Documenti di Didattica
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Documenti di Cultura
What you have eaten today morning? What is the special food crop of the
south Indians? Have you ever asked yourself how that food crop is cultivated? Have
you ever heard how much hurdles the farmers should have overcome to bring the
food crop available to you? Do you know the various tasks involved in producing and
protecting such food crops? Do you know how the ill management of the crops at the
production stage lead to low yield and in the storage stage lead to wastage? Let us
have a brief study on those topics here. The crop production process involved many
practises, they are
Soil preparation:
The agricultural field should be converted into a cultivable land. The various
steps involved in converting the soil cultivable is ploughing, crushing, manuring and
levelling
Tillage is the agricultural preparation of the soil by ploughing, ripping, or
turning it. Tillage can also mean the land that is tilled. There are two types of tillage:
primary and secondary tillage.
Land Preparation
Summer Ploughing
Puddling
Levelling
Harrowing
Conservation Tillage
* A long, row ridge of earth with gently sloping sides and a shallow channel
along the upper side, to control erosion by diverting surface run-off across the slope
instead of permitting it to flow uninterrupted down to slope.
* EG: Sugarcane, Sunflower, Vegetable crops.
Bunding
Methods of Sowing
Broad Casting
* Seeds are spread uniformly over well prepared land and is covered by
ploughing or planking. It is most primitive method of sowing crops. The broadcasting
has severaldisadvantages.
* Seeds fall at different depths when broadcasted resulting in uneven stand.
Drilling
Planting
Transplanting
Seed Rate
* The quality of seed required for sowing in a unit area of land. It is usually
expressed in kg/ ha.
Spacing
* The distance between crop row ( inter-row spacing) and between plants
within the row (intra - row spacing) is referred as spacing. It is expressed in Cms.
Plant Population
Nursery Raising
* When more than one crop is to be grown in an year on the same piece of
land, the time occupied by each crop has to be reduced.
* The seedling growth in the early stages is very slow. Seedlings need extra
care for establishing in the field because of their tenderness. Small seeded crops are
to be sown shallow and frequently irrigated for proper germination.
* Taking care of the germinating seed or seedlings which are spread over
large area is a problem with regard to application of water, weed control, pest control
etc. Therefore, seeds are sown in a small area called nursery and all the care is
taken to raise the seedlings.
Transplanting
Method
* Transplanting is usually done manually. In case of rice it is also done
mechanically with transplantor provided the nursery is raised through dapog method.
Time
Equipment
For Sowing
Weeding
Earthing Up
* It is the process of putting the earth or soil just near the base for certain
crops like Sugar cane, Cassava, Papaya, Potato, etc. to give support to the plants.
* Sugarcane, Papaya, Banana - To avoid lodging
* Cassava, Potato - To provide more soil volume for the growth of tubers.
Vegetables - To facilitate irrigation.
Other Operations
* Certain other operations like gap filling, thinning and propping are
required as part of inter cultivation operations. In crops like Cotton, Paddy, the gap
filling is done in missing areas of the planted main field to maintain optimum
population .
* Like wise thinning is also practiced in direct sown crops like Jowar,
Chillies, to avoid over crowding and to maintain uniform plant stand. In crops like
Sugarcane,betelwine, Grapes propping is necessary to support the main crop
establishment.
Harvesting
Time
Methods
Manually
Mechanically
* The combines are used to perform several operations such as cutting the
crop, separating the grain from straw, cleaning the grain from chaff and transporting
grains to the storage tank. Now a days the harvesting is exclusively for harvesting
crops like Paddy and threshing paddy are used. Machines are now available for
separating pods from the plants and also for shelling pods (decorticators) in respect
to Groundnut crop.
* Likewise machines are available for threshing sunflower heads, shelling of
castor capsules and sowing of grain.
Cleaning
* After harvest of the crop, the remnants of the plant viz. Straw, stubbles,
leaves, etc. are ploughed into soil to decompose, there by providing source of
organic matter for the next season crop.
* In some places the flock of sheep are housed (penning) during night time.
So that the excreta is collected on the field which is also a good source of organic
nutrients.
* The left over stubbles, plant residues in crops like Cotton, Chillies, Maize,
Sunflower etc. may be burnt as part of soil sterilization as to reduce population of
harmful microbes and soil dwelling insect pests.
* In crops like Paddy the stubbles may be removed by ploughing after
harvest to eliminate hibernating stem borer population. Field bunds may be trimmed
to avoid hibernating grass hopper egg masses.
Types of Seeds
Local Varieties
* Local varieties are nothing but traditional varieties but which are
susceptible to diseases and pests and are having long duration for maturity. In case
of rice - Krishnakatukalu, Basangulu.
Hybrids
Storage
Weather Conditions
* Higher relative humidity and rainfall during the storage periods will
deteriorate the seed viability .
* The paddy seed viability depends on the weather conditions. The seed
viability deteriorate very fast during monsoon season.
* Due to this, the seed harvested during rabi season do not retain its
viability upto the next rabi season, because it passes through the monsoon weather
conditions i.e., from June to October months, where as the kharif harvested seed
retains its viability till the next kharif season.
Top
Seed Dormancy
Classification of Dormancy
* This refers to the period from harvest time to the time when the seeds
have broken their dormancy.
Intensity of Dormancy
Strongly Dormant
Moderately Dormant
Weakly Dormant
Climatic Conditions
Temperature
* Rice produced during the cloudy wet season ( kharif) has a strong
dormancy and longer duration of dormancy than that of produced during the summer
dry season ( rabi).
* This is mainly due to the temperature differences ( higher temperatures in
rabi) during the ripening stage of the crop.
Relative Humidity
Age of Seeds
Genetics of Dormancy
Mechanism of Dormancy
* Among the several methods available the most suitable method to break
seed dormancy at farmers level is nitric acid treatment. - Soaking the seed in o.1 N
nitric acid i.e., 6.3 ml per lit. of water for 12 to 24 hours effectively breaks the seed
dormancy, where as the varieties like MTU-1001 which is having 8 weeks and above
dormancy duration should be treated with higher nitric acid concentration i.e., 10ml
per lit. of water.
* The seeds can be utilized for sowing immediately after the treatment or
they can be dried thoroughly and can be utilized later for sowing.
Seed Treatment
* Seed treatment refers to the application of fungicide, insecticide or a
combination of both to seeds, such as to disinfect and disinfest them from seed-
borne or soil-borne pathogenic organisms and crop pests both in field and in storage.
It also refers to the subjecting of seeds to solar energy exposure, immersion in
conditioned water etc.
Dry Storage
Pre-Chilling
* The replicates for germination are placed in contact with the moist
substratum and kept at low temperature for an initial period. Agricultural and
vegetable seeds are kept at a temperature between 5 and 10 degrees Centigrade for
an initial period of upto 7 days. In some cases it may be necessary to extend the pre-
chilling period or to re-chilling.
Pre-Heating
Light
* The test should be illuminated during atleast 8 hours in every twenty four
hours cycle and during the high temperature period when the seeds are germinated
at alternating temperatures. The light intensity should be approximately 750 - 1250
lux from cool white lamps. Illumination is recommended especially for certain tropical
and sub-tropical grasses.
* Eg. Chloris gayana, Cynodon
Potassium Nitrate ( KNo3)
Seed Germination
* Dry storage
* Pre-chilling
* Pre-heating
* Light treatment
* Potassium nitrate ( KNo3) treatment
* Gibberellic acid (GA3) treatment
* Sealed polythene envelope treatment.
* Pre - washing
* Removal of structures around the seed.
* Disinfection of the seed.
* Soaking
* Mechanical scarification
* Acid scarification.
Seed Storage
* The purpose of seed storage is to maintain the seed in good physical and
physiological condition from the time they are harvested until the time they are
planted.
* The seeds are considered to be in storage from the moment they reach
physiological maturity until they germinate or until they are thrown away because
they are dead or otherwise worthless.
* The entire storage period can be conveniently divided into following
stages.
* Storage on plants ( physiological maturity until harvest).
* Harvest, until processed and stored in a warehouse.
* In - storage ( warehouses)
* In transit ( Railway wagons, trucks, carts, railway sheds etc.).
* In retail stores.
* On the user's farm.
Top
Seed Production
Because:
Sources Of Seeds
* Good source of BS and F/S- Process start three years in advance before
the actual seed production for marketing
* Trusted Seed Growers
* Qualified dedicated seed production team
* Good Seed Processing plant Machinery capable to process the full
planned marketing quantity.
* Storage facilities including cold storage provision for off season storage,
B/S and F/S
* Seed Health Laboratory with/without finger printing facilities
* Grow Out Farm (GOT)
* Reliable, quick and economic transportation facilities
* Knowledge of statuary Seed laws
Seed Production
MOTTO: To ensure that only and only quality seed reaches the growers .
MOTTO: To Test the Genetic purity of each and every seed lot
* Allocation of area before the season to create all the facility required.
* As no. of lots are known before the arrival of samples hence infra
structure should be kept ready before testing season (maximum Kharif)
* Highly technical qualified staff for the Grow out Tests.
* Regular institutional Training of staff to update their knowledge
* All seed lots of hybrids, parental lines and in-house varieties are to be
tested through grow out tests.(GOT)
* To strictly adhere to the plant characters of hybrids and varieties/lines
* while taking the plant purity observations.
* In high value crop seeds like sunflower and vegetable hybrids the Finger
Printing technology to be used to check the Genetic purity of seed.
* In case of crops where the time gap between seed arrival and dispatch is
very less the finger printing has to be adopted to avoid any problem in field.
* Do not look at short term gains while dispatching of seed at the times of
Urgency of seed to market.
Seed Logistics
Motto: Placement of seed at market in time, safely with least costs in
minimum time
Why Fertilizers
By Plant Observation
* This is one of the method to know the fertilizer need of plants by means of
the hunger signs of plants which can be detected by the eye.
* The basis of the method is the fact that the plant suffering from severe
deficiencies and excess of mineral nutrients usually developed well-defined and
typical sign of disorders in various organs, particularly in the leaves. Usually, specific
abnormal colours are developed in the leaves due to deficiency of plant nutrients.
* Although the hunger signs in plants are easily observed, it is not easy to
recognise the particular nutrient deficiency in nature due to various field conditions.
This requires experience and practice in the field.
By Plant Analysis
* The basis of plant analysis for diagnostic purposes is that the amount of a
given nutrient in a plant is an indication of the supply of that particular nutrient and is
directly related to the quantity present in the soil. The normal growth of a plant is
determined by the supply of the nutrients. However, there is one disadvantage with
this method, that is, while the shortage of one nutrient can limit the growth, other
nutrients may show higher contents in the cell sap irrespective of the supply.
* The use of plant tissue tests as a means to diagnose soil fertility status
has been found to be important. This is a rapid test of the cell sap of the growing
plants. The sap from the ruptured cells is tested for unassimilated nitrogen,
phosphorus, potash and other nutrients. Tissue tests are getting popular because of
the convenience of handling and the small number of equipment needed for the test.
The test can be made in a few minutes.
* Total analysis is used extensively in research work as this gives a
quantitative indication of the level of nutrients in plants. However, it should be
remembered that the determination of total analysis gives both the assimilated and
unassimilated nutrients. Many nutrients such as N, P, K, Ca, Mg, Mn, Zn, Cu, Fe, Mo
and B can be determined by this method. Usually, the mature plants are selected for
this testing.
* Biochemical methods to determine the soil fertility require costly
equipments, but offer good opportunities for research work. Two methods are
recognised amongst biological tests. They are, use of higher plants, Microbiological
methods.
By Fertilizer Experiments
* Complex field experiments allow the testing of many factors at a time and
permit a study of interaction among various nutrients. Complex fertilizer trials helps
in determining the correct kinds of fertilizer, amount and the method of application for
each of the soil zone. These experiments are complicated, expensive and can be
done only by experienced people.
By Soil Testing
* Soil testing is one reliable diagnostic tool whose value in evaluating soil-
fertility conditions has been recently recognised in India. Soil testing is multipurpose
in nature. Its purposes are :
* To group soils into classes relative to the levels of nutrients for suggesting
fertilizer practices.
* To predict the probability of getting a profitable response to the application
of fertilizers.
* To help evaluate soil profitability and To determine specific soil conditions
i.e., alkalinity, salinity, acidity, that limit crop yields and can be improved with soil
amendments and other management practices.
Organic Fertilizers and Manures
* Organic fertilizers include both plant and animal bi-products. They are
slow acting. Organic nitrogen fertilizers include oil cakes, fish manure, dried blood
from slaughter houses etc., where as organic phosphorus from bone meal and
organic potassium from cattle dung ash, wood ash, leaf mould, tobacco stems and
water hyacinth.
Organic Manures
Nitrogen
Phosphorus
Secondary Nutrients
Calcium
Magnesium
Sulphur
Micronutrients
Placement
* Inserting or drilling or placing the fertilizer below the soil surface by means
of any tool or implement at desired depth to supply plant nutrients to crop before
sowing or in the standing crop is called placement.
* With placement methods, fertilizers are placed in the soil irrespective of
the position of seed, seedling or growing plants before sowing or after sowing the
crops. The following methods are most common in this category.
* This refers to the placement of fertilizers in the sub-soil with the help of
heavy power machinery.
* This method is recommended in humid and sub-humid regions where
many sub-soils are strongly acidic. Due to acidic conditions the level of available
plant nutrients is extremely low. Under these conditions, fertilizers, especially
phosphatic and potassic are placed in the sub-soil for better root development.
Localised Placement
* This method refers to the application of fertilizers into the soil close to the
seed or plant.
* Localised placement is usually employed when relatively small quantities
of fertilizers are to be applied. Localised placement reduces fixation of phosphorus
and potassium.
Bulk Blending
Liquid Fertilization
Foliar Application
1. Marginal leaf burn or scorching may occur if strong solutions are used.
2. As solutions of low concentrations (usually three to six per cent) are to be
used, only small quantities of nutrients can be applied in single spray.
3. Several applications are needed for moderate to high fertilizer rates, and
hence
4. Foliar spraying of fertilizers is costly compared to soil application, unless
combined with other spraying operations taken up for insect or disease control.
Soil Fertility and its Importance
* Soil fertility may be defined as the inherent capacity of soil to supply plant
nutrients in adequate amount and in suitable proportion and free from toxic
substances. There are two types of soil fertility viz.,
Acquired Fertility
* The factors that are effecting soil fertility may be of two types, i.e.,
o Natural factors and
o Artificial factors
* The natural factors are those which influences the soil formation and the
artificial factors are related to the proper use of land.
* The factors effecting the fertility of soil are parent material, climate and
vegetation, topography, inherent capacity of soil to supply nutrient, physical condition
of soil, soil age, micro-organisms, availability of plant nutrients, soil composition,
organic matter, soil erosion, cropping system and favourable environment for root
growth.
* It is well known fact that in high rainfall areas, due to the leaching of
bases, acids soils are formed, while in low rainfall regions, on account of arid and
semi arid conditions, saline and alkali soils occur.
* Thus soil vary in acidity or alkalinity. The soil reaction is indicated by pH
scale. When Ca(OH)2 or lime is added to the soil, it will become alkaline.
* Fertilizers are relatively safer than pesticides which exhibit toxic properties
on living systems. However, all the quantities of fertilizers applied to the soil are not
fully utilized by plants. About 50 per cent of fertilizers applied to crops are left behind
as residues. Though, inorganic fertilizers are not directly toxic to man and other life
forms, they have been found to upset the existing ecological balance. The nutrients
escape from the fields and are found in excessive quantities in rivers, lakes and
coastal waters.
* Algae blooms occur when the nutrient load is high, and these smother
other aquatic vegetation and also interfere with the oxygen regulation in the water
bodies. This phenomena may lead to loss of fish. Among the major synthetic plant
nutrients, nitrogenous fertilizers cause most harm. Contamination of the environment
arises because not all the fertilizer applied is taken up by the crop and removed at
harvest. In tropical climate the maximum recovery in dry land crops is 50 to 60 per
cent and 40 per cent in rice because much of nitrogen is lost as ammonia into the
atmosphere.
* Eutrophication of water bodies due to higher nitrate and phosphate
concentrations, increasing levels of nitrates in drinking water sources, accumulation
of heavy metals such as lead and cadmium in soils and water resources are the
principal causes of environmental concerns due to fertilizer use in agriculture. In the
a national wide survey it was found that many streams and more than 20 % of wells
contain 10 to 50 mg or even more of nitrates per litre of water. The contamination is
caused by domestic sewage leaking to the ground water. The nitrates in drinking
water can lead to several ailments. Blue - baby syndrome in infants and gastric and
other forms of cancer have been related with nitrates in drinking water or diet.
* Another hazard associated with excessive use of fertilizers is the gaseous
loss of nitrogen, into the atmosphere. High doses of carbon dioxide and ammonia
that escape into the atmosphere both from fertilizer manufacturing plants and soils
affect human health. Further the oxides of nitrogen have been reported to adversely
affect the ozone layer, which protects the earth from UV radiation and heating up of
earth.
* The oxides of nitrogen cause respiratory diseases like asthma, lung
cancer and bronchitis. Arsenic, ammonia are waste stream components of nitrogen
manufacturing plants while fluoride, cadmium, chromium, copper, lead and
manganese are waste stream components of phosphatic fertilizer industry. If these
waste stream of components are not properly disposed they cause harm to human
beings and animals with contamination of air and water.
* The keeping quality of perishables like vegetables and fruits get declined
with excess use of fertilizers particularly nitrogenous fertilizers.
Economics of Fertilizer Use
* During the growth span, the plant passes through various phases and the
stages of growth. The growth rhythm of plant is slow during some stages and fast
during some other stages. Accordingly plant demands variable supply of water.
* The growth period of irrigated dry (ID) crops can generally be divided into
3 phases namely
* vegetative,
* reproductive and
* ripening phases.
* Each of these phases has different stages.
* Vegetative phase: The early vegetative phase consists of crop
establishment or initial stage during the first 2 - 3 weeks after sowing. This is
followed by crop development stage which last for 2 - 6 weeks in different crops.
* Reproductive or flowering phase:The reproductive or flowering phase
comprises the period from initiation of buds to 75 % flowering. This period in most of
the seasonal ID crops last for 2 - 3 weeks and in two seasonal crops and perennial
crops for 4 - 6 weeks or more.
* In yield formation stage otherwise known as ripening phase the end
product is formed. The flowering and yield formation period together is known as
mid-season stage. During the last part of the ripening phase the crops undergo
yellowing and drying to mature. This period is called maturity stage or late season
stage and it last for 2 - 4 weeks in most crops. The entire reproductive phase is
highly sensitive growth period when the growth rhythm is fast. Therefore the soil
water stress should be avoided during this period. Active vegetative phase and yield
formation stage are moderate in sensitivity while initial establishment and maturity
stages are least sensitive to water stress.
* Some crops like Cotton, Groundnut and pulses even prefer stress during
early vegetative growth to suppress excessive vegetative growth. In many crops the
initial establishment and flowering stages are highly sensitive to excess water
conditions resulting in poor performance of the root system and also shedding of
flowers, in addition to lodging at maturity in some crops.
Critical Stages of Irrigaton Requirement
* The water balance in ID crops is refered to the soil water storage in the
root zone and not to the level of standing water in the field, as in case of paddy.
* The critical stages or otherwise known as sensitive stages of different
crops for irrigation water requirement are as follows,
Sources of Irrigation
Canals
Wells
* Awell is a hydraulic hole to the water strata. Water in the well stands at a
height equal to the static water level. There are different types of wells namely open
well, tube well, artesian well, and bore well.
Open Wells
* The dug out wells upto water bearing strata of the aquifer are open wells.
They derive water from the formation hole to the ground surface. The large diameter
of the open wells permits the storage of water.
Tube Wells
* These are sunk by inserting pipes below ground surface and passing
through different geological formations of water bearing and non-water bearing
strata.
Artesian Wells
* Due to pressure, water from well comes to the ground without pumping
are generally known as artesian wells.
Bore Wells
Tanks
* Large tanks irrigating more than 2000 ha are classified under medium
irrigation source. Small water reservoirs behind earthen dams are tanks. Though the
primary purpose of tank is for irrigating crops, it also provides drinking water for
humans and cattle in the villages. Monsoon rains fall erratically and confined only to
a few months in the year.
* Irrigation tanks serve to store and regulate water for crop production. In
drought prone areas, tanks are considered to be a useful life saving sources. But day
by day the area irrigated by tanks decreases due to neglect of maintenance of tanks,
environmental degradation, cultivation of foreshore areas and cultivation of tank
beds.
Filter Points
* These are shallow tube wells consisting of a well and a short length of
casing pipe. Filter points are generally bored in deltaic regions where aquifer
formation are of coarse sand and gravel and are very near to the surface. In coastal
sands open dug wells are to be lined with concrete rings which is costly and also the
availability of water is dependent on seepage water and season.
* To tap this water filter pipes (slotted filter pipes or PVC pipes with a
conical bottom point) is driven inside the soil to a depth of about 9 to 15 m and water
is lifted by means of ordinary pumpset from this filter point.
Rainfall
Flood Irrigation
Basin Irrigation
* Basin method is almost similar to check - basin method except that in the
check-basin method entire field is irrigated while in basin method only the basin
around the trees are irrigated.
* This method is suitable for fruit crops. Basins are generally round in
shape, occasionally square in shape. The basins are small when the trees are young
and their size is increased with age of the trees. Basins are connected by an
irrigation channel.
Check-Basin Method
Drip Irrigation
Sprinkler Irrigation
* Sprinkler irrigation system conveys water from the source through pipes
under pressure to the field and distributes over the field in the form of spray of 'rain
like' droplets. It is also known as over head irrigation.
* Different types of sprinkler systems namely portable, semi-portable, semi-
permanent and permanent are in vogue. But due to increased labour costs and
energy costs, different types of sprinklers are developed.
* Centre-pivot system is largest sprinkler system with a single machine can
irrigate upto 100 ha. A centre - pivot sprinkler consists of a series of sprinklers
mounted on a lateral pipe, 50 - 800 m long, mounted or carried by a row of five or
more mobile towers.
* One end of the lateral is fixed on a pivot pad. The unit rotates around a
centre pivot where water is pumped into the pipe, and water is distributed through
sprinkler fitted on lateral. The limitations of this system are,
* 10 - 20 % of area is not irrigated at the corners of square or rectangular
plot.
* High energy requirement and Huge cost of the equipment.
* Now lateral - move systems are developed to overcome the draw backs in
centre-pivot system for irrigating square or rectangular plots. This irrigation system
consists of lateral - move systems which move up and down the field.
* Sprinkler irrigation can be advantageously chosen in the following
situations
* When the soil is too shallow eliminating the possibility of levelling of lands.
* When the land is too steep ( > 1% slope).
* When light (< 5 cm) and frequent irrigations are to be given.
* When soils are very sandy (rapidly permeable coarse textured soils) and
* When supplemental irrigation is to be given to dryland crops during
prolonged dry spells, without any land preparation.
Disadvantages
* Excess irrigation causes several changes in the soil and plant resulting in
reduced growth and in some cases death of plants.
* Germinating seeds are sensitive to waterlogging since they are totally
dependent on the surrounding soil space for oxygen supply.
* Yield of cereals depressed if the excess irrigation given at panicle
development stage. iv. Excess water causes injury to the plant due to low oxygen
supply to the root system and accumulation of toxic substances in soil and plant.
* Wilting of tobacco takes place when bright sunshine occurs after a
prolonged wet spell.
* Leaching of nitrates and denitrification occurs resulting in nitrogen
deficiency.
* . Shoot elongation, senescence, abscission and production of adventitious
roots takes place as a result of continuous excess irrigation.
* Respiration in the roots change from aerobic to anaerobic with the result,
toxic substances accumulates in roots and damage the root system.
* Permeability of roots decreased due to shortage of O2. It results in
decreases water and nutrient uptake.
Losses of Water
* Water use efficiency is the yield of marketable crop produced per unit of
water used in evapotranspiration.
* WUE = Y/ET
* Water use efficiency is also known as crop water use efficiency or
consumptive water use efficiency (Ecm) if the water used for metabolic purpose of
the crop (G) and is included with ET.
* ECU = Y/G+ET
* If yield is proportional to ET, water-use efficiency has to be a constant but
it is not so. Actually, Y and ET are influenced independently or differently by crop
management practices, while ET is mainly dependent on climate and soil moisture.
Fertilization and other cultural practices for high crop yields usually increases WUE.
The factors affecting WUE are nature of the plant, agronomic practices, climate, ET,
irrigation, fertilization and plant population.
* There are considerable differences between plant species to produce a
unit dry matter per unit amount of water used resulting in widely varying values of
water use efficiency. The water use efficiency for few crops is listed below.
•
Water Ph
Water EC
* Natural water has E.C value of much less than one unit. These values are
reported as milli mhos (EC x 10-3) or micro mhos (EC x 10-6) at 250C. Electrical
conductivity serves as a guide to know the extent of soluble salts present in irrigation
water. The criteria for judging the quality of irrigation water is the total salt
concentration as measured by electrical conductivity. The harmful effects increases
with increase in total salt concentration.
* Irrigation water may be classified based on EC are,
* It has EC between 0.25 to 0.75 ds/m. This water can be safely used for
crops with moderate salt tolerance. The soil should have moderate level of
permeability and leaching to avoid accumulation of salts.
* Water with EC ranges of 0.75 to 2.25 ds/m is called high salinity water.
This water can not be used on soils with poor drainage. This water can be used for
salt tolerant crops by providing good drainage and also by practicing management
practices for salinity control.
* If EC is more than 2.25 ds/m the water is classified as very high salinity
water. It is not suitable for irrigation under ordinary conditions but may be used
occasionally if the soil is permeable by providing adequate drainage.
Economics of Water Use
* Average yields of irrigated crops are below the economic optima because
data on the best combination of fertilizer, plant population and irrigation regime are
meagre to recommend to the farmers. Maximum WUE can not alone be the goal
always. The economics of obtaining high yields dominate the scene. Yield increases
from fertilizers, plant population, irrigation, etc., follows some kind of decreasing
increment function after a stage, such that each successive unit of input produces
less profit than its predecessor.
* The general tendency is to over-irrigate, especially if water is not brought
on the basis of quantity used. This tendency can be avoided only if information is
available on the most efficient way to use water, and if field service is organized to
advice the farmer on when to irrigate and how much water to apply at each irrigation
for a certain level of fertilization and plant population. The three important
approaches listed below are to be taken into account for irrigation.
* Critical stages approach, visual symptoms of the plant, water content, leaf
temperature.
* Surface irrigation methods are commonly used for various crops. But rice
is irrigated by flooding. Crops like Potato, Maize, Sugarcane, Cotton are commonly
irrigated with furrow method. Basin method of irrigation is adopted for fruit trees.
* The amount of water to be applied at each irrigation depends on the
amount of moisture depleted in the effective root zone depth.
* The moisture extraction pattern from different depths of the soil within the
crops root zone depth in deep uniform soils is about 40 % of the total moisture from
first quarter of the root zone, 30 % from the second, 20 % from the third and 10 %
from the last quarter. At early stages of crop growth, the depth of water applied
should be less since the root system is shallow.
* Generally the amount of water applied at each irrigation is about 50 mm in
red soils and 60 mm in black soils.
Why Crop Protection
* It is a well known fact that insects being widely distributed became more
problematic in tropical climate. Of 1.5 million species of insects so far described few
are so conspicuous in their presence due to their ability to develop rapidly and
becoming serious by attacking food crops directly and indirectly.
* In developing country like ours insects are dominating over other pests by
acquiring characters like resistance to toxic chemicals, and resurgence, particularly
in intensive crop management regions of the country. The losses caused by insect
pests like Spodoptera, Heliothis, Whitefly and Aphids are so enormous that these
made the farmer to disturb the present ecosystems with continuous use of excessive
insecticides.
Top
What is Ipm ?
* IPM is a system that in the context of the associated environment and the
population dynamics of the pest species utilizes all suitable techniques and methods
in as compatible manner as possible and maintains the pest populations at levels
below those causing economic injury (FAO, 1972). In integrated pest management
both crop and pest are seen as part of a dynamic agro-ecosystem.
* IPM attempts to capitalize on natural biological factors that limit pest out
breaks, only using chemicals as a last resort. The goal is to reduce crop damage to a
level where it is economically tolerable, using control measures whose cost both
economic and ecological is not excessive. A number of non-chemical cultural
practices form the core of IPM. But IPM does not preclude chemical pesticide usage.
Pesticide usage is one of weapons in the management armoury to us that can be
exploited sensibly and judiciously.
* Different monitoring tools like pheromone traps, light traps, coloured sticky
traps.
* Preserved specimens of pests, natural enemies, infested plant portions as
identification tools.
* Bird perches.
* Seed dressing chemicals and seed dressing machines.
* Seeds of Resistant varieties.
* Ecofriendly insecticides like Neem products and bio-fungicides like
Trichoderma sp.
* Natural enemies like Trichogramma egg cards, and microbial preparations
of NPV & Bt.
* Soft and target specific pesticides.
* Bait preparations.
* Good plant protection equipment.
* Finally mostly farm based renewable resources that can enhance the
recycling phenomenon of ecosystem should form part of IPM strategy.
Post Harvest operations
Infrastructure
* Out of the total food grain production, more than 70 percent is with the
farmer and rest is stored by governmental organizations like central warehousing
corporation and Food corporation of India and traders. The godowns are the most
common structures for above ground bag storage.
* The godowns have all the facilities for fumigation, providing aeration and
rat proof. Each of the godown can hold 5000 tonnes of bagged food grains. Grain is
also stored in bulk using large silos.
* For want of required storage space in godowns food grains are also
stored in the open and this method of storage is known as CAP storage. Cap stands
for cover and plinth. Open spaces in warehouses and elsewhere are used for storing
produce. Crates are placed on floor, mats are spread on the crates and finally bags
are placed over the crates.
* The stacks are built in the form of domes. As protection against rain and
sun the stacks are covered with thick (600 to 1000 guage) black polythene sheets
and the cover is tied to the stack with the help of plastic ropes.
Storage
Types of Storage
Several types of above ground storage structures mentioned below are also in
use in our country,
Mud Bins
* The mud bins are made of unburnt clay mixed with straw with 1 to 3 inch
thick wall and are oval, rectangular or circular. A small hole is provided at the base
for taking out the grain and a larger hole is provided at the top for filling it with grain.
Both the inlet and outlet holes are plugged while grain is stored.
Straw Bins
* For storing paddy in humid zones dried plants are used for making
temporary structures, which after being filled with grain are further reinforced from
outside by winding paddy straw ropes around the whole structure. Each structure
holds 2 to 6 quintals of grain.
Bukhari Bins
* This is a cylindrical structure and is made of mud and split bamboo's. The
bin is always placed on a wooden or a massonary plat form to prevent its contact
with the ground. The capacity may vary from 3 to 10 tonnes.
* These bins are very much similar to a timber box placed on a raised plat
form, which is generally supported on pillars. Both the floor and walls are made of
wooden planks, where the tiled or thatched roof is placed over it as a protection
against sun and rains. The capacity may vary from 9 to 35 tonnes.
Metal Bins
* Bins made of steel, alluminium R.C.C are used for storage of grains
outside the house. These bins are fire and moisture proof. The bins have long
durability and produced on commercial scale. The capacity ranges from 1 to 10
tonnes. Silos are huge bins made with either steel, alluminium or concrete. Usually
steel and alluminium bins are circular in shape. The capacity of silo ranges from 500
to 4000 tonnes. A silo has facilities for loading and unloading grains.
* The storage structures in rural areas are not ideal from scientific-storage
point of view, as substantial losses occur during storage of grain from insect pests,
moulds, rodents, etc. ; keeping the requirements of the farmers in view the Indian
grain storage institute (IGSI), Hapur with its branch at Ludhiana and Hyderabad have
developed several metal bins of different capacities for scientific storage of grain in
rural areas.
Methods of Storage
* The grains are stored at three different levels, viz., at the producer's level
(rural storage) trader's level and urban organizational storage. The urban
organization uses modern facilities and structures like silos, warehouses and also
undertaken periodical inspection, processing and treatment of grains for ensuring
their quality during storage.
* Generally, there are two ways of storing grains i.e.
* Storage in bags and Loose or bulk storage.
* In the tropical regions, the grain is stored in bags. Storage in bags
requires considerable labour, but the minimum investment is enough on permanent
structures and equipment. The storage in bags has the advantage of being short-
term storage. Bag storage can be done under a roof of Galvanized Iron sheets, a
plastic covering where grain is intended for very early onward movement. Usually no
control measures against insects is needed for short-term storage. If bag storage
produce is intended for long time, the control measures have to be taken against
insect pests.
* The bulk storage has an advantage of greater storage capacity per unit
volume of space. Less labour is involved in loading and unloading and there is no
need of investment in purchasing gunny bags. In bulk storage the insect infestation
is also lower over bag storage. The grain can be kept for several years in bulk
storage.
Transportation
* When once the grain is threshed and dried it will be transported from the
field to store houses by bullock carts, or tractors by the growers. Sometimes if the
market price is favourable the produce is disposed to the traders soon after drying.
* The disposal of the produce, either at the village or at the market yard is,
however often closely connected with financial needs of the growers and sometimes
indebtedness. The traders on purchasing, transport the produce to go-down, or
shops for sale to the consumers.
* This transport mainly uses trucks i.e., lorries. Government agencies like
Food Corporation of India etc., transport the produce from one place to another
place either by road or rail (waggons) for long term storage and sometimes to export
to other countries by sea (cargo). If the produce is not properly bagged and handled
there will be some loss during transport.
Marketing
* In general most of the producers sell the grains at their door steps in
villages, to avoid transport. At village level defective measures and weights are used
by traders and also the prices paid to farmers are much lower than regulated market
rates. Now-a-days farmers are encouraged to sell their produce in near by regulated
markets, though some labour is involved in transport.
* In regulated markets some amenities are provided for sellers and the
growers can secure maximum value for their produce. In market yards several
methods like cover system, open system and auction system are adopted depending
on the type of produce sold. Since the rural banking system is improved the farmers
to a large extent they are out of clutches of greedy private money lenders who exert
pressure to dispose produce for lower price.
* At present in some places the cold storage facilities are also available.
Farmers can utilize these cold storage facilities for stocking their produce on
payment of rent and the produce can be disposed when there is remunerative price
in the market.
Purposes Of Tillage
* Plowing loosens and aerates the soil which in turn facilitates deeper
penetration of roots. A drawback is the compaction of the lower layers of soil.[citation
needed]
* It helps in the growth of microorganisms present in the soil and thus,
maintains the fertility of the soil, though fertility can decline as microorganisms' boom
period after tilling is followed by a bust period. It is debatable whether worms benefit
or suffer from tillage.[citation needed]
* It helps in the mixing of organic matter(humus)and nutrients evenly
throughout the soil.
* It is used for destroying weeds.
Primary Tillage:
Disc Plough
Objectives
Objectives
Key points
Don’ts
* disc cut should not overlap (i.e., back discs cut should be between front
disc cut)
* Don’t cut deeper than ¼ of disc diameter
Rotavator
Objectives
Key Points
Don’t
* In dry fields, you should not turn in the field with rotavator down .
Puddler
Objectives
* Decrease weeds
* Decrease percolation as a result of soil dispersion.
* Level the soil for better planting conditions and/or for snail control (where
a problem)
Key Points
Comb Harrow
* Puddler is used for preparation of paddy fields with standing water after
initial ploughing.
* It breaks up the clods and churns the soil.
* The main purpose of puddling is to reduce percolation of water, to kill
weeds by decomposing and to facilitate the transplanting of paddy seedlings by
making the soil softer.
* Puddling is done in a standing water of 5 to 10 cm depth.
* A common puddler used in this country has three puddling units, each
having 4 paddles mounted on an axle.
* The axle with the puddling units is freely mounted on two bearings, fitted
on a frame, made of metal or wood.
* The weight of the puddler including its beam is with in a range of 30 to 40
kg only.
* The puddler consists of
1. Frame
2. Paddles
3. Metal cross
4. Axle
5. Beam
6. Handle.
* Frame: The frame consists of front piece, the rare and side pieces made
of steel angle section or wood.
* Paddles: Paddles are made of mild steel sheets having a thickness of
about 3.15mm. The size of the paddle is about 225 x 125 mm . The paddles are
riveted to metal cross.
* Metal cross: Metal cross holds the paddles in position. It’s made of mild
steel flat.
* Axle: Axle is made of mild steel bar of about 25 mm in diameter or of mild
steel pipe.
* Beam: Beam is made of wood and is suitably fixed to the frame with the
help of braces and the other end to the yoke for hitching to animals.
* Handle: Wooden handle is attached as handle supports for guiding the
movement of the puddler.
Other land levelling equipment
Land preparation
* Puddle the land, level it and remove the water after 24 hours (for clayey)
or 12 hours (for sandy/loamy soil) before the transplanting. In black or clayey soils
the settlement is critical as the loosened soil can bury the seedlings planted.
* Just before the operation of transplanter, a thin film of water is necessary
to ensure the free movement of transplanter and avoid adhering of soil to the moving
parts of the transplanter.
* Performance: There will be a net saving of 40 per cent over the manual
transplanting. It can transplant about one hectare in a day of 8 hour run. The
transplanter performs with missing hills of 2-3 per cent.
* Available Transplanters Now a days mechanical transplanting of paddy is
also recommended and practiced in some places.
* M/s Godavari farm equipment’s, Jagityala, Kharimnagar district developed
a machine with modification of the machine originally fabricated by international rice
research institute.
Levelling
* Levelling helps in bringing undulated field left over after puddling into
levelled field
* To maintain uniform depth of water in main field
* To increase water use efficiency by maintaining shallow depths of water
upto panicle initiation stage.
* Maintenance of shallow water depth is possible only when the land is
perfectly levelled.
* Shallow planting is possible only at shallow water depth which helps in
better seedling establishment which helps in term for early tillering.
* Better utilization of nutrients by managing uniform depth of water through
out the field
* Perfect levelling helps in complete draining of water - facilitates easy
harvesting of crop without loss of grain.
* If a pulse is sown after paddy uniform establishment of pulse crop can be
achieved
* Oxygen diffusion is more uniform
* Reduction of deep percolation of water and inputs to a certain extent.
The plough is a tool used in farming for initial cultivation of soil in preparation
for sowing seed or planting. It has been a basic instrument for most of recorded
history, and represents one of the major advances in agriculture. The primary
purpose of ploughing is to turn over the upper layer of the soil, bringing fresh
nutrients to the surface, while burying weeds and the remains of previous crops,
allowing them to break down. It also aerates the soil, and allows it to hold moisture
better. In modern use, a ploughed field is typically left to dry out, and is then
harrowed before planting.
Ploughs were initially pulled by oxen, and later in many areas by horses and
mules. In industrialised countries, the first mechanical means of pulling a plough
used steam-power i.e. steam tractors, but these were gradually superseded by
internal-combustion-powered tractors. In the past two decades plough use has
reduced in some areas where soil damage and erosion are problems, in favour of
shallower ploughing and other less invasive tillage techniques.
The plough (American spelling: plow; both pronounced /ˈplaʊ/) is a tool used
in farming for initial cultivation of soil in preparation for sowing seed or planting. It
has been a basic instrument for most of recorded history, and represents one of the
major advances in agriculture. The primary purpose of ploughing is to turn over the
upper layer of the soil, bringing fresh nutrients to the surface, while burying weeds
and the remains of previous crops, allowing them to break down. It also aerates the
soil, and allows it to hold moisture better. In modern use, a ploughed field is typically
left to dry out, and is then harrowed before planting.
Ploughs were initially pulled by oxen, and later in many areas by horses and
mules. In industrialised countries, the first mechanical means of pulling a plough
used steam-power (ploughing engines or steam tractors), but these were gradually
superseded by internal-combustion-powered tractors. In the past two decades
plough use has reduced in some areas (where soil damage and erosion are
problems), in favour of shallower ploughing and other less invasive tillage
techniques.
Ploughs are even used under the sea, for the laying of cables, as well as
preparing the earth for side-scan sonar[citation needed] in a process used in oil
exploration.
Tilling is the process of breaking up and stirring soil. Someone may want to till
the soil to prepare it for planting, to mix in organic matter, or to reduce the amount of
weeds in the area. Gardens are the area most frequently tilled, but tillers are also
helpful when seeding and levelling lawns, or even large fields where crops will be
grown.
In India, rice is grown in different types of soils. Experts point out that in India,
rice is grown in such varied soil conditions that it is difficult to point out the soil on
which it cannot be grown. However, soils having
* Good water retention capacity.
* Good amount of clay and organic matter are considered ideal for rice
cultivation.
It grows well in soils having a pH range between 5.5 and 6.5. The
classification of soils has been done depending upon the soil texture, colour of the
soil etc.
MANURES AND MANURING. The term "manure" originally meant that which was
"worked by hand" (Fr. manoeuvre), but gradually came to apply to any process by
which the soil could be improved. Prominent among such processes was that of
directly applying "manure" to the land, manure in this sense being what we now call
"farmyard manure" or "dung," the excreta of farm animals mixed with straw or other
litter. Gradually, however, the use of the term spread to other materials, some of
home origin, some imported, some manufactured by artificial processes, but all
useful as a means of improving the fertility of the soil. Hence we have two main
classes of manures: (a) what may be termed "natural manures," and (b) "artificial
manures." Manures, again, may be divided according to the materials from which
they are made - e.g. "bone manure," "fish manure," "wool manure," &c.; or according
to the constituents which they mainly supply - e.g. "phosphatic manures," "potash
manures," "nitrogenous manures," or there may be numerous combinations of these
to form mixed or "compound" manures. Whatever it be, the word "manure" is now
generally applied to anything which is used for fertilizing the soil. In America the term
"fertilizers" is more generally adopted. and in Great Britain the introduction of the
"Fertilizers and Feeding Stuffs Act" has effected a certain amount of change in the
same direction. The modern tendency to turn attention less to the consideration of
manurial applications given to land and more to the physical and mechanical
changes introduced thereby in the soil itself, would seem to be carrying the word
"manure" back more to its original meaning.
The subject of manures and their application involves a prior consideration of plant
life and its requirements. The plant, growing in the soil, and surrounded by the
atmosphere, derives from these two sources its nourishment and means of growth
through the various stages of its development.
Chemical analysis has shown that plants are composed of water, organic or
combustible matters, and inorganic or mineral matters. Water constitutes by far the
greater part of a living plant; a grass crop will contain about 75% of water, a turnip
crop 89 or 90%. The organic or combustible matters are those which are lost, along
with the water, when the plant is burnt; the inorganic or mineral matters are those
which are left behind as an "ash" after the burning. The combustible matter is
composed of six elements: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur and a little
phosphorus. About one-half of the combustible matter of plants is carbon. Along with
hydrogen and oxygen the carbon forms the cellulose, starch, sugar, &c., which
plants contain, and with these same elements and sulphur the carbon forms the
albuminoids of plants. The inorganic or mineral matters comprise a comparatively
small part of the plant, but they contain, as essential constituents of plant life, the
following elements: potassium, calcium, magnesium, iron, phosphorus and sulphur.
In addition, other, but not essential, elements are found in the ash e.g. sodium,
silicon and chlorine, together with small quantities of manganese and other rarer
elements.
The above constituents that have been classed as "essential," are necessary for the
growth of the plant, and absence of any one will involve failure. This has been shown
by growing plants in water dissolved in which are salts of the elements present in
plants. By omitting in turn one or other of the elements aforesaid it is found that the
plants will not grow after they have used up the materials contained in the seed itself.
These elements are accordingly termed "essential," and it therefore becomes
necessary to inquire how they are to be supplied.
The atmosphere is the great storehouse of organic plant food. The leaves take up,
through their stomata, the carbonic acid and other gases of the atmosphere. The
carbonic acid, under the influence of light, is decomposed in the chlorophyll cells,
oxygen is given off and carbon is assimilated, being subsequently built up into the
various organic bodies forming the plant's structure. It would seem, too, that plants
can take up a small quantity of ammonia by their leaves, and also water to some
extent, but the free or uncombined nitrogen of the air cannot be directly assimilated
by the leaves of plants.
From the soil, on the other hand, the plant obtains, by means of its roots, its mineral
requirements, also sulphur and phosphorus, and nearly all its nitrogen and water.
Carbon, too, in the case of fungi, is obtained from the decayed vegetable matter in
the soil. The roots are able not only to take up soluble salts that are presented to
them, but they can attack and render soluble the solid constituents of the soil, thus
transforming them into available plant food. In this way important substances, such
as phosphoric acid and potash, are supplied to the plant, as also lime. Roots can
further supply themselves with nitrogen in the form of nitrates, the ammonia and
other nitrogenous bodies undergoing ready conversion into nitrates in the soil. These
various mineral constituents, being now transferred to the plant, go to form new
tissue, and ultimately seed, or else accumulate in the sap and are deposited on the
older tissue.
Whether the nitrogen of the air can be utilized by plants or not has been long and
strenuously discussed, Boussingault first, and then Lawes, Gilbert and Pugh,
maintaining that there was no evidence of this utilization. But it was always
recognized that certain plants, clover for example, enriched the land with nitrogen to
an extent greater than could be accounted for by the mere supply to them of nitrates
in the soil. Ultimately Hellriegel supplied the explanation by showing that, at all
events, certain of the Leguminosae, by the medium of swellings or "nodules" on their
roots, were able to fix the atmospheric nitrogen in the soil, and to convert it into
nitrates for the use of the plant. This was found to be the result of the action of
certain organisms within the nodules themselves, which in turn fed upon the
carbohydrates of the plant and were thus living in a state of "symbiosis" with it. So
far, however, this has not been shown to be the case with any other plants than the
Leguminosae, and, though it is asserted by some that many other plants can take up
the nitrogen of the air directly through their leaves, there is no clear evidence as yet
of this.
We must now consider how the different requirements of the plant in regard to the
elements necessary to maintain its life and to build up its structure affect the
question of manuring.
Under conditions of natural growth and decay, when no crops are gathered in, or
consumed on the land by live stock, the herbage, on dying down and decaying,
returns to the atmosphere and the soil the elements taken from them during life; but,
under cultivation, a succession of crops deprives the land of the constituents which
are essential to healthy and luxuriant growth. Without an adequate return to the land
of the matters removed in the produce, its fertility cannot be maintained for many
years. In newly opened countries, where old forests have been cleared and the land
brought under cultivation, the virgin soil often possesses at first a high degree of
fertility, but gradually its productive power decreases from year to year. Where land
is plentiful and easy to be obtained it is more convenient to clear fresh forest land
than to improve more or less exhausted land by the application of manure, labour
and skill. But in all densely peopled countries, and where the former mode of
cultivation cannot be followed, it is necessary to resort to artificial means to restore
the natural fertility of the land and to maintain and increase its productiveness. That
continuous cropping without return of manure ends in deterioration of the soil is well
seen in the case of the wheat-growing areas in America. Crops of wheat were taken
one after another, the straw was burned and nothing was returned to the land;the
produce began to fall off and the cultivators moved on to fresh lands, there to meet,
in time, with the same experience; and now that the available land has been more or
less intensely occupied, or that new land is too far removed for ready transport of the
produce, it has been found necessary to introduce the system of manuring, and
America now manufactures and uses for herself large quantities of artificial and other
manures.
Cultivation practices of Paddy
Submitted by naipictuasdharwad on Fri, 03/06/2009 - 13:43
Posted in Dry and semi-dry cultivation Production Technology Rice India UAS-
Raichur (Karnataka) English
Dry System of Cultivation (upland rice)
Sowing - Broadcasting in the high level land with outbreak of the monsoon.
Situation - Followed in almost all rice growing states in India but mainly confined to
tracts which get either the south-west or north-east monsoon or both and do not
have adequate irrigation facilities.
Alternate names - Bhatta or Kavali in Kannada, aus in West Bengal, aus or ahu in
Assam, beali in Orissa, bhadi or kuari in Uttar Pradesh
Duration - 90 to 110 days
Cultivation practices:
Ploughing - summer
Application of organic manure
Season - May-June in the case of the crop dependent on the south-west monsoon
September - north-east monsoon,
Sowing - sown or broadcast
Seed rate - 60-80 kg/ha
When the moisture is at the marginal level the surface soil is compacted by a light
roller.
A primitive type of shifting cultivation called punam cultivation in Malabar, kumari in
South Kanara, podu in the Circars, jhum in Assam hills is being done in scrub
jungles on a small scale. , The bushes are cut and burnt. The land is ploughed with
pre-monsoon showers and rice is sown as a pure or mixed crop. The land is
abandoned after the harvest of rice and allowed to recoup its fertility. Fresh jungle
land is broken up for cultivation every year.
Semi-dry System of Cultivation
Sowing - sown or broadcast as a dry crop for about two months and when more
water is available, after the strengthening of monsoon, it is treated as wet crop.
Season - July-August, when the south-west monsoon is active, the rain water is
impounded in the fields and the young crop of five to six weeks is inter cultivated by
using slit hoe with about 5 cm of standing water in the field for partial weeding,
thinning as well as stirring of soil to promote root formation. This operation is also
called as hodtha operation.
Your rating:
Most of the food crops are subjected to damage by insects and diseases.
Large number of insects and diseases are recognized on every food crop. Control of
insects and diseases is one of the great challenges posed to human knowledge.
Although detailed work has been done in every insect/disease of every crop to
understand the nature of insects and diseases and how to control them - their actual
control is an ever growing challenge. Chemical control of insects and diseases of
various crops was widely recommended - ever since the first insecticides was
discovered in 1920. Use of insecticides and fungicides has grown on enormous
scale to control the insects and diseases. Despites this, the damage due to insects
and diseases has increased in the last 25 years.
Each crop has a large number of enemies in the form of insects, fungi, bacteria,
weeds, rodents, mites etc unless they are controlled effectively, the crop yields
would suffer very badly. To effectively control them, pesticides were recommended
to be used.
Extent of damage by insects and diseases
Insects Diseases
Rice 10% 15%
Wheat 5% 15%
Jowar 12% 18%
Bajra 5% 8%
Cowpea 3% 15%
green gram 2% 14%
Black gram 2% 11%
Soyabean 3% 9%
Pesticides, in general, make a class of chemicals used to control pests, which
include insects, fungi, bacteria, weeds, rodents, mites etc. respectively. Each one is
controlled by group of chemicals like insecticides, fungicides, bactericides,
weedicides, etc.
Certain preventive measures can be adopted to protect crops from weeds, insects, mites, rodents and fungi.
They are:
• Clean cultivation
• Summer ploughing
Rabi crops are more susceptible to insects and pests as against kharif crops as warm and humid climate is
congenial for infestation.
If field crops are infested with insects and pests, diseases or weeds, insect pest control, disease control and
weed control measures have to adopted.
Disease Control
Plants often get infested with disease causing pathogens. The entire crop can be destroyed if they are not
controlled in time.
Pathogens are transmitted by:
• water
• air
Seed soil and water borne diseases mostly attack roots and plant stem. Air borne diseases attack all aerial parts
of the plant i.e. leaf, flower and fruit. Seed and soil borne diseases can be controlled by treating the seed and
soil. Air borne diseases can be controlled by treating the infested parts with fungicide spray.
Weed Control
Weeds are unwanted plants that grow in the fields where crops grow. The growth of weeds in fields has an
adverse affect on crops because they compete with the crops for space, light, nutrients and water. The yield
becomes poor and so also the quality of the crop. The weed could be another crop plant or a plant of another
variety of the same crop. So if a mustard plant grows in a wheat field it has grown out of place and so is
considered to be a weed. Often weeds harbour many insects, pest and diseases. Warm and humid climate being
more congenial for the growth of weeds, they are more during the Kharif season than the Rabi crop.
Based on the structure of the leaf, weeds are classified into narrow-leaf and broad-leaf. The following are some
of the weeds of the Kharif season and the Rabi season.
Kharif Season
Narrow Leaf
Example: 1) Nutgrass (motha),
2) Wild Sorghum (Wild jowar)
Broad Leaf
Example: 1) Amaranthus (chaulai)
2) Trianthema (Saathi)
Rabi Season
Narrow Leaf
Example: 1) Phalaris (Mandoori),
2) Wild oat (Jangali jaii)
Broad Leaf
Example: 1) Chenopodium (Bathua)
2) Convolvulus (Hirankhwci)
During Kharif season, short duration maize and millets, short statured groundnut and slow growing pigeon pea
crops are more prone to weeds.
• interculture
• ploughing
• burning and
• flooding
Cultural Method
Cultural methods of controlling weeds include:
• intercropping and
• crop rotation
Chemical Method
Spraying of special chemicals called weedicides or herbicides is a chemical method.
Example: atrazine; 2, 4-D, fluchloralin; isoproturon
Biological Method
The biological method involves the use of some appropriate insects or some other organisms on the crop field
having weeds. They selectively destroy the weed plants but do not harm the crop plants.
Example: Cochneal insects are used to eradicate opuntia (a weed, commonly called prickly pear). Aquatic weeds
are controlled by grass carp (a kind of fish).
Crop Management
The Crop Improvement and Management program targets problems of significant
field (broadacre) crops which can have either genetic or agronomic solutions. The
program aims to increase productivity, sustainability and utilisation of major crops
and cropping systems of mutual importance .
Land tillage for spring maize, moong, urad, sugarcane, sunflower, jute and maize for
fodder may be taken up. Farmers of eastern region are advised to complete
transplanting of boro rice. In well puddle fields at a spacing of 15x 15 cm. In main
fields 60, 60 and 40 kg N,P and K/ha should be applied as basal application.
Wherever, seedlings are affected due to frost injury, it is advisable to grow rice
seedlings by dapog method to compensate the time loss.
Weeding and interculturing of rabi crops specially winter maize, wheat. Hand
weeding of onion, garlic & other spices are to be attended. Sugarcane should be
harvested and earmarked for ratoon. For broad leaved weeds 2,4-D chemical 625
gm in 700-800 litre water and for Phalaris minor, Isoproturan (75%) 1.0 kg in 800 litre
water/ha should be sprayed. Eradication of Orobanche should be taken up in
mustard, tomato, potato and tobacco fields. Desuckering of tobacco crop has to be
attended to allow better leaf growth on main plant. Top dressing with urea in wheat,
pulses, oilseeds, maize, fodder crops followed by irrigation
In all standing crops light irrigation is to be given.
Sowing of watermelon may be initiated in coastal Orissa.
Crop Protection
For management of Karnal bunt , one spray of propiconazole 25EC @ 0.1% may be
given (in seed crop only) at ear head emergence stage. Instead of one spray of
propiconazole 25 EC, two sprays of T.viride or one spray of T.viride at 31-39 days
and 41-49 days provide a non-chemical (biological control) management of disease.
One spray of T.viride (at 31-39 days) followed by one spray of propiconazole 25 EC
at growth stage 41-49 can be given to attain near complete control.
For charcoal rot management in maize, water stress should be avoided at post-
flowering stage, 3-4 sprays of Mancozeb (Dithane M-45) effectively reduce rust and
Turcicum leaf blight intensity in susceptible varieties.
The weather is conducive for ocurrence of Sigatoka leaf spot disease especially in
Cavendish group of Bananas like Robusta, Grand Naine, Dwarf Cavendish which
are commercially grown in Maharashtra, Gujarat, Karnatak, AP and Tamilnadu.
Banana farmers are advised to spray Propicanazole 0.1% with wetting agent
(Teepol/sandovit 5ml/litre water), Bavistin 0.1%, Calixin 0.1% and Mancozeb 0.2%
each at 21 day interval.
For management of termites, in the standing crop, the broadcasting of the insecticide
treated soil 15 DAS be practiced. For this, Endosulfan 35EC @ 2.3 l/ha or
chloropyriphos @ 3 l/ha be done. This is applicable to safeguard mulch material in
Cocconut and Arecanut basins.
In the North-Western and Indogangatic plans, Bengal gram (chicken pea) crop at
flowering stage shall attract pod borer damage. If the larvae cross 2 per plant in 20
plants per acre, spraying of endosulfan or any contact insecticide at 2 litres per
hactare may be taken up. However, the insecticide application should be only need-
based and never as per any schedule.
To control blister beetle in cucumber, collect the adults mechanically and crush them
or spray Endosulfan @ 2ml/litre
Dip the ginger fingers with Redomil MZ72 or Spectra MZ 72 @2gm/lit of water for 30
minutes and keep in the shed
To protect the crop from pea pod borer, spray of 0.05% Monochrotophos 36SL or
0.07% Endosulfan 35EC is advised.
Present weather situation is favourable for the powdery mildew disease in pea crop.
Dusting with sulphur dust @ 25 - 30 kg/ha is advised. Spraying 2-3 times 0.1%
Bavistin or 0.1% Karathane is also effective for the control.
In Kumaon area and in parts of eastern UP, widespread damage of crops due to
white grub is noticed. Drenching of Chlorpyriphos 0.07% is recommended in the
affected patches.
Himalayan rats are seen to damage the cereal crops in Kumaon area. Suitable steps
to install bait stations on a community scale has to be undertaken. The crop loss can
be reduced by timely baiting interventions.
In the north-eastern states bamboo flowering has been reported in Arunachal
Pradesh & Mizoram. The rodent population is expected to explode. Mass trapping
using bamboo traps as well as mass-baiting as a community level campaign may be
taken-up particularly in the districts of Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, Nagaland and
Manipur where rodent explosion is currently seen.
For the management of aphids in wheat crop, foliar spray of Methyl demeton 25EC
@ 2 litre/ha on infected rows at the start of the aphid colonization be given.
Sap sucking insects damage crops such as Oilseed crops, gram and vegetables.
Spray Methyl demeton or Endosulphan or Quinalphos @2 l/ha as and when the
damage crosses designated threshold levels.
Application of Karathane (0.1%) for controlling powdery mildew in Mango is advised.
Wherever there is incidence of attack of fruit and shoot borer in Brinjal, it is
recommended to arrange pheromone traps @ 4 per acre. Clip the infested shoots
and fruits and destroy them. Prophenophos @ 2 ml or Carbaryl @ 3g/l of water may
be sprayed.
For the control of thrips in Chilli, spray of Acephate @ 1.5g/l or Dimethoate 1.5ml/l is
recommended. For management of anthracnose disease spraying Hexaconazole
0.05% is recommended.
For the management of wilt in cumin, drench the soil with the carbendazim 0.2%.
Suggested live irrigation in moisture stress areas for Black pepper, Cardamom and
Vanilla.
Damping-off and Leaf blight disease in Tobacco nurseries under excess moisture
are anticipated. 0.4% Bordeaux mixture (40 gm Copper sulphate and 40 g lime in 10
litre water) or Copper-oxy-chloride 20 g/10 litre/20 sq m or metalaxyl (2g) +
mancozeb (20g) in 10 litre for 100 sq m to be applied.
Pest Management of Coconut Palms
Eriophyid mite infestation in coconut palms can be managed by spraying neem oil-
garlic-soap mixture at 2% concentration.The spray droplet is to be directed towards
second - fifth month old bunch. Avoid spraying in un-pollinated inflorescence. Root
feeding of neem formulations containing 5 % Azadirachtin @ 7.5 ml + 7.5 ml water.
Avoid using wettable sulfur as it brings down the myco-acarine population.
Isolated incidence of stem bleeding has been reported from North Malabar(Kerala),
Pollachi (Tamilnadu) and Ambajipetta (Andhra Pradesh). Integrated disease
management includes regulation of moisture regime, application of organics@50
kg/palm, additional application of 5 kg neem cake fortified with Trichoderma
harzianum. Root feeding with 5% Calixin, chipping and dressing the chiseled portion
with 5% calixin followed by coal tar application.
The Coconut slug caterpillar, Conthyla rotunda has caused severe damage to the
palms in Nagercoil District of Tamil Nadu. In addition to coconut they feed on banana
also. They can be managed by spraying carbaryl 0.1%, / chlorpyriphos 0.05 %. In
addition release of predatory pentatomid bug, Eucanthecona furcellata are found
effective in managing the pest.
Rhinoceros beetle: Fill the leaf axils with naphthalene balls 10g (4 nos.) & neem
cake 250g + fine sand (250g). Placing pheromone traps helps in monitoring tree and
to capture the adult beetles. Spray carbaryl 50% WP 0.01% (200mg/ lit. of water) in
breeding sites.
Red palm weevil: Stem injection of 1% Carbaryl 50 % WP @ 1 litre per palm. Place
pheromone traps @ 1 per ha. The adult weevils can also be trapped using
attractants such as fresh toddy fermented with yeast/acetic acid or fermented
mixture of crushed sugarcane+ jaggery + Banana.
Black headed caterpillar: Spraying Dichlorvos @ 0.02 % or malathion @ 0.05 %
helps to bring down the population.
INTEGRATED CROP MANAGEMENT (ICM)
In the UK it is not always possible to keep livestock alongside arable crops, and for
this reason Integrated Crop Management was developed:
Maize and clover intercropping. The clover provides ground cover (erosion
minimisation) and nitrogen fixation therefore reducing artificial inputs. Sustainable?
One of the main objectives of ICM is the reduction or replacement of external farm
inputs, such as inorganic fertilizers, pesticides and fuel, by means of farm produced
substitutes and better management of inputs. Total replacement is not possible
without significant loss of yields, but partial substitution of inputs can be achieved by
the use of natural resources, the avoidance of waste and efficient management of
external inputs. This would then lead to reduced production cost and less
environmental degradation. The principals and practices of ICM are outlined below:
Crop rotations:
Increase diversity of crop species to prevent disease and pest carry over from crop
to crop
Ensure effective nutrient uptake by scheduling crops with different nitrogen demands
in the correct sequences
Preserve soil fertility, structure and minimize erosion by ensuring adequate crop
cover, good rooting depth and reduction of compaction
Use of disease resistant cultivars to minimize the need for agro chemical inputs
Soil protection:
Use of cover crops/green manures before spring sown crops to minimize leaching
and erosion
Crop protection:
Minimal use of well selected pesticides, i.e. ones that have minimal off target effects
In crop monitoring systems (such as traps) to assess pest levels to scale pesticide
use to the level of the problem
Planning a programme for the whole farm (cropped and non cropped areas) to
enhance biodiversity and landscape features:
Hedges, ditches, field margins, beetle banks and conservation headlands allowing
wild species to establish and migrate, and to provide recreational areas for people
A greater diversity of broad leaved weeds may be left within crops to provide food
sources for birds and insects, providing the aggressive crop damaging weeds are
contained
Energy efficiency:
Detailed analysis of energy use, especially fossil fuels
ICM in practice
The environmental benefits of ICM are difficult to quantify and are related to longer
term processes. On the long term projects, biodiversity has increased, there have
been improved bird numbers and reduced nitrate leaching and soil erosion. Data
from the experimentation, trial farms and various projects has indicated:
Generally a 5 - 15% yield reduction but indications that this is reducing as
experience grows
Modern agriculture must produce high yields. This is also possible when intensely
cultivated fields alternate with natural habitats in which countless animal and plant
species thrive. Integrated Crop Management aims to reconcile the economic
demands on agriculture with environmental protection. The coexistence of
agricultural land and wildlife sanctuaries is also an important aspect of this principle.
Many fruit trees depend on pollination by flying pollen carriers like bees.
The arrangement has been fully accepted. In the meantime bullfinches, corn
buntings, skylarks and other birds have nested in the hedges and trees. Brimstone
butterflies lay their eggs, field mice enjoy the plentiful insect prey, and bees collect
nectar from the wildflower meadows. These pollen collectors are a good example of
the synergy between species diversity and agriculture. Those who offer bees food
and a habitat also help commercial fruit growers, since many fruit trees depend on
pollination by flying pollen carriers like bees.
Bayer CropScience has also gained experience with biodiversity projects in Brazil.
Together with a citrus farmer, the company is working, for example, on a concept to
try to stop the drying up of a waterway along the farm and the resulting erosion.
Some 8,000 saplings of native species have been planted along the banks. The new
vegetation has not only prevented the reduction of the water level, but also has
attracted many birds and insects to the farmland, thus increasing the species
diversity. Numerous farmers throughout the country have now followed this example.
Biostadt India Limited have a diverse range in crop protection chemicals that include
45 products, ranging from insecticides, fungicides, herbicides and adjuvants.
Our manufacturing base for crop protection chemicals is located in North and Central
India. Added to this, our tie-up with ISO 9000 toll manufacturers helps us in offering
you specialty products like Wapkil, Dartriz, Evident etc. Moreover, our strategic
spread over 25,000 retail centers ensures that you get the requisite product,
promptly, without any time lag.
A successful alliance with world leaders in Agro Chemical business has added more
weight to our global standing and helped us market their star products in India.
A vivid demonstration of our crop protection products in the field has helped us prove
its efficacy in controlling crop disease and eradicating weeds and pests. The legible
label instructions on our products focus on optimizing safety for the user and the
land. Also, our crop protection products offer various options at pocket-friendly
prices.
At Biostadt, we believe that Mother Earth showers its bounty on those who respect
her as well as protect the environment. And our crop protection chemicals ensure
this with their result - successful produce of healthy crops.
Agriculture in India
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
India is the largest producer in the world of milk, cashew nuts, coconuts, tea, ginger,
turmeric and black pepper,[2] Coffee.[3] It also has the world's largest cattle
population (281 million).[4] It is the second largest producer of wheat, rice, sugar,
groundnut and inland fish.[5] It is the third largest producer of tobacco.[5] India
accounts for 10% of the world fruit production with first rank in the production of
banana and sapota.[5]
India's population is growing faster than its ability to produce rice and wheat.[6]
Initiatives
The required level of investment for the development of marketing, storage and cold
storage infrastructure is estimated to be huge. The government has not been able to
implement various schemes to raise investment in marketing infrastructure. Among
these schemes are Construction of Rural Go downs, Market Research and
Information Network, and Development / Strengthening of Agricultural Marketing
Infrastructure, Grading and Standardization.[7]
The Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI), established in 1905, was
responsible for the research leading to the "Indian Green Revolution" of the 1970s.
The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) is the apex body in agriculture
and related allied fields, including research and education.[8] The Union Minister of
Agriculture is the President of the ICAR. The Indian Agricultural Statistics Research
Institute develops new techniques for the design of agricultural experiments,
analyses data in agriculture, and specializes in statistical techniques for animal and
plant breeding.
Recently Government of India has set up Farmers Commission to completely
evaluate the agriculture program.[9]. However the recommendations have had a
mixed reception.
mixed farming
In August 2001 India's Parliament passed the Plant Variety Protection and Farmers'
Rights Act, a sui generis legislation. Being a WTO member, India had to comply with
TRIPS and include PVP. However, farmers' rights are of particular importance in
India and thus the Act also allows for farmers to save, sow and sell seeds as they
always have, even if it is of a protected variety. This not only saves the livelihoods of
many farmers, it also provides an environment for the continuing development and
use of landraces, says Suman Sahai. The way it always was
[edit]Problems
Important crops
1.7 Storage
1.8 Marketing