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LESSON - 1: CROP PROTECTION AND MANAGEMENT

What you have eaten today morning? What is the special food crop of the
south Indians? Have you ever asked yourself how that food crop is cultivated? Have
you ever heard how much hurdles the farmers should have overcome to bring the
food crop available to you? Do you know the various tasks involved in producing and
protecting such food crops? Do you know how the ill management of the crops at the
production stage lead to low yield and in the storage stage lead to wastage? Let us
have a brief study on those topics here. The crop production process involved many
practises, they are
Soil preparation:
The agricultural field should be converted into a cultivable land. The various
steps involved in converting the soil cultivable is ploughing, crushing, manuring and
levelling
Tillage is the agricultural preparation of the soil by ploughing, ripping, or
turning it. Tillage can also mean the land that is tilled. There are two types of tillage:
primary and secondary tillage.

Crops Suitable For Cultivation in Acid Soils

Ph Level Acidic Soils


4.5 Citrus, Blue berries
5.0 Tobacco, Apple, Grapes, Plum, watermelon
Cowpea, Soybean, Cotton, Wheat, Oat, Peas, Tomato,
5.5
Sorghum.
Peanut, Cabbage, Carrot, Onion, Radish, Spinach,
6.0
Cauliflower.
6.5 Alfalfa, Sugarbeet

Land Preparation

Summer Ploughing

* Summer ploughing improves soil structure due to alternate drying and


cooling. Soil permeability is increased by breaking the compacted layers. Tillage
improves soil aeration which helps in multiplication of micro organisms. Organic
matter decomposition is hastened resulting in higher nutrient availability.
* Increased aeration also helps in degradation of herbicide and pesticide
residues and harmful allelopathic chemicals exuded by roots of previous crop or
weed. It also helps in reducing the soil dwelling insect pests. In view of several
benefits summer ploughing could be taken up at optimum moisture level.
* Frequent harrowing has to be avoided as it results in destruction of soil
structure. Tillage at improper moisture level is to be discouraged as it also damages
soil structure and leads to development of hard pans.
Shallow Ploughing

* It is generally followed by the most of the farmers repeatedly at the same


depth (12-15 Cm). As a result of this hard pans are created, which inhibits the
penetration of roots in deep rooted crops.
* Eg: Cotton roots grow to a depth of 2 Mts. in deep alluvial soils without
any pans, when hard pans are present they grow only upto hard pan (5 - 20 cm). But
shallow ploughing is practiced to open the soil crust to increase the receptivity of
rainfall.

Puddling

* " Making soil impermeable by manipulating and compacting it in standing


water, which reduces its apparent specific volume, thus facilitates transplanting." As
a result of puddling, an impervious layer is formed below the surface which reduces
deep percolation losses of water.

Levelling

* Levelling is the tillage operation in which the soil is moved to a establish a


desired soil elevation stage. Due to levelling the use of water and fertilizer efficiency
increases effectively.

Harrowing

* Harrowing is a secondary tillage operation which pulverizes, smoothens


and packs the soil in seed-bed preparation and control weeds.

Conservation Tillage

* The main objective is to conserve soil and moisture .Conservation tillage


is an operation that is designed to maintain roughness of a field surface and leave
most of the previous crop residues on the surface while providing a suitable seed-
bed and weed control for the next crop.
* This roughness reduces water run off and soil erosion.

Ridges and Furrows

* A long, row ridge of earth with gently sloping sides and a shallow channel
along the upper side, to control erosion by diverting surface run-off across the slope
instead of permitting it to flow uninterrupted down to slope.
* EG: Sugarcane, Sunflower, Vegetable crops.
Bunding

* It is the process of forming an artificial earthern embankment made


across slopping agricultural land to cut short lengthy soil slopes and reduces run-off
and erosion.
* These bunds are also formed along the contours across the slope of land
in the low rainfall regions to conserve soil moisture.
Sowing

Methods of Sowing

Broad Casting

* Seeds are spread uniformly over well prepared land and is covered by
ploughing or planking. It is most primitive method of sowing crops. The broadcasting
has severaldisadvantages.
* Seeds fall at different depths when broadcasted resulting in uneven stand.

1. It requires more seed rate.


2. Seeds fallen deep in the soil may not germinate.
3. Due to broadcasting excess competition at certain areas and no
competition at all in other areas takes place in the field. So, yield returns will be
decreased.
4. Water use efficiency and fertilizer efficiency will be decreased.
5. There is no possibility of controlling weeds by inter cultivation.

Drilling

* To overcome the problems of broadcasting drilling the seeds in lines has


come into practice. Weeds can be controlled economically by inter cultivation in line
sown crops. In addition, drilling or line sowing facilitates uniform depth of sowing
resulting in uniform crop stand. Seed rate can be considerably reduced drilling.

Planting

* When individual seeds or seed material is placed in the soil by manual


labour, it is called planting.
* Generally crops with bigger sized seeds and those needing wider spacing
are sown by this method. Eg : Cotton, Maize, Potato, Sugarcane, etc.

Transplanting

* It is the process of planting seedlings in prepared main field. Small


seeded crops like Tobacco, Chillies, Tomato, etc. are to be sown shallow and
frequently irrigated for proper germination. Taking care of the germinating seed or
seedlings which are spread over large area is a problem with regard to application of
water, weed control, pest control etc. Therefore, seeds are sown in a small area
called nursery and all the care is taken to raise the seedlings.
* The advantages of transplanting saving in irrigation water, good stand
establishment and increase in intensity of cropping. In respect to paddy the nursery
is raised in small puddled plots and later transplanted in the main field at required
spacing.

Seed Rate

* The quality of seed required for sowing in a unit area of land. It is usually
expressed in kg/ ha.

Spacing

* The distance between crop row ( inter-row spacing) and between plants
within the row (intra - row spacing) is referred as spacing. It is expressed in Cms.

Plant Population

* Number of plants maintained in an unit area of land is known as plant


population/ density. Establishment of optimum plant population is essential to get
maximum yield. When sown densely competition among plants is more for growth
factors resulting in reduction of yield.
* Yield per plant decreases gradually as plant population per unit area is
increased. The plant population density vary with the type of soil and crop. Optimum
plant population density has to be maintained for securing maximum yield.

Nursery Raising

* When more than one crop is to be grown in an year on the same piece of
land, the time occupied by each crop has to be reduced.
* The seedling growth in the early stages is very slow. Seedlings need extra
care for establishing in the field because of their tenderness. Small seeded crops are
to be sown shallow and frequently irrigated for proper germination.
* Taking care of the germinating seed or seedlings which are spread over
large area is a problem with regard to application of water, weed control, pest control
etc. Therefore, seeds are sown in a small area called nursery and all the care is
taken to raise the seedlings.

Transplanting

Method
* Transplanting is usually done manually. In case of rice it is also done
mechanically with transplantor provided the nursery is raised through dapog method.

Time

* For achieving good results from transplanting, the seedlings are to be


transplanted at optimum age and at proper depth. The age of seedlings for
transplanting depends on crop and seasonal conditions.

Equipment

For Sowing

* Country plough (Akkadi), Seed drill, Ferti-cum-seed drill, Mechanical seed


drill are generally used.
Inter Cultivation

* It is an operation of soil cultivation performed in standing crop. It is also


called as inter culturing. It facilitates good aeration, and better development of root
system.

Weeding

* Weeding is the process of eliminating competition of unwanted plants to


the regular crop in respect to nutrition and moisture. So that crops can be grown
profitably. It also facilitates other operations like irrigation and fertilizer application.
The advantages of weeding are

1. Conservation of soil moisture.


2. Reduced competition for nutrients and water.
3. Purity of seed can be maintained.

Earthing Up

* It is the process of putting the earth or soil just near the base for certain
crops like Sugar cane, Cassava, Papaya, Potato, etc. to give support to the plants.
* Sugarcane, Papaya, Banana - To avoid lodging
* Cassava, Potato - To provide more soil volume for the growth of tubers.
Vegetables - To facilitate irrigation.

Ridges and Furrows


* It is also included in inter cultivation and generally done at the base of the
crop to provide extra support against lodging and also provide soil volume for better
growth. It also facilitates uniform spread of moisture during operation of irrigation.

Other Operations

* Certain other operations like gap filling, thinning and propping are
required as part of inter cultivation operations. In crops like Cotton, Paddy, the gap
filling is done in missing areas of the planted main field to maintain optimum
population .
* Like wise thinning is also practiced in direct sown crops like Jowar,
Chillies, to avoid over crowding and to maintain uniform plant stand. In crops like
Sugarcane,betelwine, Grapes propping is necessary to support the main crop
establishment.
Harvesting

* It is an operation of cutting, picking, plucking, digging or combination of


these for removing the useful part or economic end product, part from the plant.

Time

* Crops can be harvested at physiological maturity or at harvest maturity.


Crop is considered to be at physiological maturity when the translocation of
photosynthates are stopped to economic part. If the crop is harvested early, the
produce contain high moisture and more immature grains.
* The yields will be low due to unfilled grains. Late harvesting results in
shattering of grains, germination even before harvesting during rainy season and
breakage during processing. Hence, harvesting at correct time is essential to get
good quality of grains and higher yields.

Methods

* Harvesting is done by either manually or by mechanical.

Manually

* Manual harvesting is practiced by cutting crop with sickle or knife. In some


crops like Sugarcane, Millets, Paddy the crop is cut with sickles and knives.
* In some crops like Groundnut, tuber crops the plants are pulled and
economic parts are separated. In other crops like Cotton, Chillies, and fruits the
picking is practices to remove the economic parts like kappas, pods and fruits etc.

Mechanically
* The combines are used to perform several operations such as cutting the
crop, separating the grain from straw, cleaning the grain from chaff and transporting
grains to the storage tank. Now a days the harvesting is exclusively for harvesting
crops like Paddy and threshing paddy are used. Machines are now available for
separating pods from the plants and also for shelling pods (decorticators) in respect
to Groundnut crop.
* Likewise machines are available for threshing sunflower heads, shelling of
castor capsules and sowing of grain.

Drying and Processing

* Drying is a process by which moisture content from grain is reduced to


safe limit. Drying is done either by using solar energy or by artificial heating.
* Processing is the conversion of the produce into a more finished condition
before it is offered for sale.

Cleaning

* The removal of foreign and dissimilar material by washing, screening,


hand-picking, aspiration or any other mechanical means is known as cleaning. It is
required to maintain the quality of the produce.
Post Harvest Field Management

* After harvest of the crop, the remnants of the plant viz. Straw, stubbles,
leaves, etc. are ploughed into soil to decompose, there by providing source of
organic matter for the next season crop.
* In some places the flock of sheep are housed (penning) during night time.
So that the excreta is collected on the field which is also a good source of organic
nutrients.
* The left over stubbles, plant residues in crops like Cotton, Chillies, Maize,
Sunflower etc. may be burnt as part of soil sterilization as to reduce population of
harmful microbes and soil dwelling insect pests.
* In crops like Paddy the stubbles may be removed by ploughing after
harvest to eliminate hibernating stem borer population. Field bunds may be trimmed
to avoid hibernating grass hopper egg masses.
Types of Seeds

Local Varieties

* Local varieties are nothing but traditional varieties but which are
susceptible to diseases and pests and are having long duration for maturity. In case
of rice - Krishnakatukalu, Basangulu.

High Yielding Varieties


* High yielding varieties are dwarf varieties and having short duration with
resistant to pests and diseases with maximum yield potential.
* Eg: I.R -64, I.R - 36, I.R - 50.

Hybrids

* A systematic and extensive evaluation of the experimental hybrids, across


the country, at the twelve research net work centers has been taken up. About eight
hundred experimental hybrids have been evaluated so far. During the wet season
( Kharif), the experimental hybrids are being evaluated at 12 centers, where as
during dry season ( rabi ) the experimental hybrids are evaluated in seven centers,
located in southern, western and eastern India. Very useful information on
performance of hybrids and data on yield and yield components and other auxiliary
characters of hybrids across the locations and seasons has been collected over the
years.
* As a result of concerted, goal oriented, time bound and co-ordinated
efforts for the first time in the country, four rice hybrids were released for commercial
cultivation during 1994, by the state variety release committee. These are APHR-1
and APHR- 2 for the Telangana and Rayalaseema regions of Andhra pradesh,
MGR-1 for the Tamilnadu state and KRH-1 for Karnataka state. Subsequently two
more hybrids, viz., CHRH -3 and DRRH-1 were released recently.

Genetically Engineered Seeds

* One of the major concerns of cultivating hybrid varieties is that farmers


can not use seed from the harvest for their next crop and thus have to buy new seed
for each crop. More-over, the cost of hybrid seed is 5-20 times more than that of
seeds of inbred varieties. Possibilities for true -to- type multiplication of hybrid rice
are being explored through two approaches.
* Production of artificial seeds through somatic embryogenesis and
* Development of apomictic hybrid rice through wide hybridization and
genetic engineering techniques.
Seed Viability

* Seed viability is defined as " The capability of a seed to show living


properties like germination and growth". Or
* It is represented by germination percentage which expresses the number
of seedlings that can be produced by a given number of seeds.
* The duration of seed viability of rice varieties depends mainly on the
following aspects.
* Seed moisture % at the time of storage ( 10 to 12% is desirable).
* Storage conditions.
* Weather conditions ( relative humidity, rainfall)
Seed Moisture

* The formation of germination inhibitors was accelerated under reduced


oxygen tension and thereby the water content of the seed is increased which
deteriorates viability.

Storage

* The embryos and endosperm of seeds of different ages were found to


respire, the rate being higher in fresh seeds then in older ones. Thus, the old seeds
are living but failed to germinate.
* The germination and viability of the rice seed are related to the formation
of inhibitors during storage.

Weather Conditions

* Higher relative humidity and rainfall during the storage periods will
deteriorate the seed viability .
* The paddy seed viability depends on the weather conditions. The seed
viability deteriorate very fast during monsoon season.
* Due to this, the seed harvested during rabi season do not retain its
viability upto the next rabi season, because it passes through the monsoon weather
conditions i.e., from June to October months, where as the kharif harvested seed
retains its viability till the next kharif season.

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Seed Dormancy

* Seed dormancy refers to the resting stage of embryo with low


germinability of viable and freshly harvested grains. It is also defined as inability or
failure of perfectly matured seed to germinate even when placed under conditions
favourable for germination.
* Seed dormancy is an important varietal trait in tropical rice where rain fall
and high humidity are of frequent occurance during the maturity and harvest periods.
Without dormancy, seed would germinate on the standing crop.

Classification of Dormancy

Seed Dormancy at Maturity Stage


* Strong seed dormancy at maturity of the crop is a most desirable trait for
all the kharif varieties. Some of the rice varieties ( Masuri, I.R -50) have little or no
seed dormancy and in periods of wet weather at harvest time, the seed may
germinate on the panicle itself.

Duration or Length of Dormancy

* This refers to the period from harvest time to the time when the seeds
have broken their dormancy.

Intensity of Dormancy

* This refers to the level of breaking dormancy by artificial means, i.e.,


based on the germination percentage after heat treatment for four days at 50
degrees centigrade, and the rice varieties classified based on germination
percentage as follows

Strongly Dormant

* Varieties in which 50% of dormancy is broken after 4 days of heat


treatment.

Moderately Dormant

* Varieties in which 50 to 79% of dormancy is broken after 4 days of heat


treatment.

Weakly Dormant

* Varieties in which above 80% of dormancy is broken after 4 days of heat


treatment.

Factors Influencing Dormancy Period

Climatic Conditions

Temperature

* Rice produced during the cloudy wet season ( kharif) has a strong
dormancy and longer duration of dormancy than that of produced during the summer
dry season ( rabi).
* This is mainly due to the temperature differences ( higher temperatures in
rabi) during the ripening stage of the crop.
Relative Humidity

* Higher R.H in atmosphere at maturity stage also increase the degree of


dormancy.

Age of Seeds

* A wide variation in maturity of seeds can be observed within a hill, i.e.,


between the mother tiller to tertiary tillers. Similarly there is about 7 to 10 days
difference in the maturity of individual seeds within the same panicle.
* The seeds in the upper portion of the panicle have earlier maturity than
the lower portion of the panicle. So the duration, the dormancy of the individual seed
varies with in the hill and also within the panicle.

Genetics of Dormancy

* Genetically dormancy is dominant over non-dormancy. Dormancy is


inherited independently and can combine with early maturity, photo sensitivity and
also with a range of grain types.

Mechanism of Dormancy

* Dormancy is the resultant of the slowing down effect of the metabolic


process during seed maturation and also by the slow oxidation of the hormone IAA
( Indole Acetic Acid).
* Hence, it is essential that any treatment aimed at breaking seed
dormancy should hasten the rate of oxidation. Respiration is a strong competitor for
the oxygen available for the dormancy breaking reaction.

Breaking Seed Dormancy

* Among the several methods available the most suitable method to break
seed dormancy at farmers level is nitric acid treatment. - Soaking the seed in o.1 N
nitric acid i.e., 6.3 ml per lit. of water for 12 to 24 hours effectively breaks the seed
dormancy, where as the varieties like MTU-1001 which is having 8 weeks and above
dormancy duration should be treated with higher nitric acid concentration i.e., 10ml
per lit. of water.
* The seeds can be utilized for sowing immediately after the treatment or
they can be dried thoroughly and can be utilized later for sowing.

Seed Treatment
* Seed treatment refers to the application of fungicide, insecticide or a
combination of both to seeds, such as to disinfect and disinfest them from seed-
borne or soil-borne pathogenic organisms and crop pests both in field and in storage.
It also refers to the subjecting of seeds to solar energy exposure, immersion in
conditioned water etc.

Benefits of Seed Treatment

* Prevention of spread of plant diseases.


* Seed treatment protects seed from seed rot and seedling blight.
* Improves germination.
* Provides protection from insect pests.
* Controlling soil insects.

Seed Treatment for Breaking Dormancy (Physiological Dormancy)

Dry Storage

* For species where dormancy is naturally of short duration, it is often


sufficient to store the samples in a dry place for a short period.

Pre-Chilling

* The replicates for germination are placed in contact with the moist
substratum and kept at low temperature for an initial period. Agricultural and
vegetable seeds are kept at a temperature between 5 and 10 degrees Centigrade for
an initial period of upto 7 days. In some cases it may be necessary to extend the pre-
chilling period or to re-chilling.

Pre-Heating

* The replicates for germination should be heated at a temperature not


exceeding 40 degree C, with free air circulation, for a period of upto 7 days before
they are placed under the prescribed germination conditions.

Light

* The test should be illuminated during atleast 8 hours in every twenty four
hours cycle and during the high temperature period when the seeds are germinated
at alternating temperatures. The light intensity should be approximately 750 - 1250
lux from cool white lamps. Illumination is recommended especially for certain tropical
and sub-tropical grasses.
* Eg. Chloris gayana, Cynodon
Potassium Nitrate ( KNo3)

* The germination substratum may be maintained with 0.2% solution of


KNo3. It effectively break the seed dormancy.

Gibberellic Acid( GA3)

* This GA3 method is recommended for wheat, oat etc.

Sealed Polythene Envelops

* When a high proportion of fresh un-germinated seeds are found at the


end of the standard test, then re-test in a sealed polythene envelop of sufficient size
will usually induce these seeds to germinate.
* In case of rice among the several methods for breaking dormancy are
available the most suitable method at farmers level is nitric acid treatment.
* Soaking the seed in 0.1 N nitric acid i.e., 6.3 ml per lit. of water for 12 to
24 hours effectively break the seed dormancy, where as the varieties like MTU-1001
which is having 8 weeks and above dormancy duration should be treated with higher
nitric acid concentration i.e., 10ml per lit. of water.
* The seed can be utilized for sowing immediately after the treatment or
they can be dried thoroughly and can be utilized later for sowing.

Seed Treatment for Protection Against Pests and Diseases

* Several insecticides and fungicides are used in seed treatment to protect


the seeds from pests and diseases. These may be merchandized in combination or
individual. In case of paddy the seed is treated with carbendism @ 1 gm / Kg of seed
to protect against plant diseases.
* The seedling dip in chlorpyriphos 2.5 EC solution @ 1ml /lit of water was
suggested to protect against insect pests like rice stem borer, BPH etc.,

Seed Germination

* Seed germination is the resumption of growth by the embryo and


development of young plant from the seed.
* Germination, in a laboratory test, is the emergence and development from
the seed embryo of those essential structures which, for the kind of being tested,
indicate the ability to develop into a normal plant under favourable conditions in the
soil.

Treatments for Promoting Germination


* For reasons such as physiological dormancy, hard seededness, inhibitory
substances a considerable number of hard or fresh seeds may remain at the end of
the germination test.
* When a proportion of fresh or dormant seeds remain at the end of the test
period, complete germination can often be obtained by re-testing after a period of dry
storage. The following methods may also be used to induce germination.

Methods to Overcome Physiological Dormancy

* Dry storage
* Pre-chilling
* Pre-heating
* Light treatment
* Potassium nitrate ( KNo3) treatment
* Gibberellic acid (GA3) treatment
* Sealed polythene envelope treatment.

Methods of Removing Inhibitory Substances

* Pre - washing
* Removal of structures around the seed.
* Disinfection of the seed.

Methods for Removing Hard Seededness

* Soaking
* Mechanical scarification
* Acid scarification.
Seed Storage

Purpose of Seed Storage

* The purpose of seed storage is to maintain the seed in good physical and
physiological condition from the time they are harvested until the time they are
planted.

Stages of Seed Storage

* The seeds are considered to be in storage from the moment they reach
physiological maturity until they germinate or until they are thrown away because
they are dead or otherwise worthless.
* The entire storage period can be conveniently divided into following
stages.
* Storage on plants ( physiological maturity until harvest).
* Harvest, until processed and stored in a warehouse.
* In - storage ( warehouses)
* In transit ( Railway wagons, trucks, carts, railway sheds etc.).
* In retail stores.
* On the user's farm.

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Seed Production

Systems and procedures

Why Quality Seed Production?

Because:

* Most Important Agricultural Input for a Farmers


* For Increased Grain Yield
* High Product Quality
* Specific requirement
* Business for companies
* Employment to rural people
* Backbone of nation’s economy

Sources Of Seeds

* Nucleus Seed- From Breeder of Hybrid /Variety of Proprietor Breeder


* Breeder Seed - From Breeder of Hybrid /Variety of Proprietor Breeder
* Foundation Seed-From Breeder Seed
* Certified/Truthful Seed- From Foundation Seed

Nucleus Seed /Breeder Seed à Foundation Seed Stage I/Stage-II –


Certified/Truthful Seed– Commercial grain for farmer’s consumption
Seed Production Planning

MOTTO: Plan every thing before starting


Requirements for Quality seed production facilities

* Good source of BS and F/S- Process start three years in advance before
the actual seed production for marketing
* Trusted Seed Growers
* Qualified dedicated seed production team
* Good Seed Processing plant Machinery capable to process the full
planned marketing quantity.
* Storage facilities including cold storage provision for off season storage,
B/S and F/S
* Seed Health Laboratory with/without finger printing facilities
* Grow Out Farm (GOT)
* Reliable, quick and economic transportation facilities
* Knowledge of statuary Seed laws

Foundation Seed Production

MOTTO: Purity of Foundation will ensure minimum efforts in field for


production of high quality seed

* High purity of breeder seed.


* For in-house hybrids Inspection of Breeder Seed plot by team of other
breeders to produce best quality breeder seed.
* For in-house foundation seed of proprietary hybrids involvement of
concerned Breeder with F/S production official.
* High Quality foundation seed minimizes the efforts for quality seed
production.
* Plan the production of foundation Seed three years in advance before the
actual marketing of Seed.
* Inspection of F/S plots by concern Breeders to ensure best quality

Seed Production

MOTTO: Dedicated Team work with Quality consciousness

* Selection of reliable growers before start of season


* Growers should be knowledgeable,financially sound and willing to take
extra efforts to take up seed production operations
* Seed production meeting before start of season for allocation of area to
different production areas
* Development of new production areas
* Regular field inspections by seed production team at different stages of
crop growth to advise growers on different operations
* Random Field inspections by Seed Quality Field Team to monitor the
various seed production operations
* Midseason review of seed production to go for alternate area if falling
short of targets.
* Group and mass Seed Field inspections by seed production team at
critical stages of crop growth in crucial highly cross pollinated crops like Pearl millet,
maize sunflower and Jowar
* Harvesting and threshing instructions to growers to avoid admixtures.
* Other important operations / instructions as per crop growth

Seed Processing Plant Operations

MOTTO: Quality of processed seed should reflect on Market

* Most important function after seed production


* Overhauling and servicing of plant Machinery before start of season.
Replace worn-out parts. Keep spares for emergencies. Extra Important implements
to be kept in godown.
* Trained operators of plant machinery
* Separate godown for incoming, processed, sales return and ruminant
seed.
* Co-ordination with seed health team for sampling, dispatches and
movement of Seed
* Proper up storage and placement of screens,
* Proper records of processed, remnant and processing losses to build full
faith of seed grower in company
* Record of seed arrival, dispatch and sales returns

Seed Health Laboratory

MOTTO: To ensure that only and only quality seed reaches the growers .

* All facilities for testing of seed produced


* To ensure that every lot of seed is tested for all the quality parameters of
seed health before the dispatch of seed.
* Trained qualified officicial for sampling of seed during processing of seed
lots
* Testing of all seed lots for germination, seed vigor, infestations and purity
etc
* Confidentiality of seed sampling and testing process
* Seed health laboratory person to be trained in such a way that he catches
the problems of seed even visually and to be very careful while testing these
suspected lots for seed health.

Grow out tests (GOT)

MOTTO: To Test the Genetic purity of each and every seed lot
* Allocation of area before the season to create all the facility required.
* As no. of lots are known before the arrival of samples hence infra
structure should be kept ready before testing season (maximum Kharif)
* Highly technical qualified staff for the Grow out Tests.
* Regular institutional Training of staff to update their knowledge
* All seed lots of hybrids, parental lines and in-house varieties are to be
tested through grow out tests.(GOT)
* To strictly adhere to the plant characters of hybrids and varieties/lines
* while taking the plant purity observations.
* In high value crop seeds like sunflower and vegetable hybrids the Finger
Printing technology to be used to check the Genetic purity of seed.
* In case of crops where the time gap between seed arrival and dispatch is
very less the finger printing has to be adopted to avoid any problem in field.
* Do not look at short term gains while dispatching of seed at the times of
Urgency of seed to market.

Handling of Seed complaints

Motto: Find the root cause of problem and rectify it immediately.

* Mechanism to check the authenticity of seed complaints


* Special cell to deal with seed complaints through marketing network.
* To keep records of history of all seed lots to be kept to trace the reasons
for complaints.
* Find the reason for the complaints
* If the faults found in production/processing/Grow out tests, mechanism to
address those problems

Handling of Seed Seed law Enforcement Agencies

Motto: Hassle free marketing of seeds


To Deal with Seed law Enforcement agencies (Agric. Department and Court
cases seed failures and consumers forum cases):

* Separate person to deal with court cases


* To keep the records ofall seed lots.
* Knowledge of seed laws to ensure there no convictions.
* Collection of judgments by various courts in country
* Court cases can be handled easily with experience of system.
* Not to accept faults in courts in seed failures but to fight it out

Seed Logistics
Motto: Placement of seed at market in time, safely with least costs in
minimum time

* Selection of good reliable transporters through tendering process required


for bringing the raw seed from field and dispatch of packed seed in bulk.
* For the small packings dispatches selection of transporters with maximum
reach to destinations
* Emphasis on cost reduction through proper planning of dispatches.
* Safe movement of material by sending through quality vehicles with full
protection
* Use of railways instead of road transport for bulk transportation and small
important seeds to far off locations
* Monitoring of movement of seed till it reaches the destination

Why Fertilizers

* Increasing agricultural production in India by area increasing process is


no longer possible as cultivable land left over is only marginal. Further a
considerable cultivable land is being diverted year after year for industrial purpose
and housing etc. Hence self sufficiency in food lies in increasing the yield per unit
area per unit time through adoption of modern agricultural technology.
* It is universally accepted that the use of chemical fertilizers is an integral
part of the package of practices for raising the agricultural production to a higher
place. Studies conducted by the Food and Agricultural Organization of the United
Nations (FAO) have established beyond doubt that there is a close relationship
between the average crop yields and fertilizer consumption level. More-over the
nutritional requirement of different crops could not be fully met with the use of
organic manures like FYM and other bulky organic manures like Neem cake, Castor
cake, Groundnut cake, etc., for want of their availability in adequate quantities.
* Further fertilizers have the advantages of smaller bulk, easy transport,
relatively quick in availability of plant-food constituents and the facility of their
application in proportion suited to the actual requirements of crops and soils. Hence
there is need for an efficient use of fertilizers as major plant nutrient resource in
enhancing the farm productivity. Other resource of plant nutrients like organic
manures, bio-fertilizers etc., also should be integrated to get the maximum
agricultural output from every kilogram of applied nutrient in the form of fertilizers.
Nutrients Required By Plants

* Plants require 16 essential elements for their normal growth and


development.
* The essential elements exist as structural components of a cell, maintain
cellular organizations, function in energy transformations and in enzyme reaction.
* Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen are three naturally occurring nutrients and
form about 94 per cent of the dry weight of plants. These are the major components
of carbohydrates, proteins and fats. Besides their structural role, they provide energy
required for the growth and development of plants by oxidative breakdown of
carbohydrates, proteins and fats during cellular respiration.
* Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium are three major or primary nutrients
which are to be made available in larger quantities.
* Nitrogen is an essential constituent of metabolically active compounds
such as aminoacids, proteins, enzymes and some non-proteinous compounds.
When nitrogen is a limiting factor, the rate and extent of protein synthesis are
depressed and as a result plant growth is affected. The plant gets stunted and
develops chlorosis.
* Phosphorus is a structural component of all membranes, chloroplasts and
mitochondria and a constituent of sugar phosphates, viz., ADP, ATP, nucleic acid,
Phospholipids and phosphatides. Phosphorus plays an important role in energy
transformations and metabolic processes in plants. It stimulates root growth.
* Potassium plays an important role in the maintenance of cellular
organisations by regulating permeability of cell membranes and keeping the
protoplasm in a proper degree of hydration. It activates the enzymes in protein and
carbohydrate metabolism and translocation of carbohydrates and imparts resistance
to plants against fungal and bacterial disease.
* Calcium, magnesium and sulphur are secondary nutrients which are
required in relatively smaller but in appreciable quantities. Calcium, a constituent of
the cell wall, an activator of different plant enzymes and is essential for the stability
of cell membranes.
* Magnesium is a constituent of chlorophyll and chromosome. It is known to
play a catalytic role as an activator of a number of enzymes, most of w.hich are
concerned with carbohydrate metabolism.
* Sulphur is required to synthesize the sulphur containing amino acids and
proteins, activity of proteolytic enzymes and increases oil content in oil bearing
plants.
* Iron, zinc, manganese, copper, boron, molybdenum and chlorine are
required by plants in small quantities for their growth and development. Hence they
are known as micronutrients or trace elements. The very fact that the micronutrient
elements are required by plants in very low concentration suggests that they all
function as catalysts or at least closely linked with some catalytic processes in
plants. Manganese, zinc and copper are components of certain biological oxidation-
reduction systems. Manganese performs some function in photosynthesis, acts as
regulator to the intake and state of oxidation of certain elements. Zinc is concerned
with the functioning of Sulphydryl compounds such as cystein, in the regulation of
oxidation - reduction potential within the cells. Copper is a constituent of cytochrome
oxidase and component of many enzymes like ascorbic acid oxidase, phenolase and
lactase. Molybdenum is a constituent of nitrate reductase and nitrogenase enzyme
and is associated with nitrogen utilization and in nitrogen fixation. Chlorine stimulates
the activity of some enzymes and influences carbohydrate metabolism.
* Boron helps in cell development by its influence on polysaccharide
formation. It regulates translocation of sugars across membranes and polyphenolase
activity. Iron is a constituent of cytochromes, haem and non haem enzymes.
Perhaps the best known role of iron is its catalytic role in enzyme activity.
Diagnosis of Fertilizer Requirement

* For obtaining maximum crop yields with maximum benefit to the


cultivators, it is most essential that the crop plants should be fed properly with all
nutrients. Soils deficient in particular nutrients must be supplied with fertilizers
containing those plant nutrients.
* Thus it is important to know which plant nutrients are lacking in a soil.
Simple and elaborate tests have been developed by the agricultural scientist to
estimate the nutritional requirements of soils and crops. These methods are known
as diagnostic techniques. Fertilizer requirement is known by different diagnostic
techniques and they are as follows ;

By Plant Observation

* This is one of the method to know the fertilizer need of plants by means of
the hunger signs of plants which can be detected by the eye.
* The basis of the method is the fact that the plant suffering from severe
deficiencies and excess of mineral nutrients usually developed well-defined and
typical sign of disorders in various organs, particularly in the leaves. Usually, specific
abnormal colours are developed in the leaves due to deficiency of plant nutrients.
* Although the hunger signs in plants are easily observed, it is not easy to
recognise the particular nutrient deficiency in nature due to various field conditions.
This requires experience and practice in the field.

By Plant Analysis

* The use of plant analysis as a tool to diagnose fertility status mainly


consists of :

1. Plant tissue tests or rapid tests,


2. Total analysis,
3. Biochemical methods.

* The basis of plant analysis for diagnostic purposes is that the amount of a
given nutrient in a plant is an indication of the supply of that particular nutrient and is
directly related to the quantity present in the soil. The normal growth of a plant is
determined by the supply of the nutrients. However, there is one disadvantage with
this method, that is, while the shortage of one nutrient can limit the growth, other
nutrients may show higher contents in the cell sap irrespective of the supply.
* The use of plant tissue tests as a means to diagnose soil fertility status
has been found to be important. This is a rapid test of the cell sap of the growing
plants. The sap from the ruptured cells is tested for unassimilated nitrogen,
phosphorus, potash and other nutrients. Tissue tests are getting popular because of
the convenience of handling and the small number of equipment needed for the test.
The test can be made in a few minutes.
* Total analysis is used extensively in research work as this gives a
quantitative indication of the level of nutrients in plants. However, it should be
remembered that the determination of total analysis gives both the assimilated and
unassimilated nutrients. Many nutrients such as N, P, K, Ca, Mg, Mn, Zn, Cu, Fe, Mo
and B can be determined by this method. Usually, the mature plants are selected for
this testing.
* Biochemical methods to determine the soil fertility require costly
equipments, but offer good opportunities for research work. Two methods are
recognised amongst biological tests. They are, use of higher plants, Microbiological
methods.

By Fertilizer Experiments

* In India, simple field experiments on farmers fields as well as complex


field experiments are very popular.
* Simple Field Experiments - In well managed state farms, the level of soil
fertility is usually higher than in the farmers fields. This is due to the use of manures,
fertilizers, good management practices, etc. Many experiments conducted on
farmers fields have revealed the deficiency of nutrients at various levels. These
experiment have to be simple in nature with N, P, K, NP, NK, PK, NPK as the
treatments.
* These simple field experiments on farmers fields are very educative and
effective for the farmers, as they themselves see the deficiencies and the response
of the nutrients. These trials are useful for advising the correct type and amount of
fertilizer.

Complex Field Experiments

* Complex field experiments allow the testing of many factors at a time and
permit a study of interaction among various nutrients. Complex fertilizer trials helps
in determining the correct kinds of fertilizer, amount and the method of application for
each of the soil zone. These experiments are complicated, expensive and can be
done only by experienced people.

By Soil Testing
* Soil testing is one reliable diagnostic tool whose value in evaluating soil-
fertility conditions has been recently recognised in India. Soil testing is multipurpose
in nature. Its purposes are :
* To group soils into classes relative to the levels of nutrients for suggesting
fertilizer practices.
* To predict the probability of getting a profitable response to the application
of fertilizers.
* To help evaluate soil profitability and To determine specific soil conditions
i.e., alkalinity, salinity, acidity, that limit crop yields and can be improved with soil
amendments and other management practices.
Organic Fertilizers and Manures

* Organic fertilizers include both plant and animal bi-products. They are
slow acting. Organic nitrogen fertilizers include oil cakes, fish manure, dried blood
from slaughter houses etc., where as organic phosphorus from bone meal and
organic potassium from cattle dung ash, wood ash, leaf mould, tobacco stems and
water hyacinth.

Organic Manures

* Manures are organic or inorganic substances applied to the soil to supply


one or more nutrients to plants to obtain increased yields.
* Manures are classified as follows
Manures

Organic manures Inorganic manures


Bulky Concentrated Artificial
Bulky (Slow
acting with large Concentrated(Quick
(Artificial
quantities of acting with small
manures,Chemical
organic matter) quantity of organic
fertilizers very quick acting
Eg: Cattle, Sheepmatter.Eg: Groundnut
with No organic matter.Eg:
Poultry, Pig, cake, Castor cake,
Nitrogenous,
Goat,, Horse Bonemeal, Blood meal,
Ammonium,Phosphatic,
manures, Horn meal, Wood ash,
Potassic and Sulphate
Compost, Green Cotton and Linseed
fertilizers.
Manures, Meal.
Sewage.Sludge.
Inorganic Fertilizers

Nitrogen

* Nitrogen is the first fertilizer element of the macronutrients usually applied


in commercial fertilizers. Nitrogen is very important nutrient for plants and it seems to
have the quickest and most pronounced effect.
Role of Nitrogen In Plants

* Nitrogen is of special importance in the formation of protein in plants,

1. It forms a constituent of every living cells in the plants,


2. It is also present in chlorophyll,
3. It is involved in photosynthesis, respiration and protein synthesis,
4. It plays an important role in vegetative growth and it imparts dark green
colour to plants.
5. If excess nitrogen is applied it delays ripening by encouraging more
vegetative growth. The leaves acquire a dark green colour, become thick and
leathery and in some cases crinkled. The plants become more liable to attack of
pests and diseases. In case of cereal crops, the straw becomes weak, and the crop
very often lodges and straw and grain ratio is increased. Excess nitrogen
deteriorates the quality of some crops such as potato, barley and sugarcane. It
delays reproductive growth and may adversely affect fruit and grain quality.
6. The deficiency of Nitrogen leads to formation of yellowish or light green
coloured leaves and plant become stunted. The leaves and young fruits tend to drop
prematurely. The kernels of cereals and the seed of other crops do not attain their
normal size, and become shrivelled and light in weight.

Phosphorus

* Phosphorus is the second fertilizer element and it is an essential


constituent of every living cells and for the nutrition of plant and animal. It takes
active part in all types of metabolism of plant. It is an essential constituent of majority
of enzymes and also structural component of membrane system of cell, chloroplasts
and the mitochondria. It is intimately associated with the life process.
* Phosphorus stimulates root development and growth in the seedling stage
and there by it helps to establish the seedlings quickly. It hastens leaf development
and encourages greater growth of shoots and roots. It enhances the development of
reproductive parts and thus bringing about early maturity of crops particularly the
cereals. It increases the number of tillers in cereal crops and also strengthen the
straw and thus helps to prevent the lodging. It stimulates the flowering, fruit setting
and seed formation and the development of roots, particularly of root crops.
Phosphorus has a special action on leguminous crops. It induces nodule formation
and rhizobial activity.
* Excess phosphorus leads to profuse root growth, particularly of the lateral
and fibrous rootlets. It leads to some trace element deficiencies particularly iron and
zinc.
* Deficiency of phosphorus leads to restricted root and shoot growth, leaves
may shed prematurely, flowering and fruiting may be delayed considerably. In case
of potato tubers phosphorus deficiency leads to formation of rusty brown lessions.
Potassium

* Potassium is the third fertilizer element. Potassium acts as a chemical


traffic policeman, root booster, stalk strengthener, food former, sugar and starch
transporter, protein builder, breathing regulator, water stretcher and as a disease
retarder but it is not effective without its co-nutrients such as nitrogen and
phosphorus.
* Potassium is an essential element for the development of chlorophyll. It
plays an important role in photosynthesis, i.e., converting carbon-dioxide and
hydrogen into sugars, for translocation of sugars, and in starch formation. It improves
the health and vigour of the plant, enabling it to withstand adverse climatic condition.
It increases the crop resistance to certain diseases. Potash plays a key role in
production of quality vegetables. Potassium is an enzyme activator and increases
the plumpness and boldness of grains and seeds. It improves the water balance.
Promotes metabolism and increases the production of carbohydrates.
* Potassium deficiency causes stunting in growth with shortening of
internodes and bushy in appearance, brings about chlorosis, i.e., yellowing of leaves
and leaf scorch in case of fruit trees. It is also responsible for the 'dying back tips' of
shoots. Its deficiency leads to reduction in photosynthesis, blackening of tubers in
case of potato, tips or margin of lower leaves of legumes, maize, cotton, tobacco and
small grains are either scorched or burnt.

Secondary Nutrients

* Secondary nutrients include calcium, magnesium and sulphur, which play


an important role in plant growth and development. The details of these nutrients are
given below.

Calcium

* Calcium as calcium pectate is an important constituent of cell wall and


required for cell division. It is a structural component of chromosomes. It includes
stiffness to straw and there by tends to prevent lodging. It enhances the nodule
formation in legumes, helps in translocation of sugars, neutralizes organic acids
which may become poisonous to plants. It is an essential co-factor or an activator of
number of enzymes. It improves the intake of other plant nutrients, specially nitrogen
and trace elements by correcting soil pH. Excessive amounts of calcium can
decrease the availability of many micronutrients.
* Deficiency of calcium lead to 'Die back' at the tips and margins of young
leaves. Normal growth of plants is arrested i.e., roots may become short, stubby and
bushy, leaves become wrinkled and the young leaves of cereal crops remain folded.
The acidity of cell sap increases abnormally and it hampers the physiological
function of plant. As a result of which plant suffers and causes the death of plant at
last.

Magnesium

* Magnesium is an essential constituent of chlorophyll. Several


photosynthetic enzymes present in chlorophyll requires magnesium as an activator.
It is usually needed by plants for formation of oils and fats. It regulates the uptake of
nitrogen and phosphorus from the soil. Magnesium may increase crop resistance to
drought and disease.
* Deficiency of magnesium leads to yellowing of the older leaves known as
chlorosis. Acute deficiency of magnesium also causes premature defoliation. In case
of maize the leaves develop interveinal white strips, in cotton they change to purplish
red, veins remain dark green, in soybean they turn yellowish and in apple trees,
brown patches (blotches) appear on the leaves.

Sulphur

* Sulphur has specified role in initiating synthesis of proteins. Sulphur is an


important nutrient for oil seeds, crucifers, sugar and pulse crops. It is an essential
constituent of many proteins, enzymes and certain volatile compounds such as
mustard oil. It hastens root growth and stimulates seed formation. It is essential for
the synthesis of certain aminoacids and oils. It can be called as master nutrient for
oilseed production.
* The deficiency of sulphur leads to slow growth with slender stalks,
nodulation in legumes may be poor and nitrogen fixation is reduced. The young
leaves turn yellow and the root and stems become abnormally long and develop
woodiness. In case of fruit trees, the fruits become light green, thick skinned and less
juicy. Sulphur deficient plant produces less protein and oil.

Micronutrients

* Micronutrient elements are required by plants in very low concentration


suggests that they all function as catalyst or atleast closely linked with some catalytic
process in plants. Micronutrient elements include boron, copper, zinc, iron,
manganese, molybdenum and chlorine.
* Boron helps in cell development by its influence on polysaccharide
formation. It regulates translocation of sugars across membranes and polyphenolase
activity. Iron is a constituent of cytochrome, haem and non-haem enzymes. Perhaps
the best known role of iron is its catalytic role in enzyme activity.
* Copper, zinc and manganese are components of certain biological
oxidation-reduction systems. Manganese performs some function in photosynthesis,
acts as regulator to the intake and state of oxidation of certain elements.
* Zinc is concerned with the formation of Sulphydryl compounds such as
cystein in the regulation of oxidation-reduction potential within the cells. Molybdenum
is a constituent of nitrate reductase and nitrogenase enzyme and is associated with
nitrogen utilization and in nitrogen fixation. Chlorine stimulates the activity of some
enzymes and influences carbohydrate metabolism.
Fertilizer Application

Placement

* Inserting or drilling or placing the fertilizer below the soil surface by means
of any tool or implement at desired depth to supply plant nutrients to crop before
sowing or in the standing crop is called placement.
* With placement methods, fertilizers are placed in the soil irrespective of
the position of seed, seedling or growing plants before sowing or after sowing the
crops. The following methods are most common in this category.

Plough - Sole Placement

* In this method, the fertilizer is placed in a continuous band on the bottom


of the furrow during the process of ploughing. Each band is covered as the next
furrow is turned. No attempt is usually made to sow the crop in any particular
location with regard to the plough sole bands.
* This method has been recommended in areas where the soil becomes
quite dry up to a few inches below the soil surface during the growing season, and
especially with soils having a heavy clay pan a little below the plough-sole. By this
method, fertilizer is placed in moist soil where it can become more available to
growing plants during dry seasons.

Deep Placement of Nitrogenous Fertilizers

* This method of application of nitrogenous and phosphatic fertilizers is


adopted in paddy fields on a large scale in Japan and is also recommended in India.
In this method, ammonical nitrogenous fertilizer like ammonium sulphate or
ammonium forming nitrogenous fertilizer like urea, is placed in the reduction zone,
where it remains in ammonia form and is available to the crop during the active
vegetative period.
* Deep or sub-surface placement of the fertilizer also ensures better
distribution in the root zone and prevents any loss by surface drain-off. Deep
placement is done in different ways, depending upon the local cultivation practices.
In irrigated tracts, where the water supply is assured, the fertilizer is applied under
the plough furrow in the dry soil before flooding the land and making it ready for
transplanting. In areas where there is not too much of water in the field, it is
broadcast before puddling. Puddling places the fertilizer deep into the root zone.
Sub - Soil Placement

* This refers to the placement of fertilizers in the sub-soil with the help of
heavy power machinery.
* This method is recommended in humid and sub-humid regions where
many sub-soils are strongly acidic. Due to acidic conditions the level of available
plant nutrients is extremely low. Under these conditions, fertilizers, especially
phosphatic and potassic are placed in the sub-soil for better root development.

Localised Placement

* This method refers to the application of fertilizers into the soil close to the
seed or plant.
* Localised placement is usually employed when relatively small quantities
of fertilizers are to be applied. Localised placement reduces fixation of phosphorus
and potassium.

Bulk Blending

* It is the process of mixing two or more different fertilizers varying in


physical and chemical composition without any adverse effects.
* For this formulation certain additional materials called 'Fillers' and
'Conditioners' are used to improve the physical condition of the mixed fertilizer. This
mixed fertilizer should be applied as top dressing.

Liquid Fertilization

* The use of liquid fertilizers as a means of fertilization has assumed


considerable importance in foreign countries. Solutions of fertilizers, generally
consisting of N, P2O5, K2O in the ratio of 1 : 2 : 1 and 1 : 1 : 2 are applied to young
vegetable plants at the time of transplanting. These solutions are known as 'Starter
Solutions'.
* They are used in place of the watering that is usually given to help the
plants to establish. Only a small amount of fertilizer is applied as a starter solution.
The starter solution has two advantages.
o The nutrients reach the plant roots immediately,
o The solution is sufficiently diluted so that it does not inhibit growth.
* As such a starter solution helps rapid establishment and quick early
growth. There are two disadvantages of starter solution, if watering is not a part of
the regular operation-extra labour is necessary and the fixation of phosphate may be
greater.
* Direct application of liquid fertilizers to the soil need special equipment.
Anhydrous ammonia (a liquid under high pressure upto 14 kg per square cm. Or
more) and nitrogen solutions are directly applied to the soil. This practice is very
popular in the United States of America. Plant injury or wastage of ammonia is very
little if the material is applied about 10 cm below the seed. If the application is
shallow, nitrogen from ammonia will be lost. This method allows direct utilisation of
the cheapest nitrogen source.
* Straight and mixed fertilizer containing N, P and K easily soluble in water,
are allowed to dissolve in the irrigation stream. The nutrients are thus carried into the
soil in solution. This practice of fertilization is called "Fertigation". This saves the
application cost and allows the utilization of relatively in expensive water-soluble
fertilizers. Usually nitrogenous fertilizers are most commonly applied through
irrigation water.

Foliar Application

* This refers to the spraying on leaves of growing plants with suitable


fertilizer solutions. These solutions may be prepared in a low concentration to supply
any one plant nutrient or a combination of nutrients.
* It has been well established that all plant nutrients are absorbed through
the leaves of plants and this absorption is remarkable rapid for some nutrients. Foliar
application does not result in a great saving of fertilizer but it may be preferred under
the following conditions.
* When visual symptoms of nutrient deficiencies observed during early
stages of deficiency.
* When unfavourable soil physical and chemical conditions, which reduce
fertilizer use efficiency (FUE).
* During drought period where in the soil application could not be done for
want of soil moisture.
* There are certain difficulties associated with the foliar application of
nutrients as detailed below,

1. Marginal leaf burn or scorching may occur if strong solutions are used.
2. As solutions of low concentrations (usually three to six per cent) are to be
used, only small quantities of nutrients can be applied in single spray.
3. Several applications are needed for moderate to high fertilizer rates, and
hence
4. Foliar spraying of fertilizers is costly compared to soil application, unless
combined with other spraying operations taken up for insect or disease control.
Soil Fertility and its Importance

* Soil fertility may be defined as the inherent capacity of soil to supply plant
nutrients in adequate amount and in suitable proportion and free from toxic
substances. There are two types of soil fertility viz.,

Inherent or Natural Fertility


* The soil, as a nature contain some nutrients, which is known as inherent
fertility. Among plant nutrients nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium is essential for
the normal growth and yield of crop. The inherent fertility has a limiting factor from
which the fertility is not decreased.

Acquired Fertility

* The fertility develops by application of manures and fertilizers, tillage,


irrigation, etc., is known as acquired fertility.
* The acquired fertility has also a limiting factor. It is found by experiment
that the yield does not increase remarkably by application of additional quantity of
fertilizers.

Factors Effecting Soil Fertility

* The factors that are effecting soil fertility may be of two types, i.e.,
o Natural factors and
o Artificial factors
* The natural factors are those which influences the soil formation and the
artificial factors are related to the proper use of land.
* The factors effecting the fertility of soil are parent material, climate and
vegetation, topography, inherent capacity of soil to supply nutrient, physical condition
of soil, soil age, micro-organisms, availability of plant nutrients, soil composition,
organic matter, soil erosion, cropping system and favourable environment for root
growth.

Maintenance of Soil Fertility

* Maintenance of soil fertility is a great problem of our farmers. Cultivation


of particular crop year after year in the same field decreases the soil fertility. To
increase the soil fertility, it is necessary to check the loss of nutrient and to increase
the nutrient content of soil.
* The following things must be properly followed for increasing the fertility of
soil.

1. Proper use of land,


2. Good tillage,
3. Crop rotation,
4. Control of weeds,
5. Maintenance of optimum moisture in the soil,
6. Control of soil erosion,
7. Cultivation of green manure crops,
8. Application of manures,
9. Cultivation of cover crops,
10. Removal of excess water, (drainage)
11. Application of fertilizers,
12. Maintenance of proper soil reaction.
Soil Reaction and Liming

* It is well known fact that in high rainfall areas, due to the leaching of
bases, acids soils are formed, while in low rainfall regions, on account of arid and
semi arid conditions, saline and alkali soils occur.
* Thus soil vary in acidity or alkalinity. The soil reaction is indicated by pH
scale. When Ca(OH)2 or lime is added to the soil, it will become alkaline.

Liming of Acidic Soils

* Liming means addition of any compound containing Calcium alone or both


calcium and magnesium, that is capable of reducing the acidity of the soil. Lime
correctly refers only to Calcium oxide (CaO), but the term as applied in agriculture is
universally used to include various other materials also, like Calcium carbonate,
Calcium hydroxide, Calcium - magnesium carbonate (marl) and Calcium silicate
slags.
* The effects of liming on the soil and plants are as follows :

1. Lime neutralizes soil acidity,


2. Beneficial soil bacteria are encouraged by adequate supplies of lime in
the soil,
3. Lime makes phosphorus more available,
4. Liming helps the availability of potash and molybdenum,
5. Lime furnishes two essential elements, namely calcium and magnesium
(if lime is dolamitic) for plant nutrition,
6. Lime reduces toxicity of Al, Mn and Fe,
7. Improves soil physical conditions
Fertilizers and Environmental Pollution

* Fertilizers are relatively safer than pesticides which exhibit toxic properties
on living systems. However, all the quantities of fertilizers applied to the soil are not
fully utilized by plants. About 50 per cent of fertilizers applied to crops are left behind
as residues. Though, inorganic fertilizers are not directly toxic to man and other life
forms, they have been found to upset the existing ecological balance. The nutrients
escape from the fields and are found in excessive quantities in rivers, lakes and
coastal waters.
* Algae blooms occur when the nutrient load is high, and these smother
other aquatic vegetation and also interfere with the oxygen regulation in the water
bodies. This phenomena may lead to loss of fish. Among the major synthetic plant
nutrients, nitrogenous fertilizers cause most harm. Contamination of the environment
arises because not all the fertilizer applied is taken up by the crop and removed at
harvest. In tropical climate the maximum recovery in dry land crops is 50 to 60 per
cent and 40 per cent in rice because much of nitrogen is lost as ammonia into the
atmosphere.
* Eutrophication of water bodies due to higher nitrate and phosphate
concentrations, increasing levels of nitrates in drinking water sources, accumulation
of heavy metals such as lead and cadmium in soils and water resources are the
principal causes of environmental concerns due to fertilizer use in agriculture. In the
a national wide survey it was found that many streams and more than 20 % of wells
contain 10 to 50 mg or even more of nitrates per litre of water. The contamination is
caused by domestic sewage leaking to the ground water. The nitrates in drinking
water can lead to several ailments. Blue - baby syndrome in infants and gastric and
other forms of cancer have been related with nitrates in drinking water or diet.
* Another hazard associated with excessive use of fertilizers is the gaseous
loss of nitrogen, into the atmosphere. High doses of carbon dioxide and ammonia
that escape into the atmosphere both from fertilizer manufacturing plants and soils
affect human health. Further the oxides of nitrogen have been reported to adversely
affect the ozone layer, which protects the earth from UV radiation and heating up of
earth.
* The oxides of nitrogen cause respiratory diseases like asthma, lung
cancer and bronchitis. Arsenic, ammonia are waste stream components of nitrogen
manufacturing plants while fluoride, cadmium, chromium, copper, lead and
manganese are waste stream components of phosphatic fertilizer industry. If these
waste stream of components are not properly disposed they cause harm to human
beings and animals with contamination of air and water.
* The keeping quality of perishables like vegetables and fruits get declined
with excess use of fertilizers particularly nitrogenous fertilizers.
Economics of Fertilizer Use

* Use of fertilizer by the farmer for increased crop production depends


almost entirely on its economics. This is usually done by reporting response per unit
area or per unit nutrient applied. With a view to convince the farmer about the
profitability of fertilizer use, cost benefit ratio is also worked out.
* Almost all such calculations are based on evaluating the extra produce at
the support/market price and deducting the cost of fertilizer only at the statutory
prevailing rates.
* Due to high cost of commercial fertilizer marketed in India, the question of
economics of fertilizer use has assumed great importance. The fertilizer association
of India, New Delhi, therefore, organised series of group discussions on "Economics
of Fertilizer use" during 1975. The recommendations of these group discussions are
listed below,

1. Uniformity of approach in studying the economics of fertilizer is essential.


2. The fertilizer recommendations should be based on soil test values.
3. Balanced use of fertilizer should be advocated for better economic
returns.
4. Use of nitrogenous fertilizer in split doses economises fertilizer use.
5. Micronutrient deficiencies should be corrected as and when needed.
6. Fertilizer schedule should be adopted for the whole crop sequence
instead of a single crop.
7. To get the maximum benefit from the applied fertilizers, crops should be
irrigated at the critical growth stages.
Need for Irrigation

Irrigation is an artificial application of water to the soil for the following


purposes

* Irrigation is needed for normal growth and yield of the plant.


* It is needed for metabolic processes of the plant.
* To reduce the soil temperature.
* For easy germination of the seeds from the soil.
* Irrigation water acts as a medium for transport of nutrients and
photosynthates in the plant system.
* To provide crop insurance against short duration drought.
* To washout dilute salts in the soil.
* To reduce the hazard of soil piping.
* To soften tillage pans.
Quantum of Water Required by Plants

* Water requirement of a crop is the quantity of water needed for normal


growth,development and yield and may be supplied by precipitation or by irrigation or
by both. Water is needed mainly to meet the demands of evaporation (E),
transpiration (T) and metabolic needs of the plants. The water requirement of any
crop is dependent upon,
* Crop factors like variety, growth stage, duration, plant population and
growing season.
* Soil factors like texture, structure, depth,and topography.
* Climatic factors like temperature, relative humidity and wind velocity.
* Crop management practices like tillage, fertilization, weeding etc.,

Quantum of Water Requirement (mm) of Different Crops

Crop Water Requirement(mm)


Rice 900 - 2500
Wheat 450 - 650
Sorghum 450 - 650
Maize 500 - 800
Sugarcane 1500 - 2500
Groundnut 500 - 700
Cotton 700 - 1300
Soybean 450 - 700
Tobacco 400 - 600
Tomato 600 - 800
Potato 500 - 700
Onion 350 - 550
Chillies 500
Sunflower 350 - 500
Castor 500
Bean 300-500
Cabbage 380-500
Banana 1200-2200
Citrus 900-1200
Grape 500-1200
Pineapple 700-1000
Ragi 400-450
Gingelly 350-400

Stages of Crop When Irrigation is Required

* During the growth span, the plant passes through various phases and the
stages of growth. The growth rhythm of plant is slow during some stages and fast
during some other stages. Accordingly plant demands variable supply of water.
* The growth period of irrigated dry (ID) crops can generally be divided into
3 phases namely
* vegetative,
* reproductive and
* ripening phases.
* Each of these phases has different stages.
* Vegetative phase: The early vegetative phase consists of crop
establishment or initial stage during the first 2 - 3 weeks after sowing. This is
followed by crop development stage which last for 2 - 6 weeks in different crops.
* Reproductive or flowering phase:The reproductive or flowering phase
comprises the period from initiation of buds to 75 % flowering. This period in most of
the seasonal ID crops last for 2 - 3 weeks and in two seasonal crops and perennial
crops for 4 - 6 weeks or more.
* In yield formation stage otherwise known as ripening phase the end
product is formed. The flowering and yield formation period together is known as
mid-season stage. During the last part of the ripening phase the crops undergo
yellowing and drying to mature. This period is called maturity stage or late season
stage and it last for 2 - 4 weeks in most crops. The entire reproductive phase is
highly sensitive growth period when the growth rhythm is fast. Therefore the soil
water stress should be avoided during this period. Active vegetative phase and yield
formation stage are moderate in sensitivity while initial establishment and maturity
stages are least sensitive to water stress.
* Some crops like Cotton, Groundnut and pulses even prefer stress during
early vegetative growth to suppress excessive vegetative growth. In many crops the
initial establishment and flowering stages are highly sensitive to excess water
conditions resulting in poor performance of the root system and also shedding of
flowers, in addition to lodging at maturity in some crops.
Critical Stages of Irrigaton Requirement

* The water balance in ID crops is refered to the soil water storage in the
root zone and not to the level of standing water in the field, as in case of paddy.
* The critical stages or otherwise known as sensitive stages of different
crops for irrigation water requirement are as follows,

Sources of Irrigation

Canals

* The practice of equating a hectare of canal irrigation area with a hectare


of area served by ground water is not appropriate. A striking analysis carried out in
four states, Punjab, Andhra Pradesh, Haryana and Tamil Nadu has shown that the
yield of food grains under well irrigation is very much higher compared to the yield
under canal irrigation. The reason for this difference in yield between sources of
water supply is not so far to seek. The farmer who depends on canal irrigation is at
the mercy of a system over which he has no control.
* The utility of irrigation is judged by the cropping intensity. In most parts of
the country, the cropping intensity is 200 % in the tube well (or) dug well irrigated
land as against 100 % or less in canal irrigated land. About 18 % of the tail end area
in canal commands of South India are particularly vulnerable for erratic and
insufficient supply of water, not only because of losses to the extent of 50 % due to
seepage, percolation and evaporation in transit from the storage reservoir to the
farmers field but also because farmers in the upper reaches of the systems often
succeed in cornering more than their due entitlement of water.

Wells

* Awell is a hydraulic hole to the water strata. Water in the well stands at a
height equal to the static water level. There are different types of wells namely open
well, tube well, artesian well, and bore well.

Open Wells
* The dug out wells upto water bearing strata of the aquifer are open wells.
They derive water from the formation hole to the ground surface. The large diameter
of the open wells permits the storage of water.

Tube Wells

* These are sunk by inserting pipes below ground surface and passing
through different geological formations of water bearing and non-water bearing
strata.

Artesian Wells

* Due to pressure, water from well comes to the ground without pumping
are generally known as artesian wells.

Bore Wells

* When ground water availability is at deeper layers exceeding 16 to 20 m


with hard strata, bore wells are suggested.

Tanks

* Large tanks irrigating more than 2000 ha are classified under medium
irrigation source. Small water reservoirs behind earthen dams are tanks. Though the
primary purpose of tank is for irrigating crops, it also provides drinking water for
humans and cattle in the villages. Monsoon rains fall erratically and confined only to
a few months in the year.
* Irrigation tanks serve to store and regulate water for crop production. In
drought prone areas, tanks are considered to be a useful life saving sources. But day
by day the area irrigated by tanks decreases due to neglect of maintenance of tanks,
environmental degradation, cultivation of foreshore areas and cultivation of tank
beds.

Filter Points

* These are shallow tube wells consisting of a well and a short length of
casing pipe. Filter points are generally bored in deltaic regions where aquifer
formation are of coarse sand and gravel and are very near to the surface. In coastal
sands open dug wells are to be lined with concrete rings which is costly and also the
availability of water is dependent on seepage water and season.
* To tap this water filter pipes (slotted filter pipes or PVC pipes with a
conical bottom point) is driven inside the soil to a depth of about 9 to 15 m and water
is lifted by means of ordinary pumpset from this filter point.
Rainfall

* Rainfall is dependent in different degrees, on the South-West monsoon,


North-East monsoon, on shallow cyclonic depressions and disturbances and on
violent local storms. India receives most of its rainfall from the South - West
monsoon originating in the Indian ocean. About 75 % of the rainfall is received in four
months i,e., June to September. Unequal geographical distribution, unequal
seasonal distribution and frequent departures from the normal rainfall characterize
the rainfall of this country.
* South - West Monsoon Rainfall received during the months of June - July
is critical and the fate of the Kharif crop depends very largely on distribution and
amount of rain during these two months. South-West monsoon is responsible for 75-
80% or more of the total annual rainfall in the country.
* North - East Monsoon During October - November cyclonic storms form in
the Bay of Bengal and when they strike coastal Andhra Pradesh or coromandel
coast they bring heavy rain to these areas. About 11 % of the total rainfall in the
country is received during this season.
Methods of Irrigation

Flood Irrigation

* Flooding method of irrigation is exclusive for lowland rice though it is used


for some other crops also. Water is allowed from the channel into the field without
much control on either side of the flow. It covers the entire field and moves almost
unguided.
* The ideal size of each plot or basin is 0.1 to 0.2 ha for economising
water.Uneven distribution and low water application efficiency are the common
drawbacks of this method.

Basin Irrigation

* Basin method is almost similar to check - basin method except that in the
check-basin method entire field is irrigated while in basin method only the basin
around the trees are irrigated.
* This method is suitable for fruit crops. Basins are generally round in
shape, occasionally square in shape. The basins are small when the trees are young
and their size is increased with age of the trees. Basins are connected by an
irrigation channel.

Check-Basin Method

* Check-basin method of irrigation is the most common method among


surface methods of irrigation. In this method the field is divided into small plots
surrounded by small bunds on all the four sides.
* Water from head channel is supplied to the filed channels one after the
other. Each field channel supplies water to two rows of check basins and water is
applied to one basin after another. This method is adopted when the field is quite
large and is not easy to level the entire field. In such situations, the field is divided
into small strips and each strip into several plots by putting bunds and these plots
are called check basins.
* The advantage of this method is that the water can be applied uniformly
and effectively. It is suitable for close growing crops like groundnut, wheat,
fingermillet, pearlmillet, paragrass etc.,. The disadvantages are more labour is
required, more land is wasted under channels and bunds. Intercultivation is not
possible due to bunds.

Border Strip Method

* The field is divided into number of stripes by forming bunds of around 15


cm height. These parallel earth ridges are called borders, and are formed to guide a
sheet of flowing water across a field.
* The area between two borders is the border strip. Length of the strip
ranges from 30 to 300 m and width from 3 to 15 m. However, the most common
sizes are 60 to 90 m in length and 6 to 12 m in width.
* The size of border strips depend on stream size, soil structure and slope
of the land. The borders are laid out along the general slope or on the contour. Water
from the channel is allowed into each strip at a time. This method is suitable for close
growing crops and medium to heavy textured soils, but not suitable for sandy soils.

Drip Irrigation

* It is defined as the precise, slow application of water in the form of


discrete or continuous or tiny streams of miniature sprays through mechanical
devices called emitters or applicators located at selected points along water delivery
lines.
* It is also called trickle irrigation. Drip irrigation is adopted extensively in
areas of acute water scarcity and especially for crops such as Coconut, Grape,
Banana, Ber, Citrus, Sugarcane, Cotton, Maize, Tomato, Brinjal and plantation
crops. The advantages of drip irrigation are,
* No fertilizer nutrient loss due to localized application.
* High water distribution efficiency.
* Levelling of the field not necessary.
* Only root zone is saturated.
* Moisture always at field capacity in the root zone.
* Soil factor plays less important role in frequency of irrigation.
* No soil erosion.
* Highly uniform distribution of water i.e., controlled by each nozzle.
* Low labour cost.
* Variation in supply can be regulated by regulating the valves and drippers.
* Fertigation can be adopted with drip irrigation.
* The disadvantages of drip irrigation is expensive i,e., initial cost is more in
installing drip method.

Sprinkler Irrigation

* Sprinkler irrigation system conveys water from the source through pipes
under pressure to the field and distributes over the field in the form of spray of 'rain
like' droplets. It is also known as over head irrigation.
* Different types of sprinkler systems namely portable, semi-portable, semi-
permanent and permanent are in vogue. But due to increased labour costs and
energy costs, different types of sprinklers are developed.
* Centre-pivot system is largest sprinkler system with a single machine can
irrigate upto 100 ha. A centre - pivot sprinkler consists of a series of sprinklers
mounted on a lateral pipe, 50 - 800 m long, mounted or carried by a row of five or
more mobile towers.
* One end of the lateral is fixed on a pivot pad. The unit rotates around a
centre pivot where water is pumped into the pipe, and water is distributed through
sprinkler fitted on lateral. The limitations of this system are,
* 10 - 20 % of area is not irrigated at the corners of square or rectangular
plot.
* High energy requirement and Huge cost of the equipment.
* Now lateral - move systems are developed to overcome the draw backs in
centre-pivot system for irrigating square or rectangular plots. This irrigation system
consists of lateral - move systems which move up and down the field.
* Sprinkler irrigation can be advantageously chosen in the following
situations
* When the soil is too shallow eliminating the possibility of levelling of lands.
* When the land is too steep ( > 1% slope).
* When light (< 5 cm) and frequent irrigations are to be given.
* When soils are very sandy (rapidly permeable coarse textured soils) and
* When supplemental irrigation is to be given to dryland crops during
prolonged dry spells, without any land preparation.

Disadvantages

* High winds ( > 12 km/hr) cause improper distribution of water.


* Evaporation losses are high from sprinkler irrigation especially under high
temperature and low relative humidity conditions.
* The initial cost is high,
* Some sort of knowledge is needed for successful operation of sprinkler
system.
Problems of Under Irrigation
* Under irrigation causes reduction in photosynthesis due to reduction in
photosynthetic rate, chlorophyll content and leaf area.
* Due to under irrigation, water deficit occurs, as a result stomata are
closed, so that reduction in transpiration takes place.
* Translocation of assimilates is also affected by water stress.
* Respiration rate decreases with increased moisture stress.
* Due to under irrigation enzymatic activity decreases. So that accumulation
of sugars and aminoacids takes place due to breakdown of carbohydrates and
proteins.
* Due to under irrigation hormonal balance is altered.
* Due to under irrigation reduction in fixation, uptake and assimilation of
nitrogen takes place.
Problems of Excess Irrigation

* Excess irrigation causes several changes in the soil and plant resulting in
reduced growth and in some cases death of plants.
* Germinating seeds are sensitive to waterlogging since they are totally
dependent on the surrounding soil space for oxygen supply.
* Yield of cereals depressed if the excess irrigation given at panicle
development stage. iv. Excess water causes injury to the plant due to low oxygen
supply to the root system and accumulation of toxic substances in soil and plant.
* Wilting of tobacco takes place when bright sunshine occurs after a
prolonged wet spell.
* Leaching of nitrates and denitrification occurs resulting in nitrogen
deficiency.
* . Shoot elongation, senescence, abscission and production of adventitious
roots takes place as a result of continuous excess irrigation.
* Respiration in the roots change from aerobic to anaerobic with the result,
toxic substances accumulates in roots and damage the root system.
* Permeability of roots decreased due to shortage of O2. It results in
decreases water and nutrient uptake.

Losses of Water

* Generally water is last through leaching, drainage, evapotranspiration and


runoff.
* The following disadvantages will be observed due to water loss,
* Soil becomes very hard.
* The germination percentage will be decreased.
* · The nutrients in the soil leaches or evaporates.
* The root growth retards, so that plant becomes stunted as a result yields
become reduced.
* Stomata becomes closed, so that the transpiration process caused as a
result accumulation of gases or metabolic wastes increases, leads to death of the
plant.
* · The soil micro organism activity decreases.

Water Use Efficiency

* Water use efficiency is the yield of marketable crop produced per unit of
water used in evapotranspiration.
* WUE = Y/ET
* Water use efficiency is also known as crop water use efficiency or
consumptive water use efficiency (Ecm) if the water used for metabolic purpose of
the crop (G) and is included with ET.
* ECU = Y/G+ET
* If yield is proportional to ET, water-use efficiency has to be a constant but
it is not so. Actually, Y and ET are influenced independently or differently by crop
management practices, while ET is mainly dependent on climate and soil moisture.
Fertilization and other cultural practices for high crop yields usually increases WUE.
The factors affecting WUE are nature of the plant, agronomic practices, climate, ET,
irrigation, fertilization and plant population.
* There are considerable differences between plant species to produce a
unit dry matter per unit amount of water used resulting in widely varying values of
water use efficiency. The water use efficiency for few crops is listed below.

Water requirement WUE (kg/ha


Crop Grain yield (kg/ha)
(mm) mm)
Rice 2000 6000 3.0
Sorghum 500 4500 9.0
Pearlmillet 500 4000 8.0
Maize 625 5000 8.0
Groundnut 506 4680 9.2
Wheat 280 3534 12.6
Fingermillet 310 4137 13.4
Water Related Issues

Water Ph

* pH is the negative logarithm of hydrogen ion concentration. If pH is 7.0, it


is considered as neutral. If the pH is less than 7.0 and H+ concentration exceeds
OH- it is referred as acidic and if pH ranges 7 - 14 it is considered as alkaline. The
pH is a sort of voltage measurement to cover the entire range of 0-14. The pH is one
of the parameters to assess the water whether it is suitable for irrigation or not based
on pH values.
* Main cations present in irrigation water are calcium, magnesium, sodium
and potassium. In effluents and sewage waste waters ammonium and heavy metal
cations are also found. The important anions like chlorides, carbonates and
bicarbonates, sulphates and nitrates are also present in irrigation water.
* For appraisal of irrigation water quality the water samples are mainly
analyzed for total salts (EC) relative proportion of cations, anions and toxic
substances such as excess boron and fluorine. For example, the pH of bicarbonate
(HCo3) waters is usually more than 7.5 and its determination may reflect the degree
of sodicity in the sample.
* Sulphate content will be more in saline water having higher E.C. If boron
content is more than 2.0 mg/1(ppm) in irrigation water, it is harmful to most of the
crops. Fluorine content beyond 10 ppm in irrigation water is harmful indirectly to
animals who feed on plants irrigated with high fluoride waters. Sodium at higher
levels in irrigation water exerts a toxic effect on crop growth.
* Good irrigation water should not have excessive amounts of any salt or
toxic substances.

Water EC

* Natural water has E.C value of much less than one unit. These values are
reported as milli mhos (EC x 10-3) or micro mhos (EC x 10-6) at 250C. Electrical
conductivity serves as a guide to know the extent of soluble salts present in irrigation
water. The criteria for judging the quality of irrigation water is the total salt
concentration as measured by electrical conductivity. The harmful effects increases
with increase in total salt concentration.
* Irrigation water may be classified based on EC are,

C1 - Low Salinity Water

* If electrical conductivity is less than 0.25 ds/m, the irrigation water is


classified as low salinity water. It can be used for irrigation on all soils and on most
crops but leaching is required in case of extremely low permeable soil.

C2 - Medium Salinity Water

* It has EC between 0.25 to 0.75 ds/m. This water can be safely used for
crops with moderate salt tolerance. The soil should have moderate level of
permeability and leaching to avoid accumulation of salts.

C3 - High Salinity Water

* Water with EC ranges of 0.75 to 2.25 ds/m is called high salinity water.
This water can not be used on soils with poor drainage. This water can be used for
salt tolerant crops by providing good drainage and also by practicing management
practices for salinity control.

C4 - Very High Salinity Water

* If EC is more than 2.25 ds/m the water is classified as very high salinity
water. It is not suitable for irrigation under ordinary conditions but may be used
occasionally if the soil is permeable by providing adequate drainage.
Economics of Water Use

* Average yields of irrigated crops are below the economic optima because
data on the best combination of fertilizer, plant population and irrigation regime are
meagre to recommend to the farmers. Maximum WUE can not alone be the goal
always. The economics of obtaining high yields dominate the scene. Yield increases
from fertilizers, plant population, irrigation, etc., follows some kind of decreasing
increment function after a stage, such that each successive unit of input produces
less profit than its predecessor.
* The general tendency is to over-irrigate, especially if water is not brought
on the basis of quantity used. This tendency can be avoided only if information is
available on the most efficient way to use water, and if field service is organized to
advice the farmer on when to irrigate and how much water to apply at each irrigation
for a certain level of fertilization and plant population. The three important
approaches listed below are to be taken into account for irrigation.

Soil Based Criteria

* Depletion of available soil moisture i.e., feel and appearance method.

Plant Based Criteria

* Critical stages approach, visual symptoms of the plant, water content, leaf
temperature.

Climatological Criteria Iw/Cpe Ratio

* Surface irrigation methods are commonly used for various crops. But rice
is irrigated by flooding. Crops like Potato, Maize, Sugarcane, Cotton are commonly
irrigated with furrow method. Basin method of irrigation is adopted for fruit trees.
* The amount of water to be applied at each irrigation depends on the
amount of moisture depleted in the effective root zone depth.
* The moisture extraction pattern from different depths of the soil within the
crops root zone depth in deep uniform soils is about 40 % of the total moisture from
first quarter of the root zone, 30 % from the second, 20 % from the third and 10 %
from the last quarter. At early stages of crop growth, the depth of water applied
should be less since the root system is shallow.
* Generally the amount of water applied at each irrigation is about 50 mm in
red soils and 60 mm in black soils.
Why Crop Protection

* India with diversified agro - ecosystems responded spontaneously to the


technologies of green revolution with introduction of several components in crop
production like developing and adopting high yielding varieties, hybrids, usage of
new agro-chemicals and adoption of intensive crop cultivation techniques.
* The gains of green revolution reflected in the shape of production of 200
million tonnes of food grains, 25 million tonnes of oil seeds and 15 million tonnes of
fibres per annum. But these steady gains in agricultural production over past four
decades have not fully overcome the problem of rising demand caused by soaring
population growth.
* Adding to the population explosion, there were frequent set backs to crop
production experienced in the shape of abiotic and biotic stresses during the last two
decades in several food crops where intensive farm practices were adopted.
* Among these stresses on major crops, increased pest populations leading
to the stage of collapse of economy, at times keep the planners and executors to be
helpless. In the past one and half decades, the periodical unabated explosions of
aphids, whiteflies, bollworms, pod borers, defoliators, coccids, cutworms, plant
hoppers etc., as direct crop damagers and disease transmitters in different regions of
the country have made agriculture less remunerative and highly risk prone.
* The ability of some of these pests to develop resistance curbs the
effectiveness of many commercial chemicals. Resistance has accelerated in many
insect species and it was reported that more than 500 insect and mite species are
immune to one or more insecticides at present. Similarly about 150 plant pathogens
such as fungus and bacteria are now shielded against fungicides. Some of the
weedicides also found effective earlier failed to control weeds now-a-days.
* Experts assessment reveal that around 22 per cent of yield losses in
major crops like Rice, Cotton, Groundnut, Sugarcane, Sorghum, Tomato, Chillies,
Mango, Grapes, etc., can be attributed to insect pests.
* Hence, there is need to reduce if not eliminate these losses by protecting
the crops from different pests through appropriate techniques. At present day the
role of crop protection in agriculture is of great importance and a challenging process
than before, as the so called resistant species should be brought under check.
* All other management practices of crop husbandry will be futile if the crop
is not protected against the ravages of pests. In absence of crop protection the yields
may be drastically declined. The entire effort of growing a crop will be defeated in
absence of crop protection resulting in financial loss to the grower. So the crop
protection against various pests is a must in agriculture.
What are Pests
* 'PEST' is an organism that causes damage resulting in economic loss to a
plant or animal. It can also be said that pest is a living organism that thrives at the
expense of other living organism.
* The expression of "Pest" is used very broadly to insects, other
invertebrates like nematodes, mites, snails and slugs, etc., and vertebrates like rats,
birds, jackals, etc., that cause damage to crops, stored products and animals.
* Disease producing pathogens of plants and weeds are also referred as
crop pests.

Losses caused due to pests

* It is a well known fact that insects being widely distributed became more
problematic in tropical climate. Of 1.5 million species of insects so far described few
are so conspicuous in their presence due to their ability to develop rapidly and
becoming serious by attacking food crops directly and indirectly.
* In developing country like ours insects are dominating over other pests by
acquiring characters like resistance to toxic chemicals, and resurgence, particularly
in intensive crop management regions of the country. The losses caused by insect
pests like Spodoptera, Heliothis, Whitefly and Aphids are so enormous that these
made the farmer to disturb the present ecosystems with continuous use of excessive
insecticides.
Top

Integrated Pest Management (Ipm)

What is Ipm ?

* IPM is a system that in the context of the associated environment and the
population dynamics of the pest species utilizes all suitable techniques and methods
in as compatible manner as possible and maintains the pest populations at levels
below those causing economic injury (FAO, 1972). In integrated pest management
both crop and pest are seen as part of a dynamic agro-ecosystem.
* IPM attempts to capitalize on natural biological factors that limit pest out
breaks, only using chemicals as a last resort. The goal is to reduce crop damage to a
level where it is economically tolerable, using control measures whose cost both
economic and ecological is not excessive. A number of non-chemical cultural
practices form the core of IPM. But IPM does not preclude chemical pesticide usage.
Pesticide usage is one of weapons in the management armoury to us that can be
exploited sensibly and judiciously.

IPM In Sustainable Agriculture


* For sustainable agriculture IPM is location specific and resource oriented
process in terms of ,
* Preserving land races of the crops that can with stand biotic and abiotic
stresses.
* Restoring ecobalance to the extent possible.
* Highlighting the importance of organic nutrition.
* Dovetailing traditional methods with modern techniques.
* Involving physical labour along with agro-machinery and chemical means.
* Developing human resource to understand the recyclic (energy transfer)
phenomenon of agro-ecosystems.
* Leading to less risk-prone vis-a-vis low input oriented agriculture.
* Acceptable socially, economically and politically.
Integrated Pest Management Strategy

* While developing IPM strategy one has to select different components


that are readily available, economical and applicable at field level.
* To cater the needs for location specific cropping systems the suitable
technologies should be developed by Research workers from time to time.
* The research findings that are practically implementable should be
popularized by the Extension workers through education to farming community.
Farmers have to be trained in scouting, diagnosis of pest infestation and arriving
ETLs for need based chemical application in time.
* Farmers should also be trained in selection of suitable pesticide, use of
proper lethal dose and proper coverage of foliage to avoid risks of resistance,
resurgence and residues. Farmers training is a continuous process and is an
important integrated part for successful implementation of IPM.
* An healthy, meaningful co-operation is very much needed from corporate
pesticide industry to make IPM successful at farmers level. The pesticide industry
should not wield enormous financial power and maintain market dominance against
ecological and environmental safety.

When to use Crop Protection Chemicals

* When adult activity is in increasing trend resulting in unacceptable pest


load on crop as indicated by pheromone, light and sticky traps.
* When field scouts fixed plot survey indicate a particular dominating stage
of pest in the field.
* When the bio-agents existing in the area did not attain a level, that can
influence the pest population.
* When insecticide resistance due to usage of insecticides does not surface
practically.
* When residues of insecticides do not become problematic.
* When the role of bio-agents and other environmental resistance factors
are less perceptible.
How can a Crop be monitored

* A field crop is monitored to determine a pests economic status or to


determine whether a natural enemy is at a level capable of suppressing a pest's
population density. So identification of pests and beneficial insects is of prime
importance before any control operation is executed.
* Monitoring tools like pheromone, light and sticky traps can be
advantageously used. Field scouting adopting fixed plot survey or roving survey
should be taken from time to time to monitor the crop in determining whether the
pest population attained ETLs.

Which Products Form Part of The Ipm Strategy

* Different monitoring tools like pheromone traps, light traps, coloured sticky
traps.
* Preserved specimens of pests, natural enemies, infested plant portions as
identification tools.
* Bird perches.
* Seed dressing chemicals and seed dressing machines.
* Seeds of Resistant varieties.
* Ecofriendly insecticides like Neem products and bio-fungicides like
Trichoderma sp.
* Natural enemies like Trichogramma egg cards, and microbial preparations
of NPV & Bt.
* Soft and target specific pesticides.
* Bait preparations.
* Good plant protection equipment.
* Finally mostly farm based renewable resources that can enhance the
recycling phenomenon of ecosystem should form part of IPM strategy.
Post Harvest operations

* Post-harvest operations are assuming importance due to higher yields


and increased cropping intensity. Due to introduction of modern technology, yield
levels have substantially increased resulting in a marketable surplus which has to be
stored till prices are favourable for sale. With increase in irrigation facilities and easy
availability of fertilizers, intensive cropping is being practiced.
* Harvesting assumes considerable importance because the crop has to be
harvested as early as possible to make way for another crop. Sometimes, harvesting
time may also coincide with heavy rainfall or severe cyclone and floods. In view of
these situations suitable technology is, therefore, necessary for reducing the
harvesting time and safe storage at farm level. The post-harvest losses are
estimated to be about 25 per cent.
* A recent estimate by the Ministry of Food and Civil supplies put the total
preventable post-harvest losses of food grains at about 20 million tons a year, which
was nearly 10 per cent of the total production. The principal adviser, planning
commission stated that food grains wasted during post-harvest period could have fed
up 117 million people for a year.
* The important operations carried out after harvesting of the crop are
threshing, drying, storage and processing.

Infrastructure

* Out of the total food grain production, more than 70 percent is with the
farmer and rest is stored by governmental organizations like central warehousing
corporation and Food corporation of India and traders. The godowns are the most
common structures for above ground bag storage.
* The godowns have all the facilities for fumigation, providing aeration and
rat proof. Each of the godown can hold 5000 tonnes of bagged food grains. Grain is
also stored in bulk using large silos.
* For want of required storage space in godowns food grains are also
stored in the open and this method of storage is known as CAP storage. Cap stands
for cover and plinth. Open spaces in warehouses and elsewhere are used for storing
produce. Crates are placed on floor, mats are spread on the crates and finally bags
are placed over the crates.
* The stacks are built in the form of domes. As protection against rain and
sun the stacks are covered with thick (600 to 1000 guage) black polythene sheets
and the cover is tied to the stack with the help of plastic ropes.

Storage

* Harvesting of crop is seasonal, but consumption of food grain is


continuous. The market value of the produce is generally low at harvesting time. So
the grower need storage facility to hold a portion of produce to meet the feed and
seed requirements in addition of selling surplus produce when the marketing price is
favourable.
* Traders and Co-operatives at market centres need storage structures to
hold grains when the transport facility is inadequate.
* The government also needs storage structures to maintain buffer reserves
to offset the effects produced by the vagaries of nature. Hence, there is necessity to
store the produce for different periods primarily for commercial reasons. The
growers, processors, transporters and warehouse men have to develop storage
facilities for proper storage of food grains, oilseeds, commercial crops like Chillies,
vegetables and fruits etc., and seeds intended for sowing in the following seasons.

An ideal storage facility should satisfy the following requirements


* It should provide maximum possible protection from ground moisture,
rains, insect pests, moulds, rodents, birds, fire, etc.,
* It should provide the necessary facility for inspection, disinfection, loading,
unloading, cleaning and reconditioning.
* It should protect grain from excessive moisture and temperature
favourable to both insect and mould development.
* It should be economical and suitable for a particular situation.

Types of Storage

* Holding grain in bulk in underground is an age old method of rural


storage. Wheat, Paddy, Sorghum, Fingermillet, etc., can be stored underground for a
period of 2 years. These structures are simple underground dig-outs upto a depth of
5 m varying in sizes to hold from a small quantity upto 50 tonnes.
* The pits are lined with brick or concrete so that moisture from walls and
bottom does not damage the grain. At the time of filling a layer of straw is placed on
all sides.
* After the pit is filled, straw is spread over the grain and then topped with a
layer of soil. Insect infestation is less in the under ground storage and it is cheaper
over above ground storage structures.
* This underground structure is not suitable for high rainfall and high water-
table areas. Further the grain stored underground have poor appearance and musty
smell.

Several types of above ground storage structures mentioned below are also in
use in our country,

Mud Bins

* The mud bins are made of unburnt clay mixed with straw with 1 to 3 inch
thick wall and are oval, rectangular or circular. A small hole is provided at the base
for taking out the grain and a larger hole is provided at the top for filling it with grain.
Both the inlet and outlet holes are plugged while grain is stored.

Straw Bins

* For storing paddy in humid zones dried plants are used for making
temporary structures, which after being filled with grain are further reinforced from
outside by winding paddy straw ropes around the whole structure. Each structure
holds 2 to 6 quintals of grain.

Bukhari Bins
* This is a cylindrical structure and is made of mud and split bamboo's. The
bin is always placed on a wooden or a massonary plat form to prevent its contact
with the ground. The capacity may vary from 3 to 10 tonnes.

Kothar Type Bins

* These bins are very much similar to a timber box placed on a raised plat
form, which is generally supported on pillars. Both the floor and walls are made of
wooden planks, where the tiled or thatched roof is placed over it as a protection
against sun and rains. The capacity may vary from 9 to 35 tonnes.

Metal Bins

* Bins made of steel, alluminium R.C.C are used for storage of grains
outside the house. These bins are fire and moisture proof. The bins have long
durability and produced on commercial scale. The capacity ranges from 1 to 10
tonnes. Silos are huge bins made with either steel, alluminium or concrete. Usually
steel and alluminium bins are circular in shape. The capacity of silo ranges from 500
to 4000 tonnes. A silo has facilities for loading and unloading grains.
* The storage structures in rural areas are not ideal from scientific-storage
point of view, as substantial losses occur during storage of grain from insect pests,
moulds, rodents, etc. ; keeping the requirements of the farmers in view the Indian
grain storage institute (IGSI), Hapur with its branch at Ludhiana and Hyderabad have
developed several metal bins of different capacities for scientific storage of grain in
rural areas.

Methods of Storage

* The grains are stored at three different levels, viz., at the producer's level
(rural storage) trader's level and urban organizational storage. The urban
organization uses modern facilities and structures like silos, warehouses and also
undertaken periodical inspection, processing and treatment of grains for ensuring
their quality during storage.
* Generally, there are two ways of storing grains i.e.
* Storage in bags and Loose or bulk storage.
* In the tropical regions, the grain is stored in bags. Storage in bags
requires considerable labour, but the minimum investment is enough on permanent
structures and equipment. The storage in bags has the advantage of being short-
term storage. Bag storage can be done under a roof of Galvanized Iron sheets, a
plastic covering where grain is intended for very early onward movement. Usually no
control measures against insects is needed for short-term storage. If bag storage
produce is intended for long time, the control measures have to be taken against
insect pests.
* The bulk storage has an advantage of greater storage capacity per unit
volume of space. Less labour is involved in loading and unloading and there is no
need of investment in purchasing gunny bags. In bulk storage the insect infestation
is also lower over bag storage. The grain can be kept for several years in bulk
storage.
Transportation

* When once the grain is threshed and dried it will be transported from the
field to store houses by bullock carts, or tractors by the growers. Sometimes if the
market price is favourable the produce is disposed to the traders soon after drying.
* The disposal of the produce, either at the village or at the market yard is,
however often closely connected with financial needs of the growers and sometimes
indebtedness. The traders on purchasing, transport the produce to go-down, or
shops for sale to the consumers.
* This transport mainly uses trucks i.e., lorries. Government agencies like
Food Corporation of India etc., transport the produce from one place to another
place either by road or rail (waggons) for long term storage and sometimes to export
to other countries by sea (cargo). If the produce is not properly bagged and handled
there will be some loss during transport.

Marketing

* In general most of the producers sell the grains at their door steps in
villages, to avoid transport. At village level defective measures and weights are used
by traders and also the prices paid to farmers are much lower than regulated market
rates. Now-a-days farmers are encouraged to sell their produce in near by regulated
markets, though some labour is involved in transport.
* In regulated markets some amenities are provided for sellers and the
growers can secure maximum value for their produce. In market yards several
methods like cover system, open system and auction system are adopted depending
on the type of produce sold. Since the rural banking system is improved the farmers
to a large extent they are out of clutches of greedy private money lenders who exert
pressure to dispose produce for lower price.
* At present in some places the cold storage facilities are also available.
Farmers can utilize these cold storage facilities for stocking their produce on
payment of rent and the produce can be disposed when there is remunerative price
in the market.

* Though several measures are taken by government the marketing of


agricultural produce is facing problems and growers are not getting the reasonable
price for their produce. If production exceeds demand, price declines until the market
is cleared. Prices raise when production fell short. Responses to lower or higher
prices occur in the next production cycle.
* Therefore, the acreage for a particular crop based on demand and the
supporting prices for each commodity need to be monitored by the rulers based on
demand and supply studies. The government has to bring buyers and sellers
together, develop price information systems, establish consistent grades and product
quality standards for better marketing of agricultural produce at all times.

Purposes Of Tillage

* Plowing loosens and aerates the soil which in turn facilitates deeper
penetration of roots. A drawback is the compaction of the lower layers of soil.[citation
needed]
* It helps in the growth of microorganisms present in the soil and thus,
maintains the fertility of the soil, though fertility can decline as microorganisms' boom
period after tilling is followed by a bust period. It is debatable whether worms benefit
or suffer from tillage.[citation needed]
* It helps in the mixing of organic matter(humus)and nutrients evenly
throughout the soil.
* It is used for destroying weeds.
Primary Tillage:

* Ploughs (Mould board, Disc,Tine,Offset)

Disc Plough
Objectives

1. To obtain required tilth of 10-15 cm. depth.


2. To open soil for drying
3. To uproot stubbles and weeds
4. To burry trash under soil
5. To kill weeds
Secondary Tillage

1. Disc Harrow & Offset Disc


2. Rotavator
3. Puddler
4. Land plane

Disc harrow and Offset disc:


Disc Harrow

* The secondary tillage, consists of two operations by disc harrow


completes the puddling of one ha in 12 to 15 hours.
* In well soaked soil disc harrow can be used for puddling without initial
opening and in such case 4 to 5 operations are generally required.
* Disc harrow for puddling should be provided with scrapers for keeping the
disc clean from mud and weeds.
* A light type of tandem disc harrow (weight 40 kg) with 8 discs spaced at
13 cm each having a working width of 110cm in two gangs is very suitable for
puddling operation.
* The draft (97-122 kgs) of such a disc - harrow was less than that of
wooden plough (136-160 kgs).
* The yield of paddy crop from the field puddled by disc harrow was the
highest in the field experiments, conducted on use of different type of bullocks –
drawn implements.
* Tandem disc – Two sets of gangs front and rear in the shape of an "X".
* Front discs face out ward (and throw soil outward) – back discs face
inward. Offset disc – Single front gang with single rear gang. Concave face of gang
discs face opposite directions.

Objectives

Under wet (saturated) conditions

1. To work soil 10-15 cm (4-6") deep.


2. To tear up roots.
3. To soften ground for subsequent puddler operation.
4. To chopping , incorporation of straw & to kill weeds.

Key points

1. Power requirements are of the order 14-18k W/m at 7.2 km/hr


2. Stabilizer chains should be relatively loose (but not so loose that
implement hits tires)
3. Level in two planes (front to back, side to side)
4. Main adjustment is top hitch
5. As the angle of a harrow is increased, the depth of cut and increase.
6. Front angle of discs is generally about 20o, and the back discs slightly
more.
7. Front disc blades wear faster than following blades
8. Have bumper pads between center discs (to stop discs from
knocking)
9. Cut to a maximum of ¼ of the disc diameter
10. Should leave a relatively flat surface – a depression or ridge in the
middle of a tandem disc harrow indicated that disc spacing, working speed or top link
of the three point hitch need adjustment

Don’ts

* disc cut should not overlap (i.e., back discs cut should be between front
disc cut)
* Don’t cut deeper than ¼ of disc diameter

Rotavator

Objectives

* Develop suitable tilth for seed germination/planting


* Kill weeds
* Uproots straw.

Use of Rotavators should be limited, if possible as they:

* Energy requirements are more than other land preparation equipment.


* Involve a lot of moving parts so maintenance costs are higher. Often used
for nursery seedbed.

Key Points

* Power requirements are of the order 20-35k W/m at 7.2 km/hr


* PTO shaft turns at 540rpm
* PTO shaft should overlap by 10-15 cm.
* PTO shaft should be horizontal to the ground when the rotovator is
lowered and in use
* Blade depth - the maximum cut should be approximately 1/3 of diameter

Don’t

* In dry fields, you should not turn in the field with rotavator down .

Puddler

Objectives

* Decrease weeds
* Decrease percolation as a result of soil dispersion.
* Level the soil for better planting conditions and/or for snail control (where
a problem)

Key Points

* Power requirements of the order 7k W/n at 7.2 km/hr


* Puddlers should be used only when necessary for snail and water
management.
* Note: Rotopuddlers (e.g., those used at IRRI) can be used with a "Laser"
guided System.

Comb Harrow

* The comb harrow commonly used in the Philippines and recently


introduced in India, is simple efficient one for puddling of wet field, after initial
opening has been made by the plough.
* The tines of harrow penetrate about 15 cm deep in the wet ploughed soil
and effect puddling by stirring and combing action.
* The weed stubbles and mud accumulated in front of the harrow are easily
removed by tilting the handle forward and allowing the accumulated material to
escape below the tines in course of operation.
* The draft of the implement varies from 114 kg to 112kg which is with in
the pulling power of a pair of average sized bullocks.
* Two or three operations of the harrow are adequate to complete the
puddling of wet soil after one initial ploughings by mould board plough.

Bullock drawn puddler

* Puddler is used for preparation of paddy fields with standing water after
initial ploughing.
* It breaks up the clods and churns the soil.
* The main purpose of puddling is to reduce percolation of water, to kill
weeds by decomposing and to facilitate the transplanting of paddy seedlings by
making the soil softer.
* Puddling is done in a standing water of 5 to 10 cm depth.
* A common puddler used in this country has three puddling units, each
having 4 paddles mounted on an axle.
* The axle with the puddling units is freely mounted on two bearings, fitted
on a frame, made of metal or wood.
* The weight of the puddler including its beam is with in a range of 30 to 40
kg only.
* The puddler consists of

1. Frame
2. Paddles
3. Metal cross
4. Axle
5. Beam
6. Handle.

* Frame: The frame consists of front piece, the rare and side pieces made
of steel angle section or wood.
* Paddles: Paddles are made of mild steel sheets having a thickness of
about 3.15mm. The size of the paddle is about 225 x 125 mm . The paddles are
riveted to metal cross.
* Metal cross: Metal cross holds the paddles in position. It’s made of mild
steel flat.
* Axle: Axle is made of mild steel bar of about 25 mm in diameter or of mild
steel pipe.
* Beam: Beam is made of wood and is suitably fixed to the frame with the
help of braces and the other end to the yoke for hitching to animals.
* Handle: Wooden handle is attached as handle supports for guiding the
movement of the puddler.
Other land levelling equipment

* A ladder or a wooden beam is used for levelling, the leveller consists of a


single plank held at an inclination to horizontal surface between two hinged side
plates curved upward.
* The inclined edge is provided with an angle iron while working in dry
condition the weight of the implement and operation is confined to the sharp edge
and thus make it more effective in breaking the clods as compared to ladder type
where the weight is distributed over the entire surface area of the two plants.
* Under wet conditions the side plants permit accumulation of water in front
of the leveller making it float on the water and there by reducing its weight and the
draft by 40% due to buoyancy, the implement of 2.5 m width has a comparable (even
less in case of working under wet condition) draft to that of a 2 m ladder type leveller.
* Mechanical paddy transplanter: Features of the machine:
* Available with its own source of power of 3-HP diesel engine.
* Covers eight rows at a time with a row to row spacing of 23 cm.
* Provision to vary the plant to plant spacing – 10 and 12 cm.
* Provision for cage wheel for field use and rubber wheel for transport.
* Operation of the transplanter:
* Check oil level in gear box, fuel tank and grease the specified parts.
* While operating observe for any missing hills in any particular row and
diagnose the problem immediately. The missing hills can be due to presence of
stones/foreign matter that would have obstructed the fingers that pick the seedlings
from the tray.
* Choose the right speed of operation for a plant hill to hill distance of 10 or
12 cm.
* Observe the number of plants per hill and adjust to the requirement using
the lever operating the finger movement.
* Observe the depth of planting the lever and adjust
accordingly.Transplanter Operation: For efficient operation of transplanter the land
preparation and knowledge of the mechanical provisions incorporated with the
transplanter are essential to be known.

Land preparation

* Puddle the land, level it and remove the water after 24 hours (for clayey)
or 12 hours (for sandy/loamy soil) before the transplanting. In black or clayey soils
the settlement is critical as the loosened soil can bury the seedlings planted.
* Just before the operation of transplanter, a thin film of water is necessary
to ensure the free movement of transplanter and avoid adhering of soil to the moving
parts of the transplanter.
* Performance: There will be a net saving of 40 per cent over the manual
transplanting. It can transplant about one hectare in a day of 8 hour run. The
transplanter performs with missing hills of 2-3 per cent.
* Available Transplanters Now a days mechanical transplanting of paddy is
also recommended and practiced in some places.
* M/s Godavari farm equipment’s, Jagityala, Kharimnagar district developed
a machine with modification of the machine originally fabricated by international rice
research institute.
Levelling

* Levelling helps in bringing undulated field left over after puddling into
levelled field
* To maintain uniform depth of water in main field
* To increase water use efficiency by maintaining shallow depths of water
upto panicle initiation stage.
* Maintenance of shallow water depth is possible only when the land is
perfectly levelled.
* Shallow planting is possible only at shallow water depth which helps in
better seedling establishment which helps in term for early tillering.
* Better utilization of nutrients by managing uniform depth of water through
out the field
* Perfect levelling helps in complete draining of water - facilitates easy
harvesting of crop without loss of grain.
* If a pulse is sown after paddy uniform establishment of pulse crop can be
achieved
* Oxygen diffusion is more uniform
* Reduction of deep percolation of water and inputs to a certain extent.
The plough is a tool used in farming for initial cultivation of soil in preparation
for sowing seed or planting. It has been a basic instrument for most of recorded
history, and represents one of the major advances in agriculture. The primary
purpose of ploughing is to turn over the upper layer of the soil, bringing fresh
nutrients to the surface, while burying weeds and the remains of previous crops,
allowing them to break down. It also aerates the soil, and allows it to hold moisture
better. In modern use, a ploughed field is typically left to dry out, and is then
harrowed before planting.
Ploughs were initially pulled by oxen, and later in many areas by horses and
mules. In industrialised countries, the first mechanical means of pulling a plough
used steam-power i.e. steam tractors, but these were gradually superseded by
internal-combustion-powered tractors. In the past two decades plough use has
reduced in some areas where soil damage and erosion are problems, in favour of
shallower ploughing and other less invasive tillage techniques.
The plough (American spelling: plow; both pronounced /ˈplaʊ/) is a tool used
in farming for initial cultivation of soil in preparation for sowing seed or planting. It
has been a basic instrument for most of recorded history, and represents one of the
major advances in agriculture. The primary purpose of ploughing is to turn over the
upper layer of the soil, bringing fresh nutrients to the surface, while burying weeds
and the remains of previous crops, allowing them to break down. It also aerates the
soil, and allows it to hold moisture better. In modern use, a ploughed field is typically
left to dry out, and is then harrowed before planting.
Ploughs were initially pulled by oxen, and later in many areas by horses and
mules. In industrialised countries, the first mechanical means of pulling a plough
used steam-power (ploughing engines or steam tractors), but these were gradually
superseded by internal-combustion-powered tractors. In the past two decades
plough use has reduced in some areas (where soil damage and erosion are
problems), in favour of shallower ploughing and other less invasive tillage
techniques.
Ploughs are even used under the sea, for the laying of cables, as well as
preparing the earth for side-scan sonar[citation needed] in a process used in oil
exploration.
Tilling is the process of breaking up and stirring soil. Someone may want to till
the soil to prepare it for planting, to mix in organic matter, or to reduce the amount of
weeds in the area. Gardens are the area most frequently tilled, but tillers are also
helpful when seeding and levelling lawns, or even large fields where crops will be
grown.

In India, rice is grown in different types of soils. Experts point out that in India,
rice is grown in such varied soil conditions that it is difficult to point out the soil on
which it cannot be grown. However, soils having
* Good water retention capacity.
* Good amount of clay and organic matter are considered ideal for rice
cultivation.

It grows well in soils having a pH range between 5.5 and 6.5. The
classification of soils has been done depending upon the soil texture, colour of the
soil etc.

MANURES AND MANURING. The term "manure" originally meant that which was
"worked by hand" (Fr. manoeuvre), but gradually came to apply to any process by
which the soil could be improved. Prominent among such processes was that of
directly applying "manure" to the land, manure in this sense being what we now call
"farmyard manure" or "dung," the excreta of farm animals mixed with straw or other
litter. Gradually, however, the use of the term spread to other materials, some of
home origin, some imported, some manufactured by artificial processes, but all
useful as a means of improving the fertility of the soil. Hence we have two main
classes of manures: (a) what may be termed "natural manures," and (b) "artificial
manures." Manures, again, may be divided according to the materials from which
they are made - e.g. "bone manure," "fish manure," "wool manure," &c.; or according
to the constituents which they mainly supply - e.g. "phosphatic manures," "potash
manures," "nitrogenous manures," or there may be numerous combinations of these
to form mixed or "compound" manures. Whatever it be, the word "manure" is now
generally applied to anything which is used for fertilizing the soil. In America the term
"fertilizers" is more generally adopted. and in Great Britain the introduction of the
"Fertilizers and Feeding Stuffs Act" has effected a certain amount of change in the
same direction. The modern tendency to turn attention less to the consideration of
manurial applications given to land and more to the physical and mechanical
changes introduced thereby in the soil itself, would seem to be carrying the word
"manure" back more to its original meaning.
The subject of manures and their application involves a prior consideration of plant
life and its requirements. The plant, growing in the soil, and surrounded by the
atmosphere, derives from these two sources its nourishment and means of growth
through the various stages of its development.
Chemical analysis has shown that plants are composed of water, organic or
combustible matters, and inorganic or mineral matters. Water constitutes by far the
greater part of a living plant; a grass crop will contain about 75% of water, a turnip
crop 89 or 90%. The organic or combustible matters are those which are lost, along
with the water, when the plant is burnt; the inorganic or mineral matters are those
which are left behind as an "ash" after the burning. The combustible matter is
composed of six elements: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur and a little
phosphorus. About one-half of the combustible matter of plants is carbon. Along with
hydrogen and oxygen the carbon forms the cellulose, starch, sugar, &c., which
plants contain, and with these same elements and sulphur the carbon forms the
albuminoids of plants. The inorganic or mineral matters comprise a comparatively
small part of the plant, but they contain, as essential constituents of plant life, the
following elements: potassium, calcium, magnesium, iron, phosphorus and sulphur.
In addition, other, but not essential, elements are found in the ash e.g. sodium,
silicon and chlorine, together with small quantities of manganese and other rarer
elements.
The above constituents that have been classed as "essential," are necessary for the
growth of the plant, and absence of any one will involve failure. This has been shown
by growing plants in water dissolved in which are salts of the elements present in
plants. By omitting in turn one or other of the elements aforesaid it is found that the
plants will not grow after they have used up the materials contained in the seed itself.
These elements are accordingly termed "essential," and it therefore becomes
necessary to inquire how they are to be supplied.
The atmosphere is the great storehouse of organic plant food. The leaves take up,
through their stomata, the carbonic acid and other gases of the atmosphere. The
carbonic acid, under the influence of light, is decomposed in the chlorophyll cells,
oxygen is given off and carbon is assimilated, being subsequently built up into the
various organic bodies forming the plant's structure. It would seem, too, that plants
can take up a small quantity of ammonia by their leaves, and also water to some
extent, but the free or uncombined nitrogen of the air cannot be directly assimilated
by the leaves of plants.
From the soil, on the other hand, the plant obtains, by means of its roots, its mineral
requirements, also sulphur and phosphorus, and nearly all its nitrogen and water.
Carbon, too, in the case of fungi, is obtained from the decayed vegetable matter in
the soil. The roots are able not only to take up soluble salts that are presented to
them, but they can attack and render soluble the solid constituents of the soil, thus
transforming them into available plant food. In this way important substances, such
as phosphoric acid and potash, are supplied to the plant, as also lime. Roots can
further supply themselves with nitrogen in the form of nitrates, the ammonia and
other nitrogenous bodies undergoing ready conversion into nitrates in the soil. These
various mineral constituents, being now transferred to the plant, go to form new
tissue, and ultimately seed, or else accumulate in the sap and are deposited on the
older tissue.
Whether the nitrogen of the air can be utilized by plants or not has been long and
strenuously discussed, Boussingault first, and then Lawes, Gilbert and Pugh,
maintaining that there was no evidence of this utilization. But it was always
recognized that certain plants, clover for example, enriched the land with nitrogen to
an extent greater than could be accounted for by the mere supply to them of nitrates
in the soil. Ultimately Hellriegel supplied the explanation by showing that, at all
events, certain of the Leguminosae, by the medium of swellings or "nodules" on their
roots, were able to fix the atmospheric nitrogen in the soil, and to convert it into
nitrates for the use of the plant. This was found to be the result of the action of
certain organisms within the nodules themselves, which in turn fed upon the
carbohydrates of the plant and were thus living in a state of "symbiosis" with it. So
far, however, this has not been shown to be the case with any other plants than the
Leguminosae, and, though it is asserted by some that many other plants can take up
the nitrogen of the air directly through their leaves, there is no clear evidence as yet
of this.
We must now consider how the different requirements of the plant in regard to the
elements necessary to maintain its life and to build up its structure affect the
question of manuring.
Under conditions of natural growth and decay, when no crops are gathered in, or
consumed on the land by live stock, the herbage, on dying down and decaying,
returns to the atmosphere and the soil the elements taken from them during life; but,
under cultivation, a succession of crops deprives the land of the constituents which
are essential to healthy and luxuriant growth. Without an adequate return to the land
of the matters removed in the produce, its fertility cannot be maintained for many
years. In newly opened countries, where old forests have been cleared and the land
brought under cultivation, the virgin soil often possesses at first a high degree of
fertility, but gradually its productive power decreases from year to year. Where land
is plentiful and easy to be obtained it is more convenient to clear fresh forest land
than to improve more or less exhausted land by the application of manure, labour
and skill. But in all densely peopled countries, and where the former mode of
cultivation cannot be followed, it is necessary to resort to artificial means to restore
the natural fertility of the land and to maintain and increase its productiveness. That
continuous cropping without return of manure ends in deterioration of the soil is well
seen in the case of the wheat-growing areas in America. Crops of wheat were taken
one after another, the straw was burned and nothing was returned to the land;the
produce began to fall off and the cultivators moved on to fresh lands, there to meet,
in time, with the same experience; and now that the available land has been more or
less intensely occupied, or that new land is too far removed for ready transport of the
produce, it has been found necessary to introduce the system of manuring, and
America now manufactures and uses for herself large quantities of artificial and other
manures.
Cultivation practices of Paddy
Submitted by naipictuasdharwad on Fri, 03/06/2009 - 13:43
Posted in Dry and semi-dry cultivation Production Technology Rice India UAS-
Raichur (Karnataka) English
Dry System of Cultivation (upland rice)
Sowing - Broadcasting in the high level land with outbreak of the monsoon.
Situation - Followed in almost all rice growing states in India but mainly confined to
tracts which get either the south-west or north-east monsoon or both and do not
have adequate irrigation facilities.
Alternate names - Bhatta or Kavali in Kannada, aus in West Bengal, aus or ahu in
Assam, beali in Orissa, bhadi or kuari in Uttar Pradesh
Duration - 90 to 110 days
Cultivation practices:
Ploughing - summer
Application of organic manure
Season - May-June in the case of the crop dependent on the south-west monsoon
September - north-east monsoon,
Sowing - sown or broadcast
Seed rate - 60-80 kg/ha
When the moisture is at the marginal level the surface soil is compacted by a light
roller.
A primitive type of shifting cultivation called punam cultivation in Malabar, kumari in
South Kanara, podu in the Circars, jhum in Assam hills is being done in scrub
jungles on a small scale. , The bushes are cut and burnt. The land is ploughed with
pre-monsoon showers and rice is sown as a pure or mixed crop. The land is
abandoned after the harvest of rice and allowed to recoup its fertility. Fresh jungle
land is broken up for cultivation every year.
Semi-dry System of Cultivation
Sowing - sown or broadcast as a dry crop for about two months and when more
water is available, after the strengthening of monsoon, it is treated as wet crop.
Season - July-August, when the south-west monsoon is active, the rain water is
impounded in the fields and the young crop of five to six weeks is inter cultivated by
using slit hoe with about 5 cm of standing water in the field for partial weeding,
thinning as well as stirring of soil to promote root formation. This operation is also
called as hodtha operation.
Your rating:

Most of the food crops are subjected to damage by insects and diseases.
Large number of insects and diseases are recognized on every food crop. Control of
insects and diseases is one of the great challenges posed to human knowledge.
Although detailed work has been done in every insect/disease of every crop to
understand the nature of insects and diseases and how to control them - their actual
control is an ever growing challenge. Chemical control of insects and diseases of
various crops was widely recommended - ever since the first insecticides was
discovered in 1920. Use of insecticides and fungicides has grown on enormous
scale to control the insects and diseases. Despites this, the damage due to insects
and diseases has increased in the last 25 years.
Each crop has a large number of enemies in the form of insects, fungi, bacteria,
weeds, rodents, mites etc unless they are controlled effectively, the crop yields
would suffer very badly. To effectively control them, pesticides were recommended
to be used.
Extent of damage by insects and diseases
Insects Diseases
Rice 10% 15%
Wheat 5% 15%
Jowar 12% 18%
Bajra 5% 8%
Cowpea 3% 15%
green gram 2% 14%
Black gram 2% 11%
Soyabean 3% 9%
Pesticides, in general, make a class of chemicals used to control pests, which
include insects, fungi, bacteria, weeds, rodents, mites etc. respectively. Each one is
controlled by group of chemicals like insecticides, fungicides, bactericides,
weedicides, etc.
Certain preventive measures can be adopted to protect crops from weeds, insects, mites, rodents and fungi.
They are:

• Use of resistant varieties

• Optimum time of sowing the crops

• Crop rotation and cropping system

• Clean cultivation

• Summer ploughing

Rabi crops are more susceptible to insects and pests as against kharif crops as warm and humid climate is
congenial for infestation.
If field crops are infested with insects and pests, diseases or weeds, insect pest control, disease control and
weed control measures have to adopted.

Insect - Pest Control


If insect pests attack the plant by cutting and destroying the root an insecticide like chloropyrophos is mixed in
the soil to control it.
If insect pests attack the plant by cutting the stem and leaves and it is a boring type of insect, it can be controlled
by dusting or spraying contact insecticides like malathion, lindane and thiodax.
If the insect pests suck the sap from various parts of the plant, it can be controlled by spraying systemic
insecticides like dimethoate and metasystox.

Control measures of the insect-pests of major crops


Name of Name of
Nature of Damage Control Measure
the Crop Insect-Pest
Gundhy bug Attack during post flowering period Spray monocrotophos
Rice
Leaf hopper Attack on Leaves Spray monocrotophos
Wheat Grubs feed on the roots and adults cut the growing Aldrin dust in the soil before
Gujhia weevil
points sowing
Shoot fly Attack seedling and kill the central shoots Soil application of phorate at
Name of Name of
Nature of Damage Control Measure
the Crop Insect-Pest
sowing
Larvae bore into the midrib of leaves and make
Apply phorate granules at the
Top borer tunnel. Later on enter into growing point and damage
base of shoot
it
Sugarcane The caterpillars bore into the central shoot and make Apply lindane in water in furrows
Shoot borer
tunnel downwards. . They feed inside the soft tissue on sets before planting
Both nymph and adult suck sap from underside of
Pyrilla Spray endosuIfan
the leaf
The caterpillars first feed on tender leaves. Later on
Chick pea Pod border make holes in the pods and feed on the developing Spray carbaryl
grain
The grubs feed on roots. Adult beetles feed on Apply thimet granules before
Ground Nut White grub
leaves sowing
Both nymph and adult suck the sap of all the plant Spray metasystox solution in
Aphids
Mustard parts water
Painted bug Both nymph and adult suck the sap of leaves Dusting with . malathion

Disease Control
Plants often get infested with disease causing pathogens. The entire crop can be destroyed if they are not
controlled in time.
Pathogens are transmitted by:

• seed and soil

• water

• air
Seed soil and water borne diseases mostly attack roots and plant stem. Air borne diseases attack all aerial parts
of the plant i.e. leaf, flower and fruit. Seed and soil borne diseases can be controlled by treating the seed and
soil. Air borne diseases can be controlled by treating the infested parts with fungicide spray.

Control measures for the disease of major crops


Name of Name of
Symptoms Control Measure
the Crop Disease
Seed treatment with thiram solution
Rice Blast Brown boat-shaped lesions appear on the leaves in water. Spray bavistin at 10 days
interval
Yellow, brown or black elongated spots appear on Spray dithane solution in water at 10
Wheat Rust
leaves days interval
Dip the sets in 0.25 percent a gallol
Red rot Small red spots on leaf mid rib appear
solution for 5 minutes before sowing.
Sugarcane
Treat seed with hot air at 54°C for S
Grassy shoot Production of numerous thin tillers from the base
hours
Deep sowing at 8-10 cm depth in the
Chickpea Wilt The leaves become yellow and dry up
light soil
Pigeon pea Stem rot Development of brown to dark brown lesions on Grow sorghum and pigeon pea as
the stem near soil surface. They girdle the stem and mixed cropping. Avoid water logging
Name of Name of
Symptoms Control Measure
the Crop Disease
plant dies

Weed Control
Weeds are unwanted plants that grow in the fields where crops grow. The growth of weeds in fields has an
adverse affect on crops because they compete with the crops for space, light, nutrients and water. The yield
becomes poor and so also the quality of the crop. The weed could be another crop plant or a plant of another
variety of the same crop. So if a mustard plant grows in a wheat field it has grown out of place and so is
considered to be a weed. Often weeds harbour many insects, pest and diseases. Warm and humid climate being
more congenial for the growth of weeds, they are more during the Kharif season than the Rabi crop.
Based on the structure of the leaf, weeds are classified into narrow-leaf and broad-leaf. The following are some
of the weeds of the Kharif season and the Rabi season.

Kharif Season
Narrow Leaf
Example: 1) Nutgrass (motha),
2) Wild Sorghum (Wild jowar)

Broad Leaf
Example: 1) Amaranthus (chaulai)
2) Trianthema (Saathi)
Rabi Season
Narrow Leaf
Example: 1) Phalaris (Mandoori),
2) Wild oat (Jangali jaii)

Broad Leaf
Example: 1) Chenopodium (Bathua)
2) Convolvulus (Hirankhwci)
During Kharif season, short duration maize and millets, short statured groundnut and slow growing pigeon pea
crops are more prone to weeds.

Methods For Controlling Weeds


Mechanical Method
Removal of weeds by mechanical methods are:

• pulling them out (uprooting) with hand

• removal by using a hoe or trowel

• interculture

• ploughing

• burning and

• flooding

Cultural Method
Cultural methods of controlling weeds include:

• proper seed bed preparation

• timely sowing of crops

• intercropping and

• crop rotation

Chemical Method
Spraying of special chemicals called weedicides or herbicides is a chemical method.
Example: atrazine; 2, 4-D, fluchloralin; isoproturon

Biological Method
The biological method involves the use of some appropriate insects or some other organisms on the crop field
having weeds. They selectively destroy the weed plants but do not harm the crop plants.
Example: Cochneal insects are used to eradicate opuntia (a weed, commonly called prickly pear). Aquatic weeds
are controlled by grass carp (a kind of fish).
Crop Management
The Crop Improvement and Management program targets problems of significant
field (broadacre) crops which can have either genetic or agronomic solutions. The
program aims to increase productivity, sustainability and utilisation of major crops
and cropping systems of mutual importance .

Crop Management in India


In northern region, soil mulching and other practices will help in in-situ conservation
of residual moisture for successful Rabi cropping.
Mulching the basins of Coconut and Arecanut with palm leaves, dry Coconut husk &
coir pith and other crop residues may be followed for effective conservation of
moisture.
One sixth of the 50% dose of the recommended dose of fertilizer may be applied
once a month for Kerala conditions through drip irrigation in Coconut. In case of
other states where there is limited rains, the same dose can be applied once in 2-
months.
In seed spices, harvesting of late sown coriander, cumin and fenugreek is advised. It
must be ensured that the produce is dried well. In dill, irrigation for late sown crop
and harvesting of early sown crop are to be takenup.
Trees on agricultural land may be prunned to open-up canopy for light penetration
for crops. Green weeds and leguminous tree leaves my be lopped and used for
composting, in-situ mulching or for incorporation in soil under puddled condition.
Rainfed crops like blackgram, chickpea, greengram, pigeonpea were affected due to
non occurrence of winter rains. Farmers of eastern region are advised to harvest the
crops at physiological maturity.
It is advised to harvest maize cob and market it instead of going for grain to save
irrigation water.
Since winter season is dry, transplanting of summer rice is advisable where assured
irrigation facilities are available.
Weather and Weather based Crop Management Plan

Land tillage for spring maize, moong, urad, sugarcane, sunflower, jute and maize for
fodder may be taken up. Farmers of eastern region are advised to complete
transplanting of boro rice. In well puddle fields at a spacing of 15x 15 cm. In main
fields 60, 60 and 40 kg N,P and K/ha should be applied as basal application.
Wherever, seedlings are affected due to frost injury, it is advisable to grow rice
seedlings by dapog method to compensate the time loss.
Weeding and interculturing of rabi crops specially winter maize, wheat. Hand
weeding of onion, garlic & other spices are to be attended. Sugarcane should be
harvested and earmarked for ratoon. For broad leaved weeds 2,4-D chemical 625
gm in 700-800 litre water and for Phalaris minor, Isoproturan (75%) 1.0 kg in 800 litre
water/ha should be sprayed. Eradication of Orobanche should be taken up in
mustard, tomato, potato and tobacco fields. Desuckering of tobacco crop has to be
attended to allow better leaf growth on main plant. Top dressing with urea in wheat,
pulses, oilseeds, maize, fodder crops followed by irrigation
In all standing crops light irrigation is to be given.
Sowing of watermelon may be initiated in coastal Orissa.
Crop Protection

For management of Karnal bunt , one spray of propiconazole 25EC @ 0.1% may be
given (in seed crop only) at ear head emergence stage. Instead of one spray of
propiconazole 25 EC, two sprays of T.viride or one spray of T.viride at 31-39 days
and 41-49 days provide a non-chemical (biological control) management of disease.
One spray of T.viride (at 31-39 days) followed by one spray of propiconazole 25 EC
at growth stage 41-49 can be given to attain near complete control.
For charcoal rot management in maize, water stress should be avoided at post-
flowering stage, 3-4 sprays of Mancozeb (Dithane M-45) effectively reduce rust and
Turcicum leaf blight intensity in susceptible varieties.
The weather is conducive for ocurrence of Sigatoka leaf spot disease especially in
Cavendish group of Bananas like Robusta, Grand Naine, Dwarf Cavendish which
are commercially grown in Maharashtra, Gujarat, Karnatak, AP and Tamilnadu.
Banana farmers are advised to spray Propicanazole 0.1% with wetting agent
(Teepol/sandovit 5ml/litre water), Bavistin 0.1%, Calixin 0.1% and Mancozeb 0.2%
each at 21 day interval.
For management of termites, in the standing crop, the broadcasting of the insecticide
treated soil 15 DAS be practiced. For this, Endosulfan 35EC @ 2.3 l/ha or
chloropyriphos @ 3 l/ha be done. This is applicable to safeguard mulch material in
Cocconut and Arecanut basins.
In the North-Western and Indogangatic plans, Bengal gram (chicken pea) crop at
flowering stage shall attract pod borer damage. If the larvae cross 2 per plant in 20
plants per acre, spraying of endosulfan or any contact insecticide at 2 litres per
hactare may be taken up. However, the insecticide application should be only need-
based and never as per any schedule.
To control blister beetle in cucumber, collect the adults mechanically and crush them
or spray Endosulfan @ 2ml/litre
Dip the ginger fingers with Redomil MZ72 or Spectra MZ 72 @2gm/lit of water for 30
minutes and keep in the shed
To protect the crop from pea pod borer, spray of 0.05% Monochrotophos 36SL or
0.07% Endosulfan 35EC is advised.
Present weather situation is favourable for the powdery mildew disease in pea crop.
Dusting with sulphur dust @ 25 - 30 kg/ha is advised. Spraying 2-3 times 0.1%
Bavistin or 0.1% Karathane is also effective for the control.
In Kumaon area and in parts of eastern UP, widespread damage of crops due to
white grub is noticed. Drenching of Chlorpyriphos 0.07% is recommended in the
affected patches.
Himalayan rats are seen to damage the cereal crops in Kumaon area. Suitable steps
to install bait stations on a community scale has to be undertaken. The crop loss can
be reduced by timely baiting interventions.
In the north-eastern states bamboo flowering has been reported in Arunachal
Pradesh & Mizoram. The rodent population is expected to explode. Mass trapping
using bamboo traps as well as mass-baiting as a community level campaign may be
taken-up particularly in the districts of Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, Nagaland and
Manipur where rodent explosion is currently seen.
For the management of aphids in wheat crop, foliar spray of Methyl demeton 25EC
@ 2 litre/ha on infected rows at the start of the aphid colonization be given.
Sap sucking insects damage crops such as Oilseed crops, gram and vegetables.
Spray Methyl demeton or Endosulphan or Quinalphos @2 l/ha as and when the
damage crosses designated threshold levels.
Application of Karathane (0.1%) for controlling powdery mildew in Mango is advised.
Wherever there is incidence of attack of fruit and shoot borer in Brinjal, it is
recommended to arrange pheromone traps @ 4 per acre. Clip the infested shoots
and fruits and destroy them. Prophenophos @ 2 ml or Carbaryl @ 3g/l of water may
be sprayed.
For the control of thrips in Chilli, spray of Acephate @ 1.5g/l or Dimethoate 1.5ml/l is
recommended. For management of anthracnose disease spraying Hexaconazole
0.05% is recommended.
For the management of wilt in cumin, drench the soil with the carbendazim 0.2%.
Suggested live irrigation in moisture stress areas for Black pepper, Cardamom and
Vanilla.
Damping-off and Leaf blight disease in Tobacco nurseries under excess moisture
are anticipated. 0.4% Bordeaux mixture (40 gm Copper sulphate and 40 g lime in 10
litre water) or Copper-oxy-chloride 20 g/10 litre/20 sq m or metalaxyl (2g) +
mancozeb (20g) in 10 litre for 100 sq m to be applied.
Pest Management of Coconut Palms

Eriophyid mite infestation in coconut palms can be managed by spraying neem oil-
garlic-soap mixture at 2% concentration.The spray droplet is to be directed towards
second - fifth month old bunch. Avoid spraying in un-pollinated inflorescence. Root
feeding of neem formulations containing 5 % Azadirachtin @ 7.5 ml + 7.5 ml water.
Avoid using wettable sulfur as it brings down the myco-acarine population.
Isolated incidence of stem bleeding has been reported from North Malabar(Kerala),
Pollachi (Tamilnadu) and Ambajipetta (Andhra Pradesh). Integrated disease
management includes regulation of moisture regime, application of organics@50
kg/palm, additional application of 5 kg neem cake fortified with Trichoderma
harzianum. Root feeding with 5% Calixin, chipping and dressing the chiseled portion
with 5% calixin followed by coal tar application.
The Coconut slug caterpillar, Conthyla rotunda has caused severe damage to the
palms in Nagercoil District of Tamil Nadu. In addition to coconut they feed on banana
also. They can be managed by spraying carbaryl 0.1%, / chlorpyriphos 0.05 %. In
addition release of predatory pentatomid bug, Eucanthecona furcellata are found
effective in managing the pest.
Rhinoceros beetle: Fill the leaf axils with naphthalene balls 10g (4 nos.) & neem
cake 250g + fine sand (250g). Placing pheromone traps helps in monitoring tree and
to capture the adult beetles. Spray carbaryl 50% WP 0.01% (200mg/ lit. of water) in
breeding sites.
Red palm weevil: Stem injection of 1% Carbaryl 50 % WP @ 1 litre per palm. Place
pheromone traps @ 1 per ha. The adult weevils can also be trapped using
attractants such as fresh toddy fermented with yeast/acetic acid or fermented
mixture of crushed sugarcane+ jaggery + Banana.
Black headed caterpillar: Spraying Dichlorvos @ 0.02 % or malathion @ 0.05 %
helps to bring down the population.
INTEGRATED CROP MANAGEMENT (ICM)

ICM is a system of crop production which conserves and enhances natural


resources while producing food on an economically viable and sustainable
foundation. It is based on a good understanding of the interactions between biology,
environment and land management systems.

ICM is particularly appropriate for small farmers because it aims to minimize


dependence on purchased inputs and to make the fullest possible use of indigenous
technical knowledge and land use practices.
Previous subjects have dealt with the historical problems associated with production
orientated agriculture and consequential environmental build up. This subject area
examines the concepts of, and need for long term agricultural sustainability. The flow
chart above, details, the concepts of integrated farming systems and their evolution.

In the UK it is not always possible to keep livestock alongside arable crops, and for
this reason Integrated Crop Management was developed:

There are two definitions of ICM in use in the UK at present:

Sustainable Development White Paper:

To provide an adequate supply of food and other products in an efficient manner. To


minimise consumption of non-renewable and other resources. To safeguard the
quality of soil, water and the air and to preserve, where feasible, biodiversity in the
landscape.

British Agrochemical Association, in conjunction with the ATB, LEAF and


Sainsbury's:

ICM is a method of farming that balances the requirements of running a profitable


business with responsibility and sensitivity to the environment. It includes practices
that avoid waste, enhance energy efficiency and minimize pollution. ICM combines
the best of modern technology with some basic principles of good farming practice
and is a whole farm, long term strategy.

ICM is a 'whole farm approach' which is site specific and includes:


The use of crop rotations
Appropriate cultivation techniques
Careful choice of seed varieties
Minimum reliance on artificial inputs such as fertilisers, pesticides and fossil
fuels
Maintenance of the landscape
The enhancement of wildlife habitats

Maize and clover intercropping. The clover provides ground cover (erosion
minimisation) and nitrogen fixation therefore reducing artificial inputs. Sustainable?
One of the main objectives of ICM is the reduction or replacement of external farm
inputs, such as inorganic fertilizers, pesticides and fuel, by means of farm produced
substitutes and better management of inputs. Total replacement is not possible
without significant loss of yields, but partial substitution of inputs can be achieved by
the use of natural resources, the avoidance of waste and efficient management of
external inputs. This would then lead to reduced production cost and less
environmental degradation. The principals and practices of ICM are outlined below:

Crop rotations:

Increase diversity of crop species to prevent disease and pest carry over from crop
to crop

Ensure effective nutrient uptake by scheduling crops with different nitrogen demands
in the correct sequences

Preserve soil fertility, structure and minimize erosion by ensuring adequate crop
cover, good rooting depth and reduction of compaction

Use of disease resistant cultivars to minimize the need for agro chemical inputs
Soil protection:

Minimal cultivations to:

Reduce energy usage (i.e. fuel)

Reduce soil erosion

Reduce adverse effects on soil invertebrates such as earthworms and predatory


beetles and spiders

However, there should be effective seedbed preparation and crop establishment


Cultivations dependent on soil type, climate and topography of individual farms
Crop nutrition:

Nutrient inputs should be carefully balanced in respect of:

Individual crop requirements

Crop off takes

Soil residues and residues from previous crop

Regular soil analysis is recommended

Use of cover crops/green manures before spring sown crops to minimize leaching
and erosion
Crop protection:

Integrated pest management

Minimal use of well selected pesticides, i.e. ones that have minimal off target effects

Alternative husbandry techniques such as mechanical weeding

In crop monitoring systems (such as traps) to assess pest levels to scale pesticide
use to the level of the problem

Improve habitat for predators to increase natural level of biological control


Wildlife and landscape:

Planning a programme for the whole farm (cropped and non cropped areas) to
enhance biodiversity and landscape features:

Hedges, ditches, field margins, beetle banks and conservation headlands allowing
wild species to establish and migrate, and to provide recreational areas for people

A greater diversity of broad leaved weeds may be left within crops to provide food
sources for birds and insects, providing the aggressive crop damaging weeds are
contained
Energy efficiency:
Detailed analysis of energy use, especially fossil fuels

Remedial action to minimize waste

Consider alternative energy sources

Change in cultivation practice, i.e. less passes

Replacement of high fuel consumption machinery, with more efficient alternatives

Rationalization of vehicle movements


Pause for thought.........Do farmers generally take into account fuel efficiency when
purchasing machinery, or are they more concerned with horsepower and versatility?

Efficient machine or expensive fuel guzzler?


Pollution and waste:

Strict following of codes of practice

Recycling of crop residues

recycling or safe disposal of non organic wastes


There are currently four large scale ICM research projects in the UK, the largest of
which is Linking Environment and Farming (LEAF). This is a charitable organisation,
launched in 1991 who's main aim is to promote ICM. LEAF currently has 24
demonstration farms on commercial holdings, with a over 500 farmer members.
LEAF encourages farmers to take up ICM through the LEAF audit, and provides
further guidelines on which farming practices to choose and avoid when working
toward an integrated farm management system. Individual Farm membership costs
from £58.75/year and includes an audit, information pack, regular newsletter etc.

LEAF Linking Environment and Farming web site

ICM in practice

The environmental benefits of ICM are difficult to quantify and are related to longer
term processes. On the long term projects, biodiversity has increased, there have
been improved bird numbers and reduced nitrate leaching and soil erosion. Data
from the experimentation, trial farms and various projects has indicated:
Generally a 5 - 15% yield reduction but indications that this is reducing as
experience grows

Quality of produce is generally maintained

Variable costs reduced by 20 - 30%

Gross margins maintained or slightly increased

Pesticide inputs reduced by 30 - 70%

Nitrogen inputs reduced by 16 - 25%


The drawbacks:

The control of some weeds is very problematic

Omission of ploughing and herbicide treatments can lead to a build up of cleavers,


blackgrass and other weeds

Integrated Crop Management

Fields and Biotopes: Good Neighbors!

Modern agriculture ensures that sufficient food is available

Modern agriculture must produce high yields. This is also possible when intensely
cultivated fields alternate with natural habitats in which countless animal and plant
species thrive. Integrated Crop Management aims to reconcile the economic
demands on agriculture with environmental protection. The coexistence of
agricultural land and wildlife sanctuaries is also an important aspect of this principle.

Agriculture and species diversity are not contradictory concepts

In its projects on Integrated Crop Management and on Biodiversity, Bayer


CropScience has shown that agriculture and species diversity are not contradictory
concepts and can even benefit from each other. The company has implemented
Integrated Crop Management on its two experimental farms in England since 2003.
Part of each of the 25-hectare farms has been specifically reserved for non-
agricultural use. This land provides space for hedges, orchards, wildflower
meadows, fruit gardens, dikes and ponds – all excellent habitats for a variety of
animal and plant species.

Many fruit trees depend on pollination by flying pollen carriers like bees.

A new home for bullfinches and his friends

The arrangement has been fully accepted. In the meantime bullfinches, corn
buntings, skylarks and other birds have nested in the hedges and trees. Brimstone
butterflies lay their eggs, field mice enjoy the plentiful insect prey, and bees collect
nectar from the wildflower meadows. These pollen collectors are a good example of
the synergy between species diversity and agriculture. Those who offer bees food
and a habitat also help commercial fruit growers, since many fruit trees depend on
pollination by flying pollen carriers like bees.

British farmers frequently visit Bayer CropScience’s farms in England to gather


useful tips on how they can improve biodiversity on their own farms.

Bayer CropScience has also gained experience with biodiversity projects in Brazil.
Together with a citrus farmer, the company is working, for example, on a concept to
try to stop the drying up of a waterway along the farm and the resulting erosion.
Some 8,000 saplings of native species have been planted along the banks. The new
vegetation has not only prevented the reduction of the water level, but also has
attracted many birds and insects to the farmland, thus increasing the species
diversity. Numerous farmers throughout the country have now followed this example.

Providing a protective shield to reap a good harvest


At Biostadt India Limited, we understand the importance of protecting the crops that
provide ample nourishment to the entire human race. Gauging the critical importance
of this aspect in farming, Biostadt India Limited has lined up an array of the best
products, services and programs to help you nurture your crops and reap the
benefits of healthy produce.

Biostadt India Limited have a diverse range in crop protection chemicals that include
45 products, ranging from insecticides, fungicides, herbicides and adjuvants.

Our manufacturing base for crop protection chemicals is located in North and Central
India. Added to this, our tie-up with ISO 9000 toll manufacturers helps us in offering
you specialty products like Wapkil, Dartriz, Evident etc. Moreover, our strategic
spread over 25,000 retail centers ensures that you get the requisite product,
promptly, without any time lag.

A successful alliance with world leaders in Agro Chemical business has added more
weight to our global standing and helped us market their star products in India.

A vivid demonstration of our crop protection products in the field has helped us prove
its efficacy in controlling crop disease and eradicating weeds and pests. The legible
label instructions on our products focus on optimizing safety for the user and the
land. Also, our crop protection products offer various options at pocket-friendly
prices.

At Biostadt, we believe that Mother Earth showers its bounty on those who respect
her as well as protect the environment. And our crop protection chemicals ensure
this with their result - successful produce of healthy crops.

1.1 Agricultural practices

Agriculture in India
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Minor crop Areas in India: P Pulses, S Sugarcane, J Jute, Cn Coconut, C Cotton,


and T Tea.
The fertile Ganges River Delta—known for severe flooding and tropical cyclones—
supports cultivation of jute, tea, and rice. Fisheries are both produced and exported
from this region.
Agriculture in India has a long history dating back to ten thousand years.
Today, India ranks second worldwide in farm output. Agriculture and allied sectors
like forestry and logging accounted for 16.6% of the GDP in 2007, employed 52% of
the total workforce[1] and despite a steady decline of its share in the GDP, is still the
largest economic sector and plays a significant role in the overall socio-economic
development of India.

India is the largest producer in the world of milk, cashew nuts, coconuts, tea, ginger,
turmeric and black pepper,[2] Coffee.[3] It also has the world's largest cattle
population (281 million).[4] It is the second largest producer of wheat, rice, sugar,
groundnut and inland fish.[5] It is the third largest producer of tobacco.[5] India
accounts for 10% of the world fruit production with first rank in the production of
banana and sapota.[5]
India's population is growing faster than its ability to produce rice and wheat.[6]
Initiatives

The required level of investment for the development of marketing, storage and cold
storage infrastructure is estimated to be huge. The government has not been able to
implement various schemes to raise investment in marketing infrastructure. Among
these schemes are Construction of Rural Go downs, Market Research and
Information Network, and Development / Strengthening of Agricultural Marketing
Infrastructure, Grading and Standardization.[7]
The Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI), established in 1905, was
responsible for the research leading to the "Indian Green Revolution" of the 1970s.
The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) is the apex body in agriculture
and related allied fields, including research and education.[8] The Union Minister of
Agriculture is the President of the ICAR. The Indian Agricultural Statistics Research
Institute develops new techniques for the design of agricultural experiments,
analyses data in agriculture, and specializes in statistical techniques for animal and
plant breeding.
Recently Government of India has set up Farmers Commission to completely
evaluate the agriculture program.[9]. However the recommendations have had a
mixed reception.
mixed farming
In August 2001 India's Parliament passed the Plant Variety Protection and Farmers'
Rights Act, a sui generis legislation. Being a WTO member, India had to comply with
TRIPS and include PVP. However, farmers' rights are of particular importance in
India and thus the Act also allows for farmers to save, sow and sell seeds as they
always have, even if it is of a protected variety. This not only saves the livelihoods of
many farmers, it also provides an environment for the continuing development and
use of landraces, says Suman Sahai. The way it always was
[edit]Problems

Slow agricultural growth is a concern for policymakers as some two-thirds of India’s


people depend on rural employment for a living. Current agricultural practices are
neither economically nor environmentally sustainable and India's yields for many
agricultural commodities are low. Poorly maintained irrigation systems and almost
universal lack of good extension services are among the factors responsible.
Farmers' access to markets is hampered by poor roads, rudimentary market
infrastructure, and excessive regulation.
—World Bank: "India Country Overview 2008"[10]
The low productivity in India is a result of the following factors:
According to World Bank, Indian Branch: Priorities for Agriculture and Rural
Development", India's large agricultural subsidies are hampering productivity-
enhancing investment. Overregulation of agriculture has increased costs, price risks
and uncertainty. Government intervenes in labour, land, and credit markets. India
has inadequate infrastructure and services.[11] World Bank also says that the
allocation of water is inefficient, unsustainable and inequitable. The irrigation
infrastructure is deteriorating.[11] The overuse of water is currently being covered by
over pumping aquifers, but as these are falling by foot of groundwater each year, this
is a limited resource.[12]
Illiteracy, general socio-economic backwardness, slow progress in implementing
land reforms and inadequate or inefficient finance and marketing services for farm
produce.
Inconsistent government policy. Agricultural subsidies and taxes often changed
without notice for short term political ends.
The average size of land holdings is very small (less than 20,000 m²) and is subject
to fragmentation, due to land ceiling acts and in some cases, family disputes. Such
small holdings are often over-manned, resulting in disguised unemployment and low
productivity of labour.
Adoption of modern agricultural practices and use of technology is inadequate,
hampered by ignorance of such practices, high costs and impracticality in the case of
small land holdings.
Irrigation facilities are inadequate, as revealed by the fact that only 52.6% of the land
was irrigated in 2003–04,[13] which result in farmers still being dependent on rainfall,
specifically the Monsoon season. A good monsoon results in a robust growth for the
economy as a whole, while a poor monsoon leads to a sluggish growth.[14] Farm
credit is regulated by NABARD, which is the statutory apex agent for rural
development in the subcontinent. At the same time overpumping made possible by
subsidized electric power is leading to an alarming drop in aquifer levels.[15][16][17]
[edit]History

Main article: History of agriculture in India


Indian agriculture began by 9000 BC as a result of early cultivation of plants, and
domestication of crops and animals.[18] Settled life soon followed with implements
and techniques being developed for agriculture.[19][20] Double monsoons led to two
harvests being reaped in one year.[21] Indian products soon reached the world via
existing trading networks and foreign crops were introduced to India.[21][22] Plants
and animals—considered essential to their survival by the Indians—came to be
worshiped and venerated.[23]
The middle ages saw irrigation channels reach a new level of sophistication in India
and Indian crops affecting the economies of other regions of the world under Islamic
patronage.[24][25] Land and water management systems were developed with an
aim of providing uniform growth.[26][27] Despite some stagnation during the later
modern era the independent Republic of India was able to develop a comprehensive
agricultural program.[28][29]
Agriculture in Tamil Nadu
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Paddy fields at Kanyakumari district in Tamil Nadu

Tea Plantation in The Nilgiris district of Tamil Nadu


Agriculture is the most predominant sector of the economy of Tamil Nadu, a state in
India. 70% of the states population is engaged in agriculture and allied activities for
their livelihood.[1] Tamil Nadu has as an area of 1.3 Lakh km2 with a gross cropped
area of around 58.43 lakh hectares of which the Gross Irrigated Area is 33.09 lakh
hectares which is 57% and the balance 43% of the area are under rainfed cultivation.
[2] Tamil Nadu is the home land of Dr M.S. Swaminathan, known as the "Father of
the Green Revolution" in India. The state is historically known for its agriculture from
ancient times. Annual food grains production in the year 2007-08 was 100.35 lakh
mt.[3] But now this is steadily declining due to industrialisation and real estate
business. The younger generation rapidly moves out of villages due to education and
white collar jobs and that is also worstly hit this sector.

Important crops

Gingelly Field in Regunathapuram of Pudukkottai district in Tamil Nadu


The principal food crops are rice, maize, jowar (cholam), bajra (cumbu), ragi, and
pulses (Bengalgram, Redgram, Greengram, Blackgram and Horsegram). The cash
crops include cotton, sugarcane, oilseeds, coffee, tea, rubber, coconut, gingelly and
chillies. The important horticultural products are bananas and mangoes.[4].The state
is the largest producer of bananas,[5] flowers,[6] tapioca,[6] the second largest
producer of mangoes,[6] natural rubber,[7] coconut,[8] groundnut and the third
largest producer of coffee,[9] sapota,[6] tea[10] and sugarcane.[11] Tamil Nadu's
sugarcane yield per hectare is the highest in India.[11] The state has 17,000
hectares of land under oil palm cultivation, the second highest in India.[12] . Paddy is
grown in large excess because rice is the main staple food of the state. There are
three crops based on duration. The first one is the ‘Kuruvali’ (the short term crop)
with duration of three and a half to four months from June to July to Oct - Nov. The
second crop is called the ‘Thaladi’ that grown in 5 to 6 months Oct - Nov to Feb -
March. Third is 'Samba' and has a duration of almost 6 months from Aug to January.
[4]
[edit]Horticulture

Grapes Cultivation Theni district of Tamil Nadu


Tamil Nadu with Seven agro-climatic conditions and varied soil types is better placed
for production of Fruits, Vegetables, Spices, Plantation crops, Flowers, Medicinal
and Aromatic plants.[13] Horticulture is the fastest growing sector within agriculture
in Tamil Nadu. About 10.96 lakh ha. is covered under various horticultural crops.[13]
The total production of horticultural crops is 192.28 lakh MT.[13] In terms of
production, Tamil Nadu accounts for 10% in fruits and 6% in vegetables, in India.[14]
Horticulture is an important segment of Agriculture sector which contributes about
one - fifth share in the economy of Agriculture and allied sectors.[13]. Mango and
Banana are the leading fruit crops in Tamil Nadu accounting for over 87% of the total
fruit production. The main vegetables grown are Tapioca, Tomato, Onion, Brinjal and
Drumstick. Tamil Nadu is also a leading state in the production of flowers with the
total production of horticultural crops standing at 99.47 Lakhs during 2003-04. The
main flowers grown in Tamil Nadu are Jasmine, Mullai, Chrysanthemum, Marigold
and Rose.

Vegetable Plantation in The Nilgiris district of Tamil Nadu


[edit]Horticulture training centres
The horticulture training centres functioning in Tamil Nadu are:[13]
Kudumianmalai (Pudukkottai district)
Madhavaram (Thiruvallur district)
Thali (Krishnagiri district)
Ooty (The Nilgiris)
[edit]Sugar industry

Sugar Industry is an Agro-based industry and Sugarcane is cultivated by about 5


Lakhs farmers in Tamil Nadu. The registered Sugarcane crop is cultivated in an area
of 2.5 to 3.0 Lakh Hectares comprising of about 2% of the total cultivable area.[15]
Tamil Nadu's sugarcane yield per hectare is the highest in India.[11]
[edit]Sugar mills in Tamil Nadu
There are 41 Sugar Mills in Tamil Nadu comprising of 16 Sugar Mills in Co-operative
Sector, 3 Sugar Mills in Public Sector and 22 Sugar Mills in Private Sector. Presently
38 Sugar Mills are functioning while 3 mills viz. Madurantakam Co-operative Sugar
Mill (from 2001-02 season) Madura Sugars(from 2002-03 season) and Arunachalam
Sugar Mills (from 2003-04 season) are not functioning.[15]
[edit]Animal husbandry

Main article: Animal husbandry in Tamil Nadu

Farmer with oxen in Tamil Nadu 1993


The livelihoods of most rural and low income communities in Tamil Nadu are to a
large extent based on agriculture / livestock / poultry. The Animal Husbandry sector
plays a vital role in providing subsidiary employment to rural folk and guaranteed
household income to landless agricultural labourers, small and marginal farmers.
The Milk production which was 55.60 lakh tonnes during 2006 07 increased to 56.73
lakh tonnes during 2008-09, an increase of 2%. Likewise, during the same period,
the estimated Egg production increased from 8041.521 million numbers to 8809.774
million numbers, an increase of 10%.[16] Estimated Meat production increased from
220 million kg in 2006-07 to 419 million kg in 2008-09, an increase of 90%.[16]
During the year 2008-09, the per capita availability of milk is 235 grams per day and
egg is 133 numbers per annum.[16]
[edit]Livestock
During the year 2008–09, the gross value of output of livestock in the State was
14,489.98 crores.[16] The contribution of livestock sector to the Gross State
Domestic Product is 2.88% and to the agriculture and allied activities it is 26.89%.
The value of leather and leather products exported from Tamil Nadu was 5,827.51
crores.[16] The State contributes 5.23 % of total milk production and 15.83% of total
egg production and stands 9th in milk production and 2nd in egg production in the
country. The total area available for grazing in the State is 1.10 lakh hectares.[16]
[edit]Poultry

A chick in Tamil Nadu


Poultry rearing which had been a cottage industry all along has now become a big
industry by itself in many places in the districts of Namakkal, Salem, Erode and
Coimbatore. There is a good potential for export of eggs, egg products and frozen
chicken meat from our State to Gulf countries, Russia etc.[16] The Tamil Nadu
poultry industry contributes 16.5% of country’s total poultry export.[16]
[edit]Fisheries

Fishing boats on Palk Strait in Tamil Nadu


Fish is a source of healthy food for humanity at large. Historically, Fishing has been
a major source of livelihood for coastal and inland fishing communities. In recent
years, fisheries have become an important economic activity and contribute to
significant growth in nutritional security, employment generation and foreign
exchange earnings. Tamil Nadu is one of the important coastal States in the East
coast, Tamil Nadu is having a coastline of 1076 km. It has 13 Coastal Districts and
591 fishing villages with 363 fish landing centres. Tamil Nadu ranks third in Marine
fish production and the annual marine fish catch for the year 2008-09 was 3.97 lakh
tonnes.[17] During 2008-09, about 68,397 M.T. of marine products valued at
1,77,220.00 lakhs was exported from Tamil Nadu.[17]
[edit]Dairy
Milk is the prime product of Dairying. India is the largest milk producing country in the
World, in which Tamil Nadu is one of the frontline States in milk production and ranks
as number one in the country in the coverage of more than 50% of revenue villages
under Co-operative ambit.[18] There are 8246 functional primary milk societies with
22.29 lakhs members.[18]
[edit]Governance

Paddy Fields in Thanjavur district of Tamil Nadu

Paddy Fields in Tamil Nadu


The Central and Tamil Nadu State Government is continuously taking efforts to
make Agriculture which is a primary sector, as a growth engine for economic
development of the State. During 2006-07 the State Government have waived
agriculture loan obtained from Co operative Banks to the tune of 6,866 crores.[19]
The Government of India during 2007-08 waived agricultural loan obtained from
Commercial Banks at national level amounting to 60,000 crores. Out of which
2,843.90 crores waived for the agriculture loan obtained by Tamil Nadu farmers from
Commercial Banks.[19]
[edit]State support for agriculture
The major initiatives undertaken by the Government of Tamil Nadu to achieve the
targeted agricultural production during 2009-10 are listed below:- [2]
Adoption of System of Rice Intensification technology .
Promotion of Precision Farming - adoption of drip fertigation with all scientific
practices.
Restoration of Soil Health – Need based Macro and Micro Nutrient application as per
Soil Health Card recommendations.
Quality seed supply – Promotion of newly released High Yielding / Hybrids. Special
steps to enhance the availability of quality pulses seeds and oilseeds.
Encouraging production of Vermi Compost at Farm Hold Level and Municipal
Compost production and Bio-input production by Self Help Groups for enriching soil
health besides promoting green manuring and use of bio-fertilizers.
Promotion of Micro Irrigation – especially for high water intensive crops like
sugarcane and coconut
Special focus to enhance the productivity of pulses through DAP spraying / Micro
Nutrient application and timely plant protection.
Steps to promote soil and moisture conservation measures, compartmental bunding,
establishsing farm ponds and adoption of dryland development technologies to
enhance productivity of rainfed crops, besides distribution of machineries suitable for
rainfed condition.
Farm Mechanization - Distribution of machineries to overcome the problem of labour
scarcity.
Technology dissemination through private extension and input supply by establishing
Agri Clinics with soil testing facilities in all the blocks.
Empowerment of farm women groups technologically, socially, and economically by
involving them to take up entrepreneurial activities.[2]
[edit]Agricultural marketing and Agri-business

Agriculture sector needs ‘well-functioning Market’ to drive growth, employment and


economic prosperity. The Department of Agricultural Marketing, which is functioning
since 1977 enhance many activities, some of them are:[20]
Establishment and maintenance of Uzhavar Sandhais for the benefit of farmers as
well as consumers.
Establishment and maintenance of regulated markets to facilitate marketing of
agricultural produce for the benefit of the farming community.
Creating awareness among the farmers about the benefits of grading, marketing,
value addition and processing their produce through regulated markets by taking up
training, publicity and propaganda.
Agmark grading of agricultural, animal husbandry and forestry products for the
benefit of the consumers.
Setting up Agriculture Export Zones for promoting export of agricultural produce by
increasing the area under exportable crops and also providing necessary post
harvest management and other infrastructure required and information on prices
prevailing at international markets as an integrated approach. Dissemination of
market price information of various districts through media and internet on a daily
basis for the benefit of farming community.
Promotion of Food Processing to minimize wastage of agricultural products and to
increase employment opportunities.[20]
1.2 Basic practices of crop protection

1.3 Preparation of soil and sowing

1.4 Types of irrigation

1.5 Protection from weeds


1.6 Harvesting.

1.7 Storage

1.8 Marketing

1.9 Rotation of crops

1.10 Biotechnology in Agriculture

1.11 Biotechnology in food processing

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