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CHEMISTRY
CHE 101
Topic: Metallodrugs
DOA: 26-Aug-2010
DOR: 28-Sep-2010
DOS: 8-Nov-2010
Reg.No.11004066
Class. B Tech-MBA(ece)
METALLODRUGS
RE6001B60
|
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I also owe my sincere thanks to Mr. James A. Cowan for their review on catalytic
metallodrugs which helped me to understand the future perspective of metallodrugs.
Lastly, I offer my regards and blessings to all of those who supported me in any respect
during the completion of the project.
1. Abstract……………………………………………….1
2. Introduction…………………………………………..2
3. History of metallodrugs……………………………...2
4. Toxicity of metals…………………………………….3
5. Metals used…………………………………………...5
• IRON
• PLATINUM
• TITANIUM
7. Mechanism……………………………………………8
• Chromodulin
• cisplatin
• Aurothioglucose
8. Catalytic metallodrugs………………………………13
10. Conclusion…………………………………………….16
11.References…………………………………………….16
ABSTRACT
Further this review also highlights few metallodrugs with their complete mechanism for
complete understanding that what happens at cellular level.
The question gave rise to term or the era of metallodrugs with well known
antitumor drugs widely used the cisplatin [Pt (NH3)2Cl2]. Inorganic or metal-
containing medicinal compounds may contain either (a) chemical elements essential to life
forms—iron salts used in the treatment of anaemia—or (b) nonessential/toxic elements that
carry out specific medicinal purposes—platinum-containing compounds as antitumor agents
or technetium and gadolinium complexes as medical diagnostic tools.
Medicinal inorganic chemistry has been practiced, however, for almost 5000 years. As far
back as 3000BC the Egyptians used copper to sterilize water. Gold was used in a variety of
medicine in Arabia and China 3500years ago, more as a result of the precious nature of gold
than of its known medicinal activities. Various iron remedies were used in Egypt about
1500BC, around the same time that zinc was discovered to promote the healing of wounds. In
Renaissance era Europe, mercurous chloride was used as a diuretic and nutritional
essentiality of iron was discovered. It is in the last 100years, however, that the medicinal
activity of inorganic compounds has slowly been developed in a rational manner, starting in
the early 1900s with K [Au (CN)2] for tuberculosis, various antimony compounds for
leishmaniasis, and the antibacterial activity of various gold salts in a number of different
conditions. When one thinks of drugs, one often thinks of organic compounds such as the
antibacterial penicillins, the nutrient vitamin C and the psychoactive drugs, such as LSD,
THC, etc. The Biochemical literature of the last 30years chronicles the burgeoning
understanding that many of the biological activities of proteins and enzymes can be ascribed
to the metal centres, with the organic backbone acting as a scaffold to hold the metal ion in
place for the requisite transformation. Because of this rapid growth of biological inorganic
chemistry, it seems logical to explore in parallel the medicinal properties of the various metal
ions that are found naturally and even of those that are not found naturally and even of those
that are not known to have essential benefit. In the last 50 years, knowledge of the central
importance of inorganic elements in organisms has opened up the possibility for inorganic
chemists to contribute to health and well-being of man and all other organisms. It is ironic to
note that the first structure-activity relationship, which was developed by Paul Ehrlich in the
first decade of the 20th century, involved the development of the inorganic compound
You may be wondering that metallodrugs has very effective and powerful work in
treatment of many fatal disease but these drugs at the same time can be fatal too. So it
is important to discuss about the toxicity of different metals before we move on to the
various forms of metallodrugs.
TOXICITY OF METALS
Although many elements and compounds are required at some dosage for an organism’s
survival, all elements and compounds may be deleterious if taken in overly large doses. Some
elements and compounds are required in a certain range of concentration, while some appear
to be toxic at minimal dosage levels. Two examples of the latter are elemental lead and
mercury as well as their compounds. While these elements have always been present in our
atmosphere, they are especially dangerous because they form long-lasting compounds with
organic species and accumulate low in the food chain. Lead, mercury, and thallium appear to
be dangerous no matter how they appear in biological species. While chromium is an
essential element required for normal carbohydrate and lipid metabolism and its deficiency
can lead to adult onset diabetes, Cr(VI) uptake through anion channel transport into cells via
CrO2 causes several toxic effects. Following reduction inside cells, Cr(III) forms adducts
involving the phosphate backbone of DNA, the N7 atom of guanine, amino acids such as
cysteine, glutathione, and larger peptides and protein molecules. The table below may give
you some idea of the toxic metals and their effect on biological systems:-
• IRON
ENDOCYTOSIS
This mechanism appears to use the trans-membrane protein DCT1 identified by Gunshin . Ideal
conditions for Fe(II) transport by DCT1 exist in the upper section of the small intestine (duodenum)
closest to the stomach where pH increases from 2 to 7 as iron moves down the duodenum. (Little or
no transferrin or apotransferrin is present in the duodenum to facilitate endocytosis of iron.) Under the
pH conditions of the duodenum Fe(II) is free from hydrolysis and formation of insoluble hydroxides
and oxides, while Fe(III) is not. Thus, oral administration of Fe(II) complexes is more efficacious than
those of Fe(III) in alleviating the iron deficiency of hypochromic anaemia.
• PLATINUM
Acceptance of metal complexes as drugs was dramatically advanced
by the use of Pt(II) complexes to treat testicular and ovarian cancers.
This began in1965 with a report by Rosenberg, Van Camp and Krigas
that some Group VIIIb metal complexes inhibit cell di6ision, and
quickly lead to study of Pt(II) complexes as agents capable of
stopping tumor growth . The first Pt(II) complex to be licensed for
this purpose was cisplatin, cis- [Pt(NH3)3Cl2. The discussion here
focuses on organizing and understanding the medicinal chemistry of Pt(II) chloroammine( amine)
complexes. In general such complexes are square-planar, and though inert with regard to the kinetics
of ligand exchange they do undergo reaction slowly. The action of cisplatin as an anticancer drug is
believed to result from binding of Pt(II) to cell DNA . Correlation between Pt–DNA binding and cell
death by apoptosis has been reported . A variety of Pt(II)–DNA adducts have been identified in non-
cellular systems . The adducts include Pt(II) bridged intrastrand and inter-strand DNA complexes,
with a preference for Pt(II) binding to N-7 in the guanine rings along the DNA chain . It is not known
which Pt(II)–DNA complex is critical to the mode of action, but adenine–Pt(II)–guanine adducts and
guanine–Pt(II)–guanine adducts of DNA have been proposed .
• TITANIUM
The earliest reference to medicinal chemistry of Ti(IV) is by
the German physician Julius Pick . He found
Tiandisulfataufschwemmlosung
(hydrolysed Ti(SO4)2) and Ti(IV) mono- and di-salicylates
were effective topical and oral treatments for Tuberkelbacillen
infections. Pick studied a variety of Ti(IV) complexes with
organic acids and other organic compounds such as Kresol,
Thymol, a und b Naphthol, which were tested in animals before
settling on titanium sulphate and salicylates as being non-toxic.
For treatment of tuberculosis infection of the skin, Pick used a 0.25–0.5% Ti(SO 4)2 suspension in
water (gel), or 1–3% Ti(IV) salicylate in Vaseline applied to the infected area. The time required for
complete resolution of skin infections depended on the age of the infection, with older infections
being stubborn. For infection of the eye, a 0.05–0.1 g of Ti(SO4)2 in 100 g of sterile, distilled cold
water was filtered and two or three drops of the filtered solution applied 1 or 2 times daily.
Improvement of the involved areas was seen within a week. For tuberculosis infection of the
respiratory track (including lungs), a suspension of 0.25% Ti(SO4)2 and 0.25% Ti(IV) salicylate in
water was sprayed in the throat and 4 teaspoons (1 to 2 mg Ti per teaspoon) of Ti(IV) salicylate given
orally each day. After 6 weeks of treatment all symptoms were gone. Confirmation of tuberculosis
before Ti(IV) treatment was made by identification of Tuberkelbacillen im Sputum.
That was a brief description about some basic metals which laid
the foundation of metallodrugs. Few more compound included are
Gold, Silver, Magnesium, Cobalt, Zinc and few more are also
found used in many metallodrugs.
Metal ions play a key role in the actions of synthetic and natural
metalloantibiotics, and are involved in specific interactions of these
antibodies with proteins, membranes, nucleic acids and other
biomolecules. For example:-
• The potent histamine H-2-receptor antagonist cimetidine can form complexes with
Cu2+ and Fe2+
• the histidine H2 blocker antiulcer drug famotidine can also form stable complex with
Cu2+
• thiabendazole, which is used for the treatment of several parasitic diseases, forms a
complex with Co2+
• the Ru2+ complex of the antimalarial agent chloroquine exhibits an activity two to five
times higher than the parent drug
• the antiviral trifluoperazine forms complexes with VO2+,Ni2+,Cu2+,Pd2+ and Sn2+ which
exhibit higher inhibition activities than the metal-free drug
• the clinically useful -lactamase inhibitor sulbactam can form complexes with
Ni2+,Cu2+ and Fe3+
There are also a number of metallodrugs and metallopharmaceuticals which have been
utilized for the treatment of diseases and disorders or as diagnostic agents, such as
The metal ion Li+ can be considered the smallest effective metallodrugs
whose carbonate and citrate salts exhibit significant therapeutic benefit in
the treatment of manic depression. The metal ion Sb3+ may be regarding
as the simplest “metalloantibiotics” whose salts (including N-
methylglucamine antimonite and Na-stibogluconate) have been utilized
for the treatment of leishmaniasis against the protozoan parasite
Leishmania. The antiprotozoal mechanism of Sb3+ is thought to be
attributed to its binding to trypanothione that is essential for the growth of
the parasite.
After this long description of metallodrugs the next question in my mind is,
• Chromodulin
Cisplatin
Its base metal atom platinum works on DNA and targeting the cells causing tumour.
At the beginning of its history as an anticancer agent, it was found that cis-[Pt(NH 3)2Cl2]
inhibits DNA replication. Before any reaction can take place between cisDDP and DNA, the
platinum drug must enter the cell. This is believed to take place through passive or active
diffusion, although the process is not well understood. It is known that in the bloodstream,
cisDDP retains its chloride ions because Cl- concentrations are high (0.1 M). Inside the cell,
chloride concentration is much lower (0.004 M) and equilibria are established for the
hydrolysis reactions shown in below figure.
Because the chloride ion is a better leaving group than the ammonia ligand, which forms a
more thermodynamically stable covalent bond with metal ions, the ammine ligands remain
while chloride ions are displaced by water. This aqueous chemistry for platinum(II)
compounds, more complex than shown in Figure because various OH- as well as H2O ligand
combinations are possible at physiological pH, has been exhaustively studied and reviewed
Water ligands in turn are replaced by nucleobase ligands from DNA strands; once formed,
these nucleobase nitrogen attachments are thermodynamically stable. The preferred point of
attachment along DNA strands has been found to be at the guanine N7 position. The most
likely sequence of events is the hydrolysis of one chloride ligand followed by reaction with a
dsDNA guanine ligand, hydrolysis of the second chloride ion, and attachment of a second
dsDNA guanine.
We have seen how cisplatin binds DNA, and now we want to understand how the binding of
cisplatin to DNA leads to programmed cell death. Researchers have found that this binding
affects both replication and transcription of DNA, as well as mechanisms of DNA repair. The
effects of both cisplatin and trans-DDP on DNA replication were studied both in vitro (using
cell extracts outside the host organism) and in vivo (inside the host organism). In vitro studies
on both prokaryotic (bacterial) and eukaryotic (mammalian) cells revealed that DNA adducts
of both cisplatin and trans-DDP blocked the action of DNA polymerase, an enzyme
necessary for replication. In particular, 1,2-intrastrand adducts of cisplatin with DNA all
stopped polymerases from doing their job. Likewise, in vivo studies showed that cisplatin and
trans-DDP inhibited replication equally well. Since other studies have shown that cisplatin is
an effective antitumor agent but trans-DDP is not, these results suggest that DNA replication
is not the only factor important for the clinical activity of cisplatin in destroying cancer
cells.1 The effects of cisplatin and trans-DDP on DNA transcription are harder to interpret
than the effects on replication. However, cisplatin does not appear to inhibit transcription,
possibly leading to programmed cell death.
Since proteins and many RNAs possess tertiary structure that is required for activity and/or
function, these are the two families of macromolecules that have formed the focus of the
studies. While catalytic metallodrugs may retain classical inhibitory properties, they also
show the potential for catalytic degradation of the drug target (Figure). Irreversible
destruction of target also affords the potential for substoichiometric administration of drug,
with the promise of a significant lowering of dosage and a commensurate decrease or
elimination of side effects or toxicity. This key point differentiates the activity of catalytic
metallodrugs relative to the high affinity binding that is essential for the classical inhibitory
mechanism of drugs currently on the market.
Traditional drug development has focused primarily on protein targets, reflecting the diverse
structural and catalytic roles of cellular proteins that provide targets in metabolic and
infectious disease. The complexity of protein structure also affords an opportunity for
selective recognition by organic molecules, using spatial and bonding constraints to map
drugs to protein targets. Likewise, many retroviruses and pathogens contain important RNA
sequences that can both adopt comple x tertiary structural motifs and are amenable to
selective binding by drug molecules. Most important, there is no cellular repair mechanism
for RNA, and so compounds that are capable of specific or selective binding to RNA should
be considered in developing effective chemotherapeutic treatments Productive HIV infection
is dependent on the interaction of a regulatory protein, Rev, with a specific RNA structure
known as the Rev-responsive element or RRE. The RRE is a 234-nucleotide RNA sequence
embedded within the viral env-coding region. The high affinity Rev binding site, or core
element, within the RRE consists of a stem-bulge-stem structure. Cedergren and coworkers
have demonstrated in a study of the occurrence of specific viral (and other) RNA motifs in
native host cells that critical viral sequences such as the core of the HIV RRE are under-
CONCLUSION
A significant rising interest in the design of metal compounds as drugs and diagnostic agent
is currently observed in the area of scientific inquiry appropriately termed medicinal
inorganic chemistry. Investigations in this area focus mostly on the speciation of metal
species in biological media based on possible interactions of these metal ions with diverse
biomolecules, in an effort to contribute to future development of new therapeutics or
diagnostic agents.
The report provided may also give us hope for future medicines which may interact fully with
biological system with no toxicity or side effects as these medicines may become the part of
the for curing many fatal diseases. Metallodrugs are the field which need more
understanding, research and exploration as I find that these drugs are the future drugs with
more precise and significant role to play in medical science.
Metallodrugs also lay a path for many chemist to explore the interaction of organic part with
metal ions and also imparting cells with more power and resistance for complete eradication
of diseases from the body.
References:-
www.wikepedia.com
www.osu.edu/units/reseach
www.ajrconline.org
Organometallic compounds
Coordination compounds in medicinal Chemistry by Chad W. Schwietert
A review on Catalytic metallodrugs by James A. Cowan
Metals in medicine by Rosette M. Roat-Malone