Calculus - Period 2

P
A series
P an is called absolutely convergent
P if the
series |an | is convergent. A series an is called
conditionally convergent if it is convergent
P but not
absolutely convergent. If a series an is abso-
Testing Series lutely convergent, then it is convergent.
Convergence/Divergence:
Suppose Ratio test:
Pn a is a series of numbers a1 , a2 , . . ., and
sn = k=1 ak . A series sn converges if limn→∞ sn =
 
• If limn→∞  aan+1  = L < 1, then the series
 
s exists as a real number. The limit s is then called P n

the sum of series a. If s doesn’t exist as a finite an is absolutely convergent.

number, the series is divergent. Be careful not to  
• If limn→∞  aan+1  = L > 1, then the series
P  
confuse the series an with the series an = s. P n

an is divergent.
Monotonic Sequence Theorem
If a sequence is either increasing (an+1 > an for all
n ≥ 1) or decreasing (an+1 < an for all n ≥ 1), it Root test:
is called a monotonic sequence. If there are c1 and p
• P
If limn→∞ n |an | = L < 1, then the series
c2 such that c1 < an < c2 for all n ≥ 1, it is called
an is absolutely convergent.
bounded. Every bounded monotonic sequence is
convergent.
p
• P
If limn→∞ n |an | = L > 1, then the series
an is divergent.
Test for divergence:
If limn→∞ an does not exist, or if limn→∞ 6= 0,
then the series sn is divergent.
Power Series
Integral test:
If f is a continuous positive decreasing function Radius of convergence:
on [1, ∞) and an = f (n) for integer n, then the Power series are written as
series
R ∞ sn is convergent if, and only if, the integral ∞
f (x)dx is convergent. X
1
f (x) = cn (x − a)n (1)
n=0
Comparison test:
Suppose an and bn are series with positive terms where x is a variable and the cn ’s are constant co-
and an ≤ bn for all n, then: efficients of the series. When tested for converges,
• If
P
bn is convergent, then
P
an is conver- there are only three possibilities:
gent. • The series converges only if x = a. (R = 0)
P P
• If an is divergent, then bn is divergent. • The series converges for all x. (R = ∞)
• The series converges for |x − a| < R and di-
Limit comparison test:
verges for |x − a| > R. For |x − a| = R other
Suppose an and bn are series with positive terms.
means must point out whether convergence
If limn→∞ abnn = c and 0 < c 6= ∞, then either both
or divergence occurs.
series are convergent or divergent.
The number R is called the radius of convergence,
Alternating series test: and can often be found using the ratio test.
If the alternating series
∞ Differentiation and integration:
X
(−1)n−1 an = a1 − a2 + a3 − a4 + a5 − a6 . . . Differentiation and integration of power functions
n=1 is possible in the interval (a − R, a + R), where the
function does not diverge. It goes as follows:
satisfies an+1 ≤ an for all n and limn→∞ an = 0,
!0
then the series is convergent. X∞ X∞
cn (x − a)n = ncn (x − a)n−1 (2)
Absolute convergence: n=0 n=1

1
 ∞ ∞
(x − a)n+1
Z X X a − b = (ax − bx )i + (ay − by )j + (az − bz )k (11)
cn (x − a)n dx = cn (3)
n=0 n=0
n+1
Dot product:
Representation of functions as power series:
The first way to represent functions as power series a · b = ax bx + ay by + az bz (12)
is simple, but doesn’t always work. To find the a · a = |a|2 (13)
representation of f (x), first find a function g(x)
1
such that f (x) = axb 1−g(x) , where a and b are a·b
cos θ = (14)
constants. The power series is then equal to: |a||b|
∞
Cross product:
X
f (x) = a · g(x)n+b (4)
n=0 
i

 j k 
The second way to represent functions as power a × b = ax ay az  (15)
series goes as follows. Let f (n) (x) be the n’th  bx by bz 
derivative of f (x). Supposing the function f (x)
has a power series (this sometimes still has to be a × b = (ay bz − az by )i+
(16)
proven), the following function must be true: +(az bx − ax bz )j + (ax by − ay bx )k
∞
X f (n) (a)
f (x) = (x − a)n (5)
n!
n=0 Vector Functions:
This representation is called the Taylor series of
f (x) at a. For the special case that a = 0, it is Notation:
called the Maclaurin series. r(t) = f (t)i + g(t)j + h(t)k (17)
Binomial series:
If k is any real number and |x| < 1, the power Differentiation and integration:
function representation of (1 + x)k is:
∞   r0 (t) = f 0 (t)i + g 0 (t)j + h0 (t)k (18)
k
X k
(1 + x) = xn (6)
n R(t) = F (t)i + G(t)j + H(t)k + D (19)
n=0
 
k k(k − 1) . . . (k − n + 1) Function dependant unit vectors:
where = (7)
n n!
  r0 (t)
k T(t) = (20)
for n ≥ 1, and = 1. |r0 (t)|
0
T0 (t)
N(t) = (21)
|T0 (t)|
Vectors
B(t) = T(t) × N(t) (22)
Notation:
A vector a is often written as: Trajectory length:
a = ax i + ay j + az k (8) p
ds(t) = (dx)2 + (dy)2 + (dz)2 = |r0 (t)|dt (23)
Where i, j and k are unit vectors. Z t
s(t) = |r0 (t)|dt (24)
Vector length: a
q
|a| = a2x + a2y + a2z (9) Trajectory velocity and acceleration:
ds(t)
Vector addition and subtraction: |v(t)| = = |r0 (t)| (25)
dt
a + b = (ax + bx )i + (ay + by )j + (az + bz )k (10) a(t) = v0 (t) = r00 (t) (26)

2
Trajectory curvature:
0
 
 == |T (t)|
 dT(t) 
κ(t) = 
 (27)
ds(t)  |r0 (t)|

|r0 (t) × r00 (t)|

κ(t) = (28)
|r0 (t)|3

Expressing acceleration in unit vectors:

a(t) = |v(t)|0 T(t) + κ|v(t)|2 N(t) (29)

r0 (t) · r00 (t) |r0 (t) × r00 (t)|

a(t) = T(t) + N(t)
|r0 (t)| |r0 (t)|
(30)