Systems of measurements

A system of measurement is a collection of units of measurement and rules relating them to

each other. Systems of measurement have historically been important, regulated and defined
for the purposes of science and commerce. Systems of measurement in use include the
International System of Units (SI), the modern form of the metric system, the imperial system,
and United States customary units.

 Metric System- In the early metric system there were two base units, the meter for
length and the gram for mass. The other units of length and mass, and all units of area,
volume, and derived units such as density were derived from these two base units. A
number of variations on the metric system have been in use. These include gravitational
systems, the centimeter–gram–second systems (cgs) useful in science, the meter–ton–
second system (mts) once used in the USSR and the meter–kilogram–second system
(mks).
 Imperial and US customary units- The imperial and US customary systems are closely
related, there are a number of differences between them. Units of length and area (the
inch, foot, yard, mile etc.) are identical except for surveying purposes. The Avoirdupois
units of mass and weight differ for units larger than a pound (lb.). The imperial system
uses a stone of 14 lb., a long hundredweight of 112 lb. and a long ton of 2240 lb. The
stone is not used in the US and the hundredweights and tons are short: 100 lb. and 2000
lb. respectively.
 Natural units- Natural units are physical units of measurement defined in terms of
universal physical constants in such a manner that selected physical constants take on
the numerical value of one when expressed in terms of those units. Natural units are so
named because their definition relies on only properties of nature and not on any
human construct. Various systems of natural units are possible.
 Non-standard units- Non-standard measurement units, sometimes found in books,
newspapers etc., Includes Area and Energy.
 Units of currency- A unit of measurement that applies to money is called a unit of
account in economics and unit of measure in accounting. This is normally a currency
issued by a country or a fraction thereof; for instance, the US dollar and US cent (1⁄100
of a dollar), or the euro and euro cent.
Concurrent Forces
In a concurrent force system, all forces pass through a common point. In the previous case
involving the application of two forces to a body, it was necessary for them to be colinear,
opposite in direction, and equal in magnitude for the body to be in equilibrium. If three forces
are applied to a body, as shown in the figure, they must pass through a common point (O), or
else the condition, SMo = 0, will not be satisfied and the body will rotate because of unbalanced
moment. Moreover, the magnitudes of the forces must be such that the force equilibrium
equations,

SFx = 0, SFy= 0, are satisfied.

It is fairly easy to see the reasoning for the first condition. Consider the two forces, F1 and F2,
intersecting at point O in the figure. The sum of moments of these two forces about point 0 is
obviously equal to zero because they both pass through 0. If F3 does not pass through 0, on the
other hand, it will have some nonzero moment about that point. Since this nonzero moment
will cause the body to rotate, the body will not be in equilibrium.

Therefore, not only do three nonparallel forces applied to a body have to be concurrent for the
body to be in an equilibrium state, but their magnitudes and directions must be such that the
force equilibrium conditions are satisfied (SFx = SFy = 0). Notice that there is no need for the
moment equilibrium equation in this case since it is automatically satisfied.
Speed
 The rate of change of distance with the time is called the speed of the body.
Mathematically, Speed = Distance/Time
 It is denoted by v. Its S.I. units is m/s and c.g.s unit is cm/s. Its dimensions are [L 1M0T-1].
 It is a scalar quantity
 Speed is always positive
 In a circular motion, after executing complete circle, the average velocity of the body is
zero but its average speed is not zero

Velocity
 The rate of change of displacement of a body with the respect to time is called as the
velocity of the body.
Velocity = Displacement/Time
 Its S.I. unit is m/s and c.g.s unit is cm/s. Its dimensions are [L1M0T-1].
 It is a vector quantity.
 The velocity can be positive, negative or zero.
 In a circular motion, after executing complete circle, the average velocity of the body is
zero but its average speed is not zero.

Displacements
 The shortest distance from the initial position to the final position of the body is called
the magnitude of displacement.
 It is vector quantity whose direction is from initial position to the final position.
 Its S.I. unit is meter (m) and c.g.s. unit is centimeter (cm). Its dimensions are [L1M0T0].
 It is independent of the path followed by the object.
 It may be positive, negative or zero.
 It may be equal but cannot be more than distance travelled.
 It is zero when the distance travelled is zero.
Distance
 The length of the path travelled by a body is called the distance travelled by it.
 Path of a body may not be straight.
 It is denoted by s’ or x’. Its S.I. unit is meter (m) and c.g.s. unit is centimeter (cm). Its
dimensions are [L1M0T0].
 It is a scalar quantity.
 It is always positive.
 It can be more than or equal to displacement.
 It may not be zero even if the displacement is zero.

Acceleration
 The rate of change of velocity with respect to time is called acceleration.
Acceleration = Change in Velocity/Time
 Acceleration is a vector quantity its S.I. units is m/s2. Its dimensions are [L1M0T-2].
 Acceleration can be positive, negative or zero. If the velocity is increasing then
acceleration is positive. If the velocity is decreasing then acceleration is negative. If the
velocity is constant then acceleration is zero. Negative acceleration is also called
deceleration or retardation.
 If the velocity is increasing then the direction of acceleration is same as that of the
velocity of the body. If the velocity is decreasing then the direction of acceleration is
opposite to that of the velocity of the body.
 It is to be noted that the velocity and not the acceleration of the body determines the
direction of the motion.
Scalar and Vectors
 Scalar Quantities: The physical quantities which are specified with the magnitude or size
alone are scalar quantities. For example, length, speed, work, mass, density, etc.
 Vector Quantities: Vector quantities refer to the physical quantities characterized by the
presence of both magnitude as well as direction. For example, displacement, force,
torque, momentum, acceleration, velocity, etc.

Scalar
 A scalar is a quantity with magnitude only.
 No direction.
 Specified by a number (Magnitude) and a unit.
 Represented by a quantity symbol.
Example: Mass and Temperature

Vector
 A vector is a quantity with the magnitude as well as direction.
 There is the direction
 Specified by a number (Magnitude), direction and a unit.
 Represented by a quantity symbol in a bold or an arrow sign above
Example: Velocity and Acceleration
Characteristics of Vectors
The characteristics of vectors are as followed –

 They possess both magnitude as well as direction.

 They do not obey the ordinary laws if Algebra.
 These changes if either the magnitude or directions change or both changes.

Unit Vector
A unit vector is that vector which is a vector of unit magnitude and points in a particular
direction. The unit vector in the direction of A⃗ is A^ and is defined by –

| A | A^ = A⃗

The unit vectors along the x, y and z-axis is i^, j^, and k^ respectively.

Equal Vectors
Vectors A and B are equal if | A | = | B | as well as their directions, are same.

Zero Vectors
Zero vectors are a vector with zero magnitudes and an arbitrary direction is a zero vector. It can
be represented by O and is a Null Vector.
Negative of a Vector
The vector whose magnitude is same as that of a (vector) but the direction is opposite to that of
a (vector) is referred to as the negative of a (vector) and is written as – a (vector).

Parallel Vectors
A and B are said to be parallel vectors if they have the same direction, or may or may not have
equal magnitude (A || B). If the directions are opposite, then A (vector) is anti-parallel to B
(vector).

Coplanar Vectors
If the vectors lie in the same plane or they are parallel to the same plane, the vectors are said to
be coplanar. If not, the vectors are said to be non – planar vectors.

Displacement Vectors
The displacement vector refers to that vector which gives the position of a point with reference
to a point other than the origin of the coordinate system.