 1921, Swami Shradhananda There was a fresh spate of communal violence,
tried to revive the Mahasabha by organizing as Hindus and Muslims, in the context of self-
cow-protection propaganda. governing institutions created under the Act of
1919, began to stake their political claims and
Before the World War I, Britain had in the process vied with each other to acquire
promised to safeguard the interests of the power and position. Of 968 delegates attending
Caliph as well the Kaaba (the holiest seat of the sixth annual conference of the Hindu
Islam). But after Turkey’s defeat in the War, Mahasabha in Varanasi in August 1923, 56.7
they refused to keep their word. The stunned % came from the U.P. The United Provinces
Muslim community showed its displeasure (UP), the Punjab, Delhi and Bihar together
to the British government by starting the contributed 86.8 % of the delegates. Madras,
Khilafat movement to secure the Caliphate in Bombay and Bengal combined sent only 6.6%
Turkey. of the delegates. 1920s was a trying period for
the Congress. This time the communal tension
in the United Province was not only due to the

zeal of Hindu and Muslim religious leaders, (c) Delhi Conference of Muslims
but was fuelled by the political rivalries of the and their Proposals
Swarajists and Liberals. One great outcome of the efforts at unity,
however, was an offer by the Conference of
Muslims, which met at Delhi on March 20, 1927
to give up separate electorates if four proposals
were accepted. 1. the separation of Sind from
Bombay 2. Reforms for the Frontier and
Baluchistan 3. Representation by population
Motilal Nehru M.M. Malaviya in the Punjab and Bengal and 4. Thirty-three
per cent seats for the Muslims in the Central
In Allahabad, Motilal Nehru and Madan Legislature.
Mohan Malaviya confronted each other. When
Nehru’s faction emerged victorious in the Expressing anguish over the development
municipal elections of 1923, Malaviya’s faction of sectarian nationalism, Gandhi wrote,
began to exploit religious passions. The District ‘There are as many religions as there are
Magistrate Crosthwaite who conducted the individuals, but those who are conscious of
investigation reported: ‘The Malavia family have the spirit of the nationality do not interfere
deliberately stirred up the Hindus and this has with one another’s religion. If Hindus believe
reacted on the Muslims.’ that India should be peopled only by Hindus,
they are living in a dream land. The Hindus,
(b) The Hindu Mahasabha the Sikhs, the Muhammedans, the Parsis and
In the Punjab communalism as a powerful the Christians who have made their country
movement had set in completely. In 1924 Lala are fellow countrymen and they will have to
Lajpat Rai openly advocated the partition of live in unity if only for their interest. In no
the Punjab into Hindu and Muslim Provinces. part of the world are one nationality and one
The Hindu Mahasabha, represented the forces religion synonymous terms nor has it ever
of Hindu revivalism in the political domain, been so in India.’
raised the slogan of ‘Akhand Hindustan’
against the Muslim League’s demand of Motilal Nehru and S. Srinvasan persuaded
separate electorates for Muslims. Ever since its the All India Congress Committee to accept the
inception, the Mahasabha’s role in the freedom Delhi proposals formulated by the Conference
struggle has been rather controversial. While of the Muslims. But communalism had struck
not supportive of British rule, the Mahasabha such deep roots that the initiative fell through.
Gandhi commented that the Hindu-Muslim
did not offer its full support to the nationalist
issue had passed out of human hands. Instead
movement either.
of seizing the opportunity to resolve the
Since the Indian National Congress had tangle, the Congress chose to drag its feet by
to mobilize the support of all classes and appointing committees, one to find out whether
communities against foreign domination, the it was financially feasible to separate Sind from
leaders of different communities could not Bombay and the other to examine proportional
press for principle of secularism firmly for the representation as a means of safeguarding
fear of losing the support of religious-minded Muslim majorities. Jinnah who had taken the
groups. The Congress under the leadership of initiative to narrow down the breach between
Gandhi held a number of unity conferences the two, and had been hailed the ambassador of
during this period, but to no avail. Hindu-Muslim unity by Sarojini, felt let down
as the Hindu Mahasabha members present at
the All Parties Convention held in Calcutta

in 1928 rejected all 6.4 First Congress
amendments and Ministries
destroyed any possibility
of unity. Thereafter, The nationalism of the Indian National
most of the Muslims Congress was personified by Mahatma
were convinced that Gandhi, who rejected the narrow nationalism
they would get a better exemplified by the Arya Samaj and the
deal from Government Aligargh movement and strove to evolve a
rather than from the political identity that transcended the different
Congress. In despair Sarojini
religions. Notwithstanding the state-supported
Jinnah left the country, only to return many
communalism of different hues, the Indian
years later as a rank communalist.
National Congress remained a dominant political
force in India. In the 1937 elections, Congress
(d) Communal Award and its won in seven of the eleven provinces and formed
Aftermath the largest party in three others. The Muslim
The British League’s performance was dismal. It succeeded
Government was in winning only 4.8 per cent of the Muslim votes.
consistent in promoting The Congress had emerged as a mass secular
communalism. Even party. Yet the Government branded it a Hindu
the delegates for the organisation and projected the Muslim League
second Round Table as the real representative of the Muslims and
Conference were V.D. Savarkar treated it on a par with the Congress.
chosen on the basis of Seeing this dismal performance, the
their communal bearings. After the failure of Muslim League was convinced that the only
the Round Table Conferences, the British Prime choice left to it was to whip up emotions on
Minister Ramsay MacDonald announced the communal lines in provinces like Bengal and
Communal Award which further vitiated the Punjab. The over confidence of the Congress,
political climate. given its overwhelming victory in the elections,
The R.S.S. founded in 1925 was expanding made it misjudge Muslim sentiment. Jinnah
and its volunteers had shot upto 1,00,000. K.B. exploited the emotional campaign of ‘Islam in
Hedgewar, V.D. Savarkar and M.S. Golwalker danger’ to gain mass Muslim support after the
were attempting to elaborate on the concept of 1936-37 elections – a divisive cause in which
the Hindu Rashtra and openly advocated that the Hindu Mahasabha came to its help through
‘the non-Hindu people in Hindustan must adopt coalition ministries.
the Hindu culture and language...they must
cease to be foreigners or may stay in the country 6.5 Observation of Day of
wholly subordinated to the Hindu Nation
Deliverance
claiming nothing.' V.D. Savarkar asserted that
‘We Hindus are a Nation by ourselves’. Though The Second World War broke out in 1939
the Congress had forbidden its members from and the Viceroy of India Linlithgow immediately
joining the Mahasabha or the R.S.S. as early announced that India was also at war. Since the
as 1934, it was only in December 1938 that declaration was made without any consultation
the Congress Working Committee declared with the Congress, it was greatly resented by
Mahasabha membership to be a disqualification it. The Congress Working Committee decided
for remaining in the Congress. that all Congress ministries in the provinces
would resign. After the resignation of Congress
ministries, the provincial governors suspended

the legislatures and took charge of the provincial to Muslims unless it is designed on the
administration. following basic principles, viz. that
The Muslim League celebrated the end geographically contiguous units are
of Congress rule as a day of deliverance on 22 demarcated into regions which should be
December 1939. On that day, the League passed constituted with such territorial readjustments
resolutions in various places against Congress as may be necessary, that the area in which
for its alleged atrocities against Muslims. The the Muslims are numerically in majority
demonstration of Nationalist Muslims was should be grouped to constitute Independent
dubbed as anti-Islamic and denigrated. It was State.” The League resolved that the British
in this atmosphere that the League passed government before leaving India should effect
its resolution on 26 March 1940 in Lahore the partition of the country into Indian union
demanding a separate nation for Muslims. and Pakistan.
Though the idea of Pakistan came 6.6 Direct Action Day

from the Muslim League platform in 1940
Hindu communalism and Muslim
it had been conceived ten years earlier by
communalism fed on each other throughout
the poet–scholar Mohammad Iqbal. At the
the early 1940s. Muslim League openly
League’s annual conference at Allahabad
boycotted the Quit India movement of
(1930), Iqbal expressed his wish to see a
1942. In the elections held in 1946 to the
consolidated North-west Indian Muslim
Constituent Assembly, Muslim League won
State. It was then articulated forcefully by
all 30 seats reserved for Muslims in the
Rahmat Ali, a Cambridge student. The basis
Central Legislative Assembly and most of
of League’s demand was its “Two Nation
the reserved provincial seats as well. The
Theory” which first came from Sir Wazir
Congress Party was successful in gathering
Hasan in his presidential address at Bombay
most of the general electorate seats, but it
session of League in 1937. He said, “the
could no longer effectively insist that it spoke
Hindus and Mussalmans inhabiting this
for the entire population of British India.
vast continent are not two communities but
should be considered two nations in many In 1946 Secretary of State Pethick-
respects.” Lawrence led a three-member Cabinet Mission
to New Delhi with the hope of resolving the
Neither Jinnah nor Nawab Zafrullah Congress–Muslim League deadlock and,
Khan then had considered creation of separate thus, of transferring British power to a single
state for Muslims practicable. However, on Indian administration. Cripps was primarily
March 23, 1940, the Muslim League formally responsible for drafting the Cabinet Mission
adopted the idea by passing a resolution. The Plan. The plan proposed a three-tier federation
text of the resolution for India, integrated by a central government
ran as under: in Delhi, which would be limited to handling
“Resolved that it is foreign affairs, communications, defence, and
the concerted view only those finances required to take care of
of this session of the union matters. The subcontinent was to be
All India Muslim divided into three major groups of provinces:
League that no Group A, to include the Hindu-majority
constitutional provinces of the Bombay Presidency, Madras
scheme would be Presidency, the United Provinces, Bihar,
workable in this Orissa, and the Central Provinces; Group B,
country or acceptable Muhammad Ali to contain the Muslim-majority provinces of
Jinnah

the Punjab, Sind, the North-West Frontier, representing Hinduism and Wahabi and
and Baluchistan; and Group C, to include Khilafat movements representing Islam.
the Muslim-majority Bengal and the Hindu- Hindu nationalism, Muslim nationalism
majority Assam. The group governments were and secular nationalism competed with
to be autonomous in everything excepting in each other to politicise the people in their
matters reserved to the centre. The princely fight against British colonialism.
states within each group were to be integrated
Cow Protection Associations and their
later into their neighbouring provinces. Local
attempt to prevent killing of cows led to
provincial governments were to have the
riots and spread of communalism.
choice of opting out of the group in which
they found themselves, should a majority of Use of religion in politics and its fallout
their people desire to do so. in north India created estrangement
Jinnah accepted the Cabinet Mission’s between Hindus and Muslims.
proposal, as did the Congress leaders. But after Government’s encouragement of
several weeks of behind-the-scene negotiations, communalisation of politics resulted in
on July 29, 1946, the Muslim League adopted a the formation of All India Muslim League.
resolution rejecting the Cabinet Mission Plan The granting of separate electorate to
and called upon the Muslims throughout India Muslims encouraged it further to demand
to observe a ‘Direct Action Day’ in protest on a separate state for Muslims.
August 16. The rioting and killing that took place Campaigns of Hindu Mahasabha for a
for four days in Calcutta led to a terrible violence Hindu Rashtra contributed to a total
resulting in thousands of deaths. Gandhi who estrangement between Hindus and
was until then resisting any effort to vivisect Muslims. The latter celebrated the
the country had to accede to the demand of the resignation of Congress ministries in
Muslim League for creation of Pakistan. provinces in the wake of Second World
Mountbatten who succeeded Wavell came War as a day of deliverance.
to India as Viceroy to effect the partition plan Jinnah’s obstinacy in arriving at a
and transfer of power. settlement based on Cabinet Mission
Plan and his call for Direct Action Day
Summary in 1946 led to a civil war like situation in
Calcutta, ending in the partition of the
Communalism in British India is traced country into India and Pakistan.
to the religious reform movements,
Arya Samaj and Theosophical Society
2.
What is the chronological order of the
foundation of the following socio- religious
EXERCISE
organisations
I. C
hoose the 1. All India Muslim League
correct answer 2. Arya Samaj
3. All India Hindu Maha Sabha
1. During the Mughal Period the Official and
4. The Punjab Hindu Sabha
Court language was
(a) 1, 2, 3, 4 (b) 2, 1, 4, 3
(a) Urdu (b) Hindi
(c) 2, 4, 3, 1 (d) 4, 3, 2, 1
(c) Marathi (d) Persian

3.The first Indian to find a place in London 8. The Muslim League celebrated the end of
Privy Council Congress rule as a Day of Deliverance on
(a) Rahmatullah Sayani (a) 22 December 1940
(b) Sir Syed Ahmed (b) 5 February 1939
(c) Syed Ameer Ali (c) 23 March 1937
(d) Badruddin Tyabji (d) 22 December 1939
4. A
ssertion: The Bengal government’s order 9. Match List- I with List- II and select the
of 1870 created apprehension in the minds correct answer using the codes given below
of Muslim professional groups. List- I List- II
Reason: It replaced Urdu by Hindi and (A) Annie Besant - 1. Aligarh
the Perso-Arabic script in the courts and Movement
offices.
(B) Syed Ahmed Khan - 2. Dayanand
(a) A is correct R does not explain A. Saraswati
(b) A is correct and R explains A. (C) Khilafat Movement- 3. Theosophical
(c) A is wrong and R is correct. Society
(D) Suddhi Movement - 4. Ali Brothers
(d) Both A and R are wrong
A B C D
5. Find out the correct Statement(s)
(a) 3 1 4 2
Statement-I Some of the early nationalists (b) 1 2 3 4
believed that nationalism could be built
only on Hindu foundation. (c) 4 3 2 1
Statement-II The effort of organizations (d) 2 3 4 1

such as Hindu Maha Sabha was strengthened 10.
Find out the correct answer from the
by the Theosophical movement led by following:
Annie Besant. i)
Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, the founder
Statement-III Congressmen’s participation of Aligarh movement, was initially
in shuddhi and sangathan campaigns of supportive of the Congress.
the Arya Samaj further estranged between ii) The Punjab Hindu Sabha founded in
Hindus and Muslims. 1909 laid the foundation for Hindu
(a) I & II (b) I & III communal politics.
(c) II & III (d) All of the above (a) Statement (i) & (ii) are correct
(b) statement (i) correct (ii) wrong
6. The Two Nation Theory first came from
(c) Statement (i) wrong (ii) correct
(a) Rajaji
(d) statement (i) & (ii) are wrong
(b) Ramsay MacDonald
11.
Direct Action Day organised by the
(c) Mohammad Iqbal
Muslim League on
(d) Sir Wazir Hasan
(a) 25 December, 1942
7. In the 1937 elections, Congress won in (b) 16 February, 1946
(a) 12 Provinces (b) 7 Provinces (c) 21 March, 1937
(c) 5 Provinces (d) 8 Provinces (d) 22 December, 1939

12. Wavell was succeeded by III. Write short answers
(a) Linlithgow (b) Pethic Lawrence 1. How did Gandhi view the Malabar Rebellion
(c) Mountbatten (d) Chelmsford of 1921.
13.Assertion (A): The institution of separate 2. Highlight the objectives of the first centrally-
electorate was the principle adopted by organized political party of Muslims.
the British Government for fostering and 3.
State the importance of Minto-Morley
spreading communalism. reforms of 1909.
Reason (R): The people were split into 4.
How is communalism as an ideology
separate constituencies so that they voted defined?
communally. 5.
What were the proposals of the Delhi
(a)
A is correct, R is not the correct Conference of Muslims held in 1927?
explanation of A
IV. A
nswer the following in
(b) A is correct, R is wrong detail
(c) A and R are wrong 1.
Trace the origin and growth of
(d) A is correct, R is the correct explanation communalism in British India.
of A 2. How did the divide and rule policy of the
14. Match the following and choose the correct British impact on Indian nationalism?
answer form the codes given below 3. Hindu nationalism, Muslim nationalism and
(A) Hindu Revivalism 1. M.S. Indian nationalism were equally responsible
Golwalkar for the partition of the country. How?
(B) Abolition of
V. Activity
the Caliphate 2. Arya Samaj
1.
C ompile an account of major Hindu-
(C) Lala Lajpat Rai 3. 1924
Muslim Riots in India since 1875.
(D) RSS 4. Partition of
2. Hold a discussion on whether religion can
the Punjab
come into the public sphere.
into Hindu
and Muslim
Provinces REFERENCES
A B C D 1. Anil Seal, The Emergence of Indian
(a) 4 3 2 1 Nationalism, Cambridge University Press,
(b) 3 4 1 2 1968.
2. S. Gopal, British Policy in India, 1858-1905,
(c) 1 3 2 4
Cambridge University Press, 1992 (reprint).
(d) 2 4 1 3
3. K.N. Panikkar, Communalism in India: A
II. Write brief answers Perspective for Intervention (New Delhi,
Tulika, 1991)
1. Write a note on Gaurakshini Sabhas.
4. Richard Gordon, “The Hindu Mahasabha and
2.
Name the two campaigns of Arya Samaj
the Indian National Congress, 1915–1926”,
which estranged Hindus and Muslims.
Modern Asian Studies, vol. 9, no. 2 (1975).
3. What were the demands put forth by
5. Chandini Saxena, “The Partition of
Muslim under the leadership of Aga Khan.
India: Contestation, Appeasement and
4. Write about the sixth annual conference Culmination”, Proceedings of Indian History
of the All India Hindu Mahasabha held in Congress, Vol. 76 (2015).
Varanasi in 1923.

GLOSSARY
communalism socio-political grouping based on religious or வகுப்புவாதம்

ethnic affiliation.
nationalism the policy or doctrine of asserting the தேசியம் / நாட்டுப்பற்று
interests of one’s own nation.
Divide and Rule breaking up larger centres of power into பிரித்தாளும் ஆட்சி
small groups.
revivalism a desire to revive a former customs or மீட்புவாதம்
practice
imperialism a policy of extending political or economic ஏகாதிபத்தியம்
control by a powerful country over a weaker
country.
jizya the poll tax formerly paid by religious இஸ்லாமியர் அல்லாத
groups other than Muslims in Islamic பிற சமயத்தினர்
empires செலுத்திய வரி
shariat Islamic code of law based on Koran and the இஸ்லாமியச் சட்ட
teachings of the Prophet முறைமை
communal a judgement based on religion வகுப்புவாத தீர்ப்பு
award

UNIT Last Phase of Indian
7 National Movement
Learning Objectives
JJ Cripps Mission and its failure
JJ Quit India Movement and Gandhi’s call for “do or die”
JJ Subash Chandra Bose and the Indian National Army (INA)
JJ Rajaji’s compromise proposals and Wavell Plan
JJ Royal Indian Navy Revolt (1946)
JJ Mountbatten Plan & Partition
Introduction May 1944. Then came the Cabinet Mission,

whose plan was eventually accepted by the
The outbreak of Second World War and Congress. However, Jinnah and the Muslim
Britain’s decision to involve India in the War League, persisting in their Pakistan demand,
without consulting Congress ministries in announced Direct Action Day programme that
provinces, provoked the leaders of Indian ignited communal riots in East Bengal. Gandhi
National Congress and Gandhi. The Congress began his tour in the riot-hit Naokali. Rajaji’s
ministers resigned in protest. Gandhi launched compromise formula and Wavell plan and the
the individual Satyagraha in October 1940 Simla conference convened to consider the
to keep up the morale of the Congress. In the latter’s plan did not help to resolve the deadlock.
meantime, the election of Subash Chandra In the meantime, Royal Indian Navy revolted,
Bose as Congress President upset Gandhi this prompting the British to quicken the process
led to Bose’s resignation. Later Bose started his of Independence. Mountbatten was appointed
Forward Bloc Party. After his escape to Germany governor general to oversee independence and
and Singapore formed Indian National Army the partition of the subcontinent into India and
and carried on his revolutionary activities Pakistan.
independent of the Congress movement.
The Cripps Mission arrived in March 1942 Individual Satyagraha
to assuage the nationalists. But its proposals Unlike in the past, where Gandhi’s
bore no fruit. Gandhi decided to embark on campaign had assumed a mass character,
the Quit India Movement in August 1942. The Gandhi decided on the strategy of individual
British arrested all prominent leaders of the Satyagraha so that the war against fascism was
Congress and put down the movement with not hampered. The satyagrahis were handpicked
an iron hand. Gandhi languished in jail until by Gandhi and their demand was restricted
89 Last Phase of Indian National Movement

to asserting their freedom of speech to preach Removal of Bose from Congress
against participation in the war. The chosen The August offer
satyagrahi was to inform the District Magistrate came too late for the
of the date, time and place of the protest. On Congress to even
reaching there at the appointed time, and negotiate a settlement.
publicly declare the following: ‘It is wrong to The Congress, at this
help the British War effort with men or money. time, was losing its
The only worthy effort is to resist all war efforts sheen. Its membership
with non-violent resistance’ and offer arrest. had fallen from 4.5
Subhas Chandra Bose
million in 1938–39
to 1.4 million in 1940-41. Subhas Chandra
Bose was isolated within the Congress, as
most leaders in the organisation’s top refused
cooperation with him. Bose resigned and the
AICC session at Calcutta elected Rajendra
Prasad as president. Bose founded the Forward
Bloc to function within the Congress and was
eventually removed from all positions in the
organization in August 1939.
Paunar Ashram in Maharashtra
The programme began on October 17, Lahore Resolution
1940 with Vinobha Bhave offering Satyagraha The arrogance displayed by the colonial
near his Paunar ashram in Maharashtra. Gandhi government and its refusal to find a meeting
suspended the Satyagraha in December 1941. point between the promise of dominion status
It was revived with some changes and groups at some future date and the Congress demand
offered satyagrahas from January 1941 and was for the promise of independence after cessation
eventually withdrawn in August 1941. of the war as a pre-condition to support war
efforts was drawn from another development.
August Offer That was the demand for a separate nation for
Individual Muslims. Though the genesis of a separate unit
Satyagraha was the or units consisting of Muslim majority regions
Congress response in the Eastern and North-Western India was in
to the August offer the making since the 1930s, the resolution on
by the Viceroy, March 23, 1940, at Lahore was distinct.
Lord Linlithgow. There is ample evidence that the Muslim
On August 8, 1940, League and its associates were given the
Linlithgow offered necessary encouragement to go for such a
Lord Linlithgow
the following: demand by the colonial administrators. The
Dominion status at some unspecified future; resolution, then, gave the colonial rulers a
expansion of the Viceroy’s Council (or the certain sense of courage to refuse negotiating
with the Indian National Congress even while
Executive Council) to accommodate more
they sought cooperation in the war efforts.
Indians in it; setting up a War Advisory Council
with Indians in it; recognition of the rights of In many ways the Congress at the time was
weaker in the organizational sense. Moreover,
the minority; and a promise to recognize the
its leaders were committed to the idea that the
Indian peoples’ right to draft a constitution at
British war efforts called for support given the
some future date after the war.
character of the Axis powers – Germany, Italy
Last Phase of Indian National Movement 90

and Japan – being fascist and thus a danger lesson (in Section 7.3). Churchill was worried
for democracy. Bose was the only leader who that Calcutta and Madras might fall in Japanese
sought non-cooperation with the allied forces hands. Similar thoughts ran in the minds of the
and active cooperation with the Axis powers. leaders of the Congress too and they too were
All these were the important markers of desperate to seek an honourable way out to offer
1940. Things however changed soon with the cooperation in the war effort.
Japanese advance in Southeast Asia and the It was in this situation that the Congress
collapse of the British army. It led to a sense of Working Committee, in December 1941,
urgency among the colonial rulers to ensure passed a resolution offering cooperation
cooperation for the war efforts in India even with the war effort on condition that Britain
while not committing to freedom. Winston promised independence to India after the war
Churchill, now heading the war cabinet, and transfer power to Indians in a substantial
dispatched Sir Stafford Cripps to talk with the sense immediately.
Congress.
Arrival of Cripps
A delegation headed by Sir Stafford Cripps
7.1 Cripps Mission
reached India in March 1942. That Cripps, a
Japan Storm South-East Asia Labour party representative in the War cabinet
The year 1941 was bad for the allied forces. under Churchill, was chosen to head the
France, Poland, Belgium, Norway and Holland delegation lent credibility to the mission. Before
had fallen to Germany and Great Britain setting out to India, he announced that British
was facing destruction as well. Of far more policy in India aimed at ‘the earliest possible
significance to India was Japan’s march into realisation of self-government in India’. But the
South-east Asia. This was happening alongside draft declaration he presented before he began
the attack on Pearl Harbour, where Japanese negotiations fell far short of independence.
war-planes bombed the American port on
December 7, 1941. US President F.D. Roosevelt Cripps Proposals
and Chinese President Chiang Kai-Shek were Cripps promised
concerned with halting Japan on its march. Dominion Status and
India, thus, came on their radar and the two put a constitution-making
pressure on British Prime Minister, Churchill to body after the war.
ensure cooperation for the war from the Indian The constitution-
people. making body was to
By the end of 1941, the Japanese forces be partly elected by the
had stormed through the Philippines, Indo- provincial assemblies
Sir Stafford Cripps
China, Indonesia, Malaysia and Burma and and nominated
were waiting to knock at India’s doors in the members from the Princely states. The draft
North-East. The way the South East Asian also spelt out the prospect of Pakistan. It said
region fell raised concerns to Britain and the that any province that was not prepared to
Indian National Congress. The British forces accept the new constitution would have the
ran without offering any resistance. The Indian right to enter into a separate agreement with
soldiers of the British Indian Army were left Britain regarding its future status. The draft did
to the mercy of the Japanese forces. It was not contain anything new. Nehru recalled later:
from among them that what would later on to ‘When I read these proposals for the first time I
become the Indian National Army (INA) would was profoundly depressed.’
be raised. We will study that in detail in this

Rejection of Cripps’ Proposals met at Wardha on July 14, 1942. The meeting
The offer of Dominion Status was too little. resolved to launch a mass civil disobedience
The Congress also rejected the idea of nominated movement. C. Rajagopalachari and Bhulabhai
members to the constitution-making body and Desai who had reservations against launching
sought elections in the Princely States as in the a movement at that time resigned from
Provinces. Above all these was the possibility the Congress Working Committee. Nehru,
of partition. The negotiations were bound to despite being among those who did not want
breakdown and it did. a movement then bound himself with the
majority’s decision in the Working Committee.
Options for Congress in the wake
'Do or Die'
of Pearl Harbour Attack
The futility that marked the Cripps mission
Churchill’s attitude towards the Indian
had turned both Gandhi and Nehru sour with
National Movement for independence in
the British than any time in the past. Gandhi
general and Gandhi in particular was one
expressed this in a press interview on May
of contempt even earlier. He did not change
16, 1942 where he said: ‘Leave India to God.
even when Britain needed cooperation in the
If that is too much, then leave her to anarchy.
war efforts so desperately. But he came under
This ordered disciplined anarchy should go
pressure from the US and China.
and if there is complete
The Indian National Congress, meanwhile, lawlessness, I would risk
was pushed against the wall. This happened in it.’ The Mahatma called
two ways: the colonial government’s adamant upon the people to ‘Do
stand against any assurance of independence or Die’ and called the
on the one hand and Subhas Bose’s campaign to movement he launched
join hands with the Axis powers in the fight for from there as a ‘fight to
independence. Bose had addressed the people the finish’. Mahatma Gandhi
of India on the Azad Hind Radio broadcast
from Germany in March 1942. This was the Quit India
context in which Gandhi thought of the Quit The colonial government did not wait. All
India movement. the leaders of the Indian National Congress,
including Gandhi, were arrested early in the
7.2 Quit India Movement morning on August 9, 1942. The Indian people
Sometime in May 1942 Gandhi took it too did not wait. The immediate response to the
upon himself to steer the Indian National pre-dawn arrests was hartals in almost all the
Congress into action. Gandhi’s decision to towns where the people clashed, often violently,
launch a mass struggle this time, however, met with the police. Industrial workers across
with reservation from C. Rajagopalachari as India went on strike. The Tata Steel Plant in
much as from Nehru. Conditions were ripe for Jamshedpur closed down by the striking workers
an agitation. Prices of commodities had shot up for 13 days beginning August 20. The textile
many-fold and there was shortage of food- workers in Ahmedabad struck work for more
grains too. than three months. Industrial towns witnessed
strikes for varied periods across India.
Congress Meet at
Brutal Repression
Wardha
It was in this context that The colonial government responded with
the Working Committee of brutal repression and police resorted to firing in
the Indian National Congress many places. The army was called in to suppress

the protest. The intensity of the movement and Spread and Intensity of the
the repression can be made out from the fact Movement
that as many as 57 battalions were called in as The spread of the movement and its
a whole. Aircrafts were used to strafe protesters. intensity can be gauged from the extent of
The momentum and its intensity was such that force that the colonial administration used to
Linlithgow, wrote to Churchill, describing the put it down. By the end of 1943, the number of
protests as ‘by far the most serious rebellion persons arrested across India stood at 91, 836.
since 1857, the gravity and extent of which we The police shot dead 1060 persons during the
have so far concealed from the world for reasons same period. 208 police outposts, 332 railway
of military security.’ stations and 945 post offices were destroyed or
damaged very badly. At least 205 policemen
Though this phase of the protest,
defected and joined the rebels. R.H. Niblett,
predominantly urban, involving the industrial who served as District Collector of Azamgarh in
workers and the students was put down by eastern United Province, removed from service
use of brutal force, the upsurge did not end. for being too mild with the rebels, recorded
It spread in its second phase into the villages. in his diary that the British unleashed ‘white
A sixty-point increase in prices of food-grains terror’ using an ‘incendiary police to set fire
recorded between April and August 1942 to villages for several miles’ and that ‘reprisals
had laid the seeds of resentment. In addition, (becoming) the rule of the day.’ Collective fines
those leaders of the Congress, particularly the were imposed on all the people in a village
Socialists within, who had managed to escape where public property was destroyed.
arrest on August 9 fanned into the countryside
where they organised the youth into guerrilla Clandestine Radio
actions. Yet another prominent feature of the Quit
India movement was the use of Radio by the
Outbreak of Violence rebels. The press being censored, the rebels set
Beginning late September 1942, the up a clandestine radio broadcast system from
movement took the shape of attacks and Bombay. The transmitter was shifted from one
destruction of communication facilities such as place to another in and around the city. Usha
telegraph lines, railway stations and tracks and Mehta was the force behind the clandestine
setting fire to government offices. This spread radio operations and its broadcast was heard as
across the country and was most intense in far away as Madras.
Eastern United Provinces, Bihar, Maharashtra The Quit India movement was the most
and in Bengal. The rebels even set up ‘national powerful onslaught against the colonial state
governments’ in pockets they liberated from hitherto. The movement included the Congress,
the colonial administration. An instance of this the Socialists, and the Forward Bloc. The
was the ‘Tamluk Jatiya Sarkar’ in the Midnapore movement witnessed unprecedented unity of
district in Bengal that lasted until September the people and sent a message that the colonial
1944. There was a parallel government in Satara. rulers could not ignore.
Socialists like Jayaprakash Narayan, Achyut
Release of Gandhi
Patwardhan, Asaf Ali, Yusuf Mehraly and Ram
Manohar Lohia provided leadership. Gandhi’s Gandhi’s release from prison, on health
21 day fast in jail, beginning February 10, 1943, grounds, on May 6, 1944 led to the revival
marked a turning point and gave the movement of the Constructive Programme. Congress
(and even the violence in a limited sense) a committees began activities in its garb and the
great push. ban on the Congress imposed in the wake of the
Quit India movement was thus overcome. The

colonial state, meanwhile, put forward a plan On July 2, 1943, Subhas Chandra Bose,
for negotiation. Lord Archibald Wavell, who reached Singapore. From there he went to Tokyo
had replaced Linlithgow as Viceroy in October and after a meeting with Prime Minister Tojo,
1943, had begun to work towards another the Japanese leader declared that his country did
round of negotiation. The message was clear: not desire territorial expansion into India. Bose
The British had no option but to negotiate! returned to Singapore and set up the Provisional
Government of Free India on October 21, 1943.
7.3 Netaji Subhas Chandra This Provisional Government declared war
Bose and the INA against Britain and the other allied nations.
The Axis powers recognised Bose’s Provisional
Government as its ally.
After the Indian National Congress acted
against Bose in August 1939, shunting him
out of all offices including as president
of the Bengal Congress Committee, Bose
embarked upon a campaign trail, to mobilise
support to his position, across India. He was
arrested by the British on July 3, 1940 under
Bose with INA
the Defence of India Act. and kept under
A considerably large contingent of the
constant surveillance. As the war progressed
Indian Army was posted on the South East
in Europe Bose believed that Germany was
Asian countries that were part of the British
going to win. He began to nurture the idea
Empire. They were in Malaya, Burma and
that Indian independence could be achieved
elsewhere. The forces, however, could not stand
by joining hands with the Axis powers. In
up to the Japanese army. The command of the
the midnight of January 16-17, 1941, Bose
British Indian Army in the South-East Asian
slipped out of Calcutta, and reached Berlin
front simply retreated leaving the ranks behind
by the end of March, travelling through
as Prisoners of War (POWs).
Kabul and the Soviet Union on an Italian
Mohan Singh, an officer of the British passport. Bose met Hitler and Goebbels in
Indian Army in Malaya, approached the Berlin. Both the Nazi leaders were cold and
Japanese for help and they found in this an the only concession they gave was to set up
opportunity. Japan’s interests lay in colonising the Azad Hind Radio. Nothing more came
China and not much India. The Indian POWs out of his rendezvous with Hitler and his
with the Japanese were left under Mohan aides. With Germany facing reverses, Bose
Singh’s command. The fall of Singapore to found his way to Singapore in July 1943
the Japanese forces added to the strength of
the POWs and Mohan Singh now had 45,000 Subash and INA
POWs under his command. Of these, Mohan
Bose enlisted civilians too into the INA and
Singh had drafted about 40,000 men in the
one of the regiments was made up of women.
Indian National Army by the end of 1942.
The Rani of Jhansi regiment of the INA was
Indians in the region saw the INA as saviours
commanded by a medical doctor and daughter
against Japanese expansionism as much as the
of freedom fighter Ammu Swaminathan from
commander and other officers held out that
Madras, Dr Lakshmi. On July 6, 1944, Subhas
the army would march into India but only on
Bose addressed a message to Gandhi over the
invitation from the Indian National Congress.

Azad Hind Radio from Rangoon. Calling him It was in this context that the colonial rulers
the ‘Father of the Nation’, Bose appealed to sent up three prominent officers of the INA –
Gandhi for his blessing in what he described as Shah Nawaz Khan, P.K. Sehgal and G.S. Dhillon
‘India’s last war of independence.’ – to trial. The press in India reported the trials
with all empathy and editorials sought the
INA with Axis Powers in War
soldiers freed immediately. The INA week was
A battalion of the INA commanded by marked by processions, hartals and even general
Shah Nawaz accompanied the Japanese army, strikes across the nation demanding release of
in its march on Imphal. This was in late 1944 the soldiers.
and the Axis powers, including the Japanese The choice of the three men to be sent up
forces, had fallen into bad times all over. The for trial ended up rallying all political opinion
Imphal campaign did not succeed and the behind the campaign. The Muslim League, the
Japanese retreated before the final surrender to Shiromani Akali Dal and the Hindu Maha Sabha,
the British command in mid-1945. Shah Nawaz all those who had stayed clear of the Quit India
and his soldiers of the INA were taken prisoners campaign, joined the protests and raised funds
and charged with treason. for their defence. Although the trial court found
INA Trial Sehgal, Dhillon and Shah Nawaz Khan guilty
of treason, the commander in chief remitted
The INA trials were held at the Red Fort in
the sentences and set them free on January 6,
New Delhi. The Indian National Congress fielded
1946. The INA trials, indeed, set the stage for
its best lawyers in defence of the INA soldiers.
yet another important stage in the history of the
Nehru, who had given up his legal practice as
Indian National Movement in February 1946.
early as in 1920 responding to Gandhi’s call
The ratings of the Royal Indian Navy (RIN)
for non-cooperation, wore his black gown to
raised the banner of revolt.
appear in defence. Even though the INA did not
achieve much militarily, the trials made a huge
impact in inspiring the masses. 7.4 The Royal Indian
Navy Revolt
The economic impact of the war was
manifest in rising prices, shortage of food-
grains and closure of war time industries
causing retrenchment and employment. This
merged with the anti-British sentiments
Shah Nawaz Khan P.K. Sehgal G.S. Dhillon evident in the mass scale of the protests
revolving around the INA trials.
The colonial government’s arrogance once B.C. Dutt, a rating (the designation for
again set the stage for another mass mobilisation. the Indians employed in the various war-ships
The Indian National Congress, after the debacle and elsewhere in the Royal Indian Navy) in the
at the Simla Conference (June 25 and July 14, HMIS Talwar was arrested for scribbling ‘Quit
1945) plunged into reaching out to the masses India’ on the panel of the ship. This provoked
a strike by the 1,100 ratings on the ship. The
by way of public meetings across the country.
ratings resented the racist behaviour of the
The INA figured more prominently as an issue
English commanders, the poor quality of the
in all these meetings than even the Congress’s
food and abuses that were the norm. Dutt’s
pitch for votes in the elections (under the 1935 arrest served as the trigger for the revolt on
Act) that were expected soon. February 18, 1946. The day after, the revolt

was joined by the ratings in the Fort Barracks in an organised direction. While the trade
and the Castle and a large number of them unions came out in solidarity with the ratings in
went into the Bombay cities in commandeered no time and the strikes in Bombay and Calcutta
trucks waving Congress flags and shouting and Madras were strong expressions against
anti-British slogans. British rule in India, these did not last for long
and the ratings were forced to surrender soon.
Sardar Vallabhai Patel, then in Bombay,
took the initiative to bring the revolt to an end.
The RIN mutiny, however, was indeed a glorious
chapter in the Indian National Movement and
perhaps the last act of rebellion in the long
story of such acts of valour in the cause of
independence.
The March 23, 1940 resolution read as follows:

Royal Indian Navy Revolt ‘That geographically contiguous units are
demarcated into regions which should be so
Soon, the workers in the textile mills of constituted, with such territorial readjustments
Bombay joined the struggle. The trade unions as may be necessary, that the areas in which the
in Bombay and Calcutta called for a sympathy Muslims are numerically in a majority as in
strike and the two cities turned into war zones. the north-western and eastern zones of India
Barricades were erected all over and pitched should be grouped to constitute “Independent
battles fought. Shopkeepers downed shutters States”, in which the constituent units shall be
and hartals became the order of the day. Trains autonomous and sovereign.’ (Source: Sumit
were stopped in the two cities with people Sarkar Modern India 1885-1947, Pearson,
sitting on the tracks. On news of the Bombay 2018, p 324)
revolt reaching Karachi, ratings in the HMIS
Hindustan and other naval establishments in
Karachi went on a lightning strike on February 7.5 Rajaji Proposals and
19. The strike wave spread to almost all the the Wavell Plan
naval establishments across India and at least
Demand for a Separate Nation
20,000 ratings from 78 ships and 20 shore
establishments ended up revolting in the days Meanwhile, the
after February 18, 1946. There were strikes, communal challenge
expressing support to the ratings in the Royal persisted and the
Indian Air Force stationed in Bombay, Poona, Muslim League pressed
Calcutta, Jessore and Ambala units. The sepoys with its demand for a
in the army cantonment station at Jabalpur too separate nation. The
Lahore resolution of
went on strike.
the Muslim League in
The ratings, in many places, hoisted the March 1940 had altered
Congress, the Communist, and the Muslim the discourse from
League flags together on the ship masts during C. Rajagopalachari
the Muslims being a
the revolt. ‘minority’ to the Muslims constituting a ‘nation’.
The colonial government’s response was Mohammed Ali Jinnah was asserting this right
brutal repression. It was, indeed, a revolt as the sole spokesperson of the community.
without a leadership; nor did the ratings move

Rajaji’s Proposals council for the caste Hindus and the Muslims
In April 1944, when the Congress leaders and separate representation for the Scheduled
were in jail, C.Rajagopalachari put out a Castes; and start of discussions for a new
proposal to resolve the issue. It contained the constitution.
following: The proposal displeased everyone. The
• A post-war commission to be formed to Simla Conference held between June 25 and July
demarcate the contiguous districts where 14, 1945 ended without resolution. The talks
the Muslims were in absolute majority and broke down on the right of the Indian National
a plebiscite of the adult population there Congress and the Muslim League to nominate
to ascertain whether they would prefer members to the Viceroy’s Council.
Pakistan;
• In case of a partition there would be a
mutual agreement to run certain essential
services, like defence or communication;
• The border districts could choose to join
either of the two sovereign states;
• The implementation of the scheme would
wait till after full transfer of power.
After his release from prison, Gandhi, in
July 1944, proposed talks with Jinnah based on
what came to be the ‘Rajaji formula’. The talks
did not go anywhere.
Simla Conference (1945)
Wavell Plan
The Muslim League insisted on its
In June 1945
exclusive right to nominate Muslim members to
Lord Wavell moved
the Council. Its demand was that the Congress
to negotiate and
nominees shall only be caste Hindus and that the
called for the Simla
Indian National Congress should not nominate
conference. The rest of
a Muslim or a member from the Scheduled
the Congress leaders,
Caste! This was seen as a means to further
including Jawaharlal
the divide on communal lines and deny the
Nehru, Sardar Patel
Lord Wavell Congress the status of representing the Indian
and the Congress
people. Lord Wavell found a council without
president, Maulana Abul Kalam Azad were
Muslim League representation as unworkable
released from jail for this. Wavell had set out
and thus abandoned the Simla talks.
on this project in March 1945 and sailed to
London. There he convinced Churchill of the The years between the Lahore resolution
imperative for a Congress–Muslim League of 1940 and the Simla Conference in 1945
coalition government as a way to deal with the marked the consolidation of a Muslim national
post-war political crisis. identity and the emergence of Jinnah as its
sole spokesperson. It was at a convention of
The Viceroy’s proposal before the leaders of
Muslim League Legislators in Delhi in April
all political formations and most prominently
1946, that Pakistan was defined as a ‘sovereign
the Congress and the Muslim League was setting
independent state’. For the first time the League
up of an Executive Council, exclusively with
also declared its composition in geographical
Indians along with himself and the commander-
terms as ‘the region consisting of the Muslim
in-chief; equal number of representatives in the
majority provinces of Bengal and Assam in

the Northeast and the Punjab, North-West
Frontier Province, Sind and Baluchistan in the
Northwest. The Congress president Maulana
Abul Kalam Azad rejected this idea and held
that the Congress stood for a united India with
complete independence.
All these were developments after the
Simla conference of June–July 1945 and after
Churchill was voted out and replaced by a Nehru, Gandhi, Jinnah
Labour Party government headed by Clement
After elaborate consultations, the viceroy
Attlee. Times had changed in a substantial sense.
issued invitations on 15 June 1946 to the
British Prime Minister, Attlee had declared the
14 men to join the interim government. The
certainty of independence to India with only
invitees were: Jawaharlal Nehru, Vallabhbhai
the terms left to be decided.
Patel, Rajendra Prasad, C. Rajagopalachari
and Hari Krishna Mahtab (on behalf of the
7.6 Mountbatten Plan INC); Mohammed Ali Jinnah, Liaquat Ali
Khan, Mohammed Ismail Khan, Khwaja Sir
Cabinet Mission Nazimuddin and Abdul Rab Nishtar (from
The changed global scenario in the post– the Muslim League) and Sardar Baldev Singh
World War II context led to the setting up of (on behalf of the Sikh community), Sir N.P.
the Cabinet Mission. Headed by Secretary of Engineer (to represent the Parsis), Jagjivan
State for India, Sir Stafford Cripps, and A.V. Ram (representing the scheduled castes) and
Alexander, the mission landed in India in March John Mathai (as representative of the Indian
1946 and began work on its brief: to set up a Christians).
national government before the final transfer Meanwhile, the Congress proposed Zakir
of power. The mission proposed to constitute Hussain from its quota of five nominees to the
a ‘representative’ body by way of elections interim council. The Muslim League objected to
across the provinces and the princely states this and, on 29 July 1946, Jinnah announced that
and entrust this body with the task of making a the League would not participate in the process
constitution for free India. The idea of partition to form the Constituent Assembly. This invited a
did not figure at this stage. Instead, the mission’s sharp reaction from the British administration.
proposal was for a loose-knit confederation in On 12 August 1946, the viceroy announced that
which the Muslim League could dominate the he was inviting Nehru (Congress president)
administration in the North-East and North- to form the provisional government. After
West provinces while the Congress would consultation with Nehru, 12 members of the
administer rest of the provinces. National Interim Government were announced
Jinnah sounded out his acceptance of the on 25 August 1946. Apart from Nehru, the other
idea on June 6, 1946. The Congress, meanwhile, members were: Vallabhbhai Patel, Rajendra
perceived the Cabinet Mission’s plan as a clear Prasad, Asaf Ali, C. Rajagopalachari, Sarat
sanction for the setting up of a Constituent Chandra Bose, John Mathai, Sardar Baldev
Assembly. Nehru conveyed through his speech Singh, Sir Shafaat Ahmed Khan, Jagjivan
at the AICC, on July 7, 1946, that the Indian Ram, Syed Ali Zaheer and Cooverji Hormusji
National Congress accepted the proposal. Bhabha. It was stated that two more Muslims
Subsequently, Jinnah on July 29, 1946, reacted will be nominated in due course.
to this and announced that the League stood Five Hindus, three Muslims and one
opposed to the plan. representative each from the scheduled castes,

Indian Christians, Sikhs and Parsis formed the once again, to Jinnah that the League participate
basis of this list. Later Hare Krishna Mahtab in the interim government. The Muslim League
was replaced by Sarat Chandra Bose. The accepted the proposal but Jinnah refused to join
Parsi nominee, N.P. Engineer was replaced the cabinet.
by Cooverji Hormusji Bhabha. In place of the The interim cabinet was reconstituted
League’s nominees, the Congress put in the on October 26, 1946. Those who joined on
names of three of its own men: Asaf Ali, Shafaat behalf of the League were Liaquat Ali Khan,
Ahmed Khan and Syed Ali Zaheer. I.I. Chundrigar, A. R. Nishtar, Ghazanfar Ali
Khan and Jogendra Nath Mandal.
Gandhi in Naokhali
But there was no let-up in the animosity
Violent Clashes on Direct Action Day between the Congress and the League and
The League, meanwhile, gave a call for this was reflected in the functioning (rather
‘Direct Action’ on 16 August 1946. There non-functioning) of the interim council
was bloodshed in Calcutta and several of ministers. The League, meanwhile, was
other places, including in Delhi. This was determined against cooperating in the making
when Gandhi set out on his own course to of the constituent assembly. At another level,
arrive in Calcutta and decided to stay on at the nation was in the grip of communal violence
a deserted house in Beliaghatta, a locality of unprecedented magnitude. Naokhali in East
that was worst affected, accompanied only Bengal was ravaged by communal violence.
by a handful of followers. Muslims who were The members of the League who were part of
hounded out of their homes in Delhi were the interim government refused to participate
held in transit camps (in Purana Quila and in the ‘informal’ consultations that Nehru held
other places). It was only after Gandhi arrived before the formal meeting of the cabinet in
there (on 9 September 1946) and conveyed the viceroy’s presence. The Muslim League, it
that the Muslims were Indian nationals and seemed, were determined to wreck the interim
hence must be protected by the Indian state government from within.
(Nehru by then was the head of the interim While the Congress scored impressive
government) that the Delhi authorities began victories in the July–August 1946 elections
organising rations and building latrines. and secured 199 from out of the 210 general
It was in this context that the Congress seats, the Muslim League did equally well in
agreed to the constitution of the interim seats reserved for the Muslims. The League’s
government. Nehru assumed office on 2 tally was 76. All but one of the 76 seats came
September 1946. Yet another round of communal from the Muslim-reserved constituencies. The
violence broke out across the country and more League, however, decided against participating
prominently in Bombay and Ahmedabad. Lord in the Constituent Assembly. Hence, only
Wavell set out on another round of discussion 207 members attended the first session of the
and after sounding out Nehru, he proposed, Constituent Assembly on 9 December 1946.

Meanwhile the functioning of the interim after and on his return disclosed the blueprint
government was far from smooth with for partition and, more importantly, the desire
animosity between the Congress and the League to advance the date of British withdrawal to
growing by the day. The ‘informal’ meetings of 15 August 1947. There were only 11 weeks
the cabinet intended to settle differences before left between then and the eventual day of
any proposal was taken to the formal meeting independence. The AICC met on 15 June 1947.
that the Viceroy presided over, could not be It was here that the resolution, moved by
held from the very beginning. Govind Ballabh Pant, accepting partition, was
The proverbial last straw was the budget approved. It required the persuasive powers of
proposals presented by Liaquat Ali Khan in Nehru and Patel as well as the moral authority
March 1947. The finance minister proposed of Gandhi to get the majority in the AICC in
a variety of taxes on industry and trade and favour of the resolution.
proposed a commission to go into the affairs The period between March 1946 and 15
of about 150 big business houses and inquire August 1947 saw many tumultuous events such
into the allegations of tax evasion against them. as (i) the setting up of the Cabinet Mission, (ii)
Khan called this a ‘socialistic budget’. This, the formation of the interim government, (iii)
indeed, was a calculated bid to hit the Indian the birth of the Constituent Assembly and (iv)
industrialists who had, by this time, emerged as the widening of rift between the Congress and
the most powerful supporters of the Congress. the Muslim League leading to the partition and
The intention was clear: to hasten the partition finally the dawn of independence.
and prove that there was no way that the League
and the Congress could work together towards Summary
independence.
JJ The last phase of India’s struggle for
British Prime Minister Atlee’s statement
freedom, began with the ‘Anti-War
in Parliament on February 20, 1947, that the
Individual Satyagraha’ launched in
British were firm on their intention to leave
November 1940.
India by June 1948 set the pace for another
stage. Lord Wavell was replaced as Viceroy by JJ The calm, however, was only a prelude to
Lord Mountbatten on March 22, 1947. the storm that rocked the British Empire
with the Quit India Movement of 1942.
Mountbatten Plan JJ Despite brutal repressive measures, the
Mountbatten mass upsurge did not fade away and
came up with a definite the INA trials and the RIN mutiny bear
plan for partition. evidence to this.
It involved splitting JJ The dark side of the struggle for freedom
up Punjab into West too was to manifest during the seven
and East (where the years beginning with the idea of separate
west would go to nation for Muslims, vaguely expressed, at
Pakistan) and similar the Lahore session of the Muslim League.
Lord Mountbatten
division of Bengal
JJ It culminated in the Partition of India
wherein the Western parts will remain in India
along with freedom, taking a heavy toll of
and the East become Pakistan. The Congress
human lives in communal riots.
Working Committee, on 1 May 1947, conveyed
its acceptance of the idea of partition to JJ Free India was born with the challenge to
Mountbatten. The viceroy left for London soon the idea of secularism.

N
W E
S
India after Partition

Jammu and
Kashmir
Pakistan
Nepal
Bhutan
Pakistan
INDIA West East
Bengal Bengal
Junagadh
Calcutta Burma
Bombay
Hyderabad
Madras
Andaman and Nicobar Islands
Lakshadweep
Sri Lanka
Not to Scale
MARCH TO FREEDOM

5. When was Subhash Chandra Bose removed
EXERCISE from the congress?
(a) 1938 (b) 1939
(c) 1940 (d) 1942
I. C
hoose the
correct answer 6. Mahatma Gandhi gave the call ‘Do or Die’
1.
When did ‘Individual during the
Satyagraha’ begin? (a) Civil Disobedience Movement
(a) March 23, 1940 (b) August 8, 1940 (b) Non-Cooperation Movement
(c) 17 October 1940 (d) August 9, 1942 (c) Quit India Movement
2. M
atch the following (d) All of the above
A. Hindu Muslim - 1. Mohan Singh 7. Who ran an illegal radio station at Bombay
Riot during the Quit India Movement?
B. August Offer - 2. Govind Ballabh (a) Usha Mehta (b) Preeti Waddadar
Pant
(c) Asaf Ali (d) Captain Lakshmii
C. Proposer - 3. Lord Linlithgow
of Partition 8. W
ho appeared in court in defense of the INA
Resolution soldiers
D. Indian National - 4. Naokhali (a) Jawaharlal Nehru
Army
(b) Motilal Nehru
A B C D
(c) Rajaji
(a) 3 4 2 1
(b) 4 2 1 3 (d) Subhash Chandra Bose
(c) 4 3 2 1 9. Who was the Viceroy of India when the Quit
(d) 3 2 4 1 India Movement started in 1942?
3. The Cripps Mission visited India during the (a) Lord Wavell
regime of (b) Lord Linlithgow
(a) Lord Wavell (b) Lord Linlithgow (c) Lord Mountbatten
(c) Lord Mountbatten (d) None of these (d) Winston Churchill
4. M
atch the following 10. A
ssertion (A): Quit India Movement could
(A) US President - 1. Tojo not achieve its goal.
(B) Chinese President - 2. Winston Churchill Reason (R): The government of the day
adopted a very repressive policy.
(C) British Prime Minister - 3. Chiang Kai-Shek
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct
(D) Japanese Prime Minister - 4. F.D. Roosevelt
explanation of A.
A B C D
(b) Both A and R are true and R is not the
(a) 1 4 3 2 correct explanation of A.
(b) 1 3 2 4
(c) A is true but R is false.
(c) 4 3 2 1
(d) 4 2 3 1 (d) A is false but R is true.
11. INA was founded with the help of
(a) Germany (b) Japan
(c) France (d) USA

12. Name the regiment of Indian National Army (iii) August Offer
consisting of women soldiers. (iv) Individual Satyagraha
(a) Subhash regiment Select the answer from the codes below:
(b) Kasturba regiment (a) i, ii, iii, iv (b) iii, i, ii, iv
(c) Captain Lakshmi Regiment (c) iii, iv, i, ii (d) i, iii, iv, ii
(d) Rani of Jhansi regiment 19.
Name the British Prime Minster who
13. Where did Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose announced the transfer of power to the
form the Provincial Government of Free Indian hands?
India? (a) Winston Churchill
(a) Rangoon (b) Malaya (b) Lord Mountbatten
(c) Imphal (d) Singapore (c) Clement Attlee
14. The INA trials took place in (d) F.D. Roosevelt
(a) Red Fort, New Delhi 20. British had their intention to leave India by
(b) Penang (a) August 15, 1947 (b) January 26, 1950
(c) Viceregal Lodge, Simla (c) June, 1948 (d) December, 1949
(d) Singapore
II. Write brief answers
15.
Which Viceroy convened the ‘Simla
Conference’ in 1945? 1. What is the importance of Lahore resolution?
(a) Lord Wavell (b) Lord Linlithgow 2. State the main features of August Offer.
(c) Lord Mountbatten (d) Clement Attlee 3. Why was the Cripps Mission rejected by the
Congress?
16. I nterim Government of 1946 was headed
by 4. Why did the talks at Simla Conference break
down.
(a) Jawaharlal Nehru
5. How did Captain Mohan Singh organise the
(b) Moulana Abul Kalam Azad
INA?
(c) Rajendra Prasad
(d) Vallabhai Patel III. Write short answer
17. Arrange the following in correct order 1.
Name the organisations which did not
(i) Formation of Indian National Army participate in the Quit India Movement.
(ii) Royal Indian Navy Revolt 2. Discuss the proposals of Sir Strafford Cripps.
(iii) Indian National Army Trials 3.

Explain the reasons for the removal of
S.C. Bose from the INC.
(iv) Rajaji formula
4. Who were the Muslim League representatives
Select the correct answer from the codes in the Interim Government formed in 1946?
given below
5.
What was the context in which Gandhi
(a) i, iii, ii, iv (b) i, ii, iii, iv thought of Quit India Movement?
(c) iii, iv, i, ii (d) iii, iv, ii, i
18.
Which is the correct sequence of the IV. Answer the following in detail
following events? 1.
Discuss the course of the Quit India
(i) INA Trial Movement.
(ii) Direct Action Day

2. How far was the INA Trial instrumental in
intensifying the freedom struggle? REFERENCES
3. W
rite a paragraph about the Rajaji Formula. JJ Bipan Chandra, et. al, India’s Struggle
4. Why is the Royal Indian Revolt considered for Independence, Penguin Books, New
a glorious chapter in the history of Indian Delhi, 2016.
National Movement? JJ Sumit Sarkar, Modern India 1885-1947,
Pearson, New Delhi, 2018.
V. Activity
JJ Sekhar Bandopadhyay, From Plassey to
1. Prepare a scrap book collecting information Partition and After: A History of Modern
on and pictures of prominent leaders of the India, Orient BlackSwan, Hyderabad,
Indian National Movement from Tamilnadu. 2009.
2. Compile a list of those who served the INA
from your area with their family background.
GLOSSARY
autonomous units within a political system

dominion
having equal status, in every aspect of the தன்னாட்சி அந்தஸ்து
status
domestic or external affairs
The "Axis powers" formally took the name

Axis Powers after the Tripartite Pact was signed by அச்சு நாடுகள்
Germany, Italy, and Japan.
prisoners of fighters captured by the forces of the
enemy, during an armed conflict ப�ோர்க் கைதிகள்
war
the process of dividing a country into two
partition
or more separate countries. பிரிவினை

UNIT Reconstruction of
8 Post-colonial India
Learning Objectives
The challenges of Partition
Making of the Constitution: The Process and the Spirit
Integrating the Princely States into the Indian Union
Reorganisation of states on linguistic basis
India’s Relations with the neighbouring countries and its role in world affairs.
territory of Pakistan and those villages where the

Introduction
Hindus were a majority and yet not contiguous
Freedom from colonial rule came with a with the proposed territory of India: they were
price. The partition of India involved dividing to remain part of the nation with which the
the provinces of Bengal and Punjab into two. village was contiguous. A new complication had
Though not envisaged at the time of the division, arisen by this time and that was the recognition
it was followed by migration of Hindus from of Sikhs as a religious identity in Punjab, in
East Bengal to West Bengal and Muslims from addition to the Hindus, and the Muslims; the
Bihar and West Bengal to East Bengal. Similarly, Akali Dal had declared its preference to stay on
Hindus and Sikhs in West Punjab had to migrate with India irrespective of its people living in
to eastern Punjab and Muslims in eastern Punjab villages that would otherwise become part of
to western Punjab. The boundaries between Pakistan.
India and Pakistan were to be determined on This complex situation was the consequence
the composition of the people in each village on of the fast pace of developments in Britain on the
their religion; and villages where the majority issue of independence to India. The declaration
were Muslims were to constitute Pakistan and on February 20, 1947 by Prime Minister Atlee,
where the Hindus were the majority to form setting June 30, 1948 for the British to withdraw
India. There were other factors too: rivers, roads from India and Mountbatten’s arrival as viceroy
and mountains acted as markers of boundaries. replacing Wavell on March 22, 1947 had set the
The proposal was that the religious minorities – stage for the transfer of power to Indians. This
whether Hindus or Muslims – in these villages was when the Muslim League leadership had
were to stay on and live as Indians (in case of gathered the support of a vast majority of the
Muslims) and Pakistanis (in case of Hindus) Muslim community behind it and disputing the
wherever they were. claims of the Congress to represent all Indians.
There was a separate scheme for those On June 3, 1947, Mountbatten advanced the
villages where the Muslims were a majority and date of British withdrawal to August 15, 1947.
yet the village not contiguous with the proposed As for the communal question and the issue
105 Reconstruction of Post-colonial India

of two nations, the proposal was to hand over reflected the aspirations kindled by the freedom
power to two successor dominion governments struggle, merger of the Princely states (more
of India and Pakistan. The division of Bengal than 500 in number and of different sizes), and
and the Punjab, as proposed, meant partition – resolving the diversity on the basis of languages
a reality to which Congress finally reconciled. spoken by the people with the needs of a nation-
The Mountbatten plan for independence along state. Further, a foreign policy that was in tune
with partition of India was accepted at the AICC with the ideals of democracy, sovereignty and
meeting at Meerut on June 14, 1947. fraternity had to be formulated.
Gandhi, who had opposed the idea of The partition of India on Hindu–Muslim
division with vehemence in the past, now lines was put forth as a demand by the Muslim
conceded its inevitability. Gandhi explained the League in vague terms ever since its Lahore
change. He held that the unabated communal session (March 1940). But its architecture and
violence and the participation in it of the people execution began only with Lord Mountbatten’s
across the Punjab and in Bengal had left himself announcement of his plan on June 3, 1947
and the Congress with no any strength to resist and advancing the date of transfer of power to
partition. Sadly, the canker of communalism August 15, 1947. The time left between the two
and the partition system that the colonial dates was a mere 72 days.
collaborators produced took its toll on the infant Sir Cyril Radcliffe, a lawyer by training with
Indian nation. It began with the assassination of no exposure to India and its reality, was sent
the Mahatma on January 30, 1948. How did the from London to re-draw the map of India. Its
infant nation take up the challenge, resolving execution was left to the dominion governments
some and grappling with some others in the of India and Pakistan after August 15, 1947.
years to come? Radcliffe arrived
in India on July 8,
Jawaharlal Nehru put this aptly in his address
1947. He was given
to the members of the Constituent Assembly
charge of presiding
in the intervening night on August 14/15,
over two Boundary
1947, in which he laid out the roadmap, its
Commissions: one
ideals and the inevitability of taking such a
for the Punjab and
path. “Long years ago we made a tryst with
the other for Bengal.
destiny, and now the time comes when Sir Cyril Radcliffe
Two judges from the
we shall redeem our pledge, not wholly or
Muslim community and two from the Hindu
in full measure, but very substantially….”
community were included. The commissions
Teachers may put on screen the full speech by
were left with five weeks to identify villages
Jawaharlal Nehru and share the experience
as Hindu or Muslim majority on the basis of
of listening to it with the class: Speech may
the 1941 census. It is widely accepted that the
be accessed from https://www.youtube.com/
census of 1941, conducted in the midst of the
watch?v=Uj4TfcELODM
World War II led to faulty results everywhere.
The commissions were also constrained
8.1 Consequences of by factors such as contiguity of villages and by
Partition demands of the Sikh community that villages
in West Punjab where their shrines were
The challenges before free India included
located be taken into India irrespective of the
grappling with the consequences of partition,
population of Sikhs in those villages. The two
planning the economy and reforming the
commissions submitted the report on August 9,
education system (which will be dealt with in the
1947. Mountbatten’s dispensation, meanwhile,
following lesson), making a Constitution that
decided to postpone the execution of the
Reconstruction of Post-colonial India 106

boundaries to a date after power was transferred Pakistan (which became Bangladesh in December
to the two dominions. The contours of the two 1971) was constituted by putting together the
dominions – India and Pakistan – were drawn eastern part of divided Bengal, Sylhet district of
in the scheme on August 14/15, 1947 insofar as Assam, the district of Khulna in the region and
the administration was concerned; the people, also the Chittagong Hill tracts. Such districts of
however, were not informed about the new map Bengal as Murshidabad, Malda and Nadia which
when they celebrated independence day on had a substantially large Muslim population
August 14/15, 1947. were left to remain in India. The exercise was one
Radcliffe’s award contained all kinds of without a method.
anomalies. The provincial assembly in Punjab The re-drawn map of India was left with
had resolved that West Punjab would go to the two independent governments by the
Pakistan. The other provinces, which were colonial rulers. It was left to the independent
geographically contiguous with Pakistan such as governments of India and Pakistan to fix the
Sind, Baluchistan and the North-West Frontier exact boundaries. However, the understanding
Provinces followed this. Similarly, the Bengal was that the religious minorities in both the
Assembly, resolved that the eastern parts of the nations – the Hindus in West and East Pakistan
province were to constitute Pakistan on this side. and the Muslims in India, in East Punjab and
The award Radcliffe presented, on August West Bengal as well as in United Provinces and
9, 1947, marked 62,000 square miles of land elsewhere – would continue to live as minorities
that was hitherto part of the Punjab to Pakistan. but as citizens in their nations.
The total population (based on the 1941 census)
After the partition, there were as many
of this region was 15,800,000 people of whom
as 42 million Muslims in India and 20 million
11,850,000 were Muslims. Almost a quarter of
non-Muslims (Hindus, Sindhis and Sikhs) in
the population in this territory – West Punjab –
Pakistan. The vivisection of India, taking place as
were non-Muslims; and the Mountbatten Plan as
it did in the middle of heightened Hindu-Muslim
executed by Sir Radcliffe meant they continued
violence, had rendered a smooth transition
to live as minorities in Pakistan. Similarly,
impossible. Despite the conspicuous exhibition
East Punjab that was to be part of India was
of Hindu–Muslim unity during the RIN mutiny
demarcated to consist of 37,000 square miles of
and the INA trials (see previous lesson), the polity
territory with a population of 12,600,000. Of this,
now resembled a volcano. Communal riots had
4,375,000 were Muslims. In other words, more
than a third of the population in east Punjab become normal in many parts of India, and were
would be Muslims. most pronounced in the Punjab and Bengal.
The demographic composition of the Minorities on both sides of the divide lived
Indian and Pakistani parts of Bengal was no less in fear and insecurity even as the two nations
complicated. West Bengal that remained part were born. That Gandhi, who led the struggle for
of India accounted for an area of 28,000 square freedom from the front and whom the colonial
miles with a population of 21,200,00 out of rulers found impossible to ignore, stayed far away
which 5,300,000 were Muslims; in other words, from New Delhi and observed a fast on August
Muslims constituted a quarter of the population 15, 1947, was symbolic. The partition brought
of the Indian part of the former Bengal about a system in place where the minorities on
province. Sir Radcliffe’s commission marked either side were beginning to think of relocating
49,400 square miles of territory from former to the other side due to fear and insecurity.
Bengal with 39,100,000 people for Pakistan. As violence spread, police remained mute
The Muslim population there, according to the spectators. This triggered more migration of
1941 census, was 27,700,000. In other words, the minorities from both nations. In the four
29 per cent of the population were Hindus. East months between August and November 1947,

as many as four-and-a-half million people left
Partition: A poem by W.H. Auden
West Pakistan to India, reaching towns in East
Unbiased at least he was when he arrived on
Punjab or Delhi. Meanwhile, five-and-a-half
his mission,
million Muslims left their homes in India (East
Having never set eyes on the land he was
Punjab, United Provinces and Delhi) to live
called to partition
in Pakistan. A large number of those who left
Between two peoples fanatically at odds,
their homes on either side of the newly marked
With their different diets and incompatible gods.
border thought they would return after things
‘Time,’ they had briefed him in London, ‘is
normalised; but that was not to be. Similar
short. It's too late
migration happened between either sides of the
For mutual reconciliation or rational debate:
new border in Bengal too.
The only solution now lies in separation.
The Viceroy thinks, as you will see from his
letter, Historian Gyanendra Pandey records
That the less you are seen in his company the 500,000 non-Muslim (Hindus and Sikhs)
better, refugees flowing into the Punjab and Delhi
So we've arranged to provide you with other in 1947-48. Pandey also records that several
accommodation. thousand Muslims were forced out of their
We can give you four judges, two Moslem homes in Delhi and nearby places by violent
and two Hindu, mobs to seek asylum in camps set up around
To consult with, but the final decision must the Red Fort and the Purana Quila. Refugee
rest with you.’ camps were set up but they had hardly any
sanitation and water supply.
Shut up in a lonely mansion, with police
night and day
In both countries property left behind by
Patrolling the gardens to keep the assassins away, the fleeing families were up for grabs. The long
He got down to work, to the task of settling line of refugees walking crossing the borders
the fate Of millions. was called ‘kafila’. The refugees on the march
The maps at his disposal were out of date were targets for gangs belonging to the ‘other’
And the Census Returns almost certainly community to wreak vengeance. Trains from
incorrect, either side of the new border in the Punjab
But there was no time to check them, no time were targeted by killer mobs and many of
to inspect Contested areas. those reached their destination with piles of
The weather was frightfully hot, dead bodies. The violence was of such a scale
And a bout of dysentery kept him constantly that those killed the numbers of remains mere
on the trot, estimates. The number ranges between 200,000
But in seven weeks it was done, the frontiers to 500,000 people dead and 15 million people
decided, displaced.
A continent for better or worse divided.
The next day he sailed for England, where he
could quickly forget
The case, as a good lawyer must. Return he
would not,
Afraid, as he told his Club, that he might get
shot.
Movement of Refugees

Even as late as in April 1950, the political those who owned property – the principle of
leadership of the two nations wished and hoped universal adult franchise was still a far cry. The
to restore normality and the return of those who results revealed the Muslim League’s command
left their homes on either side. On April 8, 1950, in Muslim majority constituencies while the
Nehru and Liaquat Ali Khan signed the Delhi Indian National Congress swept the elections
pact, with a view to restoring confidence among elsewhere. The League decided to stay away
the minorities on both sides. This, however, from the Constitution making process and
failed to change the ground reality. Even while pressed hard for a separate nation. The Congress
went for the Constituent assembly.
the pact was signed the Government of India
was also working on measures to rehabilitate The elected members of the various
those who had left West Punjab to the East and Provincial assemblies voted nominees of the
Congress to the Constituent Assembly. The
to Delhi and render them vocational skills and
Constituent Assembly (224 seats) that came
training. The wounds caused by the partition
into being, though dominated by the Congress,
violence hardly healed even after decades.
also included smaller outfits such as the
Scores of literary works stand testimony to the communists, socialists and others. The Congress
trauma of partition. ensured the election of Dr B.R. Ambedkar from
The partition posed a bigger challenge a seat in Bombay and subsequently elected him
before Nehru and the Constituent Assembly, chairman of the drafting committee. Apart
now engaged with drafting the founding and from electing its own stalwarts to the Assembly,
the fundamental law of the nation: to draft a the Congress leadership made it a point to send
constitution that is secular, democratic and leading constitutional lawyers.
republican as against Pakistan’s decision to This was to make a constitution that
become an Islamic Republic. contained the idealism that marked the freedom
struggle and the meaning of swaraj, as specified
8.2 Making of the in the Fundamental Rights Resolution passed
Constitution by the Indian National Congress at its Karachi
session (March 1931). This, indeed, laid the basis
It was a demand from for the making of our constitution a document
the Indian National Congress, conveying an article of faith guaranteeing to
voiced formally in 1934, that the citizens a set of fundamental rights as much
the Indian people shall draft as a set of directive principles of state policy.
their constitution rather The constitution also committed the nation
than the British Parliament. to the principle of universal adult franchise,
The Congress thus rejected and an autonomous election commission. The
the White Paper circulated by the colonial constitution also underscored the independence
government. The founding principle that of the judiciary as much as it laid down sovereign
Indians shall make their own constitution was law-making powers with the representatives of
the people.
laid down by Gandhi as early as in 1922. Gandhi
had held that rather than a gift of the British The members of the constituent assembly
Parliament, swaraj must spring from ‘the wishes were not averse to learn and pick up features
of the people of India as expressed through their from the constitutions from all over the world;
and at the same time they were clear that the
freely chosen representatives’.
exercise was not about copying provisions from
Elections were held, based on the 1935 the various constitutions from across the world.
Act, to the Provincial Assemblies in August
1946. These elected assemblies in turn were to Jawaharlal Nehru set the ball rolling, on
elect the Central Assembly, which would also December 13, 1946, by placing the Objectives
become the Constituent Assembly. The voters Resolution before the Constituent Assembly.
in the July 1946 elections to the provinces were The assembly was convened for the first time,

on December 9, 1946. even while the Constituent Assembly met and
Rajendra Prasad was started its job of drafting independent India’s
elected chairman of constitution. Among them was the integration
the House. of the Indian States or the Princely States.
The Objectives The task of integrating the Princely States
Resolution is indeed into the Indian Union was achieved with such
the most concise speed that by August 15, 1947, except Kashmir,
introduction to the Rajendra Prasad Junagadh and Hyderabad, all had agreed to
spirit and the contents sign an Instrument of Accession with India,
of the Constitution of India. The importance acknowledging its central authority over
of this resolution can be understood if we Defence, External Affairs and Communications.
see the Preamble to the Constitution and the
The task of integrating these states, with one
Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles of
or the other Provinces of the Indian Union was
State Policy enshrined in it and as adopted on
accomplished with ease. The resolution passed
November 26, 1949.
at the All India States People’s Conference
(December 1945 and April 1947) that states
refusing to join the Constituent Assembly
would be treated as hostile was enough to get
the rulers to sign the Instrument of Accession
in most cases. There was the offer of a generous
privy purse to the princes. The rapid unification
of India was ably handled and achieved by
Sardar Vallabhai Patel, who as Home Minister
in the Interim Cabinet was also entrusted with
Constituent Assembly in Session
the States Ministry for this purpose. The People’s
The Constitution of India, thus, marked a Movements exerted pressure on the princes to
new beginning and yet established continuity accede to the Indian union.
with India’s past. The Fundamental Rights drew The long, militant struggle that went on in
everything from clause 5 of the Objectives the Travancore State for Responsible Government
Resolution as much as from the rights enlisted culminating in the Punnapra–Vayalar armed
by the Indian National Congress at its Karachi struggle against the Diwan, Sir C.P. Ramaswamy,
session (discussed in Lesson 5). The spirit of the the Praja Mandal as well as some tribal agitations
Constitution was drawn from the experience of that took place in the Orissa region – Nilagiri,
the struggle for freedom and the legal language Dhenkanal and Talcher – and the movement
from the Objectives Resolution and most against the Maharaja of Mysore conducted by
importantly from the Universal Declaration of the Indian National Congress all played a major
Human Rights (UDHR), promulgated by the role in the integration of Princely States.
United Nations on December 10, 1948.
Instrument of Accession: A legal
8.3 Merger of Princely document, introduced in Government of
India Act, 1935, which was later used in the
States
context of Partition enabling Indian rulers to
The adoption of the Constitution on accede their state to either India or Pakistan.
November 26, 1949 was only the beginning of a
bold new experiment by the infant nation. There Yet, there was the problem posed by the
were a host of other challenges that the nation recalcitrant ruler of Hyderabad, with the Nizam
and its leaders faced and they had to be addressed declaring his kingdom as independent. The

ruler of Junagadh wanted to join Pakistan, much 8.4 Linguistic
against the wishes of the people. Similarly, the Reorganization of
Hindu ruler of Kashmir, Maharaja Hari Singh,
States
declared that Kashmir would remain
independent while the people of the State under An important
the leadership of the National Conference had aspect of the making
waged a “Quit Kashmir” agitation against the of independent India
Maharaja. It must be stressed here that the was the reorganisation
movement in Kashmir as well as the other of states on linguistic
Princely States were also against the decadent basis. The colonial
practice of feudal land and social relations that rulers had rendered
prevailed there. the sub-continent into Nizam of Hyderabad
“The police administrative units,
action” executed in dividing the land by way of Presidencies or
Hyderabad within 48 Provinces without taking into account the
hours after the Nizam language and its impact on culture on a region.
declared his intentions Independence and the idea of a constitutional
demonstrated that democracy meant that the people were sovereign
India meant business. and that India was a multi-cultural nation
It was the popular where federal principles were to be adopted in a
Vallabhbhai Patel
anger against the holistic sense and not just as an administrative
Nizam and his militia, known as the Razakkars, strategy.
that was manifest in the Telengana people’s The linguistic reorganization of states
movement led by the communists there which was raised and argued out in Constituent
provided the legitimacy to “the police action”. Assembly between 1947 and 1949. The
Though Patel had been negotiating with assembly however decided to hold it in
the Maharaja of Kashmir since 1946, Hari abeyance for a while on the grounds that
Singh was opposed to accession. However, in the task was huge and could create problems
a few months after independence – in October in the aftermath of the partition and the
1947 – marauders from Pakistan raided accompanying violence.
Kashmir and there was After the Constitution came into
no way that Maharaja force it began to be implemented in stages,
Hari Singh could beginning with the formation of a composite
resist this attack on Andhra Pradesh in 1956. It culminated in
his own. Before India the trifurcation of Punjab to constitute a
went to his rescue Punjabi-speaking state of Punjab and carving
the Instrument of out Haryana and Himachal Pradesh from the
Accession was signed existing state of Punjab in 1966.
by him at the instance Maharaja Hari Singh The idea of linguistic reorganisation of
of Patel. Thus Kashmir too became an integral states was integral to the national movement, at
part of the Indian Union. This process and the least since 1920. The Indian National Congress,
commitment of the leaders of independent at its Nagpur session (1920), recorded that the
India to the concerns of the people of Kashmir national identity will have to be necessarily
led the Constituent Assembly to provide for achieved through linguistic identity and
autonomous status to the State of Jammu and resolved to set up the Provincial Congress
Kashmir under Article 370 of the Constitution. Committees on a linguistic basis.

It took concrete expression in the Nehru of new provinces of Andhra, Kerala, Karnataka
Committee Report of 1928. Section 86 of the and Maharashtra. Its report, submitted on
Nehru Report read: “The redistribution of December 10, 1948, listed out reasons against
provinces should take place on a linguistic basis the idea of linguistic reorganisation in the
on the demand of the majority of the population given context. It dealt with each of the four
of the area concerned, subject to financial and proposed States – Andhra, Karnataka, Kerala
administrative considerations.” and Maharashtra – and concluded against such
This idea was expressed, in categorical an idea.
terms, in the manifesto of the Indian National However, the demand for linguistic
Congress for the elections to the Central and reorganisation of states did not stop. The issue
Provincial Legislative Assemblies in 1945. gained centre-stage with Pattabhi Sitaramayya’s
The manifesto made a clear reference to the election as the Congress President at the Jaipur
reorganisation of the provinces: “… it (the session. A resolution there led to the constitution
Congress) has also stood for the freedom of a committee with Sardar Vallabhai Patel,
of each group and territorial area within the Pattabhi Sitaramayya and Jawaharlal Nehru
nation to develop its own life and culture within (also called the JVP committee).
the larger framework, and it has stated that for The JVP
this purpose such territorial areas or provinces committee submitted
should be constituted as far as possible, on a its report on April
linguistic and cultural basis…” 1, 1949. It too held
On August 31, 1946, only a month after the that the demand
elections to the Constituent Assembly, Pattabhi for linguistic
Sitaramayya raised the demand for an Andhra states, in the given
Province: “The whole problem” he wrote, “must context, as “narrow
be taken up as the first and foremost problem provincialism’’ and Pattabhi Sitaramayya
to be solved by the Constituent Assembly”. He that it could become a
also presided over a conference, on December “menace’’ to the development of the country.
8, 1946, that passed a resolution demanding The JVP committee also held out that “while
that the Constituent Assembly accept the language is a binding force, it is also a separating
principle for linguistic reorganisation of States. one’’. However, it stressed that it was possible
The Government of India in a communique that “when conditions are more static and the
stated that Andhra could be mentioned as a state of peoples’ minds calmer, the adjustment
separate unit in the new Constitution as was of these boundaries or the creation of new
done in case of the Sind and Orissa under the provinces can be undertaken with relative ease
Government of India Act, 1935. and with advantage to all concerned.’’
The Drafting Committee of the Constituent The committee said in conclusion that it
Assembly, however, found such a mention of was not the right time to embark upon the idea
Andhra was not possible until the geographical of linguistic reorganisation of States. In other
schedule of the province was outlined. Hence, words, the consensus was that the linguistic
on June 17, 1948, Chairman Rajendra Prasad reorganisation of states be postponed. There
was provision for re-working the boundaries
set up a 3-member commission, called The
between states and also for the formation of
Linguistic Provinces Commission with a specific
new states from parts of existing states.
brief to examine and report on the formation

Karnataka, Hyderabad, Andhra, Bombay,
“In order to secure the stability and Vidharbha, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan,
integration, India should have a strong centre
Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal,
and national language. Indian nationalism
Assam, Orissa and Jammu & Kashmir. In other
is deeply wedded to its regional languages.
Indian patriotism is aggressively attached to words, the Commission’s recommendations
its provincial frontiers. If India is to survive, were a compromise between administrative
Indian nationalism and patriotism will have convenience and linguistic concerns.
to sacrifice some of its cherished sentiments The Nehru regime, however, was, by then,
in the larger interests of the country… committed to the principle of linguistic
“The only good that we can see in a reorganization of the States and thus went ahead
linguistic province is the possible advantage it implementing the States Reorganisation Act,
has in working the Legislature in the regional 1956. Andhra Pradesh, including the Hyderabad
language. But this is more than counter- State came into existence. Kerala, including the
balanced by the obstruction the linguistic Travancore-Cochin State and the Malabar
provinces will inevitably cause to the spread district of Madras, came into existence.
of national language or national feeling in Karnataka came into being including the
this country…”
Mysore State and also parts of Bombay and
(Excerpts from the Report of The Madras States. In all these cases, the core
Linguistic Provinces Commission, as principle was linguistic identity.
submitted to the Constituent Assembly)
The Nehru
The makers of the Constitution did not regime, however,
qualify the reorganisation of the States as only denied acceding to a
on linguistic basis but left it open as long as similar demand in the
there was agreement on such reorganisation. case of the Gujarati-
speaking people.
The idea of linguistic states revived soon
However, this too
after the first general elections were over. Potti
was conceded in May
Sriramulu’s fast demanding a separate state of
1960 with the creation
Andhra, beginning October 19, 1952 and his Potti Sriramulu
of Maharashtra and
death thereafter on December 15, 1952.
Gujarat. Subsequently, the demand for a
Article 3, reads as follows: Punjabi subha continued to be described by
the establishment as separatist until 1966. The
Parliament may by law- (a) form a new State
trifurcation of Punjab, brought to an end the
by separation of territory from any State or by
process that was initiated by the Indian National
uniting two of more States or parts of States
Congress, in 1920, to put language as the basis
by uniting any territory to a part of any State;
for the reorganization of the provinces.
(b) increase the area of any State;
(c) diminish the area of any State;
8.5 India’s Foreign Policy
(d) alter the boundaries of any State;
The founding principles of independent
This led to the constitution of the States India’s foreign policy were, in fact, formulated
Reorganisation Commission, with Fazli Ali at least three decades before independence. It
as Chairperson, and K.M. Panikkar and evolved in the course of the freedom struggle
H.N. Husrau as members. The Commission and was rooted in its conviction against any
submitted its report in October 1955. The form of colonialism. Jawaharlal Nehru was its
Commission recommended the following States prime architect.
to constitute the Indian Union: Madras, Kerala,

AFGHANISTAN
INDIA in 1956
Jammu and kashmir
Himachal Pradesh CHINA
Punjab
PAKISTAN
Delhi
NEPAL
Uttar Pradesh BHUTAN

Rajasthan Assam
Bihar
Tripura
West Bengal
Madhaya Pradesh
MYANMAR
Orissa
Bombay
Andhra Pradesh
ARABIAN SEA Pondicherry BAY OF BENGAL

Mysore
Pondicherry
Pondicherry
Madras Andaman
Laccdive, Minicoy Kerala and
& Nicobar Islands
Amindivi Islands
SRILANKA
I N D I A N O C E A N

India’s foreign policy was based on certain Tibet, in 1950, India was unhappy that it had
basic principles. They are: anti-colonialism, not been taken into confidence. In 1954, India
anti-imperialism, anti-apartheid or anti-racism, and China signed a treaty in which India
non-alignment with the super powers, Afro- recognized China’s rights over Tibet and the
Asian Unity, non-aggression, non-interference two countries placed their relationship within
in other’s internal affairs, mutual respect for a set of principles, widely known since then as
each other’s sovereignty and territorial integrity, the principles of Panch Sheel.
and the promotion of world peace and security.
Meanwhile, Nehru took special efforts to
The commitment to peace between nations was
project China and Chou En-lai at the Bandung
not placed in a vacuum; it was placed with an
Conference, held in April 1955. In 1959, the
equally emphatic commitment to justice.
Dalai Lama, fled Tibet along with thousands
The context in which India’s foreign policy of refugees after a revolt by the Buddhists was
was formulated was further complicated by the crushed by the Chinese government. The Dalai
two contesting power blocs that dominated the Lama was given asylum in India and it made
world in the post-war scenario: the US and the the Chinese unhappy. Soon after, in October
USSR. Independent India responded to this with 1959, the Chinese opened fire on an Indian
non-alignment as its foreign policy doctrine. patrol near the Kongka pass in Ladakh, killing
Before we go into the details of non- five Indian policemen and capturing a dozen
alignment, it will be useful to look at India’s others. Though talks were held at various levels
relationship with China since independence. including with Chou En-lai, not much headway
China was liberated by its people from Japanese was made.
colonial expansionism in 1949, just two years
after India’s Independence. Nehru laid a lot of
importance on friendship with China, with
whom India shared a long border.
Panch Sheel (five virtues)

1. Mutual respect for each other's territorial
integrity and sovereignty
2. Mutual non-aggression
Nehru and Chou En-lai
3. Mutual non-interference in each other's
internal affairs
Then came the 1962 war with China. On
4. Equality and cooperation for mutual 8 September 1962, Chinese forces attacked the
benefit Thagla ridge and dislodged Indian troops. All
5. Peaceful co-existence the goodwill and attempts to forge an Asian
bloc in the world came to a stop. India took a
India was the first to recognize the new long time to recover from the blow to its self-
People’s Republic of China on January 1, 1950. respect, and perhaps it was only the victory over
The shared experience of suffering at the hands Pakistan in the Bangladesh war, in which China
of colonial powers and its consequences – and the US were also supporting Pakistan, that
poverty and underdevelopment – in Nehru’s restored the sense of self-worth.
perception was force enough to get the two India’s contribution to the world, however,
nations to join hands to give Asia its due place was not restricted to its relationship with China
in the world. Nehru pressed for representation and the Panch Sheel. It was most pronounced
for Communist China in the UN Security and lasting in the form of non-alignment and its
Council. However, when China occupied concretisation at the Bandung Conference.

In March 1947, Nehru organised the Asian
4. Abstention from intervention or interference
Relations Conference, attended by more than in the internal affairs of another country
twenty countries. The theme of the conference
5. Respect for the right of each nation to defend
was Asian independence and assertion on the itself, singly or collectively, in conformity
world stage. Another such conference was held with the charter of the United Nations
in December 1948 in specific response to the
6. (a) Abstention from the use of arrangements
Dutch attempt to re-colonize Indonesia. The of collective defence to serve any
de-colonization initiative was carried forward particular interests of the big powers
further at the Asian leaders’ conference in (b) Abstention by any country from exerting
Colombo in 1954, culminating in the Afro- pressures on other countries
Asian Conference in Bandung, Indonesia, in 7. Refraining from acts or threats of aggression
1955. The Bandung Conference set the stage for or the use of force against the territorial
the meeting of nations at Belgrade and the birth integrity or political independence of any
of the Non-Aligned Movement. country
8. Settlement of all international disputes
by peaceful means, such as negotiation,
conciliation, arbitration or judicial settlement
as well as other peaceful means of the parties
own choice, in conformity with the charter
of the United Nations
9. Promotion of mutual interests and
cooperation
10.
Respect for justice and international
obligations.
Bandung Conference
“So far as all these evil forces of fascism,
The architect of independent India’s colonialism and racialism or the nuclear bomb
foreign policy, indeed, was Jawaharlal Nehru and aggression and suppression are concerned,
and the high point of it was reached in 1961 we stand most emphatically and unequivocally
when he stood with Nasser of Egypt and Tito of committed against them . . . We are unaligned
Yugoslavia to call for nuclear disarmament and only in relation to the cold war with its military
peace. The importance of non-alignment and its pacts. We object to all this business of forcing the
essence in such a world is best explained from new nations of Asia and Africa into their cold
what Nehru had to say about it. war machine. Otherwise, we are free to condemn
any development which we consider wrong or
Bandung Declaration harmful to the world or ourselves and we use that
freedom every time the occasion arises.”
A 10-point "declaration on promotion of world
peace and cooperation," incorporating the
principles of the United Nations Charter was Summary
adopted unanimously:
T
he partition of the sub-continent into
1. Respect for fundamental human rights and two nation-states, India and Pakistan,
for the purposes and principles of the charter
and the outbreak of communal violence
of the United Nations
of unprecedented magnitude in its wake,
2. Respect for the sovereignty and territorial posing a serious threat to our hard won
integrity of all nations
freedom are discussed in detail.
3. Recognition of the equality of all races and of
the equality of all nations large and small

D
espite the trying time Nehru and Patel several odds and challenges, prioritised
had, the problem of law and order and and tackled to the satisfaction of every
the issue of settling the displaced people section of the society.
who were thrown into the condition of
T
hough many of the Princely states agreed
refugees in their own homeland were
to sign the Instrument of Accession,
solved ably.
states like Travancore, Hyderabad, and
T
he pressing problems that confronted Kashmir showed defiance but were dealt
Indian leaders, such as constitution with sternly.
making, integration of princely states
India evolved its foreign policy by
with the Indian Union, reorganisation of
adopting basic principles. India adhered
on some sound and scientific basis and
to the concept of non-alignment to
evolving a long lasting foreign policy
prevent war and promote world peace.
for the country were handled, despite
EXERCISE
I. C
hoose the
correct answer 3. Match the following
1. M
atch the following (A) People’s Republic - 1. Belgrade
of China
(A) JVP Committee - 1. 1928
(B) Bandung - 2. March 1947
(B) Sir Cyril Radcliffe - 2. State Conference
Reorganisation
Commission (C) Asian Relations - 3. April 1955
Conference
(C) Fazl Ali - 3. 1948 (D) B irth of Non- - 4. January 1, 1950
(D) Nehru Committee - 4. B
oundary Aligned Movement
Report Commission
A B C D
A B C D
(a) 3 4 2 1
(a) 1 2 3 4
(b) 4 2 3 1
(b) 3 4 2 1
(c) 4 3 2 1
(c) 4 3 2 1
(d) 3 2 4 1
(d) 4 2 3 1
4. Which is the correct sequence of the following
2. Arrange the following in chronological order. events?
(i)
Atlee’s announcement on India’s (i) People’s Republic of China
independence
(ii) India’s war with China
(ii) Interim Government under Nehru
(iii) Meeting of the Constituent Assembly
(iii) Lord Mountbatten Plan
Choose the answer from the codes given
(iv) Panch Sheel
below: (v) Nehru-Liaquat Ali Khan Pact
(a) ii, i, iii (b) i, ii, iii Select the answer from the codes below:
(c) iii, ii, i (d) ii, iii, i (a) i, ii, iii, iv, v (b) iii, i, v, iv, ii
(c) iii, iv, i, v, ii (d) i, iii, iv, v, ii

5. M
ahatma Gandhi was assassinated on 11. The adoption of the Constitution was on
(a) January, 30, 1948 (a) January 30, 1949
(b) August 15, 1947 (b) August 15, 1947
(c) January, 30, 1949 (c) January 30, 1949
(d) October, 2, 1948 (d) November 26, 1949
6. Who was the first to raise the demand for
Andhra province ? 12. The first State formed on linguistic basis was
(a) Potti Sriramulu (a) Kashmir (b) Assam
(b) Pattabhi Sitaramayya (c) Andhra (d) Orissa
(c) K.M. Panikkar II. Write brief answers
(d) T. Prakasam 1.
What do you know of Instrument of
7.
The Objectives Resolution before the Accession?
Constituent Assembly was placed by 2.
Describe the composition of Constituent
(a) Rajendra Prashad Assembly.
(b) Jawaharlal Nehru 3. What is the significance of article 370 of the
(c) Vallabh bhai Patel Constitution?
4.
What justified the “police action” in
(d) Maulana Abul Kalam Azad
Hyderabad to get it integrated into union of
8. The Congress ensured the election of Dr B.R. India?
Ambedkar from a seat in 5. What was the essence of the JVP Committee’s
(a) Amethi (b) Bombay recommendations?
(c) Nagpur (d) Mhow III. Write short answers
9. A
ssertion (A): Radcliffe’s award contained all 1. How was the Raja of Kashmir made to sign
kinds of anomalies. the Instrument of Accession?
Reason (R): Despite anomalies the award 2.
What are the hallmarks of our Indian
was accepted by all stakeholders. Constitution?
3. Highlight the tragic consequences of Partition.
explanation of A. 4. Explain the five principles of Panch Sheel.
(b) Both A and R are true and R is not the IV. Answer the following in detail
correct explanation of A.
1. What were the problems in the merger of
(c) A is true but R is false. princely states with the Indian Union and
(d) A is false but R is true. how they were ably handled by Patel and
Nehru.
10 The Constituent Assembly was convened for 2. Trace the different stages in the reorganization
the first time on of Indian States from 1920 to 1956.
(a) March 22, 1949 3.
What were the basic principles of India’s
(b) January 26,1946 foreign policy? What role did Prime minister
Nehru in organizing the Afro-Asian countries
(c) December 9, 1946
into a non-aligned movement.
(d) December 13, 1946

V. Activity 3. Sekhar Bandopadhyay, From Plassey to
1. Conduct special meetings debating the pros Partition and After: A History of Modern
and cons of identity politics. India, Orient BlackSwan, Hyderabad, 2009.
2. Teachers may organise screening of Govind
Nihalani’s tele-film titled Tamas and M.S. INTERNET RESOURCES
Satyu’s feature film ‘Garam Hawa’ with
English sub-titles to the students and initiate 1. Teachers may expose the students to what
interaction with students. led to the UDHR and its content through the
following URL https://www.humanrights.
3. Kushwant Singh’s Train to Pakistan is also an
com/what-are-human-rights/brief-history/
excellent book to read in this context.
the-united-nations.html
REFERENCES
Bipan Chandra, et. al., India Since
1.
Independence, Penguin, New Delhi, 2010.
Bipan Chandra, et. al., India’s Struggle for
2.
Independence, Penguin Books, New Delhi,
2016 (Revised and Updated).
GLOSSARY
fundamental principles by which a state is
constitution
governed. அரசியலமைப்பு
a deviation from the common rule, type,
anomalies முரண்பாடுகள்
arrangement, or form.
demographic of human population மக்கள்தொகை சார்ந்த
symbolic serving as a symbol of something. அடையாளமாக, குறியீடாக

is a body of representatives that is elected
constituent
to formulate or change their country’s அரசியலமைப்பு நிர்ணய
assembly Constitution சபை
autonomous Self governing; independent. தன்னாட்சி அதிகாரம் க�ொண்ட

Objectives
a resolution spelling out the குறிக்கோள் தீர்மானங்கள்
Resolution
Indian rulers and their States under
Princely states
British rule சுதேச அரசுகள்
the sum from the public revenues granted to the

sovereign as compensation for their loss of kingdom மன்னர் மானியம்
privy purse
linguistic relating to language. ம�ொழிவாரி

ICT CORNER
Reconstruction of Post-colonial India
Through this page you will learn

about The Constitutional
Origins of India.
Step - 2 Scroll down, click on ‘Click on Constitution making process’
Step - 3 Select ‘Stages’ and explore the Constitutional sessions
Step1 Step2 Step3
Web URL: http://cadindia.clpr.org.in/


UNIT Envisioning A New
9 Socio-Economic Order
Learning Objectives
To understand:
The economic situation in India at the time of Independence
India as a socialist, democratic nation and what this signified
Steps taken to improve agriculture and the rural economy
a) Land reforms, and assessment of their effectiveness
b) Technological development through the Green Revolution
c) Rural development programmes
d) Rural employment schemes
Industrial Development
a) Strategy and rationale of investment in heavy industry
b) The role of the state and government controls on private industry and consumption
through industrial regulation policies and legislation
c) The role of the public sector
d) Liberalisation and after
Five Year Plans in India
Education
a) The progress in literacy and expansion of school education
b) Problem of high drop-out rates and poor educational outcomes
Science and Technology – Growth of institutions of scientific research and technology in
the country
Introduction agriculture was very low. Agriculture was also

characterized by semi-feudal relations between
When India became independent in landowners and cultivators or peasants, who
1947, the economy of the country was very were often exploited by the land-owning classes.
fragile and facing many problems. The level
The industrial sector had grown in the
of poverty was very high. Nearly 80 percent
decades before Independence, but it was still
of the population was living in rural areas,
quite small. The best known heavy industry
depending on agriculture for their livelihood.
was Tata Iron and Steel. Besides this, the
As the craft-based occupations had suffered
main manufactures were cotton spinning and
during British rule, many skilled artisans had
weaving, paper, chemicals, sugar, jute and
lost their livelihood. As a result, agriculture was
cement. Engineering units produced machinery
overcrowded, and the per capita income from
121 Envisioning A New Socio-Economic Order

for these units. However, the sector was great admirer of the success of the Soviet Union
relatively small and did not offer a significant in achieving rapid development, and thus the
potential for employing the surplus labour from ideology on which this strategy is based is often
the agricultural sector. In fact, the industry referred to as “Nehruvian socialism”.
sector only accounted for 13% of the total
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in 1950. Most Agricultural Policy
manufactured consumer goods were imported. At the time of Independence, agriculture in
The Indian offices of major foreign companies India was beset with many problems. In general,
were involved only in marketing and sales, and productivity was low. The total production of
not in manufacturing. food grains was not enough to feed the country,
Thus, the new government of India was so that a large quantity of food grains had to be
faced with the mammoth task of developing the imported. Nearly 80 percent of the population
economy, improving conditions in agriculture, depended on agriculture for their livelihood.
widening the manufacturing sector, increasing This automatically reduced the income of each
employment and reducing poverty. person to very low levels. This is a situation
described as ‘disguised unemployment’. That is,
Socialistic Pattern of Society even if many people shifted to other occupations,
Economic development can be achieved in total production levels would remain the same,
many ways. One option would be to follow the because this surplus population was not really
free enterprise, capitalist path; the other was to required to sustain the activity, and was, in effect,
follow the socialist path. India chose the latter. unemployed. Given the high level of poverty
In fact, the Preamble to the Indian Constitution, level among the rural population, most of them
cited in the previous lesson, stated were heavily indebted to money lenders.
unambiguously that India would be “a sovereign, The backwardness of agriculture could
socialist, secular democratic republic”. The be attributed to two factors: institutional and
objectives of this socialist pattern of development technological. Institutional factors refer to the
were: the reduction of inequalities, elimination social and economic relations that prevailed,
of exploitation, and prevention of concentration particularly between the land-owning classes
of wealth. Social justice meant that all citizens and the cultivating classes. Technological factors
would have an equal opportunity to education relate to use of better seeds, improved methods
and employment. This essentially entailed the of cultivation, use of chemical fertilizers,
active participation of the state in the process of use of machinery like tractors and harvester
development. combines, and provision of irrigation. The
In agriculture, social government decided to tackle the institutional
and economic justice was drawbacks first and began a programme of
to be achieved through a land reforms to improve the conditions in
process of land reforms agriculture. The basic assumption was that such
which would empower the measures would improve the efficiency of land
cultivator. In industry, the use or productivity, apart from empowering the
state would play an active peasants by creating a socially just system.
role by setting up major
industries under the public 9.1 Land Reforms and
Jawaharlal Nehru sector. These were to be
achieved through a comprehensive process of
Rural Reconstruction
planning under Five Year Plans. These strategies Under the Constitution of India, agriculture
had been borrowed from the Soviet experience was a ‘state subject’, that is, each state had to
of rapid economic development. Nehru was a pass laws relating to land reforms individually.
Envisioning A New Socio-Economic Order 122

Thus, while the basic form of legislation. West Bengal, where the Permanent
land reforms was common Settlement was first introduced, the act was
among all the states, there passed only in 1955. Land was taken away
was no uniformity in the from the zamindars were distributed among
specific terms of land reform the tenants. The provincial legislatures also
legislation among the states. recommended the amount of compensation to
be paid to the zamindars.
(a) Zamindari Abolition Zamindars in various parts of the country
Abolition of Zamindari was part of the challenged the constitutionality of the zamindari
manifesto of the Indian National Congress abolition laws in court. The government then
Party even before Independence. What was passed two amendments to the Constitution,
Zamindari and who were the zamindars? the First Amendment in 1951 and the Fourth
Zamindar referred to the class of landowners Amendment in 1955, which removed the
who had been designated during British ‘right to property’ from the fundamental rights
rule as the intermediaries who paid the land guaranteed under the Constitution and pre-
revenue to the government under a Permanent empted the right of zamindars to question the
Settlement. They collected rent from peasants expropriation of their land or the value of the
cultivating their land and were obliged to pay a compensation.
fixed amount to the government as land taxes. Finally, zamindari abolition was completed
There was no legal limit to these demands, and by 1956, and was possibly the most successful
zamindars generally extorted high rents from of the land reforms. About 30 lakh tenants
the cultivators leaving them impoverished. In and sharecroppers gained ownership of 62
public opinion, these zamindars were considered lakh hectares of land. The total compensation
to be a decadent, extravagant and unproductive actually paid to the zamindars amounted to Rs.
class who were living on unearned income. 16,420 lakhs (which amounted to only about
Abolishing their privileges and restoring land to one-fourth of the total compensation amount
the cultivators was therefore a prime objective due).
of the government.
In sum, however, the reform only achieved
a very small part of the original objective. Many
Three systems of revenue collection had
been introduced by the British. In Bengal zamindars were able to evict their tenants and
and most of north India, the Permanent take over their land claiming that this land was
Settlement placed the responsibility of under their ‘personal cultivation’. Thus, while
paying land revenue on the rentier class of the institution of zamindari was dismantled,
zamindars. In south India, the cultivators many landowners continued in possession of
paid the land revenue demand directly to vast tracts of land.
the government under the system known
as ‘ryotwari’ (‘ryot’ means cultivator). The (b) Tenancy Reform
third system, found in very small pockets Nearly half of the total cultivated land in
of the country, was ‘mahalwari’ where the India was under tenancy. Tenancy refers to an
village was collectively responsible for arrangement under which land was taken on
paying the land revenue. lease from landowners by cultivators under
specific terms. Not all tenants were landless
Most provinces in India had enacted laws
peasants. Many small landowners who wanted
abolishing the zamindari system even before
to cultivate additional land leased out land from
the Constitution was framed. By 1949, Uttar
other landowners. Some richer landowners also
Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Madras,
took additional land for cultivation on lease. In
Assam and Bombay had introduced such

general, the rent was paid in kind, as a share of unsuccessful. Tenancy agreements were made
the produce from the land. orally, and were unrecorded. The tenant thus
Most large landowners in India tended always had to live with the uncertainty that their
to belong to the upper castes – Brahmin and land could be resumed by the landlord any time.
non-Brahmin. It was common for them to lease When tenancy reform laws were announced
out the land to tenants. Usually these tenancy many landowners claimed to have taken back
arrangements continued for long periods of their land for ‘personal cultivation’ and that
time. The rents received by the landowners tenants were only being employed as labour to
generally amounted to about 50% or more of work the land. Tenancy reform was bound to be
the produce from the land, which was very ineffectual in the absence of a comprehensive
high. Tenancy was a customary practice and and enforceable land ceiling programme.
agreements were rarely recorded. Thus, tenants The two Communist states, Kerala and
of long-standing were almost never deprived West Bengal, were able to push through land
of tenancy rights. However, tenants could also reforms with greater success. Reform measures
be evicted at short notice, and tenants therefore in Kerala were remarkably successful, though
always lived under some uncertainty. some political compromises had to be made in a
Tenancy reform was undertaken with two programme which started out to be completely
objectives. One was to empower the cultivators radical. The abolition of landlordism was
by protecting them against the landowners. remarkably successful. But the programme to
The other was to improve the efficiency of land confer ownership on the tenants in four stages
use, based on the assumption that tenancy was was not always successful, nor did it benefit the
inefficient. Landowners rarely had any incentive small tenants, since much of the tenanted land
to invest in improving the land, and were was held by richer farmers.
interested only in deriving an income from their In West Bengal, the programme to confer
land. Tenants, who had no ownership rights and tenancy rights was called Operation Barga.
were liable to pay high rents, had neither the This was quite successful, but the Communist
incentive nor surplus money to invest in land. government was criticized severely for giving
Tenancy reform legislation was aimed at official sanction to tenancy (as opposed to
achieving three ends: giving tenant farmers ownership rights to the
(i) to regulate the rent; land).
(ii) to secure the rights of the tenant;
(c) Land Ceiling
(iii) to confer ownership rights on the
Land ceiling refers to the maximum
tenants by expropriating the land of the
amount of land that could be legally owned by
land owners.
individuals. Laws were passed after the 1950s
Legislation was passed in the states
to enforce it. In Tamilnadu it was implemented
regulating the rent at one-fourth to one-
first in 1961. Until 1972, there was a ceiling on
third of the produce. But this could never be
implemented successfully. The agricultural the extent of land that a ‘landholder’ could own.
sector had a surplus of labour whereas land After 1972, the unit was changed to a ‘family’.
was a resource in short supply. Price controls This meant that the landowners could claim
did not work in a situation when the demand that each member of the family owned a part
exceeded the supply. All that happened was that of the land which would be much less than the
rent rates were pushed under the table without prescribed limit under the ceiling.
any official record.
Deciding the extent of land under land
Laws to secure the rights of the tenant ceiling was a complex exercise, since land was
and to make tenancy heritable were equally

not of uniform quality. Distinctions had to be In terms of social justice, the abolition of
made between irrigated and unirrigated dry the semi-feudal system of zamindari has been
land, single crop and double crop producing effective. The land reform measures have also
land. As all these issues were being debated in made the peasants more politically aware of
the policy forums, the landowners had plenty their rights and empowered them.
of time to manipulate the land records and
create fictitious and fraudulent partition of the 9.2 Development of
land among relatives or trusts. Further, many Agriculture
categories of land were not subject to ceilings.
These included orchards, horticultural land, (a) Green Revolution
grazing land, land belonging to religious and
charitable trusts, and sugarcane plantations.
These exemptions were also used to evade the
land ceiling acts.
Ultimately, only about 65 lakh hectares of
land was taken over as surplus land. This was
distributed to about 55 lakh tenants–an average
of a little over 1 hectare per tenant. Clearly, with
their political power the dominant castes who
were the big landowners managed to dilute and
vitiate the entire legislation. By the middle of the 1960s the scenario with
regard to food production was very grim. The
Efforts like Bhoodan country was incurring enormous expenditure
started by Vinoba on importing food. Land reforms had made
Bhave to persuade large no impact on agricultural production. The
landowners to surrender government therefore turned to technological
their surplus land alternatives to develop agriculture. High
voluntarily attracted Yielding Variety (HYV) of seeds of wheat and
much public attention. rice was adopted in 1965 in select areas well
But the end results were endowed with irrigation.
Vinoba Bhave disappointing, since the Unlike traditional agriculture, cultivation
land thus surrendered of HYV seeds required a lot of water and use
was usually unproductive land. of tractors, chemical fertilizers and pesticides.
The success of the initial experimental projects
(d) Overall Appraisal led to the large-scale adoption of HYV seeds
Land reform legislation has overall not been across the country. This is generally referred to
a great success. In economic terms, the dream of as the Green Revolution. This also created an
an agricultural sector prospering under peasant enormous demand for chemical fertilizers and
cultivators with secure, ownership rights has pesticides, and these industries grew as well.
remained just that – a dream – and there was Finally, within twenty years, India achieved
no visible improvement in efficiency. In more self-sufficiency in food production. Total rice
recent years, when agriculture has grown due production increased from 35 million tonnes
to technological progress, a more efficient land in 1960–61 to 104 million tonnes in 2011–12.
market is seen to be operating which is more The increase in wheat production was even more
conducive for long term growth. impressive, from 11 million tonnes to 94 million

tonnes during the same period. Productivity much higher among specific social groups
also increased. A large reserve stock of food (Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes),
grain was built up by the government through classes (small and marginal farmers, landless
buying the surplus food grain from the farmers labourers) and in resource poor regions without
and storing this in warehouses of the Food irrigation and with poor soil, etc.
Corporation of India (FCI). The stored food A whole range of rural development
grains were made available under the Public programmes were introduced by the government
Distribution System (PDS) and to ensure food to tackle rural poverty. These included
security for the people. Community Development Programmes,
Another positive feature was been the reviving local institutions like Panchayati Raj,
sustained increase in the production of milk and targeted programmes aimed at specific
and eggs. Due to this, the food basket of all groups such as small and marginal farmers.
income groups became more diversified. The thrust was on proving additional sources
While the Green Revolution has been of income to the rural households to augment
very successful in terms of increasing food their earnings from agriculture. Two major
production in India, it has also had some programmes are explained in greater detail
negative outcomes. First of all, it increased the below.
disparities between the well-endowed and the
less well-endowed regions. Over the decades, (c) Integrated Rural
there has been a tendency among farmers to use Development Programme
chemical fertilizers and pesticides in excessive (IRDP), 1980–1999
quantities resulting in environmental problems. In 1980 a consolidated rural development
There is now a move to go back to organic programme called Integrated Rural
farming in many parts of the country. The Development Programme was introduced. The
lesson to be learnt is that development comes at purpose was to provide rural households with
a certain cost. assets which would improve their economic
position, so that they would be able to come
(b) Rural Development out of poverty. These could be improvements to
Programmes the land, supply of cows or goats for dairying or
By the 1970s, the levels of poverty had help to set up small shops or other trade-related
not declined in spite of overall development of businesses. Introduced in all the 5011 blocks in
industry and agriculture. The assumption that the country, the target was to provide assistance
development would solve the problem of poverty to 600 families in each block over five years
was not realized, and nearly half the population (1980–1985), which would reach a total of 15
was found to be living below the poverty line. million families.
(The poverty line was defined as the level of The capital cost of the assets provided
expenditure required to purchase food grains to was covered by subsidies (divided equally
supply the recommended calorie level to sustain between the Centre and the states) and loans.
a person.) Though the percentage of the persons The subsidy varied according to the economic
below the poverty line did not increase, as the situation of the family receiving assistance. For
population grew, the number of persons living small farmers, the subsidy component was 25%,
below the poverty line kept increasing. 33.3% for marginal farmers and agricultural
Poverty prevailed both in rural and urban labourers, and 50% for tribal households. Banks
areas. But since nearly three-fourths of the were to give loans to the selected households to
population lived in rural areas, rural poverty cover the balance of the cost of the asset. About
was a much more critical problem requiring 53.5 million households were covered under the
immediate attention. Poverty levels were also programme till 1999.

Dairy animals accounted for 50% of the the biggest programme on this front in the
assets, non-farm activities for 25% and minor country.
irrigation works for about 15%. The functioning The National Rural Employment Guarantee
and the effects of IRDP were assessed by many Act (subsequently renamed MGNREGA)
economists as well as government bodies. These was passed in 2005, with the aim of providing
studies raised many questions about the end livelihood security to poor rural households.
result. This was to be achieved by giving at least 100
One obvious drawback was that many days of wage employment each year to adult
non-poor households were also selected as members of every household willing to do
beneficiaries in the programme. Secondly, the unskilled manual work. This would provide a
average investment per household was not cushion to poor rural households which could
sufficient to generate additional income of not get any work in the lean agricultural season
about Rs.2000 per month for each household. which lasted for about three months each year.
Third, there was a question as to how many In this exercise, the work undertaken would
households retained the assets that had been create durable assets in rural areas like roads,
provided, especially dairy animals. Last, and canals, minor irrigation works and restoration
most importantly, how many households of traditional water bodies.
were able to move above the poverty line The earlier targeted programmes of rural
permanently? development were based on the identification
In general, about 18per cent of the of below poverty line families, which had led
beneficiaries were able to cross the poverty to several complaints that ineligible families
line. There were considerable variations across had been selected. MGNREGA, however, is
different regions on all these issues. The ultimate applicable to all rural households. The reasoning
conclusion was that the programme did not is that it is a self-targeting scheme, because
really deliver on the benefits that were intended. persons with education or from more affluent
The programme was restructured in 1999 as a backgrounds would not come forward to do
programme to promote self-employment of the manual work at minimum wages.
rural poor. The earlier employment generation
programmes did not give the rural poor any right
(Mahatma Gandhi) National to demand and get work. The significant feature
Rural Employment Guarantee of this Act is that they have the legal right to
Act, 2005 (MGNREGA) demand work. The programme is implemented
Over the years, due to concerted efforts, the by Gram Panchayats. The applicants have
percentage of households below the poverty line to apply for this work and are provided with
has come down substantially in India. It is now job cards. Work is to be provided by the local
widely recognized that eradicating rural poverty authorities within 15 days. If not, the applicant
can be achieved only by is entitled to an unemployment allowance. The
expanding the scope work site should be located within 5 kilometres
for non-agricultural of the house of the applicant.
employment. Many No contractors are to be involved. This is
programmes to generate to avoid the profits which will be taken by the
additional employment middlemen thus cutting into the wages. The
had been introduced ratio of wages to capital investment should
over the years. Many be 60:40. One-third of the workers would be
were merged with the women. Men and women would be paid the
employment guarantee same wage.
scheme, which is now

As with all government programmes, processing industries which were more labour-
many studies have brought out the weaknesses intensive would have also led to industrial
in the implementation of MGNREGA. The growth. Alternatively, the Gandhian model
programme is not free of corruption, and stressed a model of growth with village and
employing contractors is also common. On cottage industries as the ideal way to produce
the positive side, agricultural wages have gone consumer goods, which would eliminate rural
up due to the improved bargaining power of poverty and unemployment. But the government
labour. This has also reduced the migration adopted the Nehruvian model of focusing on
of agricultural workers to urban areas during large scale, heavy industry to promote wide-
the lean period or during droughts. One of ranging industrial development. In keeping
the most important benefits is that women are with the basic principle of a “socialistic society”,
participating in the works in large numbers and the state would play a major role in developing
have been empowered by the programme. the industrial sector through setting up units
Some of the corruption and leakages wholly owned by the state. The emphasis on
have been plugged now that the wages of the heavy industry was to promote the production of
workers are paid directly into bank accounts steel and intermediate products like machines,
or post office accounts. The involvement of chemicals and fertilizers for the developing
civil society organizations, non-governmental industries. The social purpose that would be
organizations and political representatives, and achieved by this model of development was to
a more responsive attitude of the civil servants restrict private capital which was considered to
have improved the functioning of MGNREGA be exploitative and excessively profit-oriented,
in states like Andhra Pradesh and Rajasthan. which benefited a small class of capitalists.
Efficiency has increased up to 97%.
(a) Industrial Policy
Between 2006 and 2012, around
A series of Industrial Policy statements
Rs.1,10, 000 crores had been distributed directly
were adopted to promote these objectives. The
as wage payment under the programme,
first policy statement was made in 1948. It
generating 1200 crore person-days of
classified industries into four categories:
employment. In spite of many shortcomings,
the functioning of the programme has improved 1. Strategic industries which would be state
due to higher levels of consciousness among monopolies (atomic energy, railways, arms
the rural poor and concerned civil society and ammunition);
organizations. Though many critics feel that the 2. 18 industries of national importance under
high expenditure involved in the programme government control (heavy machinery,
increases the fiscal deficit, the programme fertilizer, heavy chemicals, defence
remains popular and nearly one-fourth of all equipment, etc.);
rural households participate in the programme 3. Industries in both the public and private
each year. sectors;
4. Industries in the private sector.
9.3 Development of The most definitive policy statement was
Industry the Industrial Policy Resolution of 1956 which
classified industries into three categories:
India was committed to the idea of
Schedule A industries were under the monopoly
promoting rapid industrial growth for economic
of the state; Schedule B industries, the state could
development. Development can be achieved
start new units but the private sector could also
through several pathways. In a country like
set up or expand their units; Schedule C were
India with a large population where many
the remaining industries.
raw materials were grown or were available,

The Industrial Development and petroleum companies, banking and insurance
Regulation Act of 1951 was an important services. Private entrants have been allowed
instrument for controlling the private sector. into some of these activities only in recent years.
This Act stipulated that no new industrial units
could be set up, nor the capacity of existing units (b) Public Sector
expanded without a licence or permit from the There were only 5 public sector enterprises
Government. There were severe criticisms in India in 1951. By 2012, this number had
of the way the policy of industrial licensing increased to 225. The capital investment
functioned. Large business houses were able to increased from Rs.29 crores in 1951 to 7.3 lakh
use their economic and political influence to crores in 2012. The setting up of public sector
corner licences without using them, depriving enterprises in heavy industry was again dictated
smaller businesses defeating the purpose of by two considerations. First, at the ideological
licensing. All these led to the “licence-permit level, the government was committed to a
raj” which was riddled with inefficiency and socialistic pattern of development which
corruption. involved a high degree of state control over
The Policy Statement of 1973 encouraged the economy. But at a more practical level, the
large industrial houses to start operations in government had to take over the responsibility
rural and backward areas to reduce regional for the establishment of heavy industrial units
imbalances in development. The Policy which required a very high level of investment.
Statement of 1977 was framed by the short- These were known as “long gestation” projects,
lived Janata government which was aimed that is, it would take many years before such
at promoting rural, village and small scale units would be able to start production.
industries.
In the 1950s, the private sector did not have
The Policy Statement of 1980 was
the resources or the willingness to enter into
announced by the Congress government which
such investment. Steel plants in Bhilai, Rourkela,
also aimed at promoting balanced growth.
Durgapur and Bokaro, engineering plants
Otherwise all these statements continued the
like Bharat Heavy Electricals and Hindustan
ideology of a strong public sector owned by the
Machine Tools were all set up in the 1950s in
state and control over the private sector and
collaboration with Britain, Germany and Russia
especially the large business houses.
which provided the technical support.
There were also other interventions which
intruded into the market economy. For instance,
inputs produced in the private sector like cement
were rationed, and permits had to be obtained
even for private construction of houses. The
manufacture of consumer goods was severely
restricted under the licensing policy. This was
partly an expression of the ideology of reducing
inequalities in consumption between the
affluent and weaker sections of society. But it
was also a way to ensure that scarce resources
like steel, cement etc. would be used in strategic Steel Plant of Bokaro
industries for the long-term development of the
economy. Units which did not have to be located near
Many important industries and services raw material sources were set up in backward
were nationalized. These included coal mines, areas to reduce regional disparities in industrial
and economic development. BHEL was first

set up in Bhopal, and later in Tiruchirappalli, the technology of heavy industries did not
Hyderabad and Hardwar. Steel plants were set require so many workers. This increased the
up in the relatively backward belt of Orissa, operating cost of the units. Bureaucrats were
Bihar and West Bengal. Public sector enterprises entrusted with the management of public
also contributed to the national exchequer enterprises, leading to inefficiency in
because their profits accrued in part to the management. Recognising all these problems,
central government. Thus the growth of the the government began a programme of
public sector served many economic and social disinvestment of the loss-making and non-
purposes, in addition to creating industrial strategic units in 1991.
capacity in the country. In spite of all
the shortcomings,
the strategy of
industrialization by
concentrating on building
up long-term industrial
capacity through the
establishment of heavy
industries has been
BHEL, Tiruchirappalli successful in making P.V. Narasimha Rao
India into a modern, industrial economy.

(c) Crisis in Public Sector
Industrial Units (d) Liberalisation: Industrial
By 1991 it was clear that public sector Policy Statement 1991
enterprises were facing severe problems. While The Indian government under Prime
on the whole they were showing a profit, nearly Minister P.V. Narasimha Rao finally announced
half the profit was contributed by the petroleum a shift in its industrial policy to remove controls
units. Many were making continuous losses. and licences, moving to a liberalized economy
Part of the problem lay in the expansion of permitting a much larger role to the private
the public sector into non-strategic areas like sector. The share of the public sector was to
tourism, hotels, consumer goods (for instance, be reduced through a policy of disinvestment
in the 1970s, television sets were produced and closure of sick units. This created a sea
only by public sector companies) and so on. change in the economic outlook in the country,
Services which depended on interactions particularly from the point of view of the
with consumers were doing badly because consumers. It is not merely that the aspirations
of the attitude of the staff who behaved like of the growing middle class for a better standard
administrative bureaucrats. of living in terms of availability of goods and
There were many factors which contributed services have been met. Even the lower income
to the poor performance of public sector families could now buy such goods.
enterprises. Decisions on location were made On the positive side, liberalization
for political rather than efficiency considerations. has certainly made India a more attractive
Delays in construction resulted in cost overrun, destination for foreign investment. State
so that the units were overcapitalized. governments are keen to advertise that they
Administrative prices were not always are relaxing restrictions to improve the ease of
economical and did not make sense when the doing business in their state. All this has created
intermediate goods produced in the public a general air of prosperity which is reflected in
sector were used as inputs in the private sector. the growth statistics of the economy as a whole.
Public sector units were also overstaffed, though

On the negative side, liberalization and indication of the extent
globalization have resulted in a significant to which the Indian
increase in income disparities between the top economy had grown
income groups and the lower income groups. in less than sixty years.
The removal of ceilings on corporate salaries Between the Second
has widened the disparities between the salaried and Sixth Plans, public
class of corporate executives and wage earners. sector accounted for 60
The formal sector has very limited potential for
to 70% of the total plan
additional employment and most of the new
P.C.Mahalanobis outlay. But since then, the
employment is generated in the informal sector,
share of the public sector
and disparities have also increased across these
two sectors. gradually came down, and private sector began
to dominate in total plan outlay,
However, neither the advocates of a free
economy nor leftist economists are happy with
Twelve five year plans have
the level of liberalization. The former want been made between 1951 and
more free play of market forces to eradicate 2017. Twelfth Five Year Plan
imbalances and checks to progress which are (2012-2017) was the last plan. In
still in place. The leftists are unhappy that the 2015, the Planning Commission
state has abdicated its responsibility for ensuring was wound up and replaced by the Niti Ayog.
and promoting social justice and welfare by
allowing free play to private capitalists to exploit
The First Plan (1951–56) focused on
the economy.
developing agriculture, especially increasing
9.4 Five Year Plans agricultural production. The allocation for
Agriculture and Irrigation accounted for 31% of
India followed the example of the USSR
in planning for development through five year the total outlay. After this, the emphasis shifted
plans. The Planning Commission was set up to industry, and the share of agriculture in total
in 1950 to formulate plans for developing the outlay hovered between 20 and 24%. By the
economy. Each Plan assesses the performance Eleventh Plan it had come down to less than
of the economy and the resources available for 20% . The Second Plan (1956–61), commonly
future development. Targets are set in accordance referred to as the Mahalanobis Plan, stressed the
with the priorities of the government. Resources development of heavy industry for achieving
are allocated to various sectors, like agriculture, economic growth. The share of industry in
industry, power, social sectors and technology, Plan outlay was only 6% in the First Plan, and
and a growth target is also set for the economy increased to about 24% after the Second Plan.
as a whole. One of the primary objectives of But the share has been declining since the Sixth
planning was to build a self-sufficient economy. Plan, perhaps because the major investments
The First Five Year Plan covered the period in the public sector had been completed. The
1951–56. Till now there have been twelve Five allocation for power development was very low
Year Plans in addition to three one year plans in the first four plans and this created a huge
between 1966 and 1969.
shortage of power in the country.
The proposed outlays for a Plan take both
The first two Plans had set fairly modest
private and public sector outlays into account.
targets of growth at about 4%, which economists
The total outlay proposed for the First Play described as the “Hindu rate of growth”. These
was Rs. 3870 crores. By the Eleventh Plan, it growth rates were achieved so that the first two
had crossed Rs. 36.44 lakh crores, which is an Plans were considered to have been successful.

The targets in subsequent plans were not These poor outcomes are a reflection of the
achieved due to a variety of factors. From the low share of plan outlay set aside for the social
Fourth Plan (1969–74) the emphasis was on sectors. This hovered between 16 and 18%
poverty alleviation, so that social objectives between 1956 and 1990 (Second to the Seventh
were introduced into the planning exercise. The Plans). The outlay has increased only from the
targeted growth rates were reached from the Eighth Plan onwards due to a greater emphasis
Sixth Plan onwards. on social justice and inclusive growth. But it was
The economy was liberalized during the still less than 30% of the total outlay. It crossed
Eighth Five Year Plan (1992–97). Since then, the one-third mark only in the Twelfth Plan.
the growth rates have been in excess of 7% Expenditure on education as a percentage of
(except for a slowdown in the Ninth Plan).There total GDP has been less than 5% in India, and
has been considerable emphasis on growth with compares unfavourably with China and other
justice, and inclusive and sustainable growth. Asian countries.
There are positive and negative assessments Literacy levels have increased in India from
of the performance of planning in India. 18.3% in 1951 to 74% in 2011. Female literacy
still lags behind the male literacy rate at 65% as
Positive achievements compared to 82% among men. There has been
1. The expansion of the economy a great increase in the number of schools from
2. The significant growth in national and per the primary to senior high school level and in
capita income the growth of institutions of higher learning.
3. Increase in industrial production In 2014-15 there were 12.72 lakh primary and
upper primary schools, 2.45 lakh secondary and
4. Increased use of modern inputs in agriculture
higher secondary schools, 38, 498 colleges and
and increase in agricultural production
43 Central Universities, 316 State Universities,
5. A more diversified economy. 122 Deemed Universities and 181 State Private
Failures of planning Universities in the country.
1. Failure to eliminate poverty. Poverty levels Enrolment in primary schools stood at
have fallen, but still an unacceptably high 96%, and 40% in the secondary and higher
number of persons are below the poverty line secondary schools. However, the drop-out rate
2. Failure to provide full employment is 51% in primary schools, and as high as 62% in
secondary and high schools. Children dropping
3. Failure to reduce inequalities and prevent out of school mostly belonged to the poorer
concentration of economic power families in rural and urban areas and socially
4. Failure to check the growth of black money. backward castes (SCs and STs). The drop-out
rate is particularly high among girl children.
9.5 Education, Science and This is because they are often withdrawn from
Technology school either because the family is not able to
afford to keep all the children in school and more
(a) Education often because they have to assist in household
Education and health constitute the social chores and looking after younger children in the
sectors, and the status of education and health family. There are great inter-regional variations
indicators are yardsticks for assessing the level in the drop-out and enrolment rates, so that
of social development in a country. Sadly, India backward states and regions have the poorest
is far behind many less developed countries, record on school education.
especially on health indicators like maternal A further problem is that government
mortality and infant mortality, and education schools at all levels are perceived to be
indicators with respect to school education. functioning very badly. Teachers are often

absent and seem to show little interest in The Council of Scientific and Industrial
providing good education to the students. This Research (CSIR) is the umbrella organization
has resulted in most parents, including low under which most of the scientific research
income parents, opting to take their children institutions function. The CSIR also advances
out of government schools (which are free) and research in applied fields like machinery, drugs,
putting them in private schools, paying high planes etc.
fees, because these are supposed to give better The Atomic Energy Commission is the
education. Since private schools are rarely set up nodal agency for the development of of nuclear
in backward regions with high levels of poverty, science which is strategically important, focusing
the regional disparities in school education have both on nuclear power generation and nuclear
become more accentuated. weapons. The Atomic Energy Commission also
funds several institutes of pure science research.
(b) Science and Technology
Agriculture is another area where there has
India has made great strides in developing been a significant expansion of research and
institutions of scientific research and technology. development. The Indian Council of Agricultural
The only science research institute in India Research (ICAR) is the coordinating agency for
before Independence was the Indian Institute of the research done not only in basic agriculture,
Science (IISc) established in 1909 in Bangalore but also associated activities like fishery,
with funding from J.R.D. Tata and the Maharaja forests, dairy, plant genetics, bio-technology,
of Mysore. varieties of crops like rice, potato, tubers, fruits
and pest control, to name only a few of the
activities covered by the Institute. Agricultural
universities are also actively engaged in teaching
and research on agricultural practices. There are
67 Agricultural Universities in India, and 3 in
Tamil Nadu.
Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru

The Tata Institute of Fundamental Research
(TIFR) was set up in 1945 on the initiative of
Homi J. Bhabha, with some funding from the
Tatas. It was intended to promote research in IIT, Chennai
mathematics and pure sciences. The National
Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs) were
Chemical Laboratory, Pune and the National
set up as centres of excellence in different fields
Physics Laboratory, New Delhi were the first
of engineering. The first IIT was located in
institutes set up in India around the time of
Kharagpur, followed by Delhi, Bombay, Kanpur
Independence. Since then there has been a
and Madras (Chennai). There are now 21 IITs
steady increase in the number of institutes
in the country, in addition to 30 NITs (National
doing research in pure sciences, ranging from
Institutes of Technology) and about 10 IIITs
astrophysics, geology/geo-physics, cellular and
(Indian Institutes of Information Technology).
molecular biology, mathematical sciences and
There are about 3500 engineering colleges in the
so on.
country, but government engineering colleges

only number around 100. There has been an There was no reduction in the ratio of
explosion of private engineering colleges, people living in poverty, especially in rural
particularly in Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu areas. The IRDP was a concerted effort to
and Maharashtra. Unfortunately, the colleges tackle rural poverty. Though the level of
vary significantly in the quality of education rural poverty did come down, the number
that they provide, and there are many graduates of persons below the poverty line did
with engineering degrees who are not able to not decrease because the population was
get jobs because they do not meet the standards growing.
and skill sets required by corporate employers. The MGNREGA which gives rural
In spite of advances, the general perception households the legal right to demand work
is that science research in India still has a long is now the major employment generation
way to go to catch up with the more developed programme.
countries and China. The research output Nehru was determined to create a socialist
in theoretical fields is rather disappointing society, and he proclaimed that the state
and scanty in spite of the number of research would direct industrial growth by investing
institutions in the country. in heavy industrial units and also exercise
control over private industry to ensure long
term objectives of growth and preventing
Summary
exploitation by private business houses and
India was an economically underdeveloped capitalists.
country at the time of Independence. The Industries to produce steel, heavy
framers of the Constitution had opted engineering and machine tools which
to develop the country as a socialist required large investments were set up by the
democracy, so that ensuring social state in various parts of the country. While
justice was an important priority for the this strategy pushed India into becoming
government. an industrially developed economy, the
One of the first priorities of the government over-extension of the public sector into too
was therefore to undertake measures many products and services ultimately led
to improve conditions in agriculture. to heavy losses. This eventually made the
Reforms were initiated to eliminate the government liberalise the economy and do
institutional weaknesses, by doing away away with licences and controls and allow
with landlordism (zamindari), reforming free market forces to guide the economy.
tenancy and imposing land ceilings. These The Planning Commission was set up to
were partially successful but did not really formulate five year plans which would assess
improve conditions in agriculture. the resources of the country and specify
The shortage of food grains was acute by targets for the growth of the economy as
the 1960s, and the government therefore a whole and the various sub-sectors of the
switched to the technological alternative economy. Considerable improvement has
of improving agriculture through the been made in literacy and establishment
introduction of high-yielding varieties of of schools and colleges in the country.
seeds and investment in major irrigation, However, public investment on education
chemical pesticides and fertilizers. This has been low in India. The main problem
succeeded in ensuring food security in has been the high drop-out rate at all levels
India, but also had negative effects on the of schooling – primary to higher secondary
environment. schools – and this problem is more acute in

backward areas, among the disadvantaged set up across the country for education
classes and particularly among girl children. in various engineering disciplines. In
There has been an impressive increase addition, there has been an explosion in
in the number of institutions of science the number of private engineering colleges.
research (pure and applied). Similarly, Unfortunately, many of these are not really
many institutes of technology have been providing quality education.
EXERCISE
IC hoose the correct A B C D

answer (a)
1 2 3 4
1.
Arrange the following in (b)
3 1 4 2
chronological order.
(c)
4 3 2 1
(i) Laws abolishing zamindari system
(d)
4 2 3 1
(ii) Adoption of High Yielding Variety of
5. In which of the following State/s land reforms
seeds
were very successful
(iii) First Land Ceiling Act, Tamilnadu
(a) Kerala (b) West Bengal
Choose the answer from the codes given
below: (c) Orissa (d) Both a and b
(a) ii, i, iii (b) i, iii, ii
6. Land Ceiling Act in Tamilnadu was for the
(c) iii, ii, i (d) ii, iii, i second time implemented in the year
2. Government of India was committed to a (a) 1961 (b) 1972
pattern of development (c) 1976 (d) 1978
(a) Capitalistic (b) Socialistic
7. Bhoodan movement was started by
(c) Theocratic (d) Industrial
(a) Ram Manohar Lohia
3.
When was the first amendment to the
(b) Jayaprakash Narayan
constitution of India made?
(c) Vinoba Bhave
(a) 1951 (b) 1952
(d) Sundar Lal Bahuguna
(c) 1976 (d) 1978
4. Match the following and choose the correct 8. Assertion (A): Zamindari abolition achieved
answer from the codes given blow only a part of the original objective
Reason (R): Many zamindars managed to
A. I n d u s t r i a l - 1. 1951-56 evict their tenants and claim that the land
Development was under their personal cultivation.
Policy Resolution
B. IISc - 2.
Second Five Year explanation of A.
Plan (b) Both A and R are true and R is not the
C. Mahalanobis - 3. 1909 correct explanation of A.
(c) A is true but R is false.
D.
First Five Year - 4. 1956
Plan (d) A is false but R is true.

9. Th
e Industrial Development and Regulation III. Write short answer
Act was passed in the year 1. What are the main objectives of the Tenancy
(a) 1951 (b) 1961 reforms?
(c) 1971 (d) 1972 2. What was the outcome of Green Revolution
in India?
10.
Mahatma Gandhi National Rural
Employment Guarantee Act was passed in 3. Describe the Integrated Rural Development
the year Programme introduced by the Union
(a) 2005 (b) 2006 Government in the 1980s.
(c) 2007 (d) 2008 4.

What were the reasons for agricultural
backwardness in India?
11. In which year Indian public sector enterprises
5. What were the factors which contributed to
were faced severe problems
the poor performance of the Public sector
(a) 1961 (b) 1991 enterprises?
(c) 2008 (d) 2005
12. MGNREG Act provided days work IV. Answer the following in detail
for an individual 1.
Highlight the measures adopted by the
(a) 200 (b) 150 Government of India towards rural
(c) 100 (d) 75 reconstruction
2.
Land reforms failed in their intended
13. When was Tata Institute of Fundamental objectives. Explain why?
Research established? 3.
Assess the educational progress made in
(a) 1905 (b) 1921 independent India.
(c) 1945 (d) 1957 4. Assess the achievements of the first two Five-
Year plans.
14 . How many public sector enterprises were
functioning in India in 1951? 5.
Examine the development of institutions
of scientific research and technology after
(a) 5 (b) 7 (c) 6 (d) 220 India’s independence.
II Write brief answers V. Activity

1.
Give an account of the conditions of the 1. Deliberations on the impact of the policy,
Indian economy at the time of independence. both positive and negative, of liberalization,
globalization and privatization may be held
2. What were the immediate tasks before the new
in classes.
government headed by Jawaharlal Nehru?
3. What do you understand by the Socialistic REFERENCES
Pattern of Society?
4. Point out the two important considerations 1. Gaurav Dutt and Ashwani Mahajan
that determined the setting up of public Sundaram, Indian Economy, S. Chand and
sector enterprises in the wake of India’s Co., 2015 ed.
independence. 2. C.S. Murty, "Agrarian Relations and
5. Write about the Bhoodan movement. Policy", in Kanakalatha Mukund (ed.)
Andhra Pradesh Economy in Transition,
(1990), Centre for Economic and Social

Studies and Booklinks Corporation, (CSIR), Indian Council of Agricultural
Hyderabad. Research (ICAR) and Ministry of Human
3. Official Websites of the Council for Resources Development (MHRD).
Scientific and Industrial Research
GLOSSARY
a political and economic theory which

advocates that the means of production
distribution and exchange should be சமதர்மக் க�ோட்பாடு
Socialism
owned by the community as a whole.
the process of rebuilding or creating

reconstruction
something again. மறுகட்டுமானம்
a system of landholding and tax ஆங்கில அரசின் நில

zamindari system
collection in British India. வருவாய் வசூலிக்கும்
ஒரு முறை
occupancy of land, a house, under a

tenancy
lease or on payment of rent; குத்தகை
legislation the act of making or enacting laws. சட்டமியற்றல்

quantum of land to be owned by
land ceiling an individual or a family under the நில உச்சவரம்பு
prescribed law
economic fields under the control of
public sector
state ப�ொதுத்துறை
the quality or state of being literate,

literacy
especially the ability to read andwrite. எழுத்தறிவு

TIME LINE
1 unit = 10 years
Important Events of Indian National Movement (1900-1950)
1900
1905 - Partition of Bengal / Swadeshi Movement

1906 - Muslim League
1907 - Surat Split
1909 - Minto-Morely Reforms

1910
1911 - Ashe Murder
1914 - Foundation of All India Hindu Mahasabha

1915 - The First Hindu Mahasabha conference held at Haridwar
1916 - Home Rule League / Lucknow Pact
1917 - Champaran Movement
1919 - Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms / Rowlatt Act / Jalianwalah Bagh Massacre
1920 1920 - Non-Cooperation Movement
1921 - Malabar Rebellion
1922 - Chauri Chaura incident
1930 1930 - Dandi March

1931 - Gandhi-Irwin Pact
1932 - Communal Award / Poona Pact
1937 - First Congress Ministry in Provinces
1940 1940 - August Offer / Lahore Resolution
1942 - Cripps Mission / Quit India Movement
1945 -Wavell Plan / Simla Conference

1946 - Cabinet Mission / Direct Action / Interim Government / RIN Revolt
1947 - India becomes Independence
1950 1950 - India becomes Republic
138

Higher Secondary - Class XII - History - Volume I
List of Authors and Reviewers
Chairperson Content Readers Academic Adviser & Expert

Dr. K. Jayakumar Dr. P. Kumar
Dr. A.R.Venkatachalapathy
Associate Professor of History Joint Director (Syllabus)
Professor, Dept. of History
Periyar E.V.R. College, Tiruchirappalli. SCERT, Chennai.
Madras Institute of Development Studies
Chennai. Dr. A. Thennarasu
Academic Co-ordinators
Associate Professor & Head (History)
Govt. Arts College, Salem. T. Srinivasan
Co-chairperson Principal, DIET, Krishnagiri.
Dr. J. Murugan
Dr. K.A. Manikumar
Asst. Professor of History P. Suresh
Professor (Rtd), Dept. of History
Arignar Anna Govt. Arts College P.G. Asst. in History
Manonmaniam Sundaranar University
Attur, Salem District. GGHSS, Attur
Tirunelveli.
Salem District.
Authors
Dr. Ugan Bhutia P. Balamurugan ICT
Asst. Professor, Dept. of History P.G. Asst. in History
GBHSS, Thammampatti D. Nagaraj
S.R.M. Universtiy, Amaravathi, A.P.
Salem District. GHSS, Rappusal, Pudukottai District.
Dr. Maanvendar Singh
V. Velmurugan QR Code Team
Asst. Professor
B.T. Asst. in History
S.R.M. University, Amaravathi, A.P. GHSS, Vellalagundam R. Jaganathan
Mr. K. Ashok Salem District. V. Padmavathi
A. Devi Jesintha
Asst. Professor, Dept. of History Sr. Lourdumariyal
Madras Christian College, Tambaram, P.G. Asst. in History Art and Design Team
Madras. St.Joseph GHSS, Suramangalam, Salem. Illustration
Prof. S. Chandrasekhar K. Karthikeyan
V. Vinoth Kumar
Former Head, Dept. of History P.G. Asst. in History
Madhan kumar
Bangalore University, Bengaluru. K.A.N GBHSS, Konganapuram
Sagaya Arasu
Salem District.
Dr. E.K. Santha Yuvaraj
Independent Researcher J. Shakila
P.G. Asst. in History Layout
Sikkim University Quarters, Sikkim.
Fathima Girls HSS, Omalur
Prof. K.A. Manikumar Salem District. M. Selvakumar
Former Head, Dept. of History S. Ashok Kumar
G. Ayyadurai R. Balasubramani
Manonmaniam Sundaranar University P.G. Asst. in History Kamatchi Balan Arumugam
Tirunelveli. GBHSS, Mecheri, Salem District. R. Gopinath
Dr. V. Krishna Ananth V. Umamaheshwari Wrapper Design
Associate Professor, Dept. of History P.G. Asst. in History
Sikkim University, Sikkim. M.N.S. GGHSS, Attayampatti Kathir Arumugam
Salem District.
Prof. J. Kanakalatha Mukund In-House QC
Former Professor R. Dhanalakshmi
Centre for Economic and Social Studies P.G. Asst. in History Rajesh Thangappan
GGHSS, Nangavalli Jerald Wilson
Hyderabad.
Salem District.
K.velu Co-ordinator
B.T. Asst. in History G. Saradha
P.G. Asst. in History Ramesh Munisamy
GGHSS,Thalaivasal
GHSS, Alagappampalayam Pudur Typist
Salem District.a
Salem District.
S. Gomathimanickam R.Mohanamobal
C. Parthipan Velacherry, Chennai.
GHSS, Old Perungalathur P.G. Asst. in History
Kanchipuram District. GHSS, Sukkampatty
A. Jafar Ali Salem District.
P.G. Asst. in History Dr. K. Suresh, B.T. Assistant
GHSS, Keeripatty Kumara Rajah Muthiah HSS This book has been printed on 80 G.S.M.
Salem District. Chennai. Elegant Maplitho paper.
Printed by offset at:
139
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A publication under Free Textbook Programme of Government of Tamil Nadu

Department of School Education

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First Edition - 2019

(Published under new syllabus)

NOT FOR SALE

State Council of Educational

Printing & Publishing

Tamil NaduTextbook and Educational

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Introduction The subject to be discussed in the lesson is introduced

Leads the students to animated audio, video aids for getting

Provides additional information related to the subject in boxes

Infographs Visual representations intended to make the complex simple

Activities Activities for ‘learning by doing’ individually or in groups

Exercise For self-study and self evaluation

References List of books and net sources for further reading

Using technology for learning activities, which enables the

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Unit 1 Rise of Nationalism in India 1

Unit 2 Rise of Extremism and Swadeshi Movement 16

E-book Assessment DIGI links

Let’s use the QR code in the text books!

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To acquaint ourselves with

Introduction movement in 1919 Indian nationalism entered

12th_History_EM_Unit_1.indd 1 20-05-2019 16:33:51

(b) Laissez Faire Policy and

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(c) Famines and Emigration of

12th_History_EM_Unit_1.indd 3 20-05-2019 16:33:52

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12th_History_EM_Unit_1.indd 5 20-05-2019 16:33:52

Rise of Nationalism in India 6

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Rise of Nationalism in India 8

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9 Rise of Nationalism in India

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The land and revenue reforms implemented I. C hoose the

Rise of Nationalism in India 12

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Rise of Nationalism in India 14

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an authority on or student of English ஆங்கில ம�ொழி இலக்கியம்

language commonly spoken by the

15 Rise of Nationalism in India

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Introduction were improvised for the Swadeshi campaign.

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Rise of Extremism and Swadeshi Movement 18

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19 Rise of Extremism and Swadeshi Movement

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Rise of Extremism and Swadeshi Movement 20

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Militant nationalism also changed the

(b) Laissez Faire Policy and

(c) Famines and Emigration of

The land and revenue reforms implemented I. C hoose the

2. Which of the following about Annie Besant