CBFC1103 Introduction To Communication PDF

CBFC1103
INTRODUCTION TO
COMMUNICATION
Massila Hamzah
Arfah Yusof
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Project Directors: Prof Dr Mansor Fadzil
Dr Rozeman Abu Hassan
Open University Malaysia
Module Writers: Massila Hamzah

University Teknologi MARA
Arfah Yusof
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
Moderators: Dr Mohd Yusoff Hj Abdullah

Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
Prof Dr Rahmah Hashim

Norfardilawati Musa
Developed by: Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

Open University Malaysia
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Lot 47-48, Jalan SR 1/9, Seksyen 9,
Jalan Serdang Raya, Taman Serdang Raya,
43300 Seri Kembangan, Selangor Darul Ehsan
First Edition, November 2008

Second Edition, December 2011
Third Edition, August 2013 (rs)
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM), August 2013, CBFC1103
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form or by any means
without the written permission of the President, Open University Malaysia (OUM).

Table of Contents
Course Guide xi-xv
Topic 1 The Basic Concepts of Communication 1

1.1 Various Definitions of Communication 2
1.2 The Importance of Communication 7
1.2.1 Communication in Personal Life 7
1.2.2 Career Improvement 7
1.2.3 Ethics in Communicating 8
1.2.4 Adaptation in Multicultural Society 8
1.2.5 Effects of Changes in Technology and 9
Relationship
1.3 Elements in the Communication Process 10
1.3.1 Source 11
1.3.2 Receiver 13
1.3.3 Message 14
1.3.4 Channel 17
1.3.5 Noise 19
1.3.6 Feedback 20
1.3.7 Frame of Reference 21
1.3.8 Context 22
1.4 Functions of Communication 22
1.4.1 Information 25
1.4.2 Education 26
1.4.3 Persuasion 26
1.4.4 Entertainment 27
1.4.5 Socialisation of the Society 28
Summary 28
Key Terms 29
Topic 2 The scope of Communication 30

2.1 Forms of Communication 31
2.1.1 Intrapersonal Communication 31
2.1.2 Interpersonal Communication 33
2.1.3 Group Communication 37

iv X TABLE OF CONTENTS
2.1.4 Public Communication 39

2.1.5 Mass Communication 42
2.1.6 Organisational Communication 45
2.1.7 Intercultural Communication 47
2.1.8 Online Communication 49
2.2 Development and Prospect of Communication Discipline 55
Summary 56
Key Terms 56
Topic 3 Communication Models 57

3.1 Several Perspectives on Communication Models 58
3.1.1 Linear Model 59
3.1.2 Interactive Model 61
3.1.3 Transaction Model 63
Summary 64
Key Terms 64
Topic 4 Introduction to Self-Concept and Communication 65

4.1 Communication as a System 66
4.2 Communication and Self-identity 67
4.2.1 Self-concept and Communication 68
4.2.2 Gender and the Formation of Self 72
4.2.3 Communication Skills in the Process of 73
Initiating Interaction
4.2.4 How to Reduce Uncertainties in Communication 74
4.3 Communication with Family Members 75
4.3.1 Communication in a Family System 76
4.3.2 Importance of Communication in a Family System 70
Summary 82
Key Terms 82
Topic 5 Communication in the Context of Relationship 83

5.1 Communication and Personal Relations 84
5.1.1 The Importance of Establishing Personal
Relationships 85
5.2 Evolution of Personal Relationship 85
5.2.1 Phases of Relationship and Communication Needs 87
5.2.2 Controlling Conflict in Personal Relations 89
5.3 Communication at the Workplace 90

TABLE OF CONTENTS W v
5.3.1 The Function of Communication at the Workplace 91

5.3.2 Factors Influencing Personal Relation at Workplace 92
5.4 Communication and Society 95
5.4.1 Understanding the Concept of Society 95
5.4.2 Communication and Social Change in the Society 98
5.5 Understanding Communication in Intercultural Relation 99
5.5.1 Meaning of Culture and Intercultural Concept 99
5.5.2 Cultural Implication in the Context of 100
Personal Relationship
Summary 102
Key Terms 103
Topic 6 Verbal Communication 104

6.1 Introduction to Verbal and Non-verbal Communication 105
6.2 Symbol and Meaning in Verbal Communication 106
6.3 Functions of Verbal Communication 108
6.4 The Aspects of Syntax, Semantics and Pragmatics in 109
Language
6.4.1 Syntax 109
6.4.2 Semantics 109
6.4.3 Pragmatics 110
6.5 Improving the Effectiveness of Message 112
6.6 Functions of Language 112
6.7 Effective Verbal Communication 114
6.8 Barriers in Verbal Communication 116
Summary 117
Key Terms 118
Topic 7 Non-verbal Communication 119

7.1 Introduction on Non-verbal Communication 120
7.2 Signals in Non-verbal Communication 121
7.3 Characteristics of Non-verbal Communication 129
7.4 The Functions of Non-verbal Communication 132
7.5 Factors Influencing Non-verbal Communication 134
7.6 The Strength of Non-verbal Communication 136
7.7 Guidelines for Effective Non-verbal Communication 136
Summary 138
Key Terms 139

vi X TABLE OF CONTENTS
Topic 8 Introduction to Mass Media 140

8.1 The Meaning of Mass Communication 140
8.2 Development of Mass Communication 146
8.3 Factors Influencing Mass Communication 149
8.4 Mass Communication Models 150
Summary 153
Key Terms 154
Topic 9 Functions and Effects of Mass Media 155

9.1 Importance of Mass Communication in Life 156
9.2 Functions of the Mass Media 156
9.2.1 Surveillance 157
9.2.2 Interpretation 158
9.2.3 Linkage 158
9.2.4 Socialisation and Value Distribution 159
9.2.5 Entertainment 160
9.2.6 Persuasion 160
9.2.7 Influence 160
9.3 Purposes of Using Mass Media 162
9.3.1 Fulfilling the Desire to Know 162
9.3.2 Reducing Stress 162
9.3.3 Socialisation 163
9.4 Effects of Mass Communication 164
9.4.1 The Individual and Society 164
9.4.2 Social Criticism 164
9.4.3 Media Needs and Social Needs 165
9.4.4 The Knowledge Gap 165
9.5 The Link between Functions and Effects of 166
Media with Theory
9.5.1 Uses and Satisfaction 166
9.5.2 Agenda Determination 167
9.5.3 Cultivation Analysis 168
9.5.4 Individual Differences 168
9.6 Challenges in Interacting with Mass Media 169
9.6.1 Ethical Issues 169
9.6.2 Critical Mind towards Mass Communication 170
9.6.3 Media Dependence 171
Summary 171
Key Terms 172

TABLE OF CONTENTS W vii
Topic 10 Introduction to Communication Technology 173

10.1 The Technology of Communication Media 174
10.2 Convergence of Information Technology and 175
Communication
10.3 The Impact of Technology on the Media Landscape 178
10.3.1 Print Media in the Digital Age 178
10.3.2 Electronic Media in the Digital Age 180
10.4 The Challenges of Combining Technology and 184
Media Communication
10.4.1 Media Globalisation Issue 185
10.4.2 Information Flow 186
10.4.3 The Birth of a New Community 188
Summary 191
Key Terms 192
Topic 11 Information and Communication Technology in the 193

Context of Relationships
11.1 Communication Technology in the Context of 194
Human Relationship
11.2 Communication Technology and Self-identity 194
11.3 Implications of Communication Technology in 196
Personal Relationship
11.4 Communication Technology in Non-verbal Interaction 198
11.5 Implication of Information and Communication 199
Technology in the Context of the Organisation
11.6 Implications of Information Technology on Group 201
Communication
11.7 Ethics in Virtual Communication 203
Summary 207
Key Terms 207
References 208

viiiX TABLE OF CONTENTS

COURSE GUIDE

ii X PANDUAN KURSUS

COURSE GUIDE W xi
COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION

You must read this Course Guide carefully from the beginning to the end. It tells
you briefly what the course is about and how you can work your way through
the course material. It also suggests the amount of time you are likely to spend in
order to complete the course successfully. Please keep on referring to the Course
Guide as you go through the course material as it will help you to clarify
important study components or points that you might miss or overlook.
INTRODUCTION
CBFC1103 Introduction to Communication is one of the courses offered by the
Faculty of Applied Social Sciences at Open University Malaysia (OUM). This
course is worth three credit hours and should be covered within 15 weeks.
COURSE AUDIENCE
This is a core course for students pursuing the degree in Bachelor of
Communication and Bachelor of Multimedia Communication. This module aims
to impart the basic concepts in communication, its development and functions in
human relations.
As an open and distance learner, you should be able to learn independently and
optimise the learning modes and environment available to you. Before you begin
this course, please confirm that you have the course material, know the course
requirements and understand how the course is conducted.
STUDY SCHEDULE
It is a standard OUM practice that learners accumulate 40 study hours for every
credit hour. As such, for a three-credit hour course, you are expected to spend 120
study hours. Table 1 gives an estimation of how the 120 study hours could be
accumulated.

xii X COURSE GUIDE
Table 1: Estimation of Time Accumulation of Study Hours
STUDY
STUDY ACTIVITIES
HOURS
Briefly go through the course content and participate in initial 5
discussions
Study the module 60
Attend five tutorial sessions 10
Online participation 12
Revision 18
Assignment(s), Test(s) and Examination(s) 15
TOTAL STUDY HOURS 120
COURSE OUTCOMES
By the end of this course, you should be able to:
1. Be familiar with communication as an important discipline and its
importance in various life contexts;
2. Explain the scope of communication;
3. Identify issues relating to the development of the communication field; and
4. Discuss the implications of information communication technology on
communication.
COURSE SYNOPSIS
This course is divided into 11 topics. The synopsis for each topic is presented
below:
Topic 1 discusses the definition of communication, basic elements of

communication, plus the importance and functions of communication from
various perspectives.
Topic 2 discusses the scope of communication that involves various different

contexts.
Topic 3 explains early models used and how communication takes place in
different contexts.

COURSE GUIDE W xiii
Topic 4 looks at the communication system and people as an important branch in

communication. In addition, it explains how communication influences the self-
adaptation process and the extent it influences the formation of self-identity in
social life, either in the family entity or in society and culture.
Topic 5 discusses the communication system in terms of communication needs.

Communication at workplace is explained by the functions and factors
influencing personal relations at the workplace. The meaning of culture is also
discussed.
Topic 6 explains the important aspects in verbal communication in determining

the effectiveness of communication. Several issues regarding the importance of
language and its functions are also discussed to explain its implications on verbal
communication.
Topic 7 examines the basic principles and symbolic functions of non-verbal

communication. Various examples of non-verbal communication are discussed to
explain the roles and effectiveness of this complex communication. Proposals to
overcome barriers in non-verbal communication as a means of enhancing
effective communication are also discussed.
Topic 8 highlights several perspectives of mass communication from the aspect of

history and development. Various important concepts in mass communication
are introduced in this topic.
Topic 9 explains the functions and effects of mass media communication on

society. The focus of discussion takes into account the implications of functions
and effects of mass media on various aspects of identity and human relations.
Topic 10 examines the challenges of the communication field on media landscape

in the current information era. Communication in cyber space, the issue of access
to information, information explosion, challenges and the implications of
information communication technology are also discussed.
Topic 11 discusses the implications of communication technology and its effects

on people. The discussion focuses on conflict of identity and ethical issues in the
cyber world.

xiv X COURSE GUIDE
TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

Before you go through this module, it is important that you note the text
arrangement. Understanding the text arrangement should help you to organise
your study of this course to be more objective and more effective. Generally, the
text arrangement for each topic is as follows:
Learning Outcomes: This section refers to what you should achieve after you
have completely covered a topic. As you go through each topic, you should
frequently refer to these learning outcomes. By doing this, you can continuously
gauge your understanding of the topic.
Self-Check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations

throughout the module. It may be inserted after one sub-section or a few sub-
sections. It usually comes in the form of a question. When you come across this
component, try to reflect on what you have already learnt thus far. By attempting
to answer the question, you should be able to gauge how well you have
understood the sub-section(s). Most of the time, the answers to the questions can
be found directly from the module itself.
Activity: Like Self-Check, the Activity component is also placed at various

locations or junctures throughout the module. This component may require you
to solve questions, explore short case studies or conduct an observation or
research. It may even require you to evaluate a given scenario. When you come
across an Activity, you should try to reflect on what you have gathered from the
module and apply it to real situations. You should, at the same time, engage
yourself in higher order thinking where you might be required to analyse,
synthesise and evaluate instead of only having to recall and define.
Summary: You will find this component at the end of each topic. This component
helps you to recap the whole topic. By going through the summary, you should
be able to gauge your knowledge retention level. Should you find points in the
summary that you do not fully understand, it would be a good idea for you to
revisit the details in the module.
Key Terms: This component can be found at the end of each topic. You should go
through this component to remind yourself of important terms or jargon used
throughout the module. Should you find terms here that you are not able to
explain, you should look for the terms in the module.

COURSE GUIDE W xv
References: The References section is where a list of relevant and useful

textbooks, journals, articles, electronic contents or sources can be found. The list
can appear in a few locations such as in the Course Guide (at the References
section), at the end of every topic or at the back of the module. You are
encouraged to read or refer to the suggested sources to obtain the additional
information needed and to enhance your overall understanding of the course.
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE
There is no prerequisite requirement for learners taking this subject.
EVALUATION METHOD
Please refer to myVLE.
TAN SRI DR ABDULLAH SANUSI (TSDAS)

DIGITAL LIBRARY
The TSDAS Digital Library has a wide range of print and online resources for the
use of its learners. This comprehensive digital library, which is accessible through
the OUM portal, provides access to more than 30 online databases comprising e-
journals, e-theses, e-books and more. Examples of databases available are
EBSCOhost, ProQuest, SpringerLink, Books24x7, InfoSci Books, Emerald
Management Plus and Ebrary Electronic Books. As an OUM learner, you are
encouraged to make full use of the resources available through this library.

xxvi X COURSE ASSIGNMENT GUIDE

Topic X The Basic
1 Concept of
Communication
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. State the definitions of communication;
2. Describe how communication is involved in all aspects of life;
3. Explain the basic elements of the communication process; and
4. Identify the main functions of communication.
X INTRODUCTION
There are several definitions of communication given by experts that attempt to
explain the process of communication. However, these definitions more or less
differ because these experts are influenced by the contexts and changes in the
communication landscape that take place over time.
Knowing the various definitions of communication will help to explain in detail

how the communication process takes place.

2 X TOPIC 1 THE BASIC CONCEPT OF COMMUNICATION
1.1 VARIOUS DEFINITIONS OF

COMMUNICATION
ACTIVITY 1.1
Based on your understanding, what is communication? Can we say

that communication is a form of human connection via speech?
Discuss.
The general definition considers communication as a process of interaction

and sharing of meaning, exchanging ideas and opinions or sharing of
information either in the form of writing, symbols, sounds or speech,
transmitted face-to-face or via the mass media.
There are various definitions of communication. Some regard it as the act of

channelling information, ideas and behaviours. The objective of communication
is to ensure that a message from one individual to another, gets through. The
word „communication‰ is sometimes used interchangeably with the words
interaction or relation.
To further enhance your understanding of its meaning, we will explore the other
definitions of communication. Each definition has an intended objective meant to
suit a particular time and context. Although communication is considered a
complex process, it can be seen from various dimensions depending on the
context; role of the source and receiver; purpose; and meaning of the symbols
involved. We will now examine the definitions of communication from various
perspectives, based on the purpose for which the communication was made.
(a) Wood (2001)

Wood presented four vital aspects in the definition of communication as a
systemic process involving persons who interact using specific symbols to
form and interpret meaning. This can be seen in Table 1.1.

TOPIC 1 THE BASIC CONCEPT OF COMMUNICATION W 3
Table 1.1: Four Important Aspects of Communication
Process Communication is continuous and always undergoes

changes. It is difficult to determine when it begins and ends.
It is influenced by many factors.
Systemic Communication takes place in a closely related system. It
affects each other. Systems exist from as small as that of a
family to as large as that of an organisation, community or
ethnic group.
Symbolic Communication is symbolic. It involves symbols which are
abstract, arbitrary and ambiguous in meaning.
Meaning Meaning is very important to explain certain phenomenon.
Meaning can also be seen via symbols. Meaning in
communication can be seen at two levels, that is:
(i) Level of content meaning in messages; and
(ii) Level of relation meaning ă what is stated about the
relationship between the communicator and the
message.
Source: Wood (2001)
(b) Verdeber and Verdeber (2002)

Communication is a process of forming and sharing meaning in informal
conversation, group interaction or public speaking. The communication
process involves a communicator, context, message, channel, noise element
and feedback.
(c) Gamble and Gamble (2002)

Communication is defined as the process of transferring meaning, either
intentionally or not. Gamble links experience with observed behaviour, and
perception regarding the behaviour. If the observed behaviour is
interpreted as a message, or if it affects the behaviour of another, then
communication has taken place.
(d) Hybels and Weaver (2001)

Communication is a process of sharing ideas, information and feelings that
involves speech, writing, behaviour and body language. In short, whatever
reaction that offers meaning to a message becomes communication.
(e) Trenholm (2001)

Communication conception is viewed from three perspectives: psychology,
social context and pragmatics. Communication is defined as a combination

of concepts to look at how people use symbols (in the form of words) to
form uniformity in meaning to be shared with others.
From the psychological perspective, the meaning of communication is

focused on what happens in the mind at the time a message is transmitted
and received. On the other hand, the social context perspective looks at
communication as a process whereby people use a medium of
communication to form a collective picture of reality. This perspective
focuses on the relationship between communication and a shared culture.
Different from the two previous perspectives, pragmatics look at
communication as an inter-related system and involves an action which
would consequently form certain patterns. According to this perspective,
people have their own communication styles.
Based on the definitions presented, it is clear that the objective of the person who
is communicating or interacting with another person is to create a „uniformity‰
with that person (see Figure 1.1). In other words, when communicating, we try to
share thoughts, beliefs and social values with other people with the objective of
finding a „uniformity‰ between the communicators. Achieving a „uniformity‰ in
interaction is very important because without it, there will be a communication
breakdown.
Besides uniformity, transmitting what we feel is also an important element in

communication. In short, the traditional definition of communication is to share
and transmit ideas among not only individuals but also groups and the
community. Sharing here refers to the exchange of ideas between personalities,
cultures and practices. Transmission, on the other hand, refers to a mediator in
the form of technology used to deliver the messages.
Figure 1.1: Communication aims at finding „uniformity‰ in relations among humans
In the study of communication, we examine human relationships taking place in

groups, organisations or societies. We try to understand how man influences each
other, informing and being informed, entertained or giving entertainment. To

understand communication among humans, the first thing that needs to be

understood is how people relate to one another.
When a relationship runs very well, individuals become satisfied and pleased by
the experience. If the reverse takes place, misunderstanding and conflict will
plague the relationship.
Every definition of communication is about its functions and uses as reflected in

Figure 1.2.
Figure 1.2: Functions and uses of communication
SELF-CHECK 1.1
Give examples of scenarios where communication is used to do the
following:
(a) Forms uniformity between a person and another;
(b) Distributes information;
(c) Transmits ideas; and
(d) Shares information.

ACTIVITY 1.2
The concept of „Art for the Society‰ is always upheld by artistes such
as poets, painters, musicians, etc. Do you know that the media used by
them are also a form of communication that can connect the artiste
with the society? What is your opinion on this matter?
In conclusion, the definition of communication can be divided into three

categories as follows:
(a) Delivery and distribution of information by imparting ideas, knowledge,
thoughts and messages.
(b) Generation of ideas for specific purposes.
(c) Sharing of meaning between the source and receiver in forming a
relationship.
ACTIVITY 1.3
What is communication?
1. Communication is a process of acting on information.
2. Communication is a process whereby people assign meanings to
stimuli in order to make sense of the world.
3. Communication is the transmission of ideas, emotions and skills
by using graphics, symbols and words.
4. Communication is a sharing of information.
5. Communication is a process where one person tells something to
another through the written or spoken word.
Which of the definitions above give the most accurate meaning of

communication? What can you conclude about communication from the
above definitions?

1.2 THE IMPORTANCE OF COMMUNICATION

Have you ever thought of the importance of communication in your daily life?
What do you think will happen if communication does not exist in your daily
life?
Communication takes place all the time and sometimes it happens without being
realised. A person involves himself in communication either verbally or non-
verbally. This can be seen from various activities such as talking, listening,
thinking, watching films, watching television, listening to the radio, discussing in
a group or meditating. A person who is silent may be communicating within
himself as he is thinking of something.
The capacity to communicate well and effectively is often related to the success of
a person in adapting himself in various situations be it in personal relationships,
between members of different cultures, and in oneÊs professional and private life.
The failure to communicate well will affect the establishment of relationships.
The importance of communication can be seen in several aspects that involve:
(a) Our personal lives;
(b) Career advancement;
(c) Ethics in communicating;
(d) Adapting in a multicultural society; and
(e) Changes in technology and relationships.
1.2.1 Communication in Personal Life

An individual sees himself from the viewpoint of the other person as the
interaction takes place between friends, acquaintances, spouses, students and
lecturers or parents and their children. In personal relationships, communication
is the basis of interaction between two or more people.
1.2.2 Career Improvement

The capacity to communicate influences a personÊs success in career (see Figure
1.3). It is undeniable that having expertise in a certain field is essential, but the
ability to communicate well and effectively is an advantage sought by employers.
This is because a person who can communicate well is able to speak, listen, think
and adapt himself in a group whose members come from similar or different
cultures. It also helps in generating ideas clearly.

Figure 1.3: The importance of communication in career improvement
1.2.3 Ethics in Communicating

We need to look at ethics in communicating because it involves moral principles or
what is right and wrong. Issues with ethics sometimes may damage relationships,
adversely affecting interaction between workers and employers, causing a leader to
lose his followerÊs confidence, creating chaos in society or breaking friendships and
family ties. In short, ethical issues in communication are related to the sense of
responsibility and respect of the persons communicating.
1.2.4 Adaptation in a Multicultural Society

Life in a multiracial society (Figure 1.4) or community requires a person to adapt
himself in order to live peacefully. Knowledge, sensitivity, respect and a positive
attitude towards other cultures, languages, customs and ways of life can help in
communicating with them.
Figure 1.4: Respect for other cultures contributes to better communication

1.2.5 Effects of Changes on Technology and

Relationship
Technological advancement changes the method of communication between
people. Technology facilitates the delivery, sharing as well as receiving of
messages quickly for those who have access to it. Virtual communication has
brought many implications to personal relationships and communities.
Technological progress enables people to communicate without borders and
restrictions (see Figure 1.5).
Figure 1.5: Technological advancements in communication
ACTIVITY 1.4
In your opinion, what are the implications of technology on face-

to-face communication? Explain.
„I would like to create computer softwares. I know computer softwares

can be a big business. I do not know whether I will succeed or not, but I
have a vision that the computer will be a valuable device on each table
and, finally in each home„.
(Bill Gates, 1993.).

1.3 ELEMENTS IN THE COMMUNICATION

PROCESS
ACTIVITY 1.5
Discuss the elements of communication and how they affect the

socio-cultural aspects of society.
Communication is a process that has neither a beginning nor an end. The process
of channelling messages is continuous. Therefore, communication is said to be a
dynamic process.
The communication process illustrates how we as humans are interconnected

with one another. However, in order to understand the communication process,
we need first to understand the elements that make up communication. The
question that arises is whether there exists a relationship between these elements.
According to Berlo (1960), when communication takes place between one

individual and another, the source and receiver must have the same coding
system. If the coding system differs, there will not be any communication at all.
To understand this further, we must look at the elements found in
communication. By understanding these elements, we can identify the
weaknesses and strengths of the communication process. Figure 1.6 shows the
relationship between the basic elements in the communication process. Among
the elements are:
(a) Source
(b) Receiver
(c) Message
(d) Channel
(e) Noise
(f) Feedback
(g) Frame of reference
(h) Context

Figure 1.6: Basic elements in the communication process
1.3.1 Source
The source is the originator of a message. Everyone can be a source whether one
is an individual, a group, an association or an organisation. In the
communication process, the source is anyone who has an opinion, idea, feeling or
message which he intends to transmit to another person. If the source says
something or explains something to another person, this process is called coding
or forming the message. For example, the explanation for a problem given by a
Mathematics teacher to his students constitutes the message. An effective
communication process requires the source to have the four characteristics
shown in the diagram in Figure 1.7.

Figure 1.7: Four characteristics of an effective communicator
(a) Communication Skills

The ability to speak and write is very important for the source.
Communication with those who do not speak the same language as we do
would require a different approach in delivering a message. For example, it
is difficult for us to communicate with an individual who is deaf or mute,
unless we use sign language or other forms of communication.
The source must also have the ability to consider and evaluate things. This
is crucial in the encoding process. If the source is not capable of normal
thought processes, that person would face barriers in trying to convey his
message, which would result in ineffective communication.
(b) Attitude
A source should have the right attitude towards the message and believe
that what he is communicating will benefit his listeners. If a negative
attitude exists, it is very difficult for the communication process to run
smoothly or have an impact. The link between attitude and the message is
also important. If there is incongruity between the two, the communication
process would be ineffective.

For example, a person who is not convinced of his message would find it
hard to deliver it. The audience may lose confidence in him and ignore his
message.
(c) Level of Knowledge

The sourceÊs level of knowledge about a certain subject should be adjusted
to the level of knowledge of his audience so that the impact of the message
is not lost.
For example, a specialist speaking about health issues associated with the
haze should not be too technical in explaining the causes and precautions to
be taken, or his audience, who may be ordinary housewives and parents,
would be more confused than enlightened.
(d) Position in a Society or Socio-culture

The structures, norms and cultural systems of many societies have existed
for millennia. We need to understand the set and accepted rules of others
because they form part of the basis of how we communicate. If we are
ignorant of the rules of a society or defy them, we may be perceived as
being anti-social. For example, in Malay society, children who walk past
their elders when the latter are talking will be perceived as being rude or
disrespectful of their elders.
1.3.2 Receiver
The receiver in a communication process is the target of a message. A receiver
can be an individual, a small group, an organisation or a large number of
persons. In mass communication, receivers of a message are called the audience.
The audience or receiver normally possess certain characteristics such as the skill
to communicate, attitude, level of knowledge, as well as positions in a socio-
cultural system.
A receiverÊs characteristics must complement those of the sourceÊs. While a

source must have the skills in encoding (skills to speak and write), the receiver
should have the skills to decode (to listen and read) the message.
(a) Skill in Communicating

A receiver must have the skill to communicate; that is the ability to
interpret a message delivered to him or her. This is important for him or her
to discern the soundness or weakness of a message.

(b) Attitude
In communicating, the receiver must also have a positive attitude in
interpreting a message. If there is conflict caused by a clash in attitude of a
source and his receiver then the communication that takes place will be of
no benefit.
The effectiveness of a message delivered is very dependent on the receiverÊs

attitude towards the source. If the receiver is comfortable with the sourceÊs
attitude, he may give the message delivered by the source some
consideration. On the other hand, if the receiver is not comfortable with the
sourceÊs attitude, he may not give serious attention to the message.
(c) Level of Knowledge

The level of knowledge is significant for both the source and his receiver. If
the receiver has some knowledge about what is being said by the source,
the message will be easily understood. If the receiver has no prior
knowledge of the subject, it is more difficult or even impossible to
understand the message.
(d) Position in a Socio-cultural System

Like the source, the receiver must also know the norms, rules and culture that
exist in a social system. This is to ensure that no misunderstanding will take
place and the communication process will run smoothly.
1.3.3 Message
Have you ever watched a war movie? Do you know the message being conveyed
when a white flag is shown?
A message is the meaning contained in the words or symbols used by the source
to deliver and express his intention. It is a result of the encoding process carried
out by the source based on his thinking.
A message should contain ideas and feelings intended for the receiver. A
message contains ideas and feelings that are intended to be shared between the
source and the receiver. However, ideas and feelings can only be communicated
through certain symbols, be they verbal, non-verbal, concrete or abstract.
In short, whatever that has meaning can be termed as a message. For example, a
manager shows a serious face during a meeting when he receives the sales report
that shows a drop in sales. Certainly, the message to be understood by the
marketing staff is that they have to think of a promotional strategy for an
effective integrated marketing communication.

There are three main characteristics which a message must have if it is to be sent
effectively to the receiver. They are:
(a) Message Code

A code is a group of symbols, which can give certain meaning when they
are arranged properly. It is used in daily activities for the purpose of
communication. A code is universal in meaning. Signals existing on the
highways, on buildings and in most public places are also examples of a
code (see Figure 1.8). Even the language that we use to communicate with
one another is a code.
Words in a language are verbal symbols which signify a certain thing or

idea. Symbols without their verbal expression is a way of communicating
without using words. Language is indeed the most important code ever
created and accepted by people all over the world. It is used as a facility to
help us live more comfortably as it can be understood by all who see (as in
written language) and listen (as in spoken language) to it.
Figure 1.8: Message code existing on the highways
(b) Content of Message

Have you ever received a „memo‰ from a colleague? Refer to the memo in
Figure 1.9. Can you understand the message in this memo?
An effective communication requires a message to have clear content. A

message content which is unclear will not be understood by a receiver. The
content here refers to the information obtained and acquired in the message
encoded by the source to the receiver. The content is made up of title, topic,
goal and expectation referred to as the message (see Figure 1.9).

Figure 1.9: Contents of a complete message
(c) Formulating a Message

If the content of a message is not prepared properly, then the message will
not be understood. Formulating a good message will contribute to a clearer
understanding of its meaning (see Figure 1.10).
In forming a message, the source has to select and arrange both the code
and content of the message. How a person prepares his message depends
on several factors. One of the factors is the style of the preparation. The
person who intends to communicate also influences the preparation of the
message.
Figure 1.10: An incomplete message

SELF-CHECK 1.2
Based on Figure 1.10, why do you think the message is difficult to

understand?
1.3.4 Channel
A channel can be defined as a tool or mediator that channels the message from
the source to one or more receivers. The selection of channels determines the
effectiveness of the communication. Every channel has certain weaknesses and
strengths. To get the best impact, the most effective way is to use several
channels to deliver a message. Other than that, the choice of a channel must take
into account its suitability with the situation and the receiver. In general,
channels are available in the following forms (see Figure 1.11).
Figure 1.11: Communication channels

(a) Media Channel

Media include the application of the following:
(i) Print Media such as newspapers, magazines and books.
(ii) Electronic Media such as television, radio and the Internet.
(iii) Traditional Media such as theatre, puppet show and opera.
(b) Face-to-face Channel

A clear difference can be seen between the method of channelling
information or messages using mass media. The face-to-face channel
involves direct interaction between the source and the receiver. The source
and the receiver are in the same situation. This type of communication is
two-way and is said to be friendly in nature. In this situation, the process of
channelling the message involves feedback whereby the effects are fast and
instant. Examples of mediators who are usually involved in face-to-face
message channel include a man and his neighbours, members of a
community and their leaders, etc.
In terms of determining effects, several questions should be considered

during communication.
(i) Use of Suitable Channels

Before sending a message, the person must consider the channel that
is the most suitable to be used for his purpose or available to him so
that the receiver can receive the message being delivered in a way
which it can most easily accessed and understood.
(ii) Capacity of Used Channels

In selecting a channel to deliver a message, a source must consider its
suitability. For example, television is not considered a good channel to
deliver a message in the form of long sentences. Electronic media has
different capabilities. Radio is only able to channel auditory message
while television can be used to send visual as well as auditory
messages. Newspapers and magazines are for messages that are
intended for reading. The Internet is the most sophisticated
communication channel with no restrictions, no space and no time
limits but must be easily accessible.
The different types of communication media are not without their own
weaknesses and strengths. Therefore, the selection of a channel must be
made to suit the ability of receivers and the message. At the moment, access
to technology and its applications are hot topics of discussions, because the

digital world divides between the haves and the have-nots, between the
information-rich and the information-poor.
ACTIVITY 1.6
In your opinion, can the method of sending messages through the
Internet, such as e-mail or chat replace face-to-face communication?
1.3.5 Noise
Noise is any form of barrier present in a communication process. The presence of
noise disables a receiver from receiving the message clearly or accurately. The
sound of a noisy engine roaring for instance hinders the message from being
delivered, received and understood accurately.
Noise in communication can be classified as physical, mental or physio-

psychological. Noise elements were first introduced by Shannon and Weaver
through broadcasting model in 1949. It occurs because of a few factors as shown in
Figure 1.12 below.
Figure 1.12: Elements of noise
(a) Physical Noise

Physical noise takes place when the source of noise is from the
environment. Example: noise due to the traffic while we are talking to our
friends. It disturbs our focus on the meaning of the message.

(b) Physio-psychological Noise

Noise of this origin happens due to the influence of our basic level of
knowledge, our attitude towards the message or the source and our
communication capability. Differences in culture are also considered as
noise if we do not understand the culture.
(c) Mental Noise

Mental noise comes from our own thoughts. For example, a disturbed mind
due to an approaching examination, health problems, etc.
1.3.6 Feedback
Feedback refers to the response taking place when a receiver gives a reaction to
the message delivered by the source. In a communication between individuals,
feedback is spontaneous. For example if the source asks, „How are you now?‰
and the receiver replies, „Very well, thank you‰. Feedback may also be shown on
the face while replying (see Figure 1.13). The reply and the look on the receiverÊs
face are feedback to the message delivered by the source. Similarly, AÊs jokes that
cause B to smile and laugh are effective in getting that feedback. When the
feedback is positive, the source may continue his communication. However, if
the feedback is negative, he may stop.
In a mass communication process, feedback is not as fast as in face-to-face

communication. Mass communication feedback is delayed and is slow to be
obtained.
Feedback in the context of mass communication will be discussed later. The

importance of feedback is seen in the action that must be taken by a person.
Besides that, certainty will be gained on an idea or feeling which is intended to be
shared between the source and the receiver. Current development in information
communication technology enables instant feedback for example the use of e-
mail in searching for information through the Internet. Now a mobile phone can
give instant feedback.

Figure 1.13: Feedback in face-to-face or through telephone communication
1.3.7 Frame of Reference

Frame of reference is an experience or knowledge about something that becomes
a topic for communication. Communication will have no effect if the source and
the receiver do not have the same frame of reference. Say a person who has an
experience of skiing overseas tells a story to a friend in his village about how to
ski and his experience in skiing. If his friend does not have such an experience, he
will not be able to visualise what is being conveyed to him.
As seen here, if a receiver has insufficient or no knowledge of what is being

discussed, he will be unable to understand and follow what is being discussed by
the source. Hence, communication in this case fails. To ensure communication is
effective, both the source and the receiver must have the same frame of reference.
This is because every individual involved in the communication process has his
own distinctive experiences.
Therefore, only a message that is understood by both sides can help to make a
communication successful. The wider the scope of the frame of reference, the
more likely for the communication to be effective.

1.3.8 Context
Communication takes place in certain contexts; it does not happen in a
„vacuum.‰ Sometimes it occurs in a natural situation without it even being
realised. Communication context refers to the surrounding situation or
conditions where communication takes place. DeVito (2001) states that
communication that takes place in a certain context may influence its form and
content. Sometimes contexts are also not clear and in certain conditions may
dominate (either stimulating or hindering) the message from being delivered.
Each of these contexts inter-relates and influences each other, affecting what is
being communicated. It also influences the environment, behaviours and actions
beside determining the types of communication to be used.
„What is the most difficult work in the world? Thinking‰.
(Emerson, 1836).
1.4 FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNICATION

Have you ever thought of praying as a form of communication? What are other
individualsÊ communication functions? Does communication help you in your
daily life?
The function of communication depends on the purpose it is made. It is viewed

from different perspectives. If it is viewed from the perspective of its source
(message sender), communication has the functions of telling, entertaining,
learning, understanding or making decision on a certain issue. If it is seen from
a social perspective, communication plays the following roles (see Figure 1.14).

Figure 1.14: Roles of communication from social perspective
To understand in more detail about functions of communication, try to imagine

several situations taking place in our daily life. Communication plays an
important role in all aspects of our lives, be it in the office (writing a letter, giving
an instruction, communicating through e-mail) or elsewhere like at school
(teaching and learning), or at home (chatting in cyber space), we cannot help but
to communicate for certain purposes.
Try to imagine how and why communication takes place. A teacher

communicates face-to-face with a group of school children; a son telephones his
mother to ask news about his father in the village; or a person sends an SMS to a
friend to share his feelings; and an old man sits and ponders beside a lake.
Planned or not, communication takes place everywhere and at all times. In each
of the situations portrayed above, communication plays an important role in
relating a person to another either within himself or between individuals or
groups of people.
A group of students communicate with their teacher in the process of learning

something; a businessman communicates to expand his business opportunities
overseas (see Figure 1.15); and a mother communicates with her son to
strengthen family ties. Communication builds relationships between people and
also gives them opportunities to know themselves better.
Progress in information technology or IT enables communication to be carried

out fast and rapidly via the electronic network. A manager who operates from
long distance and intends to communicate with his business colleague in another
country can do so via e-mail. The use of computer and the Internet allows us to
interact with another anywhere, anytime. Even a business meeting between

people from different parts of the country or the world may be conducted
through IT such as teleconferencing.
Figure 1.15: Business through electronics
The communication process is related closely to information sourcing. When

knowledge of communication is studied as a field or discipline, the experts and
researchers of communication often regard communication as having a
different function. Figure 1.16 shows these functions of communication.
Figure 1.16: Functions of communication

1.4.1 Information
Today, people generally obtain news and information about current affairs
through the newspapers, radio and television. In addition to that, the Internet is
fast becoming a channel for people to easily obtain information.
This function is one of the communication functions that is often used in peopleÊs
lives (see Figure 1.17). This function aims to inform other people about certain
things that the communicator feels must be known by others. There are many
examples of communication carried out for this type of function, for example:
signboards with signs such as „No Smoking‰, „Please Queue‰, „Keep Left‰, „Be
careful on the road‰ and so on.
The function of informing focuses on the communicator or the information

source, while message delivery aims at informing people. Indeed, information
is something which is very essential in providing us with knowledge. Every
one needs information to manage their daily life. Information is important
especially in the decision making process. It aslo enables people to take a
particular action. Without information, it is difficult for a person to make a
decision. Certainly, you must have heard of message communicators in radio
programmes telling you about road conditions in the city for the day. A person
driving his car from a workplace may find this information useful to make
decisions. For instance, if there is a flash flood or traffic jam ahead, people can
decide to use alternative roads on their way home.
Based on the above explanation, communication also plays an important role in

the process of getting information. Through a communication process,
information may be distributed continuously and shared together by the
communicator and the receiver to establish understanding. However, we must
ensure that the delivered information can be understood by the receiver or it
will be wasted.
Figure 1.17: Communication functions to inform

1.4.2 Education
Communication also plays a role in delivering educational materials.
Education/learning takes place since childhood until a person becomes an
adult. An educator becomes the principal actor in contributing knowledge by
interacting with teachers or students. In life, we not only learn through
personal experiences but also from otherÊs experiences. For example, a student
who studies hard and normally achieves good results will most likely have
confidence in the teacher, and is willing and ready to accept knowledge. In this
context, the aim of communication is to transfer knowledge to the receiver. The
educating function shows the importance of the source and the receiver of
information to ensure the functions can be performed efficiently.
There are many programmes broadcasted on television that contain educational

elements that overlap in their function to inform and entertain. Programmes
such as „Discovery Science‰, „TVIQ‰ and „Art Attack‰ on ASTRO for example,
clearly perform the educational function, as do „Teleinfo‰ clips which provide
viewers with various types of information. The knowledge gained from these
programmes may help a person to think critically or understand why certain
complex things happen in their surroundings.
1.4.3 Persuasion
Communication plays a very important role in the persuasion process. This
function of communication is different from the two functions discussed earlier.
The persuasion function aims at changing the attitude and behaviour of a
person. However, it does not mean that by using communication we can easily
persuade anyone to do what we want them to do. If we refer to books written
on social psychology, we will find out that not everyone can be convinced or be
persuaded to change their attitudes. There are many examples of persuasion
that can be seen in advertisements and video clips broadcasted in the media.
Certainly, you have seen advertisements in newspapers and television, or heard

them on the radio. The main purpose of advertisements is to influence us to
buy the advertised products. Persuasion here is not only to disseminate
information, it is expected to penetrate and win the feelings and emotions of its
target audience. For example, an advertisement on a facial cleanser used by a
popular film star spreads the message that the cleanser is the reason why her
skin is smooth and beautiful. As can be seen here, the advertisement plays on
the emotions of the people who watch or listen to it. The implication that it
brings is „if buyers want the same kind of skin, then use this product‰.

ACTIVITY 1.7
What are the symbols that you see around you which function to
deliver persuasive messages to their audience?
1.4.4 Entertainment
The communication function of entertaining is the most widespread in daily life.
Cinema, television and radio programmes, comedy, dramas, sketches, comics
and cartoons are all examples of how communication is used to entertain. Since
the public love entertainment programmes, this function of communication has
become very popular and is in high demand. Entertainment magazines for
instance have many fans and sell well in the market. Local and imported comedy
drama programmes have attracted millions of viewers. Radio also broadcasts
popular songs to entertain listeners. Conversing with friends is also a form of
entertainment. Before the existence of television and radio, people entertained
themselves by listening to folktales or by watching puppet shows.
In general, the effectiveness of this function can be seen through a personÊs

reaction when communicating. A person feels happy and entertained when he is
asked to tell stories about his childhood, school days or his good times as a
teenager. In short, when a person is made to forget his sorrows, then the
communication function of entertaining has been accomplished. As this
entertainment function is popular, there have been efforts to include elements of
education, information and persuasion in entertainment. Hence, we can now see
the emergence of new concepts in entertainment function of communication such
as edutainment (combination of education and entertainment) and infotainment
(combination of information and entertainment).
Television has many programmes that combine the entertainment and

persuasion function of communication. For example, elements of unity among
races that are being incorporated in its drama series and the patriotic appeal that
is built-in in songs such as Jalur Gemilang, Keranamu Malaysia and Malaysia
Tanah Airku. Children programmes have now become the target of both
edutainment and infotainment concepts.
ACTIVITY 1.8
Make a list of television programmes that channel messages using
both edutainment and infotainment concepts.

1.4.5 Socialisation of the Society

This communication function involves the ability to guide the members of the
society to use methods or behaviours suitable with socialised life. Here we can
see the overlapping of the learning or educational functions that have been
discussed above.
In the process of socialisation, members of the society learn and practise aspects
such as social skills, beliefs and norms. For example, parents teach their children
to respect their elders. This communication function aims to promote suitable
behaviours among members of the society. Through it the individual establishes
relationship with friends, small groups, family members, colleagues as well as
other members of other communities.
In real life situations, a communication process is not focused on one function

only. The function to socialise the members of a society involves the ability of an
individual to adapt him/herself in various communication contexts. How a
person adapts himself to friends, office colleagues, social groups and members of
certain communities involves communication.
SELF-CHECK 1.3
1. „In an ideal communication situation, a message is received and

understood as intended. However, when a message is not
communicated as expected, there will be conflicts regarding the
message sent.‰ Discuss.
2. Explain the following:

(a) Communication as a process.
(b) Cultural implications of communication.
• Various experts have provided different definitions of communication

although there is no single definition precise enough to provide a specific or
encompassing meaning to the actual meaning of communication.
• Communication involves ideas, knowledge, feelings and meaning which are

intended to be shared. The process of sharing is a two-way process.
• In most communication situations, reciprocal sharing takes place either

explicitly or implicitly through symbols which have various interpretations.
• At the same time, there exist noise elements that have impact on
communication effectiveness.
• The effect of the ability to adapt ourselves in various contexts of

communication is a harmonious and effective climate of communication.
• Normally, a communication process will involve several communication

functions combined together to generate a bigger effect of communication.
• To have good communication, one should be capable and ready to identify

the combination of communication functions which may bring out success in
the communication strategy or plan to be implemented.
Channel Message
Communication Noise
Context Receiver
Feedback Source
Frame of reference

Topic X The Scope of
2 Communication
LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. Explain the eight forms of communication;
2. Explain the importance of communication in various contexts; and
3. Discuss the development and prospects of communication
discipline.
X INTRODUCTION
The history of human civilisation has a big influence in the field of
communication. The history of communication began 2000 years ago where
during the Greek era, philosophers like Aristotle and Socrates considered
rhetoric as an important aspect in civil life.
The middle of the twentieth century saw the development of public speaking as
a result of social issues during the First and Second World Wars. From public
speaking, the communication field began to witness the effects of propaganda
and media on people. As a result, empirical research (scientifically proven) in
the field of communication was initiated. The studies at that time examined the
speakersÊ influence, credibility, leadership as well as persuasion.
In the 1960Ês and 1970Ês, the focus was on interpersonal communication that
combined the humanistic and scientific perspectives of communication.

TOPIC 2 THE SCOPE OF COMMUNICATION W 31
This included communication in the family, non-verbal behaviour and

decision-making. Between the 1970Ês and the 1990Ês, the experts shifted their
attention to the critical perspective by studying how communication takes place
and is formed in the contexts of social, history, technology and the politics at
that particular time (Wood, 2001).
Based on the history of the development of communication, we can see that the
scope of communication occurs in various situations. All these will be
summarised as various communication perspectives that will be discussed in
this topic.
2.1 FORMS OF COMMUNICATION

There are many forms of communication. We will discuss the following eight
forms to have a better understanding of the scope of communication.
(a) Intrapersonal Communication;
(b) Interpersonal Communication;
(c) Group Communication;
(d) Organisational Communication;
(e) Public Communication;
(f) Mass Communication;
(g) Intercultural Communication; and
(h) Online Communication.
2.1.1 Intrapersonal Communication

Think of „what you can contribute to the nation,‰ and not „what the nation can
contribute to you.‰ The very process of thinking of the answer to this question is
considered intrapersonal communication.
Intrapersonal communication or self-talk is a communication process that takes

place within the individual self. You may regard the concept of intrapersonal
communication as similar to thinking. This is because it relates to the cognitive
process that takes place within oneself. What we think but do not verbalise is also
considered as communication. This thinking process happens within oneself
(intrapersonal) and when one talks to oneself, it is called a monologue (see Figure
2.1).

32 X TOPIC 2 THE SCOPE OF COMMUNICATION
Intrapersonal communication is actually a basis for all types and levels of

communication between humans. As we observe in many situations, we talk of
things that are in our mind. A person who communicates intrapersonally is
doing the activities of thinking, learning, perceiving, evaluating and guiding the
actions that are about to be taken. Either consciously or otherwise, the process of
intrapersonal communication happens within us all the time. This means that a
person who is communicating intrapersonally is actually functioning as the
sender-receiver. The brain functions as a channel which processes what is
thought and felt. In intrapersonal communication, feedback happens when the
idea under consideration is rejected, accepted or replaced with another one.
Figure 2.1: Intrapersonal communication process
Have you ever heard of self-evaluation? Actually, this thought process happens
within us all the time. We think whether we want to take a particular action or
not.
Besides thinking about a person, we also think of things events and incidences
taking place around us. We also think of ideas during discussions and about
ourselves. Indirectly, this process involves the evaluation process. In this case, we
view ourselves as the model that receives and processes the message, stores and
recalls the received message. We often use intrapersonal communication in the
process of remembering or expecting something, considering something,
pacifying ourselves and making decisions. For example, Deana who received a
bonus for her excellent work performance would definitely feel very happy on
that day. On the other hand, Raimi, who did not get any bonus would definitely
be angry or feel sad at that moment.
A person who communicates intrapersonally would also question himself, think

rationally and make decisions. In other words, although a person does not
interact with another person in an intrapersonal communication, his past
experience would influence or determine what he is thinking about. Figure 2.2
shows the factors that influence intrapersonal communication.

Figure 2.2: Factors that influence intrapersonal communication
ACTIVITY 2.1
In your opinion, what are the challenges of intrapersonal
communication? List three challenges.
2.1.2 Interpersonal Communication

Part of social life involves interpersonal communication. Interpersonal
communication is a branch of communication that is significant in human
relations. In short, the ability to communicate interpersonally is a determinant of
the success or failure of an existing relationship.
An interpersonal communication is established when a person interacts with

another. Most often, interpersonal communication involves emotions. For
example, empathy is very important in understanding the feelings of other
people.
Interpersonal communication is normally referred to as two or more

individuals interacting face-to-face. It is a process that allows a person to
establish, maintain and build a relationship with another person or other

people. It can also sometimes bring conflict to a relationship that has long
existed. Interpersonal communications may happen informally or formally.
This can be seen in Figure 2.3 below.
Figure 2.3: Interpersonal communication
Interpersonal communication is also called a dyadic communication that is

unique because it happens directly, personally, informally and spontaneously
(Trenholm, 2001). In general, the basic characteristics of interpersonal
communications are shown in Figure 2.4.
Figure 2.4: Basic characteristics of interpersonal communication
(a) Face-to-Face Communication

Face-to-face communication takes place when two individuals
communicate facing one another without using a mediating channel or a
complex medium. Normally, such communication happens spontaneously.
The sender and receiver of communication uses more than one mediating
channels to capture information, messages and responses generated. In
communication such as this, the response is usually rapid and immediate.

(b) Communication Involves Both Sides Giving and Receiving Information

Interpersonal communication is a two-way communication, that is,
involving two people mutually sending and receiving messages between
them. For example in Figure 2.5, two colleagues in an office, Nazul and
Mustafa are trying to resolve a problem and reduce confusion regarding
certain matters. Listening to the issues raised by Nazul, Mustafa will try to
understand the message. If Mustafa responds and gives his views on the
matter, then, a relationship is established. However, if Nazul is still not
satisfied with the discussion, they will certainly continue to offer their
responses until they reach an agreement in achieving the purpose of the
communication. Examples of communication between individuals are those
that take place among family members, friends, neighbours, teachers or
office colleagues.
Figure 2.5: Both sides give and receive information
(c) The Distance between the Communicating Sides is Close

In interpersonal communication, the distance between both individuals must be
close. The space between them depends on what they are comfortable with
based on the established relationship. For example, if we are conversing with
close friends and members of our family, the distance between us is close;
whereas if we are with strangers or a new acquaintance, the distance between us
may be a bit further. This distance actually shows the closeness that exists
between both parties. Figure 2.6 shows the role of distance in communication.

Figure 2.6: The role of distance in communication
(d) Information Delivered may be Verbal or Non-verbal

Interpersonal communication need not necessarily be verbal or in written form
only. Responses can also be through movements such as facial expressions,
body movements or tone of voice. Signals displayed by a person while
communicating is important to strengthen an argument so that the message
sent is not doubted. For example, A states that he is satisfied with the business
proposal prepared by B but his facial expression shows a thousand question
marks. Without doubt, B feels that A wishes to express his dissatisfaction
regarding the proposal presented. The proposal is a communication in written
form while the response given by A is non-verbal communication.
SELF-CHECK 2.1
Make brief notes on the characteristics of interpersonal

communication.
„One good head is better than a hundred strong hands‰.
(Thomas Fuller, 1732)

2.1.3 Group Communication
ACTIVITY 2.2
Were you a member of the Scouts or the Girl Guides Movement?
In your view, what are the differences between a group and a team?
Group communication is made up of interaction between individuals that take

place from time to time until it forms an entity. Group communication involves
interaction for the purpose of solving problems, forming new ideas and getting
new experiences. In general, it can mean exchanging and receiving information
between group members.
Group communication, be it big or small, has attractive elements where it is able

to control and influence operations and activities of the group.
We probably realise that in actual fact, people normally like to mix among
themselves until certain social groups are formed. A group is usually made up of
three to 20 individuals. The formation of social groups whether formal or
informal, has a role in providing satisfaction and psychological strength to
support society and close friendship.
Group communication can be seen in workgroups, therapy groups,

organisational committee members, task-oriented groups, decision-making
groups and social groups. In small group communication, focus is given to the
roles and responsibilities of group members to manage conflicts or determine the
agenda in reaching group objectives (see Figure 2.7).

Figure 2.7: Group communication
Group communication has five characteristics as listed in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1: Characteristics of Group Communication
Interaction Communication is established by interactions while the

communication network that is formed and used, unites
group members. Only through interactions, can messages
be delivered and shared as a group that is able to function
and form special combinations.
Number of members The number of members in a group determines the
in the group requirements and quality of the relationship. As the group
becomes bigger, communication becomes more complex.
Messages and ideas to be shared may sometimes suffer
from complications.
Shared relation The relation between members in a group is uniquely
based on practices, norms, accepted and preceded
behaviour until a strong and stable structure takes shape.
In other words, a strong merger exists in group member
relationships. However, this depends on the commitment
and involvement of members in group activities.
Interdependence Relation between members establishes common goals
among members. An action by each member affects the
rest.
Collective identity Every member considers and feels as one of the group
members.
Group communication often faces various communication challenges. The

challenges that may be faced are shown in Figure 2.8.

Figure 2.8: Challenges in group communication
As additional information, you may visit the website at

http://www.tp.edu.sgl/pblconference/full/mohammad
2.1.4 Public Communication

Have you ever been to talks or lectures held in public places?
What was your main purpose in going there?
What was the main objective of the lectures as conducted by its sponsors?
Public communication is communication with the purpose of delivering

information to a large number of people. An example is a speaker giving a
motivational speech to students or presenting a working paper at an
international seminar.
Earlier, public communication was known as public speaking. This is because

public communication takes place at public places such as in a hall, lecture room,
auditorium or a place where the public gathers. In public communication, the
speaker is the source of information and the audience are the receivers.
Public communication happens formally and has a certain structure. The sender
of the message cannot interact with the public as in the case of interpersonal
communication because of distance and the large number of people involved.
Public communication has the elements of communication as in other types of

communication: there is a source and a receiver, delivered message,
communication channel and feedback (see table 2.2).
Table 2.2: Elements of Communication in Public Speaking

Elements of
Examples
Communication
Source • Speaker (communicator)
• Sometimes acts as receiver during question and answer
sessions
Receiver • Speaker (communicator)
• Audience
Message • Information on topic that is delivered verbally
Channel • Message through non-verbal communication
• Voice and non-verbal signals
• Aids such as poster, slides, PowerPoint presentation
Feedback • Loud applause
• Non-verbal signals by speaker/communicator
• Questions fielded
• Non-verbal feedback by audience
A public speech needs to be planned beforehand. To be effective, several factors

must be taken into account (see Figure 2.9):
Figure 2.9: Important factors in public speaking

(a) The speaker must know the type of audience listening to the speech.
Analysis of the audience helps the speaker to know their demographic
background and would definitely help in understanding what it wants to
know and hear. A speaker can also make assumptions of the audienceÊs
reactions.
(b) By taking the purpose of the speech into consideration, the speaker can
select and focus on topics that are appropriate with the desired objectives,
whether to inform, persuade or advise. Furthermore, the speaker will also
have the opportunity to carry out sufficient studies to strengthen the
arguments to be presented to the public.
(c) Location of speech.
(d) Time allocated to the speech.
The knowledge on What, Who, Where and When will help the speaker to make
early preparations in making an effective public speech.
Public communication also has several general characteristics, among them:

(a) A communication which happens face-to-face but involves a large number
of audience.
(b) Communication happens in a public place.
(c) The communicator delivers a formal speech that is planned and has a
structured message.
(d) Public communication has specific objectives. Message is delivered with the
purpose of informing or influencing. The audience also has a role to
influence others so that they may change their mind, values and norms.
(e) The channel used in delivering the message uses voice that can be
adequately received by a large audience. This is assisted by audio visual
aids (pictures, brochures and PowerPoint slides).
(f) The interaction and feedback between the source and receiver of
information is low or limited. This is seen in audience reaction during and
after the speech is delivered.

Public communication is not easy to prepare. The main challenge rests with the
source, i.e. the communicator. It is hard to understand the wishes and potential
of the public from various diverse backgrounds. In short, the speaker must make
early preparations on the topic, understand the audience and know what is
regarded as a good speech. First and foremost, a speaker must possess
credibility. Practising good ethics while delivering a speech is also important in
making an effective public communication speech.
SELF-CHECK 2.2
What are the steps that must be taken into account before making a
public speech?
2.1.5 Mass Communication

Mass communication is a field of communication that receives wide attention
and broad study. What does mass communication really mean?
Many people tend to misunderstand the actual meaning of mass communication.

Mass communication is sometimes referred to as general communication. It
differs from other types of communication. However, there are many definitions
to explain its actual meaning.
In general, mass communication involves the process of information sharing

using various intermediary media directed towards a large audience. The
mediators here refer to the media functioning as the channel to deliver the
message to the audience and are known as the mass media. In brief, mass
communication has the following characteristics:
(a) There is a media mediator between the source and receiver of information.
(b) The audience of mass communication consists of a group of individuals of
various types and behaviour.
(c) The distance between the source and receiver is remote.
(d) The source does not know who are the receiving public.
(e) Communication happens formally.
(f) Information is prepared by the source which consists of specific individuals
or group of individuals (producer, actor, director and editor).

Some of the mass media mediators are listed in the following Table 2.3.
Table 2.3: Mass Media Mediators

Media Types Examples
Print Media Books, magazines and newspapers
Broadcasting Media Radio and television
Digital media Computers, the Internet, digital audio visuals, DVD video
game and websites.
ACTIVITY 2.3
Communication also takes place through natural media.
Give examples of natural media.
With the existence of a media mediator, messages can be delivered to a wider

audience where the distance between the sender and the receiver is not a barrier.
For example, if a media user wants to know about world economics or political
developments, or even information on the latest conference of world leaders, he
can obtain the information via print or online newspapers or the television.

Figure 2.10: Information obtained from the mass media
The message in mass communication is very structured and is received by a large

audience. Mass media is a big multiplier of information and is capable of forming
a network or channel to spread the information.
Why is mass communication considered different from other types of

communication?
Mass communication differs from other types of communication in the following

aspects:
(a) Interaction or relation between the source and receiver is very limited or
non-existent.
(b) Limited feedback due to minimum information exchange that sometimes
may not exist at all between the source and receiver. For example, a letter to
the editor or feedback to the Webmaster may only get a response after a
long time.

(c) Message sent through a media mediator is formulated and patterned by

professionals working in the media organisation known as gatekeepers.
These gatekeepers determine the type of message, how it is presented and
when it should be told to the public/media users.
(d) Mass media has the potential to provide impact on the public with the
purpose of informing, persuading or influencing behaviour and thoughts.
SELF-CHECK 2.3
Mass media and mass communication are often considered as

similar. Is the telephone an example of a mass media mediator?
There are many advanced studies on the impact of mass media on the public, the
mass media model, the publicÊs selection of media that provides satisfaction, the
economy and media ownership, as well as technological implications on the
media and the public.
In the present digital era, mass communication faces various challenges and
raises issues on the role of media in technological development such as ethical
issues, issue of control over the media, implication of information on social
public and information explosion across international borders.
2.1.6 Organisational Communication

The experts have provided various views on the meaning of communication in
organisations, otherwise known as organisational communication. Goldhaber
(1986) looks at communication in organisations as:
(a) Communication that occurs in a complex system and influenced by the
environment, internal and external factors.
(b) Communication that involves messages and its flow, purpose, direction
and media.
(c) Communication that involves people, attitude, feeling, relation and the skill
they possess.
Why is organisational communication studied and regarded as an important

branch of communication? Like other types of communication, organisational
communication is important in establishing an ideal organisation. Its importance
can be summarised in Figure 2.11.

Figure 2.11: The importance of organisational communication
ACTIVITY 2.4
If you are working in an organisation that has different scopes of job

specialisation, what is the type of communication that you feel
normally takes place and what is the form of relation that will take
place?
Organisational communication focuses on formal and informal information that

flows in organisational contexts. The types of communication meant here are:
(a) Downward Communication ă communication flow that takes place from
the top levels of authority (management group) down to lower levels
(staff).
(b) Upward Communication ă communication flow that takes place from the
lower levels of staff up to higher levels (supervisor).
(c) Horizontal Communication ă sharing of information between colleagues
within the same unit.
(d) Cross-channel Communication ă communication that is established

between different departments. Information is shared across inter-

department functional borders and between subordinates or supervisors.
(e) Grapevine ă an informal communication flow that occurs in uncertain
network (vertical, horizontal and crisscross). Message delivery begins from
an interaction between staff on a secret that is mutually shared and
discussed. Message is spread rapidly but the truth of the content is hard to
ascertain (Pace & Faules, 1989).
Each of the communication types has a different function with regard to

suitability. An effective communication channel determines the effectiveness of
message and objectives in coordinating information that is to be delivered in an
organisation.
One of the important issues discussed in organisational communication is the

technological implication on information flow. The existence of technology has
changed the structure and process of organisational communication of the
present time.
2.1.7 Intercultural Communication

ACTIVITY 2.5
Malaysia is well known for multi-ethnicity, multi-language and

multi-culture, spanning all corners of the nation. What do you
understand by the meaning of culture? Does a race inherit culture
from generation to generation or will there be adaptation among
local community?
Almost all the time, a person engages in communicating with other people. Not
all individuals have similar background and practices. Communication
effectiveness does not depend only on the ability of a person to speak verbally or
express through non-verbal communication. Not all interaction among people
achieves the objectives. On the other hand, one most important factors is to
understand the pattern of communication that involves different cultures. Only
by understanding the other culture will a person be able to expect, adapt and
assimilate himself in a meaningful relation with another.

Figure 2.12: Intercultural communication
Intercultural communication is a symbolic, interpretative communication that is

considered as a contextual process because of the degree of variation among the
interacting individuals. It is a communication process involving a member of
society of a different culture, different customs and different roles and rules (see
Figure 2.12).
Gamble & Gamble (2002) saw intercultural communication as a process of

interpretation and sharing of meaning with someone of different cultural
background. The differences in meaning of culture meant by Gamble are seen in
several patterns, such as interracial communication, interethnic communication,
international communication and intra-cultural communication (see Figure 2.13).
Figure 2.13: Cultural differences as perceived by Gamble

What are the barriers in the effort to adapt oneself in the context of cultural
differences? Challenges in intercultural communication exist because:
(a) A person who practises a different culture perceives what happens around
him differently or makes a comparison between the culture he practices
with those of others.
(b) Each culture has a different acceptance of a personÊs roles.
(c) Each culture has a different view towards the objectives that are considered
important among members of the culture.
(d) Culture influences the basis for a personÊs identity (Trenholm, 2001).
SELF-CHECK 2.4
What are the challenges faced by intercultural communication?
In intercultural communication, a simple interaction may become complex

because of frequent misunderstandings that arise in multicultural interaction. A
communicator who fails to understand the culture of the other communicator in
an interaction is regarded as insensitive or rude.
A cultural misunderstanding may cause a person to lose an opportunity to

develop a good communication and it may even cause tension to a relationship.
2.1.8 Online Communication
ACTIVITY 2.6
What do you think has caused the IRC (Internet Relay Chat) revolution? The
emergence of the IRC at the beginning stage of the Internet a long time ago
had enabled people all over the world to communicate directly over
geographical borders and time. Communication has increased widely
enabling interactive discussion. What are the implications of the IRC that
you would expect in the future?
In the era of information communication technology, communication is

established through electronic media. What is obvious is that it has become the
hottest issue discussed in the discipline of communication.

The patterns of information flow are no longer the same as before. The method of
delivering digital information now takes over the conventional method.
Information becomes a commodity that is no longer hard to obtain. Methods of
communication have diversified in accordance with the development of
information communication technology. Those involved in online
communication do not interface physically but only via electronic mediator in the
cyber world. Virtually developed relationships do not channel messages verbally
as in the case of face-to-face communication. Figure 2.14 is an example of a
communication method through an Internet service. E-mail is increasingly
popular in delivering messages.
Figure 2.14: E-mail as a communication channel
Technological convergence demonstrates the combination of computer

technology, telecommunications, electronics and mass media technology. The
Internet, for example, has a role as media mediator because of its capability to
access a wide audience. This can be seen from the use of websites.
The Internet has the characteristic of personal communication by the use of e-

mail, chat groups and electronic discussion groups. Online discussion also has a
quality similar to mass communication and personal interaction. Particularly,
online communication is capable of linking individuals or groups over the
borders of space, distance and time. All affairs and interaction between family

members staying in distant places, a couple separated by continents or distant

learners separated from their tutors can now do it through the Internet such as
the e-mail.
Services provided via Internet help the user and are cheaper compared to
conventional communication methods. Groups share information through
bulletin boards and newsgroups. Interactive characteristics of electronic
communication technology enable an individual or group to interact
spontaneously via chatting. Today, technology has changed the communication
method. Written communication is now done online. The cell phone has also
changed verbal communication method to the use of Short Messaging Service
(SMS) and Multimedia Messaging Service (MMS).
Figure 2.15: Interactive communication method through chatting

Although information and communication technology has the potential to

revolutionise the way humans communicate, it also poses various challenges in
daily relations and the communication process. In brief, the scope of
communication covers the eight forms of communication summarised in Table
2.4:
Table 2.4: Forms of Communication

Types of
Aim Questions Skill
Communication
• How is self-
concept formed?
How does self- • Increase self-
concept esteem,
influence improve self-
communication? awareness,
improve
To think, • How can the
Intrapersonal: analytical
analyse, ability to analyse
ability and
Communication respond and and solve
problem
with oneself. make problems be
solving skills,
reasoning. improved and
increase self-
taught?
control, reduce
• What is the pressure and
relationship manage self-
between conflicts.
personality and
communication?
• What is
interpersonal • Improve the
effectiveness? effectiveness of
interpersonal
• Why do people
communication
establish
Interpersonal: Establish and
To explore, relations?
maintain
Communication relate, • What binds the relations
between two influence ties of lovers, between lovers,
persons. and assist. family and family and
friends? friends.
• What separates • Improve the
them? How can ability to solve
their relations be problems.
restored?

• What are
characteristics
that make a
leader?
• What are the • Increase the
qualities of a ability of
good leader? group
To share • What are the members.
information, roles of • Improve
Small Group exchange members in a leadership.
ideas, solve group? • Using the
Communication problems, • What is the best group to
and assist thing that a achieve certain
one another. group can objectives
achieve and the such as
worst thing that solving
can happen to a problems.
group?
• How can a
group be made
effective?
• What is the most

• Communicate
suitable
information
organisational
effectively.
structure for a
persuasive • Increase the
speech? ability to
persuade.
• How is the
Public: To inform, • Formulate,
audience
Communication influence, manage and
analysed
by a person to a and deliver
effectively and
public audience. entertain. messages
adapted to the
situation? more
effectively.
• How to best
formulate ideas
to be
communicated
to the public?

• What are the • Increase the

functions of the ability to use
media? media more
• How does media effectively.
influence media? • Increase the
Mass: ability to
• How can we
Communication To entertain, control media,
influence media?
with a large public influence understand
audience through and inform. • What are the
the influences
media/mediator. ways to filter
of advertising
messages in the
and
media?
journalism
• How do that are not
advertisements objective.
operate?
Table 2.4 explains several types of communication that show the number of
participants in the process of communication from a person (intrapersonal) to an
audience consisting of thousands/millions of people (mass) and the questions
and skills obtained.
ACTIVITY 2.7
1. Give examples of situations in which these occur:

(a) Intrapersonal communication
(b) Interpersonal communication
(c) Public communication
(d) Small group communication
2. What are formal communication and informal communication in an

organisation?
3. There are many journals discussing communication issues. Make a

list of 10 such journals.

2.2 DEVELOPMENT AND PROSPECTS OF

COMMUNICATION DISCIPLINE
Development and Prospects of Communication Discipline
Early development of communication began with the study of rhetoric and
speech in communication. Studies in the communication field mostly focus on
the theory, application and effect of verbal language and non-verbal behaviour
on communication. Today, the field of communication has expanded widely.
Communication knowledge is not only limited to one study discipline but it is a

study field that is multi-disciplinary, having strong ties with other fields of
study. For example, in the field of anthropology, anthropologists study the
relations in a community and their communication system. In the effort of
learning how a language develops, the field of communication contributed to the
study of man and the communication activities that took place. In the field of
psychology, knowledge in communication field contributed to studying the
process of attitude changes along with how to persuade, influence, etc. In
sociology, communication knowledge helps in understanding group dynamics,
studying relation between individuals, group context and society. Hence,
knowledge in the field of communication can help you contribute to other fields
as well.
Communication has branched out into the field of journalism (print media like
newspapers, magazines and books), broadcasting (radio, television and
electronic media films), advertising, public relations, political communication,
intercultural communication, international communication and development
communication. The development of information and communication
technology has contributed one more field, i.e. multimedia communication. The
convergence of technology has resulted in the various combinations in
broadcasting field, production techniques and communication in human
relations. Online communication via the Internet, webcasting and online
journalism are fields that are increasingly popular.
SELF-CHECK 2.5
What are the career prospects for a student who chooses to study
in the field of communication?

• The scope of communication field shows that the communication process

does not happen at random; it even includes various contexts of life and has
definite purposes.
• There are various forms of communication and each of them has different
characteristics and functions.
• The eight forms of communication discussed in this topic are:
- Intrapersonal communication;
- Interpersonal communication;
- Group communication;
- Organisational communication;
- Public communication;
- Mass communication;
- Intercultural communication; and
- Online communication.
Interpersonal Public
Intrapersonal Small group communication
Mass

Topic X Communication
3 Models
LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. Explain the early perspectives of communication models;
2. Describe the communication process through the presented models;
and
3. Explain the changes in communication models from the early days
until the present.
X INTRODUCTION
In the previous topic, you were introduced to the basic concepts and
components of communication, which would help a lot in your understanding
of the communication process and its importance in our lives. The wide scope
of communication has made the field unique.
In actual fact, many communication models are used to explain how the process
of communication takes place in different contexts. Learning these
communication models would help you understand clearly the process that goes
on.

58 X TOPIC 3 COMMUNICATION MODELS
3.1 SEVERAL PERSPECTIVES ON

COMMUNICATION MODELS
SELF-CHECK 3.1
1. What are communication models?
2. Can drawings, charts, diagrams, pictograms or cartoons be considered

models?
How can a model help you to understand communication? In addition to

defining communication, experts use models to explain how certain things
happen. In the context of communication, models represent relations, flows,
structures and interactions that occur. Models help to simplify the explanation of
complex ideas and processes. They were formulated from the simplest to the
more complex depending on the presentation of the communication process that
takes place.
The procedure in describing the communication process can be seen from

various perspectives. Early communication models such as SMCR Model
(Source, Message, Channel and Receiver) by David K. Berlo proposes four main
elements in the communication process, which are source, message, channel and
receiver (see Figure 3.1).
The SMCR model emphasises the relationship between the source and receiver as
important variables in the process of communication. According to this model,
the effectiveness of the communication process that takes place is based on
several factors found in the source and receiver such as communication skills,
attitudes of the source and receiver towards the delivered or received message,
accumulated knowledge, cultural practice and the impact of social system on
communication. Other elements of the message and channel can be seen in
Figure 3.1.

TOPIC 3 COMMUNICATION MODELS W 59
Figure 3.1: BerloÊs SMCR model
Wood (2001) divides communication models into three general types, i.e. linear
model, interaction model and transaction model. Figure 3.2, shows the three
types of communication.
Figure 3.2: Three types of communication models
3.1.1 Linear Model

Linear Models include the early models explained by Harold Lasswell, Claude
Shannon and Warren Weaver. In a linear communication model, communication
process occurs one way at a time between the source (encoder) and the receiver
(decoder) of the message. In other words, the source reacts to the receiver. This
model however is too simple. Early models of communication explain briefly
how communication happens. The three basic components in early
communication models are:

(a) Sender (source that sends message)

(b) Channel (intermediary that is used to send message)
(c) Receiver (receiver of the message sent)
Harold Laswell (1948), a political scientist, presents a simple and most useful
model to explain the communication process. To describe the communication
process, he does not use diagrams. Instead, he proposes several basic questions
that are listed below:
(a) Who?
(b) What is said?
(c) Through what channel?
(d) To whom?
(e) With what effects?
In 1949, Shannon and Weaver have expressed these questions in graphic form.
The Lasswell model is regarded as a ‰verbal‰ model and is the earliest

communication model. The model portrays communication as a persuasive
process. The delivery of message in this model happens in one way from the
source to the receiver and each message is considered as effective.
These early models are not complete and only focus on the process of one-way
communication. However, in reality there is sharing of meaning in the
interaction. Furthermore, according to the communication process in the models,
the person who receives the message is passive. This is not a genuine view of
how communication processes occur. To evaluate the models, one must consider
the adaptation of the models from the perspective of the time they were
formulated. The fact is that the early view in describing the communication
process through one-way models went well with the general use and acceptance
towards communication during that era. Although there are many weaknesses in
the earlier models and they are not widely used, all communication models used
today have been developed and formulated guided by these early models.
Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver propose a communication model that is

later modified to explain about communication between people as shown in
Figure 3.3.

Figure 3.3: Linear model
In this model (see Figure 3.3), the source of information will produce a message
in the form of speech, writing or picture to be delivered to other people. By using
appropriate signals, message is sent through certain channels to the receiver.
Shannon and WeaverÊs model introduced the element of noise in the

communication process. This noise element harm the signals sent through the
communication process.
3.1.2 Interactive Model

Due to the presence of response to the message from the source to the receiver,
one more element is added to the communication model, i.e. feedback. Feedback
is the response to the message received either verbal or non-verbal.
Figure 3.4: Interactive communication model
In the interactive model of communication (see Figure 3.4), Wilbur Schramm, a

pioneer researcher in communication, emphasises that the communicator

formulates and interprets the meaning from the message received in the context
of his own personal experience. He presents two significant concepts in
communication:
(a) Frame of reference
(b) Field of experience
To him, the experience that the source and receiver have gone through earlier
forms the frame of reference or field of experience.
Each individual involved in the communication process has his own experience;
however, the message is only effective if both sides understand the meaning of
the message. Thus, based on their unique experiences, only the message that is
understood by both source and receiver would determine the effectiveness of the
communication. This means the sharing of information and experiences between
the two individuals in communication would influence the frequency of message
exchanging process between them. An overlapping or meeting of experiences
and similarities between two communicators will increase the understanding of
one of the other and vice versa. Unfortunately, personal experiences are also the
reason why misunderstandings occur in communication.
In the two-way model introduced by Osgood, communication emphasises on the

individuals involved in the communication process, not on the channel only as in
the model introduced by Shannon and Weaver. OsgoodÊs model portrays each
individual as having similar functions because they encode, interpret and decode
the message. What is evident in this model is that there are changes in the roles of
the communicating sides. In this case, there exists feedback towards the message
sent. The model portrays a complete communication process where either the
source or the receiver is able to encode the message sent and later decode the
message received.
The interactive model shows better development of the communication process

compared to the Linear Model. The model proposes the element of feedback and
the field of experience that explain the communication process more clearly. Still
it does not accurately describe the communication process that actually happens.
According to the interactive model, communication takes place in the sequence
where A interacts with B who in turn gives a feedback to A. This means A acts
only as a source and B acts only as a receiver. The fact is communication does not
happen in a one-way manner, communicators do not function solely as either the
source or the receiver; both are mutually sending and receiving messages.

3.1.3 Transaction Model

Communication is a transaction between communicators, which happens in
certain contexts of a system. In particular contexts, the system has an effect on
what and how a communication is being established. Communication takes place
at school, market, meeting rooms, homes, in certain cultural groups, among
members of social groups or in religious ceremonies.
The context in which communication takes place influences the way a message is
encoded, interpreted or decoded. In certain situations, fields of experience act as
frames of reference that help the process of understanding. In other words, the
fields of experience act as filters to receive or reject a message.
Figure 3.5: Transaction model
In the above transaction model (see Figure 3.5), the source and the receiver are
responsible for sending and receiving messages. Both source and receiver share
messages that are sent or received from various channels. Messages are always
reciprocal, indicating that the relationship is established in certain systems. At
the same time, noise that may exist or emerge affects delivery or acceptance of
messages.
Noise may be present in the environment. Physical, physiological and

psychological factors influence the interpretation of messages in many different
ways. The noisy sound of a machine or a childÊs scream in the vicinity of where A
and B are communicating represent noise. Besides that, noise may originate from
within the communicator, either in his mind or in his hearing. Life experience or
disturbing recollection, are also barriers to communication. These experiences
often change every time one interacts with another. The unsettled mind of A,
maybe after quarrelling with his wife, may disrupt the focus of discussion
between him and B. A nose that is overly sensitive to bad odour or a headache
influences the interpretation and perception towards a person who is
communicating with and towards the message received.
• Every interaction established involves the sharing of meaning between the

sender and receiver of messages.
• Therefore, the communication process that is presented through the models in

this topic attempts to enable us to visualise how communication takes place.
• Understanding the communication process will also enhance our

understanding of its strengths and weaknesses.
• Important thoughts in Communication Model:
- Harold Lasswell
An effect must be achieved if communication takes place.
- Claude Shannon & Warren Weaver
Semantic noise can be a major communication barrier.
- Wilbur Schramm
Overlapping experiences make it easier to communicate successfully.
- John White & Matilda White Riley
Membership in primary groups affects how messages are sent and
received.
- David K. Berlo
Several important factors relating to source, message, channel and
receiver must be considered.
Interactive Transaction Model

Linear model

Topic X Introduction to
4 Self-Concept and
Communication
LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. Explain the meaning of communication as a system;
2. Describe the relationship between communication and society;
3. Define self-concept; and
4. Identify factors that form the self-concept.
X INTRODUCTION
The communication system includes all the communication processes that take
place in human relations; whether personal, small or large groups, or even
organisations.
Knowing oneself and forming oneÊs own self-identity are important in human
relationships. Only through self-awareness, can a person adapt himself/herself
to various levels and contexts of communication.
This topic will explore the extent to which perception influences the relationships
established among colleagues and friends in workplace situations and among
members of society.

66 X TOPIC 4 INTRODUCTION TO SELF-CONCEPT AND COMMUNICATION
4.1 COMMUNICATION AS A SYSTEM
SELF-CHECK 4.1
Is there a system in communication and if so, what does it

involve?
In the previous topics, we discussed the importance of communication in daily

life. As a process, communication involves dynamic actions or activities in
human relations that have no specific beginning or end.
A system is the combined result of parts which respond to and rely on each other
until finally they form a complete whole. Each part forming the system is a
combination of sub-systems which function and are managed in the related
system. For example, if a person is not well, his thought processes would
function less than perfect. The whole body is affected, including his/her feelings.
In a complex system, damage on one part would affect the other parts. The
computer is another example of a system, performing tasks according to a
specific set of instructions. Damage to the Central Processing Unit (CPU) which is
the heart of all computer activities will cause data processing failure.
Environment and time factors are elements that influence specific systems.
Interaction in parts of the communication system will also form new elements.
Systems formed in groups, for example, will form norms, culture and practices
which change the patterns of communication which determine the success or
failure of team spirit. In a personal relationship, the element of trust is important
and a betrayal of trust may change the relationship between people.
In communication between people, the existing system gives an impact and

influences the communication process. To form interpretation in communication,
each individual must take into account the system in which the communication
takes place. Components in the system form interacting elements when
communication happens. Something that happens to the system gives impact not
only on one system but also on a bigger and more complex system where
relationships exist. Implications of domestic dispute between husband and wife,
for example, are not only on the family system at home but also on the one that
exists in the workplace.
Every system formed will not always undergo a balanced situation all the time.
Change is certain to happen and it will threaten or disturb the internal and

TOPIC 4 INTRODUCTION TO SELF-CONCEPT AND COMMUNICATION W 67
external system. Therefore, people have to adapt to a system or systems in order

to meet communication needs in various contexts. A person may possess the skill
to communicate but communication will fail if one cannot adapt to different
situations.
4.2 COMMUNICATION AND SELF-IDENTITY

The theory on self-identity is seen from various psychological view points. An
individualÊs behaviour changes according to requirements. At the same time,
changes also take place in the environment. Experience, for example, may change
a person and shape his self-identity.
Wood (2001) regards the concept of self-identity as a process. This process can be
seen through interactions within ourselves, between ourselves and other people
and among members of a group.
Basically, communication comes from within ourselves and will end up also
within ourselves. This is because communication plays an important role in the
formation of self-identity. A person cannot explain an idea, declare needs or
interact effectively, without communication.
When we communicate, consciously or not, we are making codes in our mind

which are based on our emotions to be interpreted by others. Similarly, how we
view ourselves influence the way we communicate. Based on the relationship
that is established, communication plays an important role in the formation of
self-identity and how an individual perceives himself.
A personÊs self-identity depends on the image that he/she puts forward. Signs of
self-identity may be seen through the style displayed by certain individuals such
as their dressing, hairstyles, non-verbal behaviours, personal accessories and
home decor, all of which influence other peopleÊs views of them.
ACTIVITY 4.1
You are invited to attend a state level gathering to celebrate Hari Raya
Aidilfitri. Based on situations that you have experienced, think of
several examples of positive or negative self-concepts that might affect
the way you communicate at such a festival.
The general perception of a person involves how other people look at that
person. Their perception of that person will determine the way they accept him.
The impression that you think you have formed on this group of people may
cause you to improve your self-confidence and self-esteem or vice-versa.
Several important concepts relevant to self-identity such as self-concept and how

it is formed; self-awareness; and self-disclosure (see Figure 4.1) will be discussed
in the following sub-topics.
Figure 4.1: Concept relevant to self-identity
4.2.1 Self-concept and Communication

The concept of self-identity and self-concept are very synonymous. As in the case
of communication, self-identity or self-concept is a process which has neither a
specific beginning nor end. It always changes according to contexts, events, time,
and place. It is closely related to othersÊ perceptions of oneself which will mould
oneÊs behaviour and simultaneously shape his image.
Knowing oneself is not easy. A person learns many things about himself through
his own life experiences. The perception of a person of himself is founded on his
new and old experiences and the background of the culture he practises.
Therefore, having a stable self-concept will cause a person to have a positive self-
image as he only focuses on the strengths that he possesses.
Sometimes a person may not know himself despite having gone through various
experiences in his life. As a normal person, he may have certain strengths or
weaknesses. Knowing the „self‰ requires a person to evaluate himself from his
own point of view and from othersÊ opinions of him. This also includes what is
thought about him and the beliefs that he upholds about himself. The
combination of attitudes and beliefs upheld by a person is formed throughout his
life experience. It is this perception and view that are formed within a person that
mould actions depicting his self-identity in various activities. A psychology
expert, Karen Horney, defined „self‰ as the strength present in each person
which is unique to him that serves as a basis for building self (Beebe, Beebe and
Redmund, 1999).
There are two components in self-identity. They are self-image and self-esteem
(see Figure 4.2). Self-image is the picture that a person desires to portray of
himself, whereas self-esteem explores to what extent that person may evaluate
and accept himself based on his social, physical and psychological attributes
(Gamble & Gamble, 2002) (Seller & Beall, 2002).
Figure 4.2: Two components within oneself
Considering that the concept of „self‰ is important in each action to

communicate, self-concept and self-awareness influence the positive or negative
patterns of communication (DeVito, 2002). By trusting oneÊs own ability and the
perception of others on oneÊs own capability, one can influence oneÊs action and
behaviour towards his self-esteem.
There are many ways a person may learn about himself. Psychology and
sociology experts have identified four events or situations which can help
individuals to learn about themselves. (Figure 4.3).
Figure 4.3: Four situations of knowing oneself

Self-concept and how one looks at himself influence how we communicate and
provide feedback to others. Besides looking at oneself based on the depiction by
others of oneself, another important factor in knowing oneself is to make social
comparison between oneself and others. By doing this, a person may have the
opportunity to learn and select what is best for him as this indirectly enables him
to look at himself from a different perspective.
The concept known as „self-fulfilling prophecy‰ states that the view held by a
person of him would influence his action or behaviour in certain situations.
Therefore, if a person wishes to enhance or improve his communication with
another, he must re-evaluate the self-identity that he has been displaying.
ACTIVITY 4.2
Experts say that there are various „selves‰ which show the various
roles a person plays in his life. State the roles that you play in the
following situations:
(a) At home
(b) In the office
(c) In class
(d) Online chatting
The factors that contribute to a personÊs self-concept are:

• Image given by others;
• Social comparison;
• Practices, norms and culture; and
• Interpretation and evaluation.
(a) Image Given By Others

Self-concept is formed by various factors. Interactions with other people
actually help a person to know himself. The image that the person is
portraying while he is interacting with these people reflects the self. It is as
if he is looking at his own reflection. For example, the feedback that one
gets from work colleagues after completing a job. It is this feedback that
forms the individualÊs self-identity.
A personÊs self-identity is also influenced by his friends who include those

whom he met during childhood, at school, at the workplace, places of
exercise, as well as his own life partner.

(b) Social Comparison

OneÊs association with ethnic, professional, social or even political groups
are very significant in the formation of his/her self-identity. A person is
labelled according to the group he associates himself with.
Self-symbolism also influences the formation of self-identity. What is

desired or dreamed of by a person always changes according to self
requirements and desires. This happens how a person views, monitors and
evaluates himself so much so he realises the need to form new roles. This
will finally form his self-identity.
(c) Practices, Norms and Culture

Each individual may feel that he has certain roles to play, for example, the
role of a son to his mother, a husband to his wife, a father to his children, a
friend to his friends, a student to his teacher or the role of a matured
person. The roles that a person plays also depend on gender. These roles in
turn influence the formation of self-identity. In life, those who have close
relationships with the person contribute to the formation of his „self‰. Close
family members such as parents, brothers and sisters are very significant
contributors to the self of a child. In certain situations where close relations
between the family and extended family members exist, the grandfather,
grandmother and other close relatives also help in the process of building
oneÊs self. When we reach adulthood, people around us such as friends,
teachers or colleagues influence the formation of our self-identity.
(d) Interpretation and Evaluation

Perception is also an active process closely related with the interpretation of
situations, a person or an event taking place. The perception of a person of
us contributes towards the perception of our self-identity. The influence of
different perceptions depends on factors such as culture, social role,
physiological capability and cognitive process. All these factors influence
the interpretation of others of us and give impacts on the pattern of
communication within ourselves and with others. There are various
initiatives that can help to strengthen our-self identity and develop an
effective communication style as can be seen in Table 4.1.

Table 4.1: Three Ways to Strengthen Self-Identity and Communication Styles of an

Individual
1. Recollect positive qualities such as those which brought success or increased
ability to mix with others. For example, the ability to overcome weaknesses and
plan ahead for the future in a more organised way.
2. Anticipate what may happen and think of ways of overcoming difficult

situations or think of how to avoid problems.
3. Create jokes and humour in daily life to assist in reducing tension.
ACTIVITY 4.3
You attended a state level Open House function. What is your
opinion of the extent of cultural implications on self-identity? What
kind of self-identity values did you portray?
4.2.2 Gender and the Formation of Self

One of the concepts in knowing oneself is the cultural perspective on genus or
gender. Gender is an important element in forming oneÊs „self‰ which is often
related to social identity.
Gender is often taken to mean male or female although it is not accepted

universally as such and often debated. Psychoanalytic theory states that the
disclosure of „sense‰ and gender happens while we were a baby and we grew
with responses from people around us. Therefore, identity takes place when
gender becomes part of a personÊs self concept.
A „masculine‰ character is normally associated with those who are firm, have
material success and a strong physical body. A „feminine‰ character, on the other
hand, refers to those who are refined and gentle; interested in improving the
quality of life. Masculine individuals tend to be uncompromising and direct,
while feminine people prefer to compromise when solving conflicts.
A baby is labelled by its gender and its life is patterned since birth. This happens
for example through the selection of colour, types of toys and particularly by the
choice of names given to it. Indirectly, the characteristics related to oneÊs sex
result in a gender stereotyping and this perception influences the „self‰ of the
baby as it grows into an adult.

The differences in life expectations and patterns between male and female can be
seen in the following:
(a) Listening
Women are brought up to be attentive while listening to people. They are
also asked to give their responses. Such responses refer to their interests in
the topics of their conversation. Men will usually make statements when
they feel that they have something they want to say. At the workplace and
in personal relationships, women always deem men as not maximising the
listening process because of their less expressive self-identities. Like
women, men have their own views of womenÊs responses. They often think
womenÊs responses to be annoying and only demanding for attention.
(b) Level of Friendliness

Wood (2001) states that gender does not influence the way men and women
look at friendliness as an important aspect in socialising. What
differentiates the two is the aspect of how they create and sense
friendliness. Women are found to be freer in voicing out their opinions and
feelings as a way to create friendliness. This is also known as „closeness in
dialogue‰. Men, however, are just the opposite. Friendliness will only result
from an activity carried out with another person. This is called „closeness in
doing‰.
(c) Perception towards Power

There are obvious differences in gender perception on power (Wood, 2001).
Normally, a man considers power as something already vested in him and
should be used to raise the status of an individual. Women use it to
empower other individuals and directly create a collaborative situation.
4.2.3 Communication Skills in the Process of Initiating

Interaction
Caputo, Hazel and McMahon (1994) explain that several communication skills
must be possessed by a person in the process of initiating an interaction or
forming a relationship. How other people look at us is related to a
communication style that has a close relation with the self-identity of a person. A
person without the communication skills would sometimes stay away from any
interaction with others. This will definitely influence his way of communicating
with others and how others communicate with him. Based on the perception and
assumption of a person on the others, how a person receives another, influences
the communication climate. What are the steps that can be taken to ensure good
perceptions of a person?

(a) The First Step in Communicating

Before initiating a relation or interaction with a person, we must ensure we
have a personable approaoch and pleasant appearance. This makes it easier
in order to be accepted as a friend, acquaintance, colleague or life partner.
An interaction that is started with friendly words, casual talk and other
suitable situation helps a person to have good early communication and
thus assists in forming good relations.
(b) Initial Interaction

Casual chat at the beginning of a conversation is a social skill that enables
us to know other people. It can be done by trying to know and
remembering some information about the background of a new friend. A
smile, sociability and friendliness will leave a good psychological effect on
the relationship formed. And so does essential information such as name,
place of stay, etc. They all may help to make a relationship closer as well as
improve the conversation process. Remembering previous discussions will
also help. The habits of criticising or raising negative matters regarding
you, other people or organisation will cloud the conversation climate.
In certain conditions, eye contact is important because it often shows our

sincerity while communicating. It is also a norm of communication, i.e.
showing courtesy in communication. If the discussion runs well, the
communication process that has taken place has the potential to reach a
level of relationship which is more personal.
SELF-CHECK 4.2
State two ways which can help initiate good personal relations.
4.2.4 How to Reduce Uncertainties in Communication

There are several strategies that can be used in establishing relationship and
ensuring the communication process running smoothly.
Openness/Self -disclosure
Studies show that openness or self-disclosure is effective in understanding and
learning about other individuals. Openness in communication happens when an
individual openly communicates with one or more individuals about himself.
The process of self-disclosure would create understanding between the
individuals involved which takes this relationship to a level of friendship. This

relationship will also improve further when the individuals concerned feel that
they are being appreciated. In addition, this will also help reduce uncertainty in
the relationship established between the individuals.
The process of self-disclosure may take place if the following happens:

(a) It is not random but continuous;
(b) There must be give and take on both sides;
(c) The relationship is meaningful; and
(d) The relationship affects other people.
Before we begin a communication process, we must know our own level of

motivation. Understanding self-concept is important because it helps us to
determine the information that we want to share with others. In conclusion,
although we share information with others in the self-disclosure process, we
must also be intelligent enough in not disclosing important information that we
consider very personal or this may spoil the communication process.
ACTIVITY 4.4
Have you ever read about Johari Window? What is the connection that you
can observe between your „self‰ and your relationship with your friends or
family members?
4.3 COMMUNICATION WITH FAMILY

MEMBERS
We have discussed the question of gender in self-identity formation. Every
individual was brought up in a family. The early education and the interaction
between family members indirectly form the self-identity of a person. In other
words, parents and other family members make us what we are. A personÊs life
is shaped by his familial experience which in turn shapes his self-identity and he
communicates. Familial experience is indeed a strong influence in a personÊs life
development.
Every person originates from a family. The concept of family differs from one
society to another. A family normally means a group of people who are related to
one another and who stay and share their lives together. The family system
formed requires its members to interact and share responsibilities between them
at interpersonal levels. Therefore, a person must examine the pattern of

interactions within a family system in order to understand not only about himself
but also the human relations which form the relationship in the family. This will
subsequently help in evaluating oneself and the family and later in establishing
an effective way of communication and how we adapt ourselves with other
members of society around us.
A person cannot run away from being involved in some kind of family life. The
relationship that exists sometimes looks fine but at other times is full of
problems. Therefore, the roles of a family member keep changing according to
situations, experiences and time. The needs of a family may also influence its
memberÊs interactions.
Human relations are complex and subjective, especially with regards to family
members. However, family relationship is the basis for knowing social
relationship. Considering every family has its own social life, understanding
family relations is essential.
An intimate relationship between family members provides physical or

emotional support. Upbringing and family life practices give rise to the concept
of self-values, personal strength, personality and self-identity of a person. A
person is often evaluated based on his deeds and his origin.
4.3.1 Communication in Family System

Considering that communication in a family system is symbolic, the focus of
communication should be on the family as a whole and not on individuals
making up the family. Therefore, in the process of understanding communication
in the family, the context of communication in the family system as a whole
should be examined first.
The theory in family system regards family as a dynamic system because

relationship and communication in it are closely related. Family life style is a
universal experience for everyone. Although a family may consists of members
who look like isolated individuals in actuality, they are a unit. A conflict between
an elder brother and the father has many implications on the daily situation of
the family of which they are a part. So does the birth of the fifth child which may
certainly affect all the other family members.
The approach to family system in general looks at the family as a distinct unit or
system. The bigger the family, the more complex the relations that exist between
the family members. A family communication process results from interactive
relations and interdependence among family members. This process takes place
through the generation of messages delivered through the family network.

We can observe four main points in the communication concept of a family

system. They are as follows:
(a) There is no such things as an ideal family. This is only a communication
myth although it is undeniable that each member in the family system
attempts to form a distinctive identity as a result of both happy and sad
experiences in their lives.
(b) Communication in a family system is a process that happens when a family
member discusses and shares meaning with other members of the same
family. Through this interaction, we shape and determine the identities and
relationships of the members within the family and society.
(c) A healthy family will attempt to adapt and shape changes in order to
maintain closeness within the family as well as control and handle any
conflicts.
(d) The family is the best example of the context of communication involving
multiple generations, that is, from the smallest members of family to the
adults and the elderly.
The family system is a very complex system. It is formed by the process that
takes place in the components of the system. If a component changes, the other
components will respond to this change, either by also changing or merely
accepting the influence adapted from such changes.
Littlejohn (1983) states that a system consists of four elements that can be applied
to understand the system in a family. The elements meant here are object,
characteristics or features, relationship and environment. Although the system
may be of the closed or open type, the four elements must be allowed to play
their roles so that the system can function to ensure the well being, of the social
system, organisation, individual or the family system itself (see Figure 4.4).

Figure 4.4: The Family System

Source: Littlejohn, S. 1989. Theories of Human Communication (3rd edition) Wadsworth
Publishing: USA.
Whatever form of family, communication plays an important role in determining

the quality of life in its system. Many studies have been done on communication
in family relationship which reveals that among the source of problems in the
family is lack of communication process.

4.3.2 Importance of Communication in a Family System

Quality family communication is essential to establish a harmonious relation
among family members based on the following characteristics (see Figure 4.5).
Figure 4.5: The important characteristics for communication in a harmonious family
(a) Interdependence among Family Members

Each member of a family system relates to another. They need each other so
that the system can function efficaciously and effectively. The behaviour of
an individual will influence and give a long-term effect emotionally and
psychologically on other members of the family. Therefore, there must be
poise in the way they behave so as to maintain the communication in the
family system.

(b) A Distinctive System

Each family has special norms to guide their behaviour in order to be
appropriate with the way of life the family practises. These behaviours are
reciprocal in nature, have certain patterns and are repetitive. They are seen
as unique or even strange and sometimes confusing to individuals who are
not family members.
(c) Complex Interactive Response

Family members vary in the way they behave and this may lead to complex
responses given by other members. Sometimes, these responses are illogical
because they may arise as a result of problems in the family.
(Figure 4.6 depicts an interaction process in a family.)
Figure 4.6: Interaction process in the system of a family
Based on the above example, we can observe an interactive process in a

family system. Busy parents may neglect their responsibilities and do not
give sufficient attention to their child. Therefore, the child feels neglected
and may commit a blunder such as telling a lie in his effort to attract his
parentsÊ attention. When the parents realise the situation and begin to pay
attention to him, he will motivate them to change their attitudes. This may
induce parents to give more attention to the child. This interactive process
usually takes place repetitively in a family system.
(d) Self-adaptation
Communication as a system needs equilibrium. However, a balanced
situation is rather difficult to achieve especially in a very complex family
system. Therefore, to attain equilibrium, every family member should be
able to adapt him/herself to any form of change regardless of whether it is
expected or not. The change that happens is a part of a family life
experience. This is because a family is not a system that has permanent
features. The family system may often change to create integration and
evolution in the process of establishing effective communication.

(e) Openness
A family system is a part of an open social system. Practising openness in
the family involves a healthy communication process among family
members. Only by being open, can a person be easily understood.
In a family institution, interactions often take place between social system

and other systems such as those of education, health, economic, etc.
Communication activities in such systems can be of a positive or negative
nature to ensure the social system continues to operate in harmonious and
stable circumstances. If a similar situation is applied in a family system,
harmonious communication is sure to take place.
(f) Need for Information Sharing

Every family system needs a mechanism to facilitate the communication
process between each family member. Information sharing has
implications on the relationships between family members. However, not
all family members share the same kind of information. Information
sharing may be conflicting in nature, causing either a relationship to
become closer or sometimes raising misunderstanding among family
members. Nonetheless, information sharing is very essential in helping to
create uniformity, stability, integration and coordination in a family system.
ACTIVITY 4.5
How can conflict take place in family relationship? What are the factors
contributing to the occurrence of a conflict and what are its implications on
the communication among family members?
Communication is always seen as a transactional process which involves the

process of establishing and sharing meaning. Behaviours in communication with
family members are similar to those which assist us in delivering messages
effectively to other receivers, for example, the behaviour that we adopt while
delivering a meaningful speech.
Supportive messages in family relationship provide children with confidence and

at the same time instil a strong sense of self identity in them. This may be seen in
the case of giving children stimulating and motivating words before they sit for
an examination. Such speech not only encourages someone to feel appreciated,
but also enhances his confidence when facing and communicating with others,
outside the ‰family system‰. Messages in the form of control inform the family

members that there are certain rules in the family. It explains what kinds of
behaviour are accepted in the family.
• Most of our life, we interact with people around us. Communication with
others helps a person to know his/her own self.
• Similarly, in relationships and interactions that are shared with others, seeing
oneÊs own differences also influences the self identity of a person.
Relationship with friends, self-perception and family influence all help in the
formation of a personÊs self-identity.
• In short, all these factors determine whether a personÊs self is accepted or not.
Possessing a self-identity which is liked and accepted by other individuals or
society helps to establish an effective communication.
• Communication in a family involves interpersonal communication. In a

family system, individuals are joined together either through marital ties or
adoption. Family is the greatest influence in forming self-identity.
• Every person has a different and distinctive life experience. Sharing family
life encourages a person to form his/her own self-identity that is different
from those of others.
• This happens because different individuals have different backgrounds and

this depends on the way each person is brought up in their family system and
culture.
• Conflict and tension in a family occur if there is a lack of communication

between family members.
Gender Self-formation
Self-concept Self-identity
Self-disclosure

Topic X Communication
5 in the Context
of Relationships
LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. Describe the importance of establishing personal relationships;
2. Explain three evolutionary stages of a personal relationship;
3. Describe the four phases of relationships;
4. Describe the factors influencing personal relations at the workplace;
5. Describe the relationship between communication and social
change in society; and
6. Describe cultural implications in the context of personal
relationship.
X INTRODUCTION
Communication is established when interaction exists between two people
whether formally or informally. We have discussed the basic concepts in
interpersonal relationship in communication. In this topic, we will discuss
interpersonal relationships further by focusing on the relationship established
through friendship.
Relationship in friendship is usually formed at certain levels. Communication in

friendship and between associates involves individuals interacting face to face.
Systems formed in close relationships can either be formal or informal and would
certainly involve many individuals. Friendships may be established in the school,
market or office and among individuals. Such a relationship involves activities

84 X TOPIC 5 COMMUNICATION IN THE CONTEXT OF RELATIONSHIPS
that shape, build, maintain and sometimes dismantle the friendship that has been
formed.
5.1 COMMUNICATION AND PERSONAL

RELATIONSHIP
Personal relationships in friendship are forged when there is communication
between one individual and another or several other individuals. Friendship
established between people is an important dimension in interpersonal
communication. It is a unique relationship due to commitment sealed between
individuals based on certain rules, types of relationships and also environmental
context.
A Malay proverb states that a friend to laugh with is easy to find but a friend to
cry with is hard to come by. Is this true? Have we ever thought of what makes a
lasting relationship? How many among us truly have genuine friends? How long
does a friendship last? What causes a long-standing friendship to end?
In daily life, we often relate to others and establish a social relationship with
friends either old or young. We not only interact but also at times attempt to
create a close personal relationship with people in our communication network.
What is important in the personal relationship is commitment between
individuals in establishing friendship. When we regard someone as a friend, we
assume the person is close to us and can share his ideas with us.
The classification of friendship depends on experience, needs and personal

background of a person. However, consciously or not, we actually have certain
objectives in establishing communication relations with people we regard as
friends. Some people believe that close relationships will bring happiness in life,
while others think close relationships will result in difficulty and troubles. Is it
true that friendship gives meaning to life or only creates difficulties?
Our next discussion will focus on several aspects related to communication in

friendship and issues that often arise in such a relationship. The issue is how
communication influences a lasting friendship and how conflicts between
individuals can be controlled to establish a better and meaningful relationship.
What pattern of communication can be seen in friendship? By looking at certain

signs or indicators in friendship, we can see the roles of verbal and non-verbal
communication in such a relationship.

TOPIC 5 COMMUNICATION IN THE CONTEXT OF RELATIONSHIPS W 85
5.1.1 The Importance of Establishing Personal

Relationships
Some of the objectives for establishing friendship are:
(a) Satisfying Human Needs

Humans are social creatures. They have certain needs which must be
fulfilled. Many people need friendship to avoid loneliness, solve conflicts or
be loved. People also need each other to live and to fulfil their desire to
socialise. A person will find it easier to adapt himself in relationships if he
is comfortable with other people. It is normal for people to want to feel
needed. The relationship is established for the purpose of getting attention
from others and satisfying the desire to love and to be loved.
(b) Controlling Situations

Every individual attempts to form and maintain influence in a friendship.
In certain conditions, a person wishes to ascertain that his relationship is
stable, comfortable and within his control.
5.2 EVOLUTION OF PERSONAL

RELATIONSHIPS
Personal relationships are formed in unique conditions through certain stages as
illustrated in Figure 5.1 below.
Figure 5.1: Evolutionary stages of a personal relationship
(a) Level 1: Beginning of Friendship

At the early stage of friendship, a relationship begins with interaction in the
form of an introduction between a person and the new acquaintance. The
first contact involves initial perception of each other. At this stage, a person
makes personal evaluation about the other person by generally looking at
his style of dressing, charisma, style of speech, attitudes or non-verbal

communication. Based on this evaluation, a perception is formed. In

establishing this perception, a person usually looks at similarities that exist
between them and then decides whether the relationship would be
continued or not.
It is also at this early stage that a person exchanges ideas in his effort to
learn more about interests or similarities that exist between them because
by knowing the other person, the person will feel more relaxed and
comfortable in communicating and sharing his ideas.
(b) Level 2: Close Relations
A close relationship is established once people find their relationship
satisfying. At this stage, the feeling that one is in need of each other is
created. Those who reach this level of friendship are more open to sharing
their happiness and frustration. Trust and commitment are important here
because they will start sharing plans and hopes. Consequently, the
individuals involved in the relationship begin to form a friendship. They
then do and share many things together. Such a relationship is found
among close friends or a close couple who intend to set up a family.
(c) Level 3: Strong Relations
Relationship at this level requires commitment. The individuals involved
will make plans for the future and agree to share their lives together. This
relationship does not only involve romantic ones but also between close
friends, business partners and so on. For example, housemates who agree
to stay together will share in the payment of rental, bills and food. Business
partners also plan for the future of the company they own. Team
cooperation is vital among the members of an army when facing a battle.
A personal relationship which grows from one level to another depends on the
decisions made by both sides. The decision to maintain a friendship can be either
to remain at the early acquaintance stage or to pursue intimacy at a higher level.

5.2.1 Phases of Relationship and Communication Needs

Every individual must go through various levels to establish a personal
relationship and friendship throughout his life. Different relationships are
naturally formed throughout peopleÊs lives due to individual requirements that
change according to age and environment. In general, there are four phases of
relationships in friendship which occur during various phases of a personÊs life
(see Figure 5.2).
Figure 5.2: Four phases of relationship
(a) Childhood Phase

During childhood, the tendency is to choose to interact and communicate
with friends based on physical characteristics such as height, size as well as
physical things owned by peers. The process of establishing friendship at
this level is based on each otherÊs abilities and similarities discovered
during the time spent interacting with one another. Everyone tries to
highlight himself.
The established relationship may create friendships. When this happens,

they tend to communicate within the same circle of friends. Such a situation
motivates them to share a common space.

In the context of communication between friends, children have the

tendency to share interests and show sensitivity towards feelings and
conditions around them. Children often communicate with the purpose of
creating understanding and developing a common aim.
(b) Teenage Phase

The culture of communication among friends is different from that of
family members. The experience of communicating with friends often
creates a closer relationship among them. Therefore, the desire to form a
closer friendship causes teenagers to form a group personality.
Teenagers also perceive friendship as recognition and acceptance. The

selection of certain individuals to be considered as friends is made based on
personal qualities and capability to understand attitudes, feelings and
thoughts that are more intimate and dyadic. Teenagers prefer to
communicate with friends who they can talk to and share problems and
opinions with.
The characteristics of a friendship occurring at the teenage level are:

(i) Trust in each other and in performing responsibilities expected in a
friendship;
(ii) Sincerity in communicating with peers and in making and expressing
views and opinions;
(iii) Confidence in themselves and ability to defend their own attributes;
and
(iv) Trustworthiness towards peers is considered important in a teenage
relationship. In the case of disloyalty, the person who is disloyal is
deemed as breaking the norm and as being disrespectful of his
friends.
The ability to communicate and interact with peers help teenagers in

discussing various issues. The communication process is important in
helping them create a self-identity that is stable throughout their growing
years.
(c) Adult Phase

Friendships that occur during a personÊs adult phase establishes trust and
leaves a deep impression. However, barriers exist when people are
separated geographically and have different individual needs. At the adult
stage, a personÊs life gets more complex as a result of work, mixing with
members of other communities and initiating a close relationship with

another person. Sometimes, competition in life may also cause one to

neglect or abandon an existing adult relationship.
(d) Old Age Phase

At this level, people prefer to establish relationships within a small group.
Communication at this stage is rather closed and limited to a few friends of
the same age. Meanwhile, message sharing at this level focuses on
experience, spiritual life or family.
5.2.2 Controlling Conflict in Personal Relations

Every friendship established does not necessarily end in happiness. In a personal
relationship, changes in condition, time and environment can influence the
friendship. When a person in a group fails to fulfil the requirements of a
relationship, the friendship will face difficulties. If a dispute raised in a personal
relationship cannot be redressed, it can result in a conflict. A conflict will cause
communication problems which can lead to an unstable relationship.
What are the factors that can cause conflicts in personal relations? When there is
imbalance or differences between individuals, a harmonious situation will
change. A difference of opinion that cannot be resolved will lead to disputes or
quarrels. Sometimes, a relationship without conflicts may also make the
friendship distant because each side feels very comfortable as there is no issue to
be discussed (see Figure 5.3).
Figure 5.3: Conflict factors in a personal relationship

When a relationship becomes distant, the number of shared messages also

dwindles. Existing communication becomes routine and personal interests are
upheld. The situation worsens when conflicts cannot be rectified anymore.
Communication no longer helps the relationship and this adversely affects the
long established friendship.
What are the ways to solve conflicts in a personal relationship? It is undeniable

that personal conflicts are not easy to resolve. Conflict resolution among
individuals can sometimes be achieved and sometimes results in a dead end.
There are many ways of overcoming differences in a relationship. Individuals

can get a better understanding of the differences through discussions that are
open and focused on the problems at hand. It is important to listen and
understand the problem. When harmony exists, a resolution may be achieved to
satisfy the wants and needs of all the parties involved in the conflict.
5.3 COMMUNICATION AT THE WORKPLACE

When we examine communication at a workplace, we are actually looking at
interpersonal communication occurring in an organisation. The way an
organisation functions depends on the activities of that organisation and the
extent to which its members carry out the organisationÊs operations.
The system of relationship in an organisation ranges from the relationships of

individuals to the complex relationships that involve the whole organisation.
Each member of an organisation may interact face to face or online with the
leader, subordinate or other individuals outside the organisation. The more
complex the system in an organisation, the more complex will be the
relationships between members. Therefore, the pattern of communication
practised in an organisation is very important in establishing a harmonious
relationship for a conducive working environment.
A good working environment and good leadership improves professionalism,

management and quality of work, all of which contribute towards achieving
organisational goals. Good relationship between an employer and employees of
the organisation will contribute to higher productivity and better returns.

5.3.1 The Function of Communication at the

Workplace
In an organisational context, messages are classified based on task, policy and
membership. Each member of an organisation plays a different role and
according to his level and rank in establishing the exchange of messages in the
communication network. Communication activities such as interview,
discussions, meetings and other verbal communication in the form of formal
writing are conducted formally or informally.
Individual roles in a communication system are determined by the structure of

relationship and the system of an organisation. In general, communication in the
context of relationships among organisational members aims at informing,
persuading, making progress and integrating that or other relationships.
Considering the importance of communication, the communication mediator or
channel used to interact in a work situation must be taken into account.
Communication at a workplace requires members of an organisation to have a
special level of interactive capability and is bound by certain principles decided
by the organisation.
ACTIVITY 5.1
What is the difference between dyadic communication and group
communication in an organisation?
Why is communication considered important at the workplace? An organisation

has a hierarchy and formal procedures in order to function well. Communication
is one of the important elements in an organisation no matter where and when it
takes place, be it in a meeting, formal or informal correspondence, e-mail,
appointment or daily interaction in the office.
How does information communicated within an organisation, whether with

business colleagues or those involved directly or indirectly with the organisation,
influence the performance of an organisation? Every form of interaction,
beginning with an interview up to a relationship based on daily work, involves
certain behavioural conduct on the part of organisational members.
The organisation structure is formed by individuals as a result of a

communication process at the workplace. In the relationship between employer
and employees, communication serves to control, motivate, inform, as well as
state or voice out emotion. The communication climate in an organisation is
created by the membersÊ perception resulting from the relationship between
employer and employees at the workplace.

Communication among organisational members takes place all the time and in
every activity. Interactions that take place in open communication at the
workplace create a conducive organisational climate. Trust and mutual respect
unite organisational members, causing them to be satisfied in performing their
work. A conflict, on the other hand, will lead to a misunderstanding or harsh
words being spoken or cause members to suffer emotional stress. All these finally
lead to job dissatisfaction.
SELF-CHECK 5.1
1. What is the importance of communication at the workplace?
2. What are the factors which contribute to effective communication in an
organisation?
5.3.2 Factors Influencing Personal Relations at the

Workplace
There are many factors which influence communication between the members of
an organisation at their workplace (see Figure 5.4).
Figure 5.4: Factors influencing personal relations at the workplace
(a) Roles and Functions

Every individual in an organisation has specific tasks and responsibilities.
A person is employed to fulfil a given role as determined by the
management of the organisation. A manager, for example, is responsible for
leading a group of executives and at the same time, maintain organisational
interests. Formally, their task at this level is to report to top management on
the performance of staff and the level of company achievement. The formal

task determines who is involved in the communication network. A

manager communicates with members of other departments or units in the
organisation or outside the organisation. He also interacts informally with
acquaintances. In whatever situation, communication is established in
formal and informal networks.
(b) Communication Climate

The communication climate of an organisation influences its work situation.
It affects the members and the relationships between them. Openness
contributes to a climate that is conducive for two-way communication,
while a rigid situation hinders effective communication and causes job
dissatisfaction.
The size and type of organisation, formal or informal, also determines

communication climate. The bigger and more formal an organisation, the
more complex will be the communication that takes place in it. Another
factor that influences the communication climate is the pattern of
leadership practised in the organisation.
(c) Communication Flow

Communication flow influences work relationships and information
sharing between organisational members. From the managementÊs
perspective, information sharing among employers, employees and
individuals outside the organisation is vital. Therefore, members of an
organisation must understand the process of information channelling.
(d) Communication Mediators

Information channelled effectively in an organisation is usually in the form
of writing, pictures, a combination of writing and pictures and a
combination of verbal exchanges, writing and pictures. The information
technology available today is introducing new ways in organisational
communication. Office automation has changed communication methods
that were previously done manually.
The selection of communication mediators used at the workplace depends on

several factors. These are as follows:
(a) Mediator sources that are available in the organisation.
(b) Cost effectiveness in comprehensive communication with all members of
the organisation. The use of electronic mail or e-mail, for example, is faster
and saves cost compared to mail correspondence.

(c) The impact of the mediator used in an organisation whether successful in

achieving the objectives of the message delivered and the speed of feedback
received.
(d) The capacity of applied mediator devices and the extent to which the
communicator is able to deliver the information and understand the
message delivered are crucial. The capability of members to use
information technology and communication ensure that the information is
received and utilised in a timely and effective manner. Skills in using
computer applications and software facilitate task work and the internal
and external communication of an organisation.
Selection of communication mediators may influence the desired effect of the

communication. Information may flow from top to bottom or vice versa and it
involves a combination of media, consumers and the kinds of communication
activities performed.
Formal communication in a working environment must be identified, planned

comprehensively and carried out continuously. It must be sensitive to the
organisational situation and needs, open to ideas and suit organisational
objectives. Communication that is burdened with ambiguity and uncertainty will
result in mixed reactions and misunderstanding among members. Understanding
of the roles of each member in communication is crucial in order to prevent
conflicts.
SELF-CHECK 5.2
What is the most popular communication medium used among

members of an organisation?
ACTIVITY 5.2
1. Explain the types of interviews which are usually held in an

organisation.
2. What is the difference between a conversational interview and a
job interview?

5.4 COMMUNICATION AND SOCIETY

Living in a society requires various important factors to be taken into
account. A good communication practice involves not just oneself but also
others. The ability to adapt oneself in social situations can be useful in
building personal relationships with other groups.
5.4.1 Understanding the Concept of Society

As stated by Mandelbaum (1972), the concepts of community are as follows:
(a) A society consists of individuals who orientate themselves as inhabitants in

a certain environment.
(b) Norms and culture of a society depend on the extent to which social
perception is shaped to accept and adapt the aspects of the individualsÊ life.
(c) The society always changes and the changes are highlighted in the
communication process which takes place.
Figure 5.5 summarises the three concepts of society mentioned above.
Figure 5.5: Three concepts of society
Therefore, the communication process in a community becomes more complex

due to the existence of a system in the community itself. Among the barriers
that complicate communication in a society are population factor; overlapping
of values and roles; and existence of factories, housing areas, crime-prone areas,
illegal settlement areas, etc (see Figure 5.6).

Figure 5.6: Factors complicating communication in society
To examine the system of communication taking place in a community, three

factors must be taken into account. These are shown in Figure 5.7.
Figure 5.7: Communication system in society

(a) Channel
The channels that are used as a communication mediator should be able
to achieve the goals of communication delivered in the messages to the
whole community effectively.
Various forms of media like newspaper or electronics are able to deliver

messages that can be received and understood by members of the society in
different parts of the country.
(b) Information Processing

This involves tasks such as storing and delivering information, as well as
encoding and decoding it. Information processing centres can be
established in various communities to help members of the society.
(c) Code
All symbols used in a code should be made into a system that can be easily
deciphered by the public.
Besides the factors explained above, an effective communication system should

take into account the following two important aspects:
(a) The existence of an effective communication system that integrates the

various forms of media received by a community
An effective communication system aims at ensuring that all information can
be distributed widely. The integration of various forms of media enables the
society to select a suitable and meaningful news channel and in accordance
with their needs. This channel should also facilitate the process of accessing
needed information.
(b) A system of storing information that is effective and free from the influence
of any party
This system should be consistent with the capacity of the community and
institutions distributing the information so that the society may utilise the
information effectively.
We also need to pay attention to the sources of information in the context of the
society. Usually, the institution that has the influence and a high financial
capacity has more capability to distribute information widely. Such an
institution is able to shape the societyÊs thought orientation which is the result
of selective information delivered.
Communication in the community should also take into account existing

physical facilities, such as telecommunication facilities, transport and other
basic infrastructure.

5.4.2 Communication and Social Change in the

Society
The relationship between communication and social change in the society can
be analysed in various ways as can be seen in Figure 5.8.
(a) The process of social change has a direct relationship on the communication
process
This involves advancement of knowledge including techniques, ideas,
information, institutions and cultural practices.
(b) The process of social change brings about changes in the way of life
This is evident in the use of technological devices which function as
communication media that generate interactivity in community relationship.
The change may enhance the involvement of society in the process of
receiving and distributing information.
(c) The generation of freedom to voice out opinion

The society has the opportunity to voice out opinions with the help of
current communication technology. However, the situation is influenced by
the rising awareness of society members towards the quality of messages
delivered through the media and quantitative requirements on various
forms of information.
Figure 5.8: Relationship between communication and social change in the community

5.5 UNDERSTANDING COMMUNICATION IN

INTERCULTURAL RELATIONS
Another important aspect in human relationship is culture. Cultural concepts
can be seen through various approaches and cover a wide range of meaning.
Cultural implications take place in many aspects of life and at the same time
affect the practised pattern of communication.
In interaction between individuals or in group communication, culture influences

the communication process. Failure to understand and take into account cultural
factors makes communication futile. Consequently, misunderstanding occurs
and leads to conflicts and affects communication adversely. Failure to
understand culture causes rejection of the intended communication and
complicates the formation of harmonious communication in a society.
5.5.1 Meaning of Culture and Intercultural Concept

Culture can be viewed from various perspectives. Anthropological professors
define culture as a complex system consisting of knowledge, beliefs, arts, morals,
customs and all forms of conduct of humans as members of a society.
Culture is also seen as a symbolic process that is learned, practised and passed
down from one generation to another through communication. A person is not
considered part of a culture just because he is born into a particular culture
(enculturation).
Culture is related to beliefs, attitudes, values, wealth and love. DeVito (2000)
relates culture as artefacts channelled through communication, other than the
beliefs and behaviours of a person.
A subjective approach towards culture combines beliefs, values and norms that
guide a personÊs conduct. A personÊs conduct results from his perception and
expectation of life. Culture is seen as the sharing of a set of ideas and practices
contained in the mental software which controls a personÊs behaviour.

Figure 5.9 summarises the meaning of culture.
Figure 5.9: Meaning of culture
Communication is an activity greatly influenced by culture. How communication

is shaped will affect the audienceÊs reaction to a person, his belief or attitude. In
other words, understanding human relations through communication and
culture will enhance the effectiveness of communication and at the same time
improve the relationship among individuals despite their cultural differences.
ACTIVITY 5.3
What is the difference between norms and values?
5.5.2 Cultural Implications in the Context of Personal

Relationship
The world population is made up of various races who speak different languages
and practise different customs and ways of life. Today, we can see normal
friendships or intimate personal relationships depending on the ability of
members of different cultures to communicate with each other.
Differences in values, daily practices, practices, ethnicity, beliefs and attitudes

threaten communication. The differences in a multicultural society are wide and

therefore generate various interpretations and expectations in the process of

sharing meaning. Western culture emphasises individualism in life while the
main requirements in forming personal relationships in Eastern cultures are
customs, responsibilities and loyalty.
Culture influences the form and content of a message. There are various barriers
in understanding intercultural communication. DeVito (2002), Wood (2001),
Beebe, Beebe & Redmund (1999) identify several factors such as:
(a) There exist similarities in individuals from different cultural backgrounds.

Conditions may become worse when there is a tendency to look at and
evaluate other people from oneÊs own cultural perspective and regard his
own culture as the best, positive and natural, which is termed as
„ethnocentrism‰. The level of ethnocentricity influences communication
behaviour in individual, group, public and mass communication.
(b) Cognitive ability affects what and how a person forms a perception.
(c) Spoken language affects the messages delivered and causes the
interpretation of meaning to vary from culture to culture.
(d) Every culture has a different way of accepting and looking at a personÊs
roles. The perception that influences the self-construct on the stereotype
and cognitive scheme leads to certain actions, attributes or bias against
other cultures. Indirectly, it forms a different view on the goals that are
considered important among the experts in those cultures.
(e) Stereotypes, prejudices and misconception that are used as criteria in a

different culture will hinder communication. For example, perception of
race, value, physical appearance and gender influence intercultural
communication.
(f) The tendency to evaluate a person negatively or positively may cause

failure to receive and understand the thoughts and feelings of the
interacting parties and prevent multicultural communication.
(g) A high level of uncertainties causes an uncomfortable feeling because

differences in culture, speech and practices will hinder interpersonal and
intercultural communication.

ACTIVITY 5.4
1. What is globalisation in the context of intercultural communication?
2. What is the implication of communication technology on
interpersonal relations between two people?
3. Explain the importance of the following concepts:
(a) Empathy
(b) Grapevine
• In the context of a relationship, interpersonal communication involves

emotions shared with others. Empathy, for example, is very important in
understanding the feelings of others while communicating.
• Every level of relationship needs consistent understanding among

individuals regardless of their age and cultural background.
• Before a person is able to understand the emotions of his acquaintance, it is

important for him to understand his own.
• Being aware of the factors that raise conflicts makes a person act objectively
and not emotionally.
• As a human being, a person cannot escape from feelings of happiness, worry,

anger, fear or shyness. Whatever feeling one has, it must be controlled in the
best possible way to avoid breaking a friendship.
• In the workplace environment, a person should be able to handle a working

relationship and also shape a strong self-identity compared to others who fail
to adapt to relationships at the workplace.
• Combination of both concepts of communication and culture means that

communication is established among individuals who come from various
cultures and who subscribe to the same beliefs, values or behaviour.

• In reality, culture is a big influence in explaining, maintaining, changing and

determining communication patterns. A person may also get the opportunity
to learn other cultures during the communication process.
• Knowledge, understanding and acceptance of other cultures may indirectly

facilitate the communication process.
• In intercultural communication, a simple interaction may cause complication

and misunderstanding which lead to conflicts in a relationship. Due to failure
to understand, respect and be sensitive to the culture of others, a person may
be perceived as being ill-mannered. Misunderstanding another personÊs
culture may result in a hostile relationship. A person may lose the
opportunity to establish an effective communication in the context of his
relationship with others.
Communication media Culture

Communication needs Intercultural
Communication systems Personal relationship
Conflict

Topic X Verbal
6 Communication
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain the importance of verbal communication in the
communication process;
2. Describe types of verbal communication and their differences;
3. Evaluate how language influences the effectiveness of verbal
communication; and
4. Identify barriers in establishing effective verbal communication.
X INTRODUCTION
This topic delves into another important aspect in determining effective
communication. The aspect meant here is verbal and non-verbal communication,
its effect on human relations and interactions with the environment. Discussions
on verbal communication would be incomplete without consideration of the
language aspect as a code in the message delivered. Verbal communication
involves culture, gender and language that is suitable for the context of
communication.

TOPIC 6 VERBAL COMMUNICATION W 105
6.1 INTRODUCTION TO VERBAL AND NON-

VERBAL COMMUNICATION
Verbal communication refers to spoken communication while non-verbal
communication is observed through messages from gestures and actions shown.
For example, Armand expresses his intention to meet his friends on Saturday night
by asking permission from his parents to use his motherÊs car. The communication
that happens here is verbal communication.
Sometimes, it is difficult to discuss verbal and non-verbal communication

separately. This is because both behaviours take place simultaneously while we
are talking. For example, if Armand writes a note to his mother about his
intention, then he is using a written communication and not spoken
communication. Non-verbal communication happens when his mother shows
her emotions through facial expressions such as smiling or frowning. Her
expressions will indicate whether or not she agrees to his request. However, the
message is delivered in the form of non-linguistic messages.
What is apparent here is that there are meanings given and messages delivered
by two interacting individuals in the communication that has taken place.
Messages delivered can be seen in various conditions. In a speech given at a
function, a person who speaks with an unclear voice will surely make the
listeners feel bored. In that scenario, the communication may not achieve its goal.
A manÊs greeting and constant glances in the direction of a young lady whom he
has just met may indicate that he is interested in her. An e-mail may not be fully
understood by the receiver if it was written in confusing language. An SMS with
many abbreviations may be misinterpreted by the receiver.
In face-to-face relationships, verbal and non-verbal cues often take place. Non-
verbal cues have a big influence on the first impression towards a condition. In
most situations, non-verbal perceptions may be more accepted. This happens
when an individual evaluates interpersonal style, leadership credibility or
feedback by taking into consideration the interpretation based on emotion and
behaviour.
Actually, verbal and non-verbal communication are two patterns of

communication that we often practise in the context of face-to-face
communication or otherwise. Both types of communication are closely related to
each other.
Verbal communication happens in the spoken and written forms. However, both
should be viewed from different perspectives. At a discussion, communication

106 X TOPIC 6 VERBAL COMMUNICATION
by a speaker will be interactive. Communication happens in a transactional way.

Information exchange and message delivery are viewed through feedback
between the two sides.
In personal relationships, the selection and usage of language may be natural.

The condition would be different for a speech in a formal group where language
is emphasised. However, feedback received from the audience may enable a
speaker to change strategies so that the audience can better receive or understand
his speech.
In written verbal communication, message acceptance may not be ascertained.

This makes it harder for the writer to select suitable words or sentences using the
right grammar and phrases so that it is easily understood by anyone who reads
it.
ACTIVITY 6.1
Think of a situation or incident around you. Make a list of the
forms of verbal communication that you can see.
6.2 SYMBOL AND MEANING IN VERBAL

COMMUNICATION
Verbal communication is communication which happens between people who
emphasise on the use of language either through writing or speaking in giving
opinions or sharing meaning with others. Verbal communication is also regarded
as the best communication in the effort to deliver a message to another person.
In verbal communication, there are certain symbols or codes that describe a

situation, an individual, or an event that takes place. Usually, the symbols
referred here are in the form of letters, numbers or words that construct a
language.
For example, the words „proud‰ and „frustrated‰ are made by combining letters
to form words. Both words describe an emotion or feeling. Each word has a
particular meaning and happens in a certain situation.
The use of codes and symbols in verbal communication helps a person in

understanding, interpreting the meaning or labelling anything seen, heard or
read. Among others, a person may have the opportunity to make an evaluation
or assumption in the communication process.

The language we use every day is a code of communication. If A speaks English

with B who is Chinese educated, a problem may arise because he may or may not
understand English. This means that the codes used are not similar and the
communication between them becomes difficult. BÊs facial expressions will
indicate whether or not the message was received.
SELF-CHECK 6.1
What are the features of symbols in verbal communication?
Symbols have no relation with what is described intrinsically. In fact, it

changes with time. It is abstract and vague (Wood, 2001).
Symbols are widely used. All road users understand red, green and yellow colours
on traffic lights wherever they are. Today, computer icons such as print , close,
copy and paste are understood because they explain certain instructions to
computer users. Emoticons were created in online communication for universal
understanding. Similar to WWW, which is understood as World Wide Web,
FAQ is the acronym for Frequently Asked Questions and electronic mail is
better known as e-mail.
Symbols may give a rather unclear meaning when communication happens in a

different cultural context. The unclear meaning of symbols may cause
misunderstanding and complicate communication. Therefore, it is very
important for a person to use clear and concrete language rather than a
language whose meaning is hard to understand or interpret.
ACTIVITY 6.2
1. Discuss other symbols in computer application language
that can be categorised as verbal communication.
2. Give three examples of metaphors that carry meaning in the
Malay language.
The meaning of verbal language is different according to the context and

relationship between communicators. Consider this: NanaÊs close friend, Zizi,
says to her, „DonÊt try to cheat me‰ or „Get lost!‰ The words, although harsh,
may not be taken seriously by Nana. However, if Zizi says the same words to a

new acquaintance or someone who is not a close friend, it would have a different
effect.
6.3 FUNCTIONS OF VERBAL

COMMUNICATION
Verbal communication has been used for the purposes of persuading or
changing a personÊs view towards something according to what is wanted
since AristotleÊs era.
To the communicator (source), it is essential to be eloquent and fluent in the

way or style of speech in front of the audience. This is known as rhetoric.
Verbal speech uses language to influence the communication process
because language has the following functions:
(a) Explain the implicit and explicit meaning of messages;
(b) Assist in mastering the reality of communication that happens;
(c) Enable the process of thinking, interpreting and selecting;
(d) Establish or avoid the establishment of relationship through
communication;
(e) Form an individual identity or social identity;
(f) Assist in searching and sharing information;
(g) Adapt to the situation in various contexts of communication; and
(h) Monitor an effective communication process.
In discussing something by speaking, the use of sound and meaning can be

interpreted separately. This can be evaluated during delivery. For example, „I
disagree with your opinion‰.
In terms of words, we will assume that the person is protesting against another
personÊs opinion. However, if we listen to his speech carefully, we will
understand the message that he actually intended to deliver. If his speech is
delivered with a harsh tone together with certain gestures, we might be able to
reveal the actual implicit message in the speech.
By using language, we are also able to create the situation that we desire. The
situation may be a happy one or otherwise. With language, we are also able to
deceive others.

Language also contains words that test a personÊs mind. In addition, it encourages
us to think rationally and logically.
Language has unique and specific meanings according to what we want to say.
The language used while communicating enables a person to change the sentence
structure according to his needs and desires.
6.4 THE ASPECTS OF SYNTAX, SEMANTICS

AND PRAGMATICS IN LANGUAGE
There are various views on the significance of language in communication. The
simplest explanation is that language was created to clarify concepts that are
complex and abstract. Language is also used to deceive or influence a person.
The language used should be understood in order to facilitate communication in
personal life. How a language is used and understood by the receiver will
influence relationships and friendships.
Three main aspects which contribute to verbal and non-verbal communication

are syntax, semantics and pragmatics.
6.4.1 Syntax
Syntax is the study of language which relates to the arrangement or sequence of
words used to interact. It refers to the rules or system that must be followed in use of
a language. Grammar gives meaning to a language. For example, if the sentence,
„Let us go for a walk‰, it is reversed into „Walk a for go us let‰, we certainly would
not understand it because it is confusing.
6.4.2 Semantics
Semantics is the sharing of meaning. Semantics refers to the link between a word
and certain feelings, ideas and context.
Meaning can be seen in two forms i.e. denotative meaning and connotative
meaning.
(a) Denotative is a word that has concrete meaning and can be seen, found or
referred to in a dictionary. These meanings are generally accepted.
(b) Connotative meaning is abstract and refers to meaning that is quite
distinctive. Sometimes, connotative meaning is disguised or implies
certain emotions, feelings or experiences. Therefore, a word that has a

connotative aspect often raises problems due to the presence of elements

that involve emotions and feelings. This is seen in several examples such
as „freedom„, „eliminate‰ and „human rights‰. Such words are
commonly used in street protests or demonstrations. Slangs used by
particular group also have connotative aspects.
6.4.3 Pragmatics
Pragmatics refers to how language is used to interact. It surpasses the
arrangement of words (grammar) and the meaning of words. Its focus is on how
to use sentences while communicating. The pragmatic aspect of language is also
known as speech act.
What is the importance of the pragmatics aspect? It involves the use of a sentence,
word and language at appropriate places for certain purposes such as questioning,
praising, threatening, etc.
In certain conditions, language is used to achieve desired purposes as shown in

Figure 6.1.
Figure 6.1: The purposes of using language

(a) Cultural Background

Communication between individuals takes place based on norms that have
been established by a community or group. This is because the culture or
situation is sometimes different. For example, the way we speak with
children and the way we communicate with peers are different. The same
goes for communication with oneÊs spouse and colleagues.
(b) Image
Highlighting oneself in a group that is interacting with each other is
considered important. This is so that the person is comfortable in terms of
idea presentation or acceptance.
(c) Relationship
There is a difference in the language used between an individual and
another. For example, pity or love is expressed differently between new
and old acquaintances, brothers, parents, friends, lovers and spouses.
(d) Situation
Different places require us to use different ways of communicating. For
example, communication in the office, at a birthday party, among
politicians, in the prayer hall, at functions, at funeral, etc. Different events
require different ways of speech so that the communication is appropriate
for each the situation.
(e) Speech Act

This refers to the purpose of communication and how to persuade, praise,
express pity or anger towards a person or something.
(f) Context and Content

What is spoken differs between one person and another. Artists involved in
films and theatre are different from philosophers, psychologists, doctors
and corporate figures. Evidently, there are various levels of communication
content for different groups of people.
SELF-CHECK 6.2
What is the meaning of the language aspects of syntax, semantics and
pragmatics? How can we apply them in verbal and non-verbal
communication?

6.5 IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF A

MESSAGE
Using language in communication includes the semantic, synthesis and
pragmatic aspects. Although all three of them are equally important, good
communicators often focus on the pragmatic factor. This is because the pragmatic
aspect represents our skills in using a sentence. To what extent the pragmatic
level exists depends on experience, sensitivity and training acquired. Besides
that, the context of communication must also be emphasised because a person
may speak or communicate verbally or non-verbally in the same style of
language in every situation.
Another important aspect in verbal and non-verbal communication is the rhetoric

skill in language and creating phrases and paraphrases that are suitable to the
context of communication. A high semantic skill enables us to shape and deliver
ideas and new understanding from contextual and conceptual aspects of a
message.
6.6 FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE

You may have heard the Malay proverb, „Yang baik itu budi, yang indah itu
bahasa (The good is in good deeds, the beauty is in language)‰. What is its
relation to verbal communication?
Language is often regarded as neutral and would not raise problems in

communication. Language is used in activities such as exchanging opinions,
watching television, listening to the radio, studying, reading the newspaper or
sending and receiving messages through e-mail. Language may bring peace to a
country by solving conflicts or may cause a country to go to war. Language is
often regarded as inconsequential and unimportant although sometimes it is able
to influence the mind and feelings, which would consequently influence a
personÊs actions.
Language is an important tool of communication. Without language, it is very

difficult to carry out our daily activities. Language is a system or sign, proof or
symbol that describes feelings, ideas and intention. Language also asserts the
essence of thought especially in communication, either verbal or non-verbal.
Language involves syntax, grammar, words, sounds and meaning. Through
correct language, a message can be understood and delivered to receivers. A
person who masters a language has an advantage over others.

Effective communication can be achieved through good language with clarity in

meaning. In other words, without language, both verbal and non-verbal
communication may not have any meaning whatsoever.
In general, language used in communication between people has the following

functions:
(a) Getting and Sharing Information

Language is essential for the information exchange process. It enables a
person to form categories and interpret the situations happening in the
surroundings. Also, through language, information may be acquired by
explaining, depicting, stating and showing information which has been
acquired and delivered to another person. Sharing of information through
language is very essential. Here lies the proof of the importance of language
in communication. Language that is understood enables effective
communication.
(b) Lightening the Situation

In a tense situation, language is used to lighten the atmosphere, such as
chit-chat, writing a letter, talking or speaking. By interacting, we are able to
change a situation while improving self-confidence.
(c) Controlling and Expressing Emotion

Language is used to express feelings. A person experiencing stress may
express his feelings by shouting loudly or sharing his problems by praying,
writing or narrating the events to reduce stress.
(d) Delivering Implicit and Explicit Meanings

Your deepest feelings can be shown clearly using good language and a
clear voice. At the same time, the use of paralanguage can obscure the real
meaning of a sentence or truth. The use of such language usually has certain
objectives such as avoiding from hurting the feelings of any party who is
communicating.

(e) Making a Relation Closer or Wider

A language that sounds friendly or has an amiable tone may help people to
establish relationships. If we like a person, we would call to ask about his
well-being, send an e-mail or chat to make the relationship closer and to
interact with one another. However, if a person is not liked, people would try
to avoid speaking to him.
(f) Shaping Self-image and Identity

Courtesy in language reflects a personÊs self-identity. We are able to know a
personÊs character by looking at how he communicates and uses a
language.
(g) Controlling Behaviour or Condition

A language can influence, create rules, persuade or control perceptions or
acceptance by others. In most circumstances, language influences condition.
Messages in language are interpreted in various contexts of the receivers.
Language may also sometimes cause conflicts when it is misinterpreted.
(h) Monitoring the Communication Process

Language enables us to discuss what is said by others on certain topics and
at the same time controls the meaning of what we intend to say. Language
also becomes the medium for an effective communication process and for
controlling the communication process.
6.7 EFFECTIVE VERBAL COMMUNICATION

In communicating activities, we would definitely want the audience to receive
what we say. However, various barriers may appear in the process of delivering
a message to a receiver.
There are various factors contributing to the effectiveness of verbal

communication. To ensure effective verbal communication, several aspects must
be taken into account:
(a) Ensure that the symbols and language used give exact, suitable and clear
meaning so that these are easily understood. This is because both symbols
and language carry different meanings in different cultural contexts and
situations. Differences in culture and life experience give rise to diverse
interpretations and perceptions among people. Although it is difficult for a
person to avoid misunderstandings from arising in verbal communication,
the use of good language will help minimise confusion.

The appropriateness of the language in communication should be taken

into account because certain situations require the use of certain language.
Speaking with the president of an international company or in a public
speech requires formal language compared to talking in a coffee shop with
old friends from the same village. Interpersonal communication usually
happens informally.
Messages through language inserted with humour make verbal

communication more attractive compared to serious conversations.
Messages that have a strong impact may leave a long-term effect in the
memory of the receivers.
(b) The validity of source can be defined as the acceptance of the truth of a
communication source in an established communication situation.
In the context of speech, for example, the expertise of information source

enhances the validity of information.
In a public speech or lecture, a valid source is important to the audience. If the

audience asks a question that the speaker cannot answer, the audience will have
doubts about the credibility of the speaker.
Although being able to speak in front of the audience, the expertise of source
may not be able to ensure the effectiveness of the message delivered. The source
must be reliable to the audience.
The perception of „acceptable and reliable‰ depends on the extent to which the
source is regarded as not having any hidden intention. A marketing agent
promoting a product is considered unreliable if the promotion he is presenting is
illogical, unacceptable or regarded as too forceful. The same can be said about
politics. A party candidate would lose public trust if he has a reputation for
making false promises or is exposed as having an extramarital affair.
The extent to which a person effectively presents himself may help him to control
his audience. A dynamic communicator is able to deliver his messages
confidently, spiritedly, loudly, firmly and directly.
Charisma is one of the factors which can contribute to the effectiveness of

communication. Charisma is not related to the appearance or physical
characteristics of a communicator. Rather, it relates to his speech capability,
background or ideology.

A communicator who is capable of influencing his audience will have a smooth

communication process and the audienceÊs full attention.
6.8 BARRIERS IN VERBAL COMMUNICATION

There are many barriers that make verbal communication less effective. The
language used may be misunderstood, resulting in communication conflicts
that are difficult to contain.
Several reasons that hinder verbal communication include:

(a) Acceptance or Assumption that Language Has Just One Particular Meaning
Difficulty in understanding language or misunderstanding meaning may
render communication less effective. In communication, a person should be
sensitive to the message receiver. He should study the context where verbal
communication is used so that the meaning is understood, received and
interpreted as conveyed.
(b) Different Cultures

Language in verbal communication gives a different message in different
cultures. A non-generic language is only understood by certain people.
In the United States in low-context culture, what is spoken becomes the

purpose it is communicated and is exactly what is meant by the
communicator. The approach and meaning are clear. Furthermore, there is
no implicit interpretation whatsoever behind a message.
It is different with high-context culture where the opposite situation takes

place. In high-context culture, what is communicated is interpreted
according to the context of practice. In the context of culture, what happens
in communication takes into account implicit feelings and perceptions.
Although the language of a race could be understood and applied, failure
to adapt the language to ethnic cultural practices may raise problems in
verbal communication. Communicating with an aged person such as oneÊs
aunt, elder sister, grandfather or grandmother also needs the use of suitable
language. Thus, many factors must be taken into account in verbal
communication in the context of cultural differences. Failure to understand
or adapt communication to cultural practices often lead to
misunderstanding.
(c) Failure to Take into Account Individual Differences

Differences between individuals can be seen from their personal
background, race, ethnicity, cultural practices and gender.

Many studies have identified differences between males and females.

However, there are gender stereotypes which become barriers in verbal
communication.
ACTIVITY 6.3
1. What do the following concepts mean?

(a) Metamessages
(b) Paralanguage
2. Give three reasons why language is regarded as symbolic in nature.
• Using language and adapting it in verbal communication, either in speech or

writing, means selecting language or symbols that are adapted according to
particular uses, needs and situations.
• Language, which is a system of symbols used in communication, is very

important.
• Language is used to explain, clarify, label and discuss certain things.

Messages through language would be more meaningful if a person could
overcome weaknesses in language when used in various contexts of
communication.
• In effect, language can be learned and used creatively in verbal

communication. A person who communicates verbally should realise that the
language used has its causes and effects.
• The selection of language and verbal communication styles has a close

relationship with the receiverÊs perception of the person. If you use words
that hurt feelings or are rude or rough, this would influence peopleÊs
perception and opinion of you.
• A person who communicates verbally or in writing must use language that is

appropriate for the time and situation as well as its significance to generate
effective communication.

Pragmatics Syntax
Semantics Verbal communication

Topic X Non-verbal
7 Communication
LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. Explain the concept of non-verbal communication;
2. Identify the different types of non-verbal communication;
3. Explain the importance of non-verbal communication;
4. Describe the relationship between verbal and non-verbal
communication; and
5. List the barriers in non-verbal communication.
X INTRODUCTION
There have been many studies carried out on non-verbal communication and its
effects on the communication process. A person is capable of communicating his
reaction to another person without saying anything and this happens even
without us knowing it. We can observe that most of a personÊs actions and
feelings are displayed by the personÊs behaviour while communicating. Studies
on non-verbal communication have proved that 65% of the meaning of
interaction between people comes from non-verbal communication. This topic
will discuss the characteristics of non-verbal communication as well as its
importance, implications and challenges on effective communication.
Before we proceed, what do you understand by non-verbal communication?

120 XTOPIC 7 NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION
7.1 INTRODUCTION ON NON-VERBAL

COMMUNICATION
The effects of communication are sometimes hard to understand. For example, in
the context of our workplace, we can sometimes sense when our presence or our
proposals in discussions are ignored. For example, RamuÊs action in voicing out
his opinion in a meeting is disregarded by Encik Syed his boss. Ramu would feel
that he is not liked by his superior, while his boss regards his action as rude
because he stated his opinion loudly. Here is an example of how non-verbal
communication can influence the communication climate.
We often think of communication as messages being delivered through speech or

writing. Non-verbal communication, on the other hand, is seen in a personÊs
behaviour. It is a form of feedback, different from verbal communication.
Wood (2001), Gamble & Gamble (2002), Trenholm & Jensen (1998) and many
others proposed their definitions of non-verbal communication. In general, all
forms of communication with the purpose of delivering messages or responses
without words are non-verbal communication. A sorrowful voice, a sour face, a
cynical smile, mode of dressing, personal adornment, the manner of sitting or
standing, hand signals and the distance from the other person while speaking; all
these strengthen the message in communication. Non-verbal communication
through behaviour, attributes and objects, other than words, gives social
meaning (Seiler & Beall, 2002).
What are the advantages of non-verbal communication? What are the

implications of non-verbal communication in daily interactions? What are its
effects on social interaction, interpersonal communication and communication at
the workplace?
ACTIVITY 7.1
What is the meaning of the green traffic light when driving on the
road? Give other examples of non-verbal communication around
you.
Non-verbal communication has various functions. It can deliver a message either

on purpose or otherwise. Verbal communication is used while speaking to a
person or in a group. The meaning of words used is strengthened and clarified
through voice tone, face expression and signal responses while presenting a
message. Attending the first meeting, or a solo entertainerÊs concert, or listening
to a lecture presentation gives certain implications to the communicator or

TOPIC 7 NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION W 121
singer. For example, Adli may be regarded as a speaker who entertains listeners.
However Nasir, a well-known singer, may be regarded as a boring concert host.
Therefore, perception is closely related to non-verbal communication.
Nevertheless, non-verbal communication can also change the actual meaning of

the communication. It can raise confusion or cloud the real meaning in the
communication. A person who is observant of non-verbal signals will
understand what is said and at the same time summarise the relationship that
exists.
7.2 SIGNALS IN NON-VERBAL

COMMUNICATION
Language is used to state a clear meaning in the content of a message. In most
non-verbal interaction, its symbols are available in various forms. What is clear
is, each pattern or cue of non-verbal behaviour discussed here shapes and
interprets the meaning. See Figure 7.1.
Figure 7.1: Non-verbal communication signals

(a) Kinesics
Body movement and what can be seen on the face represent a thousand
meanings. The behaviour shown tells other people various things about a
person. This includes feelings, emotions and the purpose of the action.
The nodding of the head, lip movements or a meaningful gaze are capable
of influencing a personÊs feelings. Eyes are capable of expressing hatred,
enthusiasm, anger, affection, worry or even boredom.
Many implicit or explicit meanings can be understood by examining the

face of the person interacting with us. In some conditions, it is hard for a
person to control his own facial expressions.
Signals indicating that a person does not want to be disturbed can also be
observed on a personÊs face. When a person shows friendliness or a smiling
face, then our perception is that he has an open attitude and can be brought
into discussion. A father who looks away or is deliberately not listening to
his son, shows that he is not ready to discuss things with his son.
A facial expression can easily be identified when it happens spontaneously

and such a reaction usually happens in a few seconds. However, this facial
expression can also be purposely created according to the condition or
situation.
Facial expressions are not learned but exist naturally from instinct and
emotion. Through examining facial expressions, we may learn whether a
person is speaking truthfully or not. If the facial expression is opposite to
what is being said, then we know that the individual is not speaking the
truth. If however, we find his face reddish in colour, it shows that he is
trying to hide his real feelings.
In short, facial appearance and facial expression will determine whether the
communication established between two individuals will be cordial at the
first meeting or not.
Some faces show clearly whether the person is happy, angry or full of hate,
etc. For example, a woman who keeps looking at another man will cause
her boyfriend to be jealous and this would show in his unhappy expression.
Such a facial expression happens spontaneously without being realised by
the boyfriend.
There are conditions where a person is capable of mimicking others

spontaneously. Actors are very good at this. There are even people who
show their emotions without realising it.
Some individuals are expressionless. It is not easy to identify the feelings of

this group of people because their facial expressions do not show any
reactions. Besides the group of people who do not show any feelings, there
is also a group who show facial expressions that are contrary to the actual
emotion or situation. For example, a person maybe smiling when in fact he
is sad.
ACTIVITY 7.2
In what condition have you seen a facial expression which does not
represent the real emotion of a person?
Eye movement is also a signal of non-verbal communication. A personÊs

eye movement and gaze have certain meanings that can be interpreted by
individuals who see it.
By giving certain eyes signals, we may know whether a person likes or does
not like certain things. This signal is capable of disclosing a feeling that
cannot be expressed in words. For example, when seeing a surprising or
unexpected event, eye reaction accompanied with a surprised face would
certainly appear and these reactions happen spontaneously.
Eyes are also capable of revealing the answers to many questions that may
arise. Sometimes they may also hide the actual feeling. This condition often
happens when a person tries to hide a mistake. Looking in another
direction may represent a guilty feeling.
(b) Physical Appearance

OneÊs physical characteristics and appearance can s hape our first
impressions of an individual, for example, the height, weight, skin colour,
body shape, sex, size, eye colour, hair and shape of the face.
Based on these, we often form stereotypes of people. At the same time, these
stereotypes are often reinforced by culture and the media. Society tends to
take into account physical appearance as the main factor when evaluating
others.
Physical shapes are often closely related to culture. What constitutes an

ideal shape may differ from culture to culture.

ACTIVITY 7.3
Give several examples of stereotypes on physical appearances that
you know.
(c) Artefacts (objects)

Artefacts can show the identity of a person in terms of that personÊs
gender, style, situation, religion, patriotism, professionalism, personality,
status and interests.
Even dressing is related to oneÊs status and image. A woman who puts on a
beautiful dress and personal accessories such as necklace, bracelet, ring,
and high heel shoes with lipstick and face powder as well as coloured
mascara can display a certain image to the audience. A person who wants
to show his professional image may put on a dark coloured suit when
meeting a client. A person who wishes to attend an award
presentation event will wear a branded outfit.
Artefacts are also often used to reveal the identity of a country. National
symbols or flags are used to decorate the hall when a national leader is
delivering a speech.
We also often see a person decorating his office wall with awards, pictures
or medals of valour received to show status or as a remembrance. All forms
of artefacts are used with the purpose of communicating non-verbal
messages.
ACTIVITY 7.4
Songket is a Malay cultural artefact that is becoming less and less

known to the present generation. It is a cloth woven with golden
thread, mostly by womenfolk in the East Coast. It was worn by palace
officials in the past. What other „artefacts‰ do you know about?
(d) Haptics (touching)

Haptics, or touching, is a non-verbal primitive form of communication that
delivers meaning in relationships.
Each person has a different perception on haptics. A personÊs reaction is

also different when touched. Touching which is regarded as normal for one
person, may be regarded as rude or has a sexual connotation to another

person. Touching which is regarded normal when done in the absence of

other persons, may be regarded as embarrassing when it is done in front of
people. In other words, perception on haptics or touching may be positive
or negative.
Haptics in the context of non-verbal communication refers to touching

another person using oneÊs hands, arms or other parts of the body.
Touching may be in the form of pinching, stroking, grasping, embracing,
etc.
Touching, used in certain situations, may represent strength, empathy or

understanding. However, each person may have a different touching
behaviour. Research studies on non-verbal communication identify several
objectives of touching as shown in Figure 7.2.
Figure 7.2: Purposes of touching in non-verbal communication
Touching is used as a form of control of behaviour. For example, a friend

stops his friend from quarrelling in front of a large audience to avoid
creating a scene.
Besides that, touching can also be used to bring out positive emotional
effects. For example, hugs between friends at the airport could mean either
farewell, welcome home or safe journey. Similarly, when a person is sad at
the death of a loved one, a sympathetic embrace would make that person
feel better.
Touching is also done to reveal emotions to a person close to us. For

example, a mother who holds her child closely to show how much the child
is loved.

Touching is also an important element in many cultures where it is used to

signify the level of friendship, between individuals.
Besides that, touching sometimes happens when a person is kidding or

being playful. If we are kidding with friends, we might be rather rough
with our behaviour. However, if we are kidding with a person we love, the
touching may be gentler. Whatever the aim, touching indicates the
closeness of the relationship.
(e) Chronemics (perception and use of time)

The time factor is another important element in our communication with
others. Our attitude towards individuals or events shows in the manner in
which we prioritise them. For example, a person who is punctual has a
more positive reputation than a person who is always late.
The use of time is influenced by culture. For example, in „Malaysian time‰,

a delay of up to 30 minutes would be considered normal; but in the United
States or Germany, it would be best to apologise and explain the reason for
your lateness to avoid being labelled as rude.
Time suitability is also an important factor in non-verbal communication.

For e x am ple , Susan w h o c al ls on Rahizi a t 10.00 pm to discuss work
matters may be regarded as inconsiderate. Similarly, if Ah Seng goes to
RamliÊs house at dusk or during Maghrib prayers, that would be insensitive
to Ramli, a Muslim.
The duration of time a person spends with another indicates the priority
given to that person. Surely we all prefer to spend a longer time with those
we like, compared to those we do not like.
ACTIVITY 7.5
If a lecture starts at 8.30 am but you arrive at 9.30 am, what sort of
perception would your lecturer have of you?
(f) Paralanguage
Paralanguage is an aspect of vocal communication which hinges on the way
we speak. It is used together with speech with the aim of strengthening
what is spoken. Characteristics of paralanguage involve tone of voice,
speed, „volume‰ and quality. These include sighs, laughs, groans, pauses or
sound rhythms. Perception is closely related with paralanguage because it

involves the perception and evaluation of a personÊs physical characteristics

and personality.
The voice of a person reveals many clues for interpreting meaning in a

message. Vocal cues are used to show feelings. For example, whispering is
used in intimate relationships; while a high tone indicates anger.
The voice may also influence a personÊs perception and because of that,
vocal cues are controlled to strengthen an image. Each of us usually knows
how to control our voices to show happiness, sadness or anger. Those who
have coarse and loud voices are regarded as aggressive. A CEO who is
angry in a meeting tries to control his anger. A person speaking in front of a
group of students must control his/her voice. A person attending a job
interview must also control his voice.
In other words, the style of speech may reflect the emotions of an

individual. Voice tone can show either a person is in fear or uncomfortable,
sad or unhappy.
Sometimes the tone of voice may not show every emotion. Instead, there
are other non-verbal signals such as facial expressions. For example, a
newscaster may slow down his news reading when reporting the news of a
death, while a sports commentator may use an up-beat and fast tone to
show a fighting spirit.
While communicating with others, we usually vary our tone of voice to

emphasise certain meanings. A flat tone may not attract attention and there is a
possibility that the audience may get bored. However, an exaggerated tone
may also put off an audience if they think the speaker is being overly dramatic.
(g) Proxemics (Personal Space)

The use of space plays a role in communication effectiveness.
Personal distance and space in non-verbal communication can be seen from

the aspects of friendliness or from personal, social or formal distance;
reflecting the level of the relationship between two or more people.
Usually, every individual attempts to identify and maintain his own

personal space. Therefore, we must respect other peopleÊs space in order to
avoid friction.
Either consciously or not, distance plays an important role in communication.

In a conversation between one person and another, communication
researchers identified communication distance as in Figure 7.3.
Figure 7.3: Distance zone in communication
(i) Friendly/Intimate Distance

Friendly communication distance is described as an area of less than
18 inches or around 46cm. Individuals who are in such a distance are
seen to converse closely, almost as if whispering to each other. Topics
of conversation in friendly distance are usually of something quite
confidential. Individuals who interact in a friendly distance usually
already know each other and have an intimate relationship. In a close
or intimate relation, non-verbal communication is seen through
movement, touching and gazing. The interaction process is seen as
rather friendly.
(ii) Personal Distance

In personal communication distance (one and a half to four feet or
roughly 0.45m to 1.2m), interaction between individuals also shows a
close relationship. Topics of conversation are usually personal in
nature; although, not confidential. This distance is suitable for
interaction with friends, relatives or immediate family members.
(iii) Social Distance

Social communication distance happens when the distance between
an individual and another is between one and a half and 12 feet
(0.45m and 3.6m). Such a distance happens with individuals whose
relationship is not so close. This is often seen among people who
interact on official business such as discussions in a meeting room,
meetings or interviews with a leader or figurehead, job interviews or
social gatherings.

(iv) Public Distance

Public distance happens at a distance about 12 feet (3.6m) or more.
Such a distance does not involve interaction between individuals as
communication here is a one way process. In such a condition, the
communicator uses a high tone of voice in order to be heard.
(h) Keeping Quiet

Sometimes a person „keeps quiet‰ or believes that „silence is a thousand
languages‰. Silent signals are an aspect of non-verbal communication.
Keeping quiet sometimes gives more meaning than saying something.
Spouses who understand each other do not need words to express feelings.
A person who is very angry may keep quiet and this would irritate the
others around him because they are unsure what is on his mind. Clearly,
communication cannot be established effectively if this happens.
SELF-CHECK 7.1
1. List down eight type of signals in non-verbal communication.

2. What are the purposes of touching in non-verbal communication?
3. Based on communication distance in the above picture, what is the
form of communication established?
7.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF NON-VERBAL

COMMUNICATION
All forms of non-verbal communication share several characteristics. All non-
verbal communication behaviours express emotion, feeling and message. The
non-verbal communication characteristics are summarised in Figure 7.4.

Figure 7.4: Characteristics o f non-verbal communication
(a) Happens Directly and Unconsciously

Non-verbal behaviour usually happens without being realised by a person.
Either consciously or not, we sometimes glance, smile, pretend not to listen
or sigh. Non-verbal behaviour also carries certain messages.
For example, Siew Lan tries to convince Rajoo that she is interested in his
opinion. However, unconsciously, Swee LanÊs action of day-dreaming
while talking to him is sufficient to convince Rajoo that Swee Lan is
ignoring his opinion. Sitting down with crossed legs and holding oneÊs
chin, or yawning or talking to friends while another person is delivering a
speech are indicators that the listener is not interested. In certain conditions,
there is an attempt to show signals through non-verbal communication
deliberately as a strategy to deliver a message.
(b) Strengthening Verbal Message

Combining behaviour and non-verbal signals may strengthen the meaning
of a message.
For example, Camilia, in a discussion with Mazni, suddenly raises her voice
and pounds the table. Such an action indicates that things have turned
serious. If Mazni keeps quiet without reacting, Camilia may make the
wrong assumption that she is either indifferent or afraid to respond out of
guilt.

(c) Depending on the Communication Context

Non-verbal communication carries different meanings in different contexts.
Cultural, time, space, situation, place and level of relation factors have
different communication effects. Banging the table during a discussion to
emphasise a point is definitely different from a father doing the same thing
when he is being accused of being useless by his wife.
Among the indicators of relationships is feedback from interacting, such as
showing a friendly attitude or power. A person who does not like to be
disturbed will keep quiet to show that he has power or is in control of the
situation.
For example, when Anu embraces his younger sister because of sadness at
their fatherÊs death, it is more meaningful compared to an embrace from
Karmen, an acquaintance. Similarly two people in love, looking at each
other would definitely not have the same effect as two strangers looking at
each other.
In the cultural context, verbal communication and non-verbal is controlled
by the certain cultural rules and practices. Practised culture gives different
interpretation. Through the socialisation process, culture is learned and
practised in life. Behaviour in non-verbal communication involves different
interpretation depending on life background and race, group, community
and ethnic culture. Questions of time, dress, way of speaking, touching and
use of artefacts can influence the interpretation of message in
communication.
Conversation distance between a man and a woman is also different

compared to a man and a man. However, for women the distance between
women is close. This is something natural, but the close conversation
distance between men can be misinterpreted.
(d) Involves Ambiguous Message

Non-verbal messages can be ambiguous. Thus, we should avoid making
assumptions about anything.
(e) Different from Verbal Communication

Non-verbal communication may have a different meaning from verbal
communication which may confuse the receiver of the message. This
usually happens when the receiver is trying to reconcile what is being said
in the verbal communication with the action shown while communicating.

7.4 THE FUNCTIONS OF NON-VERBAL

COMMUNICATION
Non-verbal communication has certain functions in the communication process.
See Figure 7.5 for the list of functions in communication process.
Figure 7.5: Functions of non-verbal communication
In communicating either verbally or non-verbally, the source sends a message or

information to the receiver. The non-verbal movements actually reinforce the
information received by the receiver, thereby enabling him to understand the
message more clearly. The combination of verbal and non-verbal communication
results in more effective communication.
We often form first impressions or perceptions about new people based on their
external characteristics. If a person dresses smartly, we will regard him more
favourably than a person with poor clothing. When we see Siti and Azizi having
a friendly chat at the cafe, we will perceive that they have a closer relationship
than mere friendship. We may even regard them as a pair of lovers. Although it
may be wrong, that perception has been formed.
Sometimes we do not want other people to know what we feel, so we try to hide
it. However, a sour face and inappropriate tone of voice may expose what we are
feeling. A sour face for instance is a non-verbal communication that clearly
reflects anger. On the other hand, the happiness we feel when receiving a gift can
be shown with a simple grateful smile.

Figure 7.6: Example of emoticons, which can be sent through „messenger tools‰ in
the Internet
Non-verbal communication also helps you to carry out a conversation. Through

non-verbal communication cues, a person may guess and assume an appropriate
action to be taken. For example, Zamil may know how to continue a chat, change
topic or stop a discussion based on responses shown by Zaiton. Hence, non-
verbal communication helps him to decide whether to continue an interaction or
not.
In electronic communication, non-verbal communication involves the use of

symbols such as emoticons to convey „feelings‰. Figure 7.6 shows an
example of emoticons which can be sent through „message tools‰ via the
Internet.
Non-verbal behavioural cues shown by a person who sits restlessly, indicates

that he is not interested in the message being delivered. It is better to stop such a
communication because the intended message may not be received at all.
To be effective communicators, we should take into account both non-verbal

signals and verbal speech to evaluate or adapt our communication strategies.
SELF-CHECK 7.2
1. What are the five characteristic of non-verbal communication?
2. State the functions of non-verbal communication.

7.5 FACTORS INFLUENCING NON-VERBAL

COMMUNICATION
There are many factors w h ich influence behaviour in non-verbal
communication. These factors are illustrated in Figure 7.7.
Figure 7.7: Factors that influence non-verbal communication
Space and time in non-verbal communication can be personal or physical. Use of

space and time is something normal and is a result of oneÊs socialisation process
with his family, friends and neighbours. Space involves location and also
distance in communication.
Space in communication between individuals also reflects the closeness of a

person with others. Personal distance determines to what extent we receive other
individuals.
Respecting other peopleÊs space in communication helps create a good

communication climate. On the other hand, overstepping a space regarded as
personal may hinder the communication process.
Use of space is also related to the status and influence of an individual. Personal
space is determined by factors such as psychology, condition, the topic of
discussion and culture. Therefore, the size of personal space is different
according to individuals. As in the case of area space, each of us may not like our
individual space invaded.

The level of friendship along with oneÊs gender, status and psychological state
tend to influence our acceptance of others. We may not be concerned if a known
friend sits near us, laughing in a friendly manner while talking or discussing.
However, we may not be comfortable if a new acquaintance sits near us and
behaves in the same way.
Sex also influences personal space limits. In Eastern customs, there are limits to
the mixing of men and women.
A child may not feel comfortable when a stranger invites him to sit with him. A
student who is invited to have dinner with the President of the university would
definitely feel uncomfortable and shy; preferring to eat with his peers instead.
The different status between them influences the communication space.
Differences in age also influence conversation distance between individuals. This

can be seen in a conversation between an old man and a young man. If it is
initiated by the old man, he is more comfortable to be at a close distance. For the
young man, a further distance is more comfortable. This is to show that he
respects the older person.
Similarity in race and culture simplifies relations. An individual will stand or talk
at a closer distance if there is a similarity and vice versa.
Another important factor is psychology. Every individual has different

psychological characteristics. What differentiates between one individual and
another is self-concept or personality. If an individual is confident with himself,
he is an open person and is easy to interact with others. A shy individual usually
needs a wide area of personal space.
ACTIVITY 7.6
Why is social knowledge important in forming effective non-verbal

communication? In your opinion, what are the differences in non-verbal
communication between Western and Eastern civilisations?

7.6 THE STRENGTH OF NON-VERBAL

COMMUNICATION
After examining how non-verbal communication takes place, let us examine its
strengths.
(a) Non-verbal communication behaviour is easier to interpret and identify. We
can guess what has happened by observing a personÊs reaction. One of the
characteristics that can easily be gauged is the sincerity of a person, which
is usually reflected in his facial expressions.
(b) Non-verbal communication is more effective in conveying emotions. We
can deliver our feelings through facial mimicry or behaviour instead of
through words. A person does not need to verbally state that he is angry or
happy; his intended message may be delivered by showing a happy,
smiling, cynical or angry face.
(c) Non-verbal communication has meaning which is universal and which cuts
across linguistic or semantic borders. Facial mimicry such as anger and
happiness, hate and surprise can be understood by various layers of society
from different cultures.
(d) By using non-verbal communication, it is not necessary for a person to take
the trouble to arrange, form and structure sentences to deliver a meaning or
a message. Through non-verbal behaviour, meaning can be delivered
naturally through body movements, facial mimicry, etc.
ACTIVITY 7.7
What can you do to avoid wrong perceptions in non-verbal

communication?
7.7 GUIDELINES FOR EFFECTIVE NON-VERBAL

COMMUNICATION
Non-verbal communication can result in various interpretations. However, there
are several things that can be taken as guides to form effective communication.
Some of the actions that can guide a person are shown in Figure 7.8.

Figure 7.8: Guidelines for non-verbal communication
(a) Be cautious when making interpretations or in evaluating non-verbal

communication in others
Making generalisations or assumptions about a personÊs behaviour is not
always accurate. The meaning assumed in non-verbal communication
depends on certain contexts. Therefore, we should be careful and sensitive
to what we see besides evaluating the conditions in which the
communication took place. To avoid creating a wrong perception of a
person, we should give him the benefit of the doubt. We need to be open-
minded and understand the cultures of other people first before we make
judgements.
(b) Controlling non-verbal behaviour in oneself

People may form various perceptions or misconceptions about us based on
our non-verbal communication and behaviour. We should thus be aware of
our actions to avoid creating the wrong perceptions.
ACTIVITY 7.8
1. To what extent is verbal communication effective compared to non-

verbal communication at your workplace?
2. Perception is a cognitive process that influences non-verbal

communication.
(a) State the meaning and the processes involved in the formation of
perception.
(b) How does perception affect non-verbal communication?
3. Give examples of how friends make use of verbal communication and

non-verbal communication to strengthen their friendship.

To further enhance your knowledge on the important concepts of non-verbal

communication such as cue, signal and symbol, browse
http://www.tsbvi.edu/Education/vmi/non-verbal.htm
• Differences and similarities exist between verbal and non-verbal

communication.
• Non-verbal communication happens spontaneously without control. Non-

verbal communication signals happen simultaneously with verbal
communication.
• However, it is exposed to various interpretations, whether accurate or not.

Every form of non-verbal communication reflects the culture and personal
identity of a person.
• Factors of culture, gender and life practices also influence non-verbal

communication.
• Differences between cultures bring about various meanings that can be

misinterpreted and weakens effective communication. Another factor which
should be taken into account in non-verbal communication is the effects of
current technology on communication.
• The presence of technology also has implications on the methods of non-

verbal communication.
• Considering the effects of ambiguous non-verbal communication, it is

important for a person to understand and accept the diversity of
communication styles.

Artefacts Paralanguage
Chronemics Physical appearance
Distance zone Proxemics
Haptics Quiet
Kinesics

8 Mass Media
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain the basic concept of mass communication;
2. Describe the functions and effects of mass media;
3. Identify the factors that influence mass media; and
4. Compare several models of mass communication.
X INTRODUCTION
Mass communication is a process of delivering information and entertainment to
people throughout the world through mass media channels such as books, films,
television, radio, newspapers and online media. The capability of mass media to
reach out to people wherever they are makes it more influential. The process of
information delivery via mass communication is a complex process which
involves media institutions, media practitioners, advertisers and the public from
various backgrounds. This topic will discuss the concept of mass communication
and its effects on the public.
8.1 THE MEANING OF MASS

COMMUNICATION
There are many definitions used to explain mass communication. When a
person talks about the media, he is actually referring to the channels used in mass
communication. In general, mass communication involves a process of sharing
information from sources by using the media directed at the public at large.

TOPIC 8 INTRODUCTION TO MASS MEDIA W 141
In the context of mass communication, communicators are those who produce

messages that are channelled to the public through the mass media. The public
consists of media users including those who watch movies/television, listen to
the radio, read newspapers, read books or magazines and surf the Internet to
relate and deliver messages. Mass communication also covers computerised
technology such as Web and WebTV.
Mass communication is considered different from other forms of communication

as it involves the combination of humans, messages, certain channels,
disturbances, feedback, context and certain effects.
Let us look at the definitions of mass communication:

(a) Dominick (2002) describes mass communication as a process of transmitting
messages by a complex institution to the public that is vast, heterogeneous
and from various locations.
(b) Gamble & Gamble (2002) describe mass communication as a process of
transmitting messages processed by a gatekeeper before being delivered to
the public through a wide channel including print, audio and visual media.
(c) Vivian (2002) describes mass communication as a process that involves
mass communicators delivering mass messages to a mass audience through
mass media.
All the above definitions involve the following groups:
(a) Communicator
Those who produce messages are mass communicators. Information is
prepared by various individuals who produce the contents of the message.
Communicators include lyrics writer, scriptwriter, animator, reporter,
programme announcer and media practitioner.
(b) Message
Message is the information content such as story, short story, novel, film,
TV programmes, news, song lyrics, newspaper advertisements, notice
board or website. A message in mass communication is very structured and
is largely accepted by the public.

142 XTOPIC 8 INTRODUCTION TO MASS MEDIA
(c) Mass Media

In the context of mass communication, message is transmitted through
certain channels. Mass media is a mediator that contains stores and
transmits messages. It also includes institutions that use such mediators to
channel the messages.
In brief, mass media comprises print and electronic media including media
organisations, media practitioners, policies and technology which are used
for mass communication. Examples of print media are newspapers,
magazines and books while electronic media include radio, film, recording,
television and computer.
By using media as a mediator, messages can be channelled to the public.
The distance between communicator and information receiver is not a
barrier as information can be channelled or acquired from the mass media
within a certain period.
(d) Gatekeeper
Gatekeeper refers to an individual or group who plays the role of selecting,
changing, receiving or rejecting messages that are channelled through mass
communication.
(e) Public
Public refers to users and receivers of messages from the media. The
targeted public of mass communication consists of individuals with
different needs and backgrounds and, are from different locations. In the
context of mass media, the size of the public cannot be determined.
Communication established through mass communication occurs formally
while the source is far from the receiver, who can be anyone who uses the
media, either print, electronic, digital or entertainment.
In the context of mass communication, the public does not have any
association or minimal control over the information received. In mass
communication, feedback from the public is very limited.
Mass communication can be considered as a unique form of communication. The

uniqueness of mass communication can be seen from several aspects as shown in
Figure 8.1.

Figure 8.1: The three unique aspects of mass communication
Based on Figure 8.1, the following can be said about mass communication:
(a) A complex source that operates in an organisation or institution that is
profit-oriented.
(b) The public is huge, located anywhere and separated by geographical
locations and boundaries, space and time. They also have different desires,
interests and needs.
(c) Communication occurs through the mediator, which requires the use of
technology to encode and decode information.
Similar to other forms of communication, mass communication also happens in

one way: the source and the receiver establish relations with each other. Mass
communication also has differences with other communication. The obvious
differences of mass communication can be seen from the aspects shown in
Figure 8.2.

Figure 8.2: Differentiation of mass communication
(a) Capability of Delivering Messages

The media is capable of delivering messages to hundreds or thousands of
users (public) simultaneously although their backgrounds and identities are
unknown.
(b) Limited Interaction

Interaction or relations between the source and receiver is very limited or
does not exist at all.
(c) Tools
The information transmission process is very dependent on technical tools,
broadcasting equipment or technology that has the capability to reach the
public at scattered locations.
(d) Limited Feedback

Exchange of information between the source and receiver is very minimal
or at times, not at all.
(e) Composer of Information

A specific individual or group who works with a formal organisation will
conceptualise and produce the message which is to be sent through the
media with the intention of attracting public.

(f) Message in Public Form

The message produced is directed to the public which has the choice of
receiving or rejecting it.
(g) Media Effects

The effectiveness of the media can be seen in its role as a channel of
information to notify, entertain, persuade or influence public behaviour and
thought within a short time.
(h) Controlled by Gatekeeper

The message to be delivered to the public is controlled by a certain
practitioner or group.
Feedback is minimum and slow compared to that of other types of

communication.
SELF-CHECK 8.1
Give the media category for the following examples:
Media Examples Category
Books, magazines, newspapers
Radio and television
Computer, World Wide Web,

Internet, digital audio visual,
DVD video games

8.2 DEVELOPMENT OF MASS

COMMUNICATION
The development of media occurred in stages or eras. Some experts categorise the
development based on industrial progress and technological revolution.
According to them, the history of media began with the printing technology
invented by Johannes Gutenberg (1398-1468) which eventually evolved into
todayÊs interactive media.
The evolution of media took place at the same time as the civilisation of human
life. The convergence of communication media has brought big changes to the
development of communication media. TodayÊs digital technology has
revolutionised the media landscape. The technological development has changed
the ways information is shared.
Marshall McLuhan has followed the changes encountered by the Western

community by identifying media forms according to the four main eras as
shown in Figure 8.3 (Wood, 2001):
Figure 8.3: Four eras of mass communication
(a) Tribal Era

During this era, verbal tradition was the main form of communication.
People communicated face to face and received responses directly. Verbal
tradition included storytelling, cultural ceremonies and verbal transmission
in the form of information and entertainment.
The reliance on verbal tradition led to an integrated community which

made listening a major part of life. This tradition still exists in some isolated
communities and groups that opt to stay away from modernisation. It is also
still evident in certain communities in developing countries. The ability to
remember information is becoming very important. However, as the
needs of people increase, communication within groups becomes more
varied.
(b) Writing and Reading Era

The innovation of phonetic letters in this era took place in most
communities. During this era, communities lived in a stable and complex

situation where members of the community were open to communication at

various levels. This encouraged the use of languages in written form.
Religious institutions in societies of this era used verbal and written
communication. This led to activities of correspondence, record-keeping
and writing manuscripts.
In a society where the majority was illiterate, skilled messengers trained to

memorise long verbal messages were regarded as communication experts.
The basic medium in societies of the era were hand-written materials
distributed only among the educated elite and religious groups. These
written texts were based on a system of symbols that enabled people to
communicate without having to interact face to face.
Written communication in this era indirectly changed human life. People

were able to access information from outside the local community. The
availability of written materials markedly reduced the need for people to
memorise information as required in verbal communication. The
introduction of alphabets enabled the public to optimise their visual and
listening abilities. This tradition also promoted the development of the
linear form of communication.
(c) Printing Era

This era began when Gutenberg invented the printing machine in the 15th
century. He used a metal type tool, an invention that sped up the printing
method, thus reducing the cost of printing. At this level, the ability to read
developed rapidly and reading materials were more easily available to
members of the society. Before the innovation of the printing machine,
books were difficult to obtain while information was only available to a few
in the society. GutenbergÊs printing system enabled the printing of
thousands of copies of reading materials from one source at low cost.
The printing revolution facilitated mass publication and set off the
Industrial Revolution, especially in large cities. This also led to massive
migration of rural folks to the cities. The number of agricultural workers
decreased, while industrial workers increased rapidly. This encouraged
reading activities among the people in order to fulfil increasingly complex
job requirements. This led to the birth of newspapers in the 1830s, which
represented the first form of mass media, followed by film, radio and
television.
Visuals and written materials that were uniform in nature created a

homogeneous community because the same information reached the
masses. The public had the opportunity to get books, thus their interest in

reading and knowledge acquisition deepened. At the same time, the

audience was separated because they no longer had to stay within the same
locality. Face-to-face communication at this stage became less important.
(d) Electronic Era

The invention of telegraph started during the electronic era. In this era, the
media is regarded as a reflection of the societyÊs economic status.
Radio and television became more prominent and were the preferred
alternatives to books and printed materials. Indirectly, the role of printing
media became less important. Electronic media has advanced with the
development of computer technology. Cable and satellite televisions, on the
other hand, have enabled programmes to be broadcast beyond boundaries.
According to McLuhan, the electronic era enables people to access and share
information wherever they are. The mass media is now more interactive and
allows fragmentation of audience according to their respective preferences. Also,
audience of the new media is open to information that is quick and easy to access.
They are more exposed to events taking place around them as well as changes in
the political system and world economy. Messages are delivered within a short
time which is the foundation of the concept of universal village introduced by
McLean.
The mass format of the communication pattern emerged when the elements of
science and industry invented technologies in printing, camera, film, radio and
television. These creations heightened the capability of human senses. Societies
that progressed in unison with this development are mostly centred in
institutions like schools, government and large social institutions. Responsibilities
previously shouldered by individuals were taken over by these institutions. The
use of satellite and digital technology does not affect the role of communication
as a tool to connect people. However, it can have damaging effects on society. We
will discuss the implications of technology in the last topic.
ACTIVITY 8.1
List five newspapers (print version) in Malaysia.

8.3 FACTORS INFLUENCING MASS

COMMUNICATION
There are several factors influencing the existence and functions of mass
communication as seen in Figure 8.4.
Figure 8.4: Factors influencing mass communication
(a) Operational Requirements

The operational set-up of a media organisation determines the role of mass
communication. A media organisation is usually set up by the government
or a profit-based private organisation as its establishment requires a huge
capital outlay. It generates revenue through advertisements or sales of
products and services directly to users in order to sustain its operations.
(b) Legal Factors

Legal factors influence the content and presentation of mass communication
where programmes feature sexual and violent content.
(c) Competition between Media

Competition among media organisations has led to the growth of the
industry besides raising the level of professionalism of media practitioners.
This has brought about improvements in the delivery of messages to the
audience in general.

(d) Format Media

Media format influences its effectiveness and capacity to fulfil audience
needs and requirements. Media organisations require a large audience to
use their products or services in order to achieve their goals and functions.
Printed newspapers, radio, books, television, films, magazines and websites
channel information based on different formats to attract the audience.
ACTIVITY 8.2
1. Give examples of how a person uses media to meet his:

(a) Personal needs; and
(b) Professional needs.
2. Make a list of the types of media used by people in Malaysia.
8.4 MASS COMMUNICATION MODELS

Do you still remember the communication models discussed in Topic 1? What
are the similarities and differences between communication models and
mass communication models?
In discussing mass communication models, Dominick (2002) compared two

types of models based on communication technology development and its
effects on the message flow process in mass communication. The models
are shown in Figure 8.5.
Figure 8.5: Mass communication models

(a) Traditional Mass Communication Model

Traditional mass communication model is an adaptation of basic model of
communication which includes mass media organisation, media mediator
and audience (Figure 8.6).
Figure 8.6: Traditional mass communication model

Source: Dominick, J. R. (2002). The dynamics of mass communication: media in
the digital age. New York: McGraw Hill Companies.
Figure 8.6 shows the information flow taking place in the environment
where it is delivered by the source to the audience through mediators such
as television, radio, newspapers and magazines. The source is limited, while
the receivers are many and varied.
This model also shows the role of gatekeepers in filtering and determining
the pattern of news presentation, entertainment programmes, films, dramas
or documentaries presented to the audience. The gatekeepers, who are the
sources of information, refer to editors, television producers, advertisers
and newsroom directors. Information that is filtered goes through the
process of printing or previews. For example, Julia, an entertainment
reporter, writes an article on the life of a rising singer, Bob. Another article
is on Della, a new and upcoming singer. The editor of Entertainment
magazine finds the article about Della more newsworthy due to her rising
popularity. The editor decides to run the article on Bob in a small column in
the inner pages, while DellaÊs story appears on the front page together with
a colour photograph of her.
The receiver or audience is regarded as the message receiver who actively

decodes, interprets and encodes the messages. The audience may discuss
issues and information obtained from television, radio or newspapers with
others; however, interaction between the source and receiver is at the
minimum.
(b) Internet Mass Communication Model

Normal mass media such as radio and television are revolutionising to new
forms such as video text, high-definition television (HDTV) and World
Wide Web which are in digital form. Technical progress such as digital

compression, media broadband and fibre optics network will improve

media quality that reaches home users (audience). Current interactive
services available in these new media channels also give the audience the
opportunity to order selected goods. Digital technology has made it
possible to integrate text, audio, computer graphics and video through a
multimedia network such as desktop publishing.
The Internet mass communication model represents the relationship

between actors who are involved in transmission of messages using mass
communication technology. As compared to the traditional era, this new
model shows how the various sources are able to deliver messages to the
audience.
In the context of mass communication, the Internet provides the audience

with unlimited accessibility to information. Web producers can evaluate
and improve presentation as well as formats based on the feedback
received.
SELF-CHECK 8.2
What is the difference between new and old media?
Online news involves three sources of news which are:

(a) Technology;
(b) Individual (news source); and
(c) User.
In this model, it is clear that there is no gatekeeper to filter, select or control the
messages.
The Internet, with its capacity to deliver information beyond the constraints of
time and geographical barriers, presents many choices. Through a sports website,
for example, Armand can watch a rugby game live without having to wait for the
newspaper or watch the recorded broadcast the following day. Hypertext
provides the platform for information search needed by users.
The Internet mass communication model presented may not be complete.

However, it is sufficient to explain the concept of mass communication and the
process involved. The previous traditional mass communication model has been
criticised and is no longer suitable in todayÊs Internet era, especially in

identifying sources of news. Moreover, message transmission in the traditional

model involves a one-way communication. To depict the situation, imagine a
situation where a segment for current news that is televised directly to the
audience, where the gatekeepers cannot be identified. They may comprise news
reporters, policy makers in media organisations, advertisers, line service
suppliers or owners of television stations.
ACTIVITY 8.3
1. Why is it that the gatekeeper does not exist in Internet mass
communication?
2. Find a research article from any communication journal that

discusses issues regarding the effects of mass media. Attach a
copy of the article and answer the following questions:
(a) What is the purpose of the research?
(b) Based on the research findings, what are the roles of
media studied by the researcher?
3. What is the difference between new media and „hybrid‰

media?
• Mass media is a communication instrument that enables information and

experiences to be recorded and transferred to a large audience and in
heterogeneous form.
• Mass communication makes it possible to bridge the gap in time and distance
besides facilitating information access.
• The relationship between mass media and the audience is very close. The
process of message transmission through mass communication uses a mass
media mediator.
• In the process of channelling information, various actors are involved in

determining that the message is delivered to the audience.

• Experts provide opinions and views in discussing the effects of mass media
on the audience from the context of media selection, agenda determination,
usage and its implication on audience behaviour.
• The combination of computer system, telecommunication and mass media

has brought visible changes to mass media communication functions.
• Sources of mass media today are more diverse, less dominant and
professional.
• The role of gatekeepers is being eliminated whereby messages are

programmed for specific audience segments.
• Audiences with unknown backgrounds and interests do their own media

selection.
• In todayÊs mass communication, users determine and select the media they
prefer. Audience preference has shifted from passive mass media to new
interactive media.
Competition between media Mass communication

Gatekeeper Media format
Legal factor Operational requirements

Topic X Functions and
9 Effects of Mass
Media
LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. Explain the functions and effects of mass media;
2. Identify how the audience selects media;
3. Describe the purposes of using mass media;
4. Highlight the effects of mass media on the audience; and
5. Explain the ethical principles and issues in mass communication.
X INTRODUCTION
In the previous topic, we were introduced to the basic concept of mass
communication and saw how it became the core of life in society. The evolution
of mass communication has greatly impacted the relationships between
individuals (interpersonal) and society. In this topic, you will be introduced to
the functions and effects of mass communication from various perspectives. This
topic will also look at the impact of media on the audience.

156 X TOPIC 9 FUNCTION AND EFFECTS OF MASS MEDIA
9.1 IMPORTANCE OF MASS COMMUNICATION

IN LIFE
A main part of our life is spent using various forms of mass communication for
entertainment or getting information. How would people live without mass
communication? How would we get the latest news about the world and the
environment around us? What are the important roles of media? What are the
implications of the mass communication system on human life?
9.2 FUNCTIONS OF THE MASS MEDIA

Experts have analysed various functions and uses of mass communication. For
example, Dominick (2002) sees the function of the mass media from the following
perspectives (see Figure 9.1).
Figure 9.1: The functions of mass media from two perspectives
Members of society need to communicate to form relationships with others. As a

society progresses, its communication needs would increase. Concurrently,
society needs communication mediators who can fulfil those needs.
In general, mass communication at the macro level fulfils the following purposes
(see Figure 9.2).

TOPIC 9 FUNCTION AND EFFECTS OF MASS MEDIA W 157
Figure 9.2: The main functions of mass communication
9.2.1 Surveillance
Surveillance is known as reporting and plays a role in distributing information
via the media. Figure 9.3 below illustrates the function of surveillance.
Figure 9.3: Surveillance of media

The function of surveillance serves the purpose of:
(a) Providing Warnings

Surveillance in the form of warnings is used to remind the audience
(society) of an expected event. For example, the media warns of threats such
as natural disasters, earthquakes, flash floods, tsunami, global warming,
expected economic recession and rising inflation rate or war.
We have seen how television or radio stations have interrupted a

programme to broadcast news of a natural disaster that occurred or
provided warnings of a disease outbreak of war, etc.
(b) Instrumental Surveillance

The instrumental form of surveillance assists society to obtain information
such as prices at the stock exchange, a new product, fashion ideas, a recipe,
etc. This role is not confined to the newspapers alone. Other forms of media
such as short publications and technical magazines also perform the role of
surveillance.
9.2.2 Interpretation
The mass media does not only supply certain facts and data. It also provides
information on the goals, meaning and significance of an event.
The function of interpretation by the mass media is closely related to the

functions of surveillance. Media gatekeepers will determine which news is
worthy to be distributed by order of importance and priority. Not all news
received is disseminated by television or radio stations. Besides broadcasting
news, the media may also provide space for audience comments and feedback.
Discussions and criticisms on the implications of a policy, for example, which
appear in the Letters to the Editor column, also form part of the audienceÊs
interpretations of the news. Based on these materials, the audience receive
various views that they can evaluate themselves. Interpretation of information
such as education issues and price hikes in consumer goods may also be available
in the editorial column of newspapers.
9.2.3 Linkage
The mass media is also capable of linking together different elements in society.
For example, advertising attempts to combine buyersÊ needs with sellersÊ
products. Voters get to know more about their elected representatives through
the newspapers, television, radio and websites. The electronic media or

newspapers are effective avenues to raise funds for sick children and victims of
war and natural disasters.
Separated communities that still share common interests can also be united by
the media. Advancements in IT have allowed the rapid and widespread
dissemination of information, overcoming the constraints of time and boundaries.
Various websites, newsgroups and chat rooms have developed platforms for two
or more people to form virtual communities. The online facilities provided are
able to connect various communities to share opinions and life experiences with
each other.
Sometimes the Internet media also creates relationships and unites social groups
that previously did not realise that they had common interests. The function to
relate and connect also shows the mediaÊs capacity to provide avenues for
members of society to show off their talents and interests.
However, this function has its weaknesses too. Among others, it may provide the
opportunity for certain dissatisfied groups to come together and protest leading
to a revolution. This can be harmful to society.
9.2.4 Socialisation and Value Distribution

The process of distributing and transmitting values in society is known as the
socialisation process. The function of socialisation refers to the way an individual
accepts the behaviour and values of a group.
The mass media plays a role in displaying the different values and practices of
the society. Through observation, listening and reading, a person can learn about
how a society acts and the values it holds.
Sometimes, the media is used as a propaganda tool to inculcate certain values

and practices. This is seen in programmes that offer advice on health and safety
issues such as the importance of using safety helmets, reducing oneÊs sugar
intake and preserving public property.
Among the various types of media available now, which one has the most
potential to transmit values among the members of society? Television seems to
have the biggest potential in socialising a community because it is capable of
delivering messages to a wider audience compared to other media types.

9.2.5 Entertainment
The most important function of mass communication is to entertain. Today, most
households have at least one television set at home; thus allowing people to enjoy
watching films, music, sports news, entertainment programmes, sitcoms and
cartoons on a daily basis. Consumers also have the option of subscribing to cable
television at a price they can afford.
9.2.6 Persuasion
The persuasive function of media can be seen from the way advertisers influence
their target audience. For example, the broadcast media will show
advertisements for shampoos, automobile accessories, weight control products
and mega sales promotions, etc, to induce viewers to spend their money.
Since the audience are exposed to a variety of messages from all types of media,
they are not excluded from the elements of persuasion. Documentary or
interview programmes have indirect elements of persuasion. Newspapers also
use their editorial and „op-ed‰ (opposite editorial) sections to present opinions
and to persuade.
ACTIVITY 9.1
1. Give examples of how television programmes transmit values

to Malaysian society.
2. What is a „political advertisement‰? What are your views on
the use of political advertisements as a medium of persuasion?
3. What is the purpose of political advertisements in the mass
media?
9.2.7 Influence
The media is capable of uniting a community by spreading a message that would
affect everyone. A local newspaper, for example provides the shared knowledge
and experiences of the community. This will indirectly influence them to act on
an upcoming issue. In certain situations, the media helps to influence peopleÊs
views on a subject.

The latest developments in information and communication technology have

speeded up the spread of information, regardless of time and place. Any user
who has fast Internet access will get information almost instantly. The Internet is
a platform with the potential to influence the search for information, compared to
the print media. An issue or an event that has just happened can be presented at
lightning speed and can be accessed by the audience. Social bodies and
communities are able to use the Internet as a platform to voice their collective
views and as a medium for communication.
ACTIVITY 9.2
Give examples of how the Internet acts as a platform for influencing the
collective action of a community or society.
After learning the functions of mass communication at the macro analysis level,
we will next explore the function of mass communication at the micro level. At
this level, we will look at how an individual uses media in his daily life.
The function of media at the micro level is well-described in the theory of usage
and satisfaction. According to this theory, the audience has certain needs. The
audience actively selects the media that best satisfies their need to get
information, to relieve feelings of emptiness or boredom, to entertain oneself, to
escape from problems, etc.
A person may turn to various types of media to multi-task. For example, reading
the Star newspaper while having breakfast, listening to Radio Era or HitzFM
while driving to the office, listening to the CD of a favourite singer while doing
housekeeping, watching „Art Attack‰ while preparing dinner or skimming
through „Cosmopolitan‰ or „Anjung Seri‰ as bedtime reading. All such activities
show how mass media fulfils the needs of individuals.
SELF-CHECK 9.1
List the main functions of mass communication.

9.3 PURPOSES OF USING MASS MEDIA

A person uses media for many purposes (see Figure 9.4).
Figure 9.4: The purpose of using mass media
9.3.1 Fulfilling the Desire to Know

Human beings are curious by nature; their desire to gain knowledge is very
strong. The media is an efficient and attractive medium to obtain information,
thus providing cognitive satisfaction for them.
There are many studies carried out to learn why a person selects a particular
media. Some survey findings show that the audience uses a certain media
because they want to know the latest happenings or to satisfy their thirst for
knowledge.
9.3.2 Reduce Stress

A person may want to stay away from the routine things in life or to escape from
its realities. Media plays a role to fulfil this need and to reduce boredom. By using
media, a person will have the opportunity to alleviate stress, raise his spirit, get
rest or reduce emotional pressure.

9.3.3 Socialisation
From watching television, a person can interact with others to swap ideas and
opinions about events and programmes. Social conversation will become more
pleasant if a person can talk with others about a „box-office‰ movie, a National
Geographic programme or a recent drama.
Similarities that exist in social relationships may create a more attractive and
effective communication climate.
ACTIVITY 9.3
Can the media reduce your boredom? How do you use the media to spend
your leisure time, release tension and amuse yourself while resting?
The media is also used to fulfil the best para-social needs. Digital communication
technology allows a person to communicate with others wherever they are. The
availability of the Internet now raises a question on the social functions of media.
The Internet has specifically attracted attention especially in its function to create
and maintain virtual communities.
Although the telephone is regarded as an interpersonal communication medium, it

has also become a source of entertainment and a tool to obtain certain products and
services. The Internet functions as a business channel where products are available
on-line. „Pop-up‰ advertisements in the Internet also can boost marketing and
promotional strategies by influencing audiences to buy a product or service.
SELF-CHECK 9.2
Explain briefly the purposes of using the mass media.

9.4 EFFECTS OF MASS COMMUNICATION

The various types of communication media have made different impacts on the
audience. Some of them are positive, while others are negative. Several factors
can be referred to in talking about the effects of this type of communication (see
Figure 9.5).
Figure 9.5: Four effects of mass communication
9.4.1 The Individual and Society

In discussing the effects of media, sometimes it is difficult to prove to what extent
the media impacts on the attitudes and behaviours of the audience. However,
many studies link the role of individuals with society. News in the media has the
potential to direct the audienceÊs focus to the broadcasted event and makes it
appear to be very important.
9.4.2 Social Criticism

One of the positive changes from information communication technology is the
improvement in societyÊs literacy rates. For example, anthropologists have
documented visible differences between an illiterate society and a society that is
able to read and write. Society in the era of the print media plays the role of
driving civilisation through scientific and technological advancements. Social
critics regard the change as caused by „cultural determinism‰.

In the mass communication process, thousands of workers and a large sum of

money have been spent to collect, structure, create and distribute messages to
millions of individuals who represent the mass audience.
There is an opinion that mass communication is not an effective way to change an

audienceÊs attitudes or values because it is not able to fulfil all their needs and
beliefs. Messages that attempt to influence receivers also need to compete with
other opposing messages.
9.4.3 Media Needs and Social Needs

The problem facing society is social imbalance. What are the causes of the
imbalance taking place?
When society becomes more stratified, then wealth, economy and learning
become imbalanced. Due to this imbalance, tension will rise when society begins
to interact. In such conditions, what can the media do to change these conditions?
Educational programmes are shown in Disney Channel and TVIQ. The RTM
station broadcasts 3R and „Sesame StreetÊ programmes. These programmes are
successful in attracting childrenÊs interests because „edutainment‰ elements are
presented.
Besides television programmes, public and school libraries enable children to

gain access to education through magazines, books, newspapers or journals.
Telephones, smartphones and the Internet can improve access to information

besides improving the quality of life of isolated people.
9.4.4 The Knowledge Gap

This perspective takes into account gaps between „the haves and the have-nots‰.
The rich with information and knowledge or „the haves‰ are those mostly rich
with knowledge because of their wide access to libraries and personal computers
that enable them to get information. „The have-nots‰ on the other hand, have
limited access to computers; thus, fewer opportunities to get information.
Many studies have discussed the information gap that exists as a result of
advances in media technology. In such conditions, the group with access to
information from various forms of media, either print or electronic, is seen as the
group that has the advantage.

9.5 THE LINK BETWEEN FUNCTIONS AND

EFFECTS OF MEDIA WITH THEORY
Many studies have been carried out to explore the implications of media. Experts
use the findings to form theories explaining the functions and effects of media
(see Figure 9.6)
Figure 9.6: Functions and effects of media
9.5.1 Uses and Gratification

This perspective stated that the audience will select the media that they feel can
fulfil their needs and interests quickly. In other words, the audience makes the
decisions in selecting the media and the use of the media. A person who is bored
with reading may decide to listen to songs on the radio or watch news on TV.
In selecting a television programme, children may be happier when they get the
opportunity to watch a „Mickey Mouse‰ or a „Pokemon‰ programme. Once their
teacher puts on a documentary programme, the childrenÊs attention will naturally
dissipate. Similarly, an adult who is interested in action films may not get full
satisfaction if he accompanies his friends to watch a romantic comedy.
According to the perspective of use and satisfaction, the audience is assumed to

actively select from among the media the one that is able to give most satisfaction
to them or is able to fill their need for searching and accessing information,
reducing their feelings of emptiness, amusement, escapism, etc.

9.5.2 Agenda Determination

Perspective of Agenda Determination refers to the view that media forms the
agenda for the audience. According to this perspective, the media may not be
able to change the views of a person on an issue, but it may change his perception
on what is important. The media is able to engage the audience and influence
them based on certain ideas, events, and news. For example, a group of five
students is detained because of rowdy behaviour and causing bodily harm to
their teacher. Only the student named Salman is reported in the front page of a
local newspaper. In this context, the media determines the agenda to attract
public attention.
Sometimes, what the media does not report is more important than what is
broadcasted. It is possible that some important information is not published. It is
also possible that certain news should have been printed on the front page of the
newspaper and received coverage in prime news/main news. Media gatekeepers
play the role in determining which news should be given priority in the media.
This concept which was introduced by Kurt Lewin in 1947, described the role of
gatekeepers (individuals or groups) who select and determine which news passes
through the flow of information control before it reaches the audience. The
gatekeepers consist of editors of magazines and newspapers, radio and television
producers, advertisers, political groups, and station owners who have influence
in determining the information to be delivered to the audience.
The role of the gatekeepers is not only to filter information and content but also to
determine the source of information. Group editors, scriptwriters, producers or
those in the programme selection division determine what and who should be
presented in the news or which experts to invite for certain segments of the
television programme.
ACTIVITY 9.4
Imagine a major incident has taken place in Malaysia. State which media
would most likely cover this event. State your views as a media user of how
the media in Malaysia would normally cover events like this.

9.5.3 Cultivation Analysis

The perspective of cultivation analysis introduced by George Gerbner and
colleagues from the University of Pennsylvania states that television media
promotes „worldviews‰ that are inaccurate but the audience regards and receives
it as the reality of life. Perceptions on what is real in life closely mirror the
programmes broadcasted on television. Cultivation analysis focuses on how
prolonged exposure to the media affects the behaviour and viewpoints of the
audience.
Think of the Malay, Bollywood and Hollywood films watched on TV. The
lifestyles shown are usually more attractive and pleasant compared to real life.
However, what is watched on television is believed to cumulatively form the
audienceÊs perspectives. In other words, the longer a person watches television,
the more he tends to regard what is watched as a reality. In fact, there is a strong
correlation between media images and how a person views the realities of life.
9.5.4 Individual Differences

Perspectives of individual differences refer to how audiences have various
characteristics that are influenced by the media. Media audiences differ in
background in terms of age, sex, level of education, socio-economic level, location
of residence, intellectual level and also experience.
In studying the effects and functions of media, early researchers explored various
perspectives of the Communication Model. One of the perspectives is seen in the
Hypodermic Needle Model. The audience in the context of this model received
messages directly and processed them individually and in groups. In this model,
mass communication is regarded as having „magic powers‰ with an impact so
strong that it is able to influence and poison the minds of the large audience. This
always happens in broadcasting information in the form of propaganda.
In the Opinion Leaders Model or the ``two-step modelÊÊ, the audience is seen as a
wide social entity. This model refers to certain individuals with high charisma
able to influence a large audience in making choices. This influence is evident
when politicians are garnering for support; or when brand ambassadors and
celebrities influence you to purchase goods or services, trendy fashions or
cosmetics.

9.6 CHALLENGES IN INTERACTING WITH

MASS MEDIA
Mass communication has certain functions and plays an important role in most
aspects of human life. The audience as media users also have a big responsibility.
The audience who are always exposed to the media must understand what is
presented to them through the media.
Figure 9.7: Challenges of mass media
Among the challenges faced by the audience of mass media are as shown in
Figure 9.7.
9.6.1 Ethical Issues

The main ethical issues in mass communication include accuracy of information,
truth of facts and privacy. The audience as users should be aware of the roles
played by mass media in channelling information.
The basic principle of mass communication ethics is to give audiences the truth
about issues and the freedom of choice to evaluate the issues. The audience
actually has a role to prevent any manipulation of information from taking place.
Ethical principles in communication are important because they indicate respect
towards an individual, group or institution that is involved in the process of
communication. With the presence of good ethical guidelines, there is little
possibility of imposing oneÊs values on others.

However, the audience and the media practitioners are often presented with
situations that require them to evaluate, select and find the balance between truth
and self-interest. As an example, a reporter who makes news coverage on an
artistÊs misconduct may tarnish that individualÊs reputation. The action to
publish the news by the reporter is taken on the basis of „the peopleÊs right to
know‰. The questions that arise from such an action are: what do the audience
actually need to know, and how is it important for them to know?
Ethical issues are often discussed because of their effects on the audience. For
example, an entertainment reporter from ABC magazine who manipulated the
news on the scandal of a film star. Although this has boosted the sale of the
magazines, he is said to be unethical in reporting the news. In another situation, a
person who advertises his product through the Internet to get huge profits is also
regarded as unethical if he cheats.
Ethical issues in mass communication are important because they involve social
responsibility and moral questions. The audience should be able to make critical
evaluations based on the media content or information they receive. Often, these
moral questions become a dilemma to the audience.
9.6.2 Critical Mind towards Mass Communication

Mass communication does not operate on its own. It interacts with other elements
in the environment. There is not a single person, group or organisation that has
exactly the same experience. This accounts for the differences in reactions
towards the messages presented in the media. Among the important questions
that audiences need to be aware of are:
(a) How does media affect individuals in society?
(b) How is media reality adapted from its original content?
(c) What is the extent of truth in media content?
(d) Why does news get attention?
(e) Is the media content source valid and updated?
(f) Is the reporting fair and truthful?
(g) Are news reports biased?
(h) Are the images received stereotyped?
(i) What views of society are taken into account?
(j) What is the audienceÊs interpretation and view on certain issues?

(k) To what extent are media practitioners ethical in reporting an issue in the
media?
Besides television, all of the above questions can be applied to the audiences of
other mass communication media such as radio, websites, the Internet, books,
music, magazines, message boards, etc.
9.6.3 Media Dependence

Audience dependence on the media can also bring negative effects. At present,
society is exposed to unlimited information from various sources of media.
Audiences should be wise enough to select from a variety of sources, instead of
depending on only one form of media for their information.
ACTIVITY 9.5
What are the implications of communication technology on the media

landscape?
Focus your discussion on the print media (newspapers) and

electronic media (television).
• Mass communication has important functions in all aspects of our lives and
in society.
• There is constant interaction between the audience and the media to

highlight daily human activities.
• The media provides surveillance on anything occurring in the environment

with the purpose of influencing audience behaviour.
• The variety of mass media today opens a door to the world of information
and entertainment not experienced before.
The audience as media users have the choice to determine media use; and
are able to understand and evaluate critically the meanings behind the
content of the media message.

Cultivation Media dependence

Distributing values Persuading
Entertaining Social criticism
Interpreting Surveillance
Linkage

10 Communication
Technology
LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. Explain the general concept of Information and Communication
Technology (ICT);
2. Describe the challenges of combining technology and media;
3. Explain the impact of Information and Communication Technology
(ICT) on the media landscape;
4. Discuss the effects of technology in the context of relationships; and
5. Identify the technological challenges that exist in communication
technology.
X INTRODUCTION
The dawn of the information age means that information and communication
technology have become important elements in the world of communication.
This field has also experienced great changes in accordance with these
technological advancements. The media landscape evolved due to the increased
accessibility of information and communication technology. The global Internet
network, which began with the invention of the computer, has created a new
medium in this age of information. As such, it may be said that communication
technology has led to the formation of relationships that are not limited by mere
physical boundaries.
This topic will discuss several important concepts regarding ICT and its impact
on the media landscape.

174 X TOPIC 10 INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY
10.1 THE TECHNOLOGY OF COMMUNICATION

MEDIA
Technological advancements have resulted in an evolution in the use of media in
every stage of human development. Consequently, technology has also changed
the process of communication between people. The types of media that influence
the way people communicate have been previously discussed in Topic 1.
Technology is regarded not only as a hardware system that has special functions
but also as a part of the life of a society. Information and communication
technology distributes information through telecommunication devices, such as
telephones, cables and satellites. The relationship between information and
communication technology and communication may be seen when hardware
(equipment) and software (computer programs) are employed to allow users to
communicate. The combination of hardware and software results in information
and communication technology (ICT). Broadcasting satellite networks,
televisions, digital videos, CD-ROMs, digital video disks, audio-visual recorders,
wireless communication devices such as telephones, mobile phones and the
Internet are just a few examples of ICT.
Electronic media technology began with the use of the telegraph in 1850. This
technology was a great leap forward from the age of printing. Unlike printing
technology, the telegraph enabled people to communicate even from long
distances. The invention of the telephone, which was a direct result of the
invention of the telegraph, brought communication to an even more advanced
level. The telephone allowed instant and simultaneous long distance
communication and facilitated an effective delivery of information. The invention
of the telephone brought great changes to the patterns of human communication,
quite unlike printed forms of communication such as written correspondence.
The process of communicating through technology is depicted in Figure 10.1.

TOPIC 10 INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY W 175
Figure 10.1: The characteristics of mass communication technology
The communication network is formed when people communicate with each

other and share their values, goals and interests to form a system based on
technology. Communicating through technological networks has helped speed
up the process of communication and has led to the rapid and effective
distribution of messages and information. It has also helped forge ties between
communicators who are separated by oceans and boundaries. This revolution in
communication networks has changed the way information is shared and
distributed through ICT.
10.2 CONVERGENCE OF INFORMATION

TECHNOLOGY AND COMMUNICATION
Communication technology has generated a current flow of information and led
to an information age that has integrated various elements of technology. In fact,
this integration of technology has facilitated the accessibility and delivery of
information. Media convergence refers to the integration of mass media
technology, computers and telecommunication. The concept of media
convergence was introduced by Nicholas Negroponte of the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology (MIT) in 1978 (Biagi, 2001).

Figure 10.2: Media convergence

Source: Biagi, S. 2001. Media/Impact: An introduction to mass media.
Wadsworth, CA
Figure 10.2 depicts the concept of media convergence and the overlap among
these three main industries and how they influence each other. This in turn leads
to further technological development.
(a) The Media Industry

The media industry includes the following fields:
(i) Visual (film, television and documentaries) and audio (studio and
recording activities) broadcasting; and
(ii) Printing (books, magazines, journals, etc.).
(b) The Telecommunications Industry

The telecommunications industry involves activities related to satellite
technology, mobile telephones, cable operators and long-distance telephone
lines. These factors allow information to be delivered rapidly.
(c) The Computer Industry

The computer industry involves various forms of the production of
equipment, such as software and services related to the Internet, for
purpose of storing and channelling information in the form of digital data
through websites (Straubhaar & LaRose, 2000).
The convergence of merge of technology is the result of storing information

in a digital form through computerised systems. One of the main
characteristics of technological convergence is the application of digital
information, where information can be obtained through computerised
systems. Digital communication refers to the conversion of images, text and

audio to computer-readable formats. The chronology of technological

convergence is shown in Table 10.1.
Table 10.1: The Chronology of Technological Convergence
Creation of digital communication 1940s

Creation of Transport Control/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) 1960s
Internet as created by ARPANET is born Early 1970s
Creation of personal computers Late 1970s
Hypertext Transport Protocol (HTTP) 1980s

(HTTP) is created
The Internet introduced to the public 1992
Creation of Mosaic Browser 1992
Computers allow messages to be sent, processed, stored and shared directly. E-

mail and online chat and instant messaging programmes mean that
communication could be established easily. This new media enables the
communication of „one-to-many‰.
The production and creation of various forms of new technology in the industry
of communication and telecommunication aims to facilitate the interlinked
processes of delivery, storage, channelling and re-accessing (i.e. searching)
information (Straubhaar & LaRose, 2000).
In addition to this, cable and fibre optics technology has revolutionised the way
people communicate. Information can be directly supplied from sources all over
whole world quickly and easily. This enables individuals and organisations to
share information and expertise in order to distribute information.
The various types of media allow information to be recorded, stored and

retrieved in a digital format via the computer. This means that print media and
broadcasting technology can be integrated using computer technology. Digital
technology also enables information to be stored in great volume.
To learn more about the development of communication technology, please go to

the following website: http://www.worldhistorysite.com/communication.html

10.3 THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY ON THE

MEDIA LANDSCAPE
This topic will discuss the development of:
(a) Print media · e.g. books, magazines; and

(b) Electronic media · e.g. television, radio, film and recording.
10.3.1 Print Media in the Digital Age

Print media as we know it has, in recent times, experienced major changes, some
of which will be detailed below:
(a) Newspaper
Printing technology contributed to the development of the newspaper
industry. The reform brought by this technology had a great effect on news
sourcing, advertising and distribution. The Internet has also changed the
way reporters source information. Tips are now usually obtained through
e-mail and it is through this same method that their validity is ascertained.
Research can be done through news websites, chat-rooms and newsgroups.
With regard to news production, satellite technology enables newspapers to
be dispatched from news editorial agencies to faraway locations.
In the past, print media (via newspapers) was the primary source of news.
However it has diversified in supplying information to readers by
presenting news through cyberspace. Online newspapers are now seen as a
viable alternative in delivering news to the people. Regardless, both print
and online newspapers have similar functions, namely collecting,
evaluating and conveying information to a large audience.
In the 1980s, early computers sent news to homes through video text.
However, the conception of the World Wide Web (WWW) now allows
news to be distributed more widely. There are now thousands of
newspapers published online.
The boundaries of space and time are no longer a hindrance people who
require news updates. Through Web portals and „push technology‰, people
are now able to access the latest news immediately. At the same time, this
system stores news in an archive, enabling it to be read later. In addition,
these hypertext documents are linked to other similar documents, thus
enabling and facilitating the search for related news topics.

The emergence of search engine companies such as Yahoo!, Excite, Lycos,

Alta Vista, Infoseek and Web Crawler have encouraged newspaper
companies to compete in creating and establishing their own websites to
attract a higher number of readers and advertisers. The search engine
facilitates the browsing of a database that contains millions of Web
documents that exist on various Web servers.
(b) Magazines
When the Internet was first conceived, most magazine publishers believed
that it would threaten the publication of printed magazines. This was due
to the many opportunities provided by the Internet, such as providing a
space for publishing online magazines free of charge.
Online magazines are a fairly new medium which is in direct competition
with printed magazines. By 1995, the development of online magazines
began to gain popularity. Figure 10.3 explains the advantages of using the
Internet in the magazine industry.
Figure 10.3: The advantages of the Internet in the magazine industry

(c) Books
Traditionally, printing books have had various weaknesses because of the
difficulty in editing to improve and increase content. The publishing
industry has thus employed digital technology to widen its market.
Due to this, books no longer need to be printed for publication and
marketing. The emergence of the Internet has led to the digital production
of books known as e-books. E-books that can be downloaded online with
additional hyperlinks have now replaced traditional textbooks.
The digital publication of books means that information can be distributed
and marketed to clients, readers and users in general directly through the
Internet.
It also enables information that was previously printed in the form of books
to be obtained more easily and cheaply.
ACTIVITY 10.1
Name some examples of online book publishers.
10.3.2 Electronic Media in the Digital Age
Figure 10.4: Electronic media in the digital age

(a) Radio
Since the 1920s, the development of radio broadcasting has been in line
with the development of the music industry and recording technology.
Technological development in radio broadcasting have led to the
emergence of sophisticated digital technology through the convergence of
computers, telecommunications and broadcasting technology. The Internet
and the WWW has also facilitated the downloading of software needed by
many users at the same time. IBOC (in-band, on-channel), satellite radio
and cyber radio (Internet radio) are digital audio broadcasting (DAB)
techniques used to transmit signals in a high quality digital format. DAB is
also able to transmit signals to „mobile‰ receivers.
The main advantages of the digital broadcasting network are its ability to
transmit data through radio channels to a larger audience. This system is
able to simultaneously produce quality audio and data in the form of text
and images. Now, thousands of radio stations have their own websites,
some even offering cyber radio to the audience.
ACTIVITY 10.2
What is Internet radio? Name two Internet radio stations that you
know.
(b) Broadcasting Television

The television industry is now in competition with the cable broadcasting
channels, satellite television channels, video games and the Internet. The
development of WebTV (1996) using the Internet and cable TV led to the
arrival of digital television technology in 1997, with the use of analogue
television. In 1998, High Definition television (HDTV) heralded a new era
in broadcasting. The impact it has had on broadcasting technology has
affected programme contributors, advertising and identification of service
positions. The advantages of digital television are depicted in Figure 10.5.

Figure 10.5: The advantages of digital television
(c) Film
Digital technology has helped the filming industry become more stable and
developed in line with technological developments.
(i) In early the 1990s, film production studios began to use computers for
digital editing and special effect techniques.
(ii) Toy Story (1995) was the first film that was completely computer-
generated.
(iii) In 1998, made-for-the-web films were produced using video
streaming technology.
(iv) In 1999, films began to be distributed to cinemas using in a digital
format, where the film is transmitted through satellites in form of
electronic files directed to the receiving disc of the cinema.
(v) In 2000, film is transmitted through the Internet digitally for the first
time ever (Rodman, 2001).
In film production, 2D and 3D digital animation techniques often become
an important alternative for its director in producing a film image that is

more lively, attractive and effective. Titanic, Spiderman, The Hulk,

Dinosaur and Chicken Run, for example, are films that use digital
animation technology in almost half of their production. Monsters Inc.,
Shrek and Toy Story are just some films that have used digital animation
technology throughout their production.
Film producers tend to favour digital technology because:

(i) It helps produce films that are more aesthetically pleasing;
(ii) It helps reduce the cost of production. This is especially the case with
animated films.
SELF-CHECK 10.1
1. How do 2D animation and 3D animation differ from one another?
2. What are the advantages of using the Internet in the magazine

industry?
(d) Recording and Audio

Now, the audio and video revolution has developed in conjunction with
the Internet. Widespread Internet access means that the compact disc has
no longer become the first choice for the listening public. Nowadays people
have other alternatives to gaining information.
Music can be promoted through film soundtracks (OST), advertising and
publicity in various media. The audio format has greatly evolved since the
1950s, from LPs and vinyl records, tapes, cassettes, to compact discs (CDs).
Thanks to the Internet, the audience can download music in a form known
as an MP3 (Motion Picture Engineering Group Audio Layer 3). This
technique allows music to be encoded in the form of a compact disc, which
will later be programmed into a computer. From the marketing aspect, the
music industry can distribute its products across a larger audience and reap
profits by marketing in the Internet, in addition to sales networks, record
clubs and music stores.
The video format has also greatly evolved thanks to digital technology. It
has developed from VTR (video tape recording) in the 1950s, VCR (video
cassette recording), VHS (Video Home System) and Laser Discs in the
1980s, culminating in the Digital Video Disk (DVDs) in 1996 (Rodman,
2001).

ACTIVITY 10.3
Do you think that the communication technology offered by the
Internet has taken over the roles of other electronic media?
10.4 THE CHALLENGES OF COMBINING

TECHNOLOGY AND MEDIA
COMMUNICATION
The Internet, synonymous with the term „information superhighway‰, refers to a
network-to-network concept, which is a communication method linking
information from the whole world through computerised networks. These
computerised networks mean that messages and information can be delivered by
a communicator to a person or a group of communicators within a short period
of time.
The combination of technology and media has resulted in various challenges, as

detailed in Figure 10.6.
Figure 10.6: The challenges of combining technology and media

10.4.1 Media Globalisation Issues

In this age of information without boundaries, media globalisation has enabled
the use of media and mediator communication systems, which have various
implications.
The concept of media globalisation developed due to the increased use of media
and communication mediators in the process of interaction. Globalisation in the
context of communication media involves media management and formation. It
refers primarily to the variety of media combination used as a communication
medium. One of the requirements of the globalisation process is the emphasis on
humansÊ ability to control various forms of information available in their
surroundings.
Media globalisation issues are also often related to cultural imperialism. Cultural
imperialism depicts the inequality of media flow (electronic broadcasting,
television, film, music, news and information). Cultural imperialism occurs when
certain parties control media content, specifically in media export industry,
advertising and in the ownership of media institutions.
Cultural imperialism often related to media imbalance from the aspect of

information and news flow in a country. This is because every country has
different development patterns for a communication medium. Locally broadcast
programmes are mostly produced by the country for local viewing. Therefore, if
they are produced based on ideas, genre and models of other countries, then
what is shown in the local media will, to some extent, reflect global patterns.
The development of technology and the industry of communication and

telecommunication also affect the culture of certain societies in the world. Social
issues and consumer rights are beginning to receive attention and are often
discussed due to the information distribution process that happens rapidly and
without limitations. Figure 10.7 summarises the issues faced in media
globalisation.

Figure 10.7: Media globalisation issues
10.4.2 Information Flow

The technological ability to overcome the boundaries of space and time brings
about various implications from the aspect of information flow. Freedom of
information occurs when there are no barriers in the information flow. At the
same time, ownership of the information sources also contributes to the
imbalance of information flow from the aspects of needs, wants, morals, cultures
and information explosion. In addition to choosing a message channel meeting
their needs, users may also be overwhelmed with unwanted messages that may
be unsuitable or inappropriate. Individual access to websites and forums may
potentially expose users to pornography and online flaming. The Internet is
actually a loose information system from the aspect of management. It is
different from conventional media because there is no centralised ownership of
control.
Mowlana (1997) states that information flow occurs at two levels, as seen in
Figure 10.8.

Figure 10.8: The two levels of information flow
Information flow at the level of information production is determined by sources

acting as communicators who are responsible for determining the messages that
will be delivered. At the distribution stage, however, the messages will be
distributed through various mediators to users.
In information flow process, control is especially important. Information

distribution in cyberspace is different from the conventional method. Users have
direct access to the information distribution channel. They not only act as users
but also shape the way information is distributed.
TechnologyÊs ability to channel information without limits means it can be

accessed by anyone who has the technology. As such, it needs to be controlled, as
depicted in Figure 10.9.
Figure 10.9: Controlling the information flow

The positive effect of the information flow can be seen from several aspects of
society, including the individual, institutions, inter-groups, ethnic groups,
minorities and nations.
From the individual aspect, the information flow has influenced patterns of
individual thought, both ideologically and in terms of the environment. The
information flow helps increase knowledge and awareness towards the
importance of rules and understanding legal implications.
At the institutional level, the information flow has opened up opportunities to

form a more effective communication process with various institutions of society,
be they political, commercial, religious or military.
From the economic aspect, communication technology has brought changes to

economic and trade flows in a country. It has not only helped speed up the trade
transaction process, but has also brought a new transformation from the aspect of
handling patterns and the process of selling and purchasing services that would
usually occur in a conventional economic transaction.
10.4.3 The Birth of a New Community

In general, a community is a group of individuals who live together in a certain
physical space. We often hear of cyber community issues due to the development
of information communication technology. These groups communicate online,
thus forming online communities. The online community is also known as a
virtual community, and it combines technology networks as a communication
medium to integrate and empower itself.
Through portable modem technology, satellite disks, cellular telephones,

personal digital assistants (PDAs) and computerised technology, an individual
can form a community by communicating with those who use similar
technology. One implication of online community is that communication
happens without face-to-face interaction.
The impact of technology on a community is depicted in Figure 10.10.

Figure 10.10: The impact of media communication technology on a community
(a) The community may no longer be confined to the same geographical area
but will develop into a wider community without limits. Community
members are connected through communication technology (virtual
community).
(b) The digital divide arises due to an imbalance of rights and opportunities in
owning technology due to the inability to own technology (the
technological haves and have nots). It is closely related to the idea of having
access to information. In most cases, a financially able group will have a
higher chance of owning access to technology and expertise, compared to
those who are less so. The „haves‰ group is able to access the Internet and
this situation is opposite to that of the „have nots‰ group.
The group which has no access to information and is unable to own it will
be left out and left behind. The difference in access to technology causes an
imbalance in the information flow, hence dividing the community into
different groups.
In addition, the digital divide is also related to access issues that result in
self-isolation. A consequence of this imbalance is a wealth gap between
third world and advanced countries.
Factors that cause the digital divide include economic constraints,
government policies, shortage or absence of infrastructure to support the
use of technology, such as services and telephone lines, geographical factors
(urban and rural), the ability to pay for online services, social issues
(gender, age, race), language proficiency, lack of expertise and training and
so on.

(c) Improvement in quality of life. A lot of the latest information and news can
be easily obtained through online resources to help us in our personal and
professional lives.
ACTIVITY 10.4
How can technology improve the quality of life of a community?
(d) Online communities have a negative effect on interpersonal

communication. Interaction with family members and friends will decrease.
This happens because more time is spent communicating online, instead of
interacting face-to-face.
However, an online community may also have positive effects, as it forces
economic activities to become more efficient, sophisticated and
technologically advanced. E-commerce, for example, provides the
opportunity for societies to be more exposed to wider and more global
economic markets.
(e) The management of cyberspace is a major challenge resulting from

information communication technology. The main issues include the
framework and rules, which ensure that technology is not misused or
exploited to the extent that it threatens the freedom of online
communication. What rules oppose freedom of speech, intellectual rights
and the information flow?
At times, the overflow of advertising on the Internet can obscure the actual
information a person is looking for. This is similar to the invasion of
personal rights (privacy) of users that occurs through online advertisements
that collect userÊs personal information. Even e-mails that should be
exclusive to their owners, can also be accessed by online advertising
companies and Internet Service Providers (ISP).
Validity of information is also a problematic issue. The information content

of the Internet can be published by anyone. The uncertainty of ownership
on information is a controversial issue which has remained unsolved, even
till today.

ACTIVITY 10.5
What are the challenges faced by users with regard to
communication technology?
• Media and communication technology has changed the face of

communication today. The need to communicate no longer depends on
traditional media such as television, radio, film and print material.
• Interaction between people now also happens in cyberspace and

communication can be established online.
• Communication technology uses computers to distribute, store and process

data and information rapidly. This innovation then spreads to the field of
media and telecommunication subsequently leading to the advent of the
Internet.
• This revolution in technology affects the way we communicate. The effect of

technology on media is not limited to the medium itself, but also on the
content and meaning of communication.
• Issues of information explosion, globalisation and the online community have

an impact on everyday life.
• The Internet supplies information without boundaries. Regardless whether

technology will remain stagnant or evolves according to developments,
people will continue to have too many choices.
• Media and technology literacy shapes humans into an audience that needs to
adapt themselves to the information era.

Books Newspapers
Film Radio
Information and communication Recording audio
technology
Television broadcasts
Magazines

Topic X Information and
11 Communication
Technology in
the Context
of Relationships
LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. Explain the implications of information and communication
technology on various levels of relationships;
2. Explain the ethical implications of cyberspace communication; and
3. Identify the challenges of technology in the context of relationships.
X INTRODUCTION
In the previous topic, we discussed the main concepts of information and
communication technology and the implications of a digital media landscape.
Today, technology has changed the way we perceive ourselves, our environment
and our relationships. Life in the cyber world allows us to reshape our identity
any way we like. Social media has changed the way we interact with society,
making relationships more complex.
Not only do we need to adapt to these new ways of interacting with each other,
but also the way we view technology itself.

194 X TOPIC 11 INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY IN THE
CONTEXT OF RELATIONSHIPS
This final topic will focus on the implications of technology on various levels of
human relationships including in cyberspace.
11.1 COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY IN THE

CONTEXT OF HUMAN RELATIONSHIPS
Have you ever tried to begin a personal relationship virtually? What is your
reason for interacting online?
We spend a large part of our lives interacting with people around us; we build
relationships by sharing experiences and feelings both verbally and non-verbally.
So, today we can choose to form relationships either in person or online.
In this era of global communications, the Internet allows people all over the
world to form individual relationships via virtual communities and social
networks.
The effects of technology, its progress and the way we use it is widely discussed.
Communications technology has been and continues to be used to effect social
change. As societiesÊ struggle to cope with the new ways of communicating that
are currently available, they have to adapt to the ways quickly.
11.2 COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY AND

SELF-IDENTITY
As discussed in the previous topic, one important aspect of cyber culture is
related to the formation of identity. Self-identity is influenced by the perception
and acceptance of a person by others. However, in cyberspace communication,
the meeting of people and machine (technology) adds to the dimension of the
idea of a „cyborg‰ as put forth by Donna Haraway in her manifesto.
How does communicating online help a person see himself? How does it
influence a person and what are the implications in interpersonal
communications?
Unlike face-to-face communication, a person can form a different persona in

online communication. Various forms of identity can be created to portray a
different appearance, culture, life, gender and psychological characteristics. For
example, a person may claim to be younger, slimmer or more good looking than
he actually is. With technology, a person is able to change, recreate and diversify
his self-identity.

TOPIC 11 INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY IN THE W 195
The World Wide Web (WWW) is an example of technology that forms a unique
partially interactive form of communication. In the past, individuals advertised,
printed and prepared autobiographies to introduce a product or service, or
become known publicly. Now with the Internet, documents can be published on
their own websites and can be accessed by many people.
A person has the opportunity to play the role of webmaster in writing and
publishing certain material or an article. Interaction that occurs is one way except
when there is an e-mail address for further contact.
Through WWW, a person can create a made-up identity while interacting with
others. In other words, technology does not only change what is thought about a
person but also provides the opportunity to create a desired identity. The
Internet, for example through Multiple User Domain (MUDs), allows people to
form „virtual communities‰ and distinctive self-identities. Methods of interaction
through MUDs also enable individuals to experiment and mould a new identity
as desired, and eliminate the unwanted actual identity. They can establish a
relationship and interact with other members of the virtual community.
Anyone can create an online biography which can include social activities, family
origin, gender, hobbies, life experiences, etc.
For someone who feels awkward in social situations, the Internet provides an
easy way to interact with others through social networking sites, electronic
bulletin boards, Internet Relay Chat Rooms (IRC), Multi User
Domain/Dimensions or Dungeons (MUDs) and Multi-user dungeon Object
Oriented (MOOs). These are areas open to the study of ethical issues in online
communication. Online identities are naturally questionable. Here, the
imagination is the only limit to how you can portray yourself online.
Knowing the identity of the person with whom we are communicating is

necessary in order to fully understand and evaluate the interaction that is taking
place.
(a) Are people as sincere in an online relationship as in a face-to-face
relationship?
(b) If a person is anonymous, how respectful and polite will he be while
interacting with others online?
(c) Is an online identity more confident or more aggressive than oneÊs actual
identity?
(d) Can users make good decisions in the virtual world?

ACTIVITY 11.1
What are the challenges of chatting on the Internet?
11.3 IMPLICATIONS OF COMMUNICATION

TECHNOLOGY IN PERSONAL
RELATIONSHIPS
In the past, personal relationships required that people be in proximity to one
another, and meeting face to face frequently was the best way to build close
relationships. Conversely, distance will create challenges in establishing personal
relationships (Wood, 2001).
Is this statement true in todayÊs era of communication technology? What are the
implications of communication technology on personal relationships?
Innovations in communications technology have affected the way we form

relationships. We can meet people who live hundreds if not thousands of
kilometres away from us, in different time zones and to some degree with online
translation services even if we speak different languages. This technology also
helps us stay in touch with friends, family and colleagues from home and away.
Today, e-mail and online Voice Over Internet Protocol (VOIP) and chat
programmes are communication tools that are most popular among family
members and friends when they are far away from each other. For those who are
shy, interacting using e-mail or online chat groups gives them more confidence
than if they were to talk to another person face to face. People with illnesses i.e.
thalassemia or cancer can now talk to others they can relate to, and give/receive
emotional support. In this way, technology can improve the quality of life.
ACTIVITY 11.2
How long does it take you to communicate online? For what

purposes do you communicate online?
Online communication tools such as Facebook or chat rooms make it easier to

find people with similar interests and opinions. They can choose how they want

to communicate, how much of themselves to reveal or how close the relationship

should be.
TodayÊs youth are not overwhelmed by the myriad ways of communication.

Most children learn to use a computer very early in life and many primary school
pupils have mobile phones. A majority of homes have game consoles, enabling
people to play video games with others all over the world in real time. To most
kids today, spending time with friends virtually is the same if not preferable to
hanging out at the mall.
Technology makes it easier for people who may lack self-esteem to venture into
relationships with other people. They can express themselves in a more
comfortable environment while online, as everyone seems to be the same. No
matter how they dress, wear their hair or how affluent they are, they are all equal
in the virtual world.
Nevertheless, as in communication in the real world, communication in the cyber

world also has its challenges; among these are message effectiveness, ambiguity
of source and content, as well as ethical issues.
(a) Message Effectiveness
There is the possibility of misunderstanding written messages when we
cannot see the facial expressions or body language of the person we are
communicating with.
(b) Ambiguity of the Source and the Content

Online communication is full of ambiguity. Anyone can write anything.
They can portray themselves as an authority on a subject and it can be
difficult to know how credible they are.
(c) Ethical Issues

Ethical issues are often raised in online communications involving the
veracity and sincerity of peopleÊs cyber identities. A person can use a false
name as well as misrepresent his age, gender, appearance, occupation and
place of residence. For this reason, it is wise to be careful with how much
personal information you provide until you are satisfied it is a legitimate
person.
This is especially true for teenagers and children. The Internet can be a
dangerous place for a child. So it is incumbent on parents to monitor the types of
websites their children visit. The cyberspace is vast and difficult for authorities to
police. The idea of „stranger danger‰ is most evident in online communication.
Not only that, the Internet has no automatic filters; so you must monitor the
types of Web content your child views.

ACTIVITY 11.3
Explain the following concepts:
(a) Netizen (b) Addiction to the Internet
11.4 COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY IN

NON-VERBAL INTERACTION
As discussed earlier, non-verbal communication is just as important as verbal
communication. When speaking, your facial expressions and body language
reinforce what you are saying. Even your appearance affects the message you are
trying to convey.
As in real life, non-verbal communication also exists in cyberspace. With the

increase of communication through technology which is most often in written
form i.e. SMS, chat and e-mail, the opportunity for misunderstanding the „tone‰
of what is being said exists. It can be hard to read the emotion behind a short
written message.
As a solution, symbols known as emoticons or „Internet shorthand‰ have

replaced non-verbal communication cues. By using these symbols, a person who
communicates online will have the opportunity to express his feelings more
effectively because the emoticons can show the emotions of those who are
communicating. Many emotions such as happy, angry, sad or bored can be
delivered through different types of symbols. Besides that, emoticons also play
the role of replacing vocal intonation and facial expressions (see Figure 11.1).
Below are a few examples of „shorthand‰ symbols people use to convey the
feeling or mood of the message without having to type out long descriptions.

Figure 11.1: Emoticons and abbreviations in online communication
11.5 IMPLICATIONS OF INFORMATION AND

COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY IN THE
CONTEXT OF AN ORGANISATION
It is undeniable that innovations in communications technology have changed
the way organisations operate. Technology has also changed the structure of
organisations so much so they may not resemble more traditional ideas of how
an organisation can operate.
These changes replace the formal hierarchical structure of coordinating and

managing relationships within an organisation and between organisations.
Through communication technology, information is controlled and shared
among members of an organisation.
The effects of communication technology can be seen in several aspects including

the: development of information systems, governance issues, work culture,
accounting systems, structure and functions of an organisation, management
styles, decision making, ethics and the culture of an organisation.
Besides that, effects can be seen in work handling, formation and structure of
groups in the organisation, and managerial roles. For example, some operations
are now automated and this has led to a change in staffing needs. Access to
internal and external information can be obtained easily. For example, in an

organisation centred on import and export, the process of buying and selling of
products can be carried out online.
Computerisation allows for automation of many tasks that at one time had to be
done manually. Office workers today use many computer programs like word
processing, spreadsheets, desktop publishing, accounting and multimedia
presentations. These programs allow work to be done faster and be streamlined.
Computers also allow for storing, searching and sharing data more efficiently.
Staff members can communicate more comprehensively through e-mail and
other media like video conferencing.
Network applications enable all the computers to be linked so an organisationÊs

information can be stored in one location but accessed from anywhere in the
organisation via the network and data terminal. This also allows staff to work
remotely, from home or while on business trips. Colleagues can collaborate on
documents in real time all over the globe (Straubhaar & LaRose. 2000. 322). Some
tasks which were impossible in the past have now become a reality.
ACTIVITY 11.4
Provide examples of virtual organisations in Malaysia.
The Internet is an attractive development in the context of communication among

staff in an organisation. For example, the use of e-mail provides a method for
internal and external communication. Information and messages can be
transmitted quickly, cheaply and received by many staff not only in the operation
centre but in other branches as well. E-mail is a method of delivering messages in
the form of fact (for example, delegates will arrive at 10.00pm) but it is not capable
of delivering non-verbal communication (facial expressions, voice intonation, eye
contact, etc.)
Nowadays, computer information systems and networks have replaced many of

the traditional paper-based record keeping systems.
Another current trend among corporations is the use of video conferencing to

reduce the amount of travel managers needed to do in the past to perform
functions like departmental meetings, training, product development, staff
motivation, policy meetings and team building.

ACTIVITY 11.5
1. Explain the following concepts:

(a) Virtual Organisation
(b) Teleworking
2. Select an organisation and describe its background. Based on your

observation, make a list of communication challenges faced by the
staff in the era of information technology.
11.6 IMPLICATIONS OF INFORMATION

TECHNOLOGY ON GROUP
COMMUNICATION
In the previous topic, you were introduced to group communications.
Communication in groups can be seen in work groups and social groups.
In the cyberspace era, electronic communities and work groups are formed
online. What are the differences between groups in cyberspace and in reality?
What are the similarities between work groups and social groups?
Some of the challenges that an organisationÊs work groups need to adapt to

include setting an agenda to achieve goals and manage conflict. Work group
members need the skills to communicate through technology or on site face to
face. Since the Internet allows instant communication, scheduling can become an
issue.
Computers and the Internet create new modes of discussion and relationships.
The various groups ă be they social or professional ă have similar roles as those
in real life. The uniqueness of interacting in cyberspace is the opportunity to
communicate without taking into account the background, gender, race, culture,
appearance, vocal quality, skin colour or age of members of the online group.

ACTIVITY 11.6
Have you ever joined an online group? How does being in the group
affect your life?
Through the Internet and the services it provides, information can be obtained
and delivered easily within a short time. Through e-mail, ListservsÊ and Usenet,
group members can communicate with other members of the group. One unique
feature of the Internet, for example, can be seen in its capability to deliver
messages to a large number of group members. Among the Internet services that
facilitate group communication are instant messaging, mailing lists and chat.
Ć Instant Messaging: This is a „telephone call‰ via the Internet whereby the
message is transmitted by typed text. The receiver can read the text once the
„return‰ key is pressed. Examples of instant messaging are ICQ and AOL
Messenger.
Ć Mailing Lists: Messages can be transmitted via e-mail to a large group of
people wherever they are. Mailing lists are compiled according to certain
topics and they are privately owned.
Ć Chat: This can be used in interactive communication whereby feedback is
sent and received directly. Examples are IRC, ICQ, AOL Messenger and
Yahoo! All group members intending to communicate via chat groups should
enter the Internet at the same time and be active to communicate with each
other.
The advantage of a group that applies technology in its operations is the linking
of group members who are far and near through telephone and e-mail.
Cooperation between members can be obtained quickly. Computer support
systems through network and groupware software coordinate the work of
members. A document shared via an online workgroup can be edited easily,
manipulated and given immediate attention by the relevant parties. Other
implications can be seen whereby face-to-face conference or meeting is not
needed at all. Operations can be carried out without the presence of every
member. Indirectly, technology will help the process of decision-making,
improving productivity and involvement of members in the group.

ACTIVITY 11.7
1. What are the weaknesses of using information technology in the

communication of a work group?
2. In your view, is online group communication in cyberspace more

effective compared to a group that meets in actual reality (real space)?
The Internet has created virtual groups that meet and interact with its members,
among which are online electronic groups, virtual communities and online
groups.
A network of electronic communities are formed when interaction and sharing of

meaning happens in cyberspace. With the formation of groups such as social
activist groups, political groups, sports fans groups, parents groups, teachers
groups, etc., views can be voiced and shared.
For a community facing health problems such as cancer, diabetes, obesity,

thalassemia, emotional problems and others, the existence of websites, chat
rooms and electronic bulletin boards provides space to discuss issues at any time.
Technology has also encouraged electronic communities to get involved in
solving social issues and to act effectively and collectively.
11.7 ETHICS IN VIRTUAL COMMUNICATION

What do you understand by the importance of ethics in communication? Why
does a person need to be courteous while communicating online? In a stressful
situation, how do you control your feelings while communicating with another
person?
Different from nasty language spoken while angry, language sent through
electronic communication has an impact on its receiver. Messages with foul
language and sent to a person will remain for a long time and can be read again
before being deleted. The receiver of such messages may eventually forget the
discourteous message but not before the damage has been done.
The basic principle of ethical communication is to provide the freedom to know

the truth of an issue and to provide choices for a person to evaluate. By adopting

the principle of ethics in communication, we do not want information to be

twisted. Besides that, the principle of ethics in communication is also important
because it provides respect to an individual, a group or an institution that is
involved in the communication process. With the availability of guidelines on
good ethics, we can avoid the imposition of values owned and held by others.
How about the basic principles of ethics in communication in cyberspace?
Ethical issues in cyberspace can be a challenge and raise controversy. The main
ethical issues in communications concern accuracy of information, truth of facts,
responsibility of maintaining freedom and privacy. Among others, ethics in using
technology also involves the use of or access to unauthorised computer systems,
software piracy, usersÊ intellectual rights, fraud, misinterpretation, abuse of
information, confidentiality, freedom and news leaks.
The preservation of personal rights and freedom is one of the main issues of
ethics in the cyber world. Online communication that is regarded as secret or
owned by individuals can actually be encroached upon by advertisers on the
Internet. Interactive media, e-mail, access to computer databases and network for
shopping from homes, for example, are mechanisms to collect information on
users. The collected information can be sold to international marketing
companies. Unlimited banner advertisements on the Internet will be seen every
time a person browses the Internet. The question of freedom without
restrictictions is becoming more complex in the cyber world. The freedom is
unlimited to the extent that even information on users of the Internet can be
collected and stored by other people.
Personal conversations and discussions through e-mail messages, recordings of

telephone calls, installation of invasive cameras and tape recordings for purpose
of surveillance and investigation are challenges to the users of communication
technology.
In reality, the combination of new technology has the potential of destroying the
freedom and personal rights of individuals. What is the importance of having
ethics in cyberspace? On what grounds should ethics be taken into account in
cyberspace communication while the identity of those who communicate is
unknown to us?
Ethical issues of communication in the cyber world are important because:

(a) Communicating online is different from other ways of communicating
because of the absence of non-verbal communication cues and voice tones.
(b) It is regarded as something that needs to be bound by certain rules and
regulations.

(c) Communication in a cyber environment involves normal people (the public

and individuals) who have feelings. They can be distressed by discourteous
language and deceived easily as in normal life. As such, ethics in this
established relationship should be taken into account.
(d) Unethical practices also occur in work relations. Messages through e-mail
can be distributed without limits and the implications are very clear.
Memos sent to all staff or members of an organisation can negatively affect
the morale of workers. Jokes played on a person circulated to all staff may
result in a less harmonious work situation or embarrass people.
(e) Sources of messages in the form of gossip, criticism and false information in
cyberspace may not be identifiable. Therefore, the onus of examining and
evaluating the accuracy of messages received or delivered to a large
audience should be on every person in cyberspace, whether he acts as a
source or a receiver.
Understanding ethics in communication would be meaningless if there is no

deep understanding of the situation in the cyberspace. OneÊs behaviour while
interacting with an online community is important in giving various implications
on culture. This is especially true if rules in cultural practices are not known at all
or not taken into account while interacting in cyber world.
Communication among people today includes online interaction that has made
relationships among people increasingly complex and full of ambiguity. The
development of information communication technology affects the process of
communication especially on the receiver. Communication established online
definitely involves etiquette of interaction in the cyber world. Therefore, etiquette
in communication relationships is very important because it is closely related to a
personÊs view of one another. „Netiquette‰ are rules on communication on the
Internet. Mutual respect while being courteous on the Internet becomes a
guideline to communication in social situations on the Internet. In other words,
netiquette helps to form an ethical communication. Researchers in the field of
computerisation identify several guidelines of etiquette for communication on
the Internet as follows:
(a) Reading FAQs before starting to ask questions that other people have
already asked.
(b) Writing in uppercase would mean that you intend to emphasise something
in the message or you are shouting.
(c) Avoid the use of the Internet during „traffic jams‰ because it will cause
difficulty in accessing the Internet. Use a suitable time to go online.

(d) Speak briefly to deliver information such as when using e-mail.

(e) In e-discussions, a person should accept new members courteously.
Etiquette in the cyber world includes guidelines for mutual respect and courtesy
while interacting with other Internet users. However, there are various barriers
in its application such as mastery of English on the Internet and the diversity of
users of the Internet from different cultural backgrounds.
Etiquette in the cyber world or netiquette outlines the aspects of behaviour or

protocol that is regarded as courteous in the practice of communication on the
Internet through e-mail, mailing list or newsgroups.
The usual rules that are used as guidelines in communication using e-mail,
listservs, chat rooms and discussion boards are as follows:
(a) Messages are read and understood well.
(b) Messages to be sent should be read so that they are easily understood and
not misinterpreted.
(c) Use emoticons to clarify meaning.
(d) Know the audience who are going to receive the message.
(e) Be patient, have an open mind and try to understand new people in
listservs, discussion boards, e-mail, chat rooms and other communication
technologies.
(f) Reproduce (paste back) the part of message that is related to the feedback
so that the original sender of message will easily understand the context of
the feedback.
(g) Ensure name and topic of message are stated clearly.
(h) Focus on the topic of every message.
(i) Type in lowercase.
(j) Try to understand the situation of the message receiver who may be less
fluent in English. To be certain, a person should ask first before giving
feedback.
(k) Avoid making assumptions about the receiver of the message.
(l) Be courteous and sensitive towards the feelings of others.
Rules in cyberspace are very different from life in the real world. The absence of
non-verbal communication elements complicate the process of interpreting
messages received. One thing often forgotten in cyberspace communication is the

fact that interaction happens with other people who also have feelings. Non-
verbal cues that are not taken into account will cause various misunderstandings,
errors and communication conflicts.
ACTIVITY 11.8
1. Is netiquette a form of formal rules?
2. State other rules in communication cyberspace that you feel are

important other than the guidelines listed above.
3. „In communicating in cyberspace, a person tends to act in a less

proper behaviour, not following the rules of netiquette‰. Why does
this happen? Give your view on the above statement.
• The Internet and the facilities it provides offer opportunities for people to
interact virtually with others.
• In virtual interaction, identities can be altered to maintain anonymity while

personas can be created.
• A self-identity which exists in the physical world is difficult to verify in the

virtual world.
• The wide field of communication not only involves interactions between an

individual and other individuals or between an individual and group; it may
also involve an institution and those involved in the electronic (online) media
industry.
• Differences in the background of other people cause differences in

interpretation, evaluation, understanding and acceptance of a message.
• Ethical issues imply the need for a code of behaviour among users of
cyberspace communication.
• Understanding communication ethics helps a person to be cautious and

courteous while communicating in cyberspace.

208 X UNIT 3 PLANNING , CONTROL AND DECISION MAKING
References
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digital age. New York: McGraw Hill Companies Inc.
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change (3rd, ed.). New York: Harper Collins Publisher Inc.
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REFERENCES W 209
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INTAN: Kuala Lumpur.

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Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Module Writers: Massila Hamzah

Moderators: Dr Mohd Yusoff Hj Abdullah

Prof Dr Rahmah Hashim

Developed by: Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

Printed by: Meteor Doc. Sdn. Bhd.

First Edition, November 2008

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 1 The Basic Concepts of Communication 1

Topic 2 The scope of Communication 30

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2.1.4 Public Communication 39

Topic 3 Communication Models 57

Topic 4 Introduction to Self-Concept and Communication 65

Topic 5 Communication in the Context of Relationship 83

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5.3.1 The Function of Communication at the Workplace 91

Topic 6 Verbal Communication 104

Topic 7 Non-verbal Communication 119

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Topic 8 Introduction to Mass Media 140

Topic 9 Functions and Effects of Mass Media 155

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Topic 10 Introduction to Communication Technology 173

Topic 11 Information and Communication Technology in the 193

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Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION

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Table 1: Estimation of Time Accumulation of Study Hours

Topic 1 discusses the definition of communication, basic elements of

Topic 2 discusses the scope of communication that involves various different

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Topic 4 looks at the communication system and people as an important branch in

Topic 5 discusses the communication system in terms of communication needs.

Topic 6 explains the important aspects in verbal communication in determining

Topic 7 examines the basic principles and symbolic functions of non-verbal

Topic 8 highlights several perspectives of mass communication from the aspect of

Topic 9 explains the functions and effects of mass media communication on

Topic 10 examines the challenges of the communication field on media landscape

Topic 11 discusses the implications of communication technology and its effects

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TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

Self-Check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations

Activity: Like Self-Check, the Activity component is also placed at various

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References: The References section is where a list of relevant and useful

TAN SRI DR ABDULLAH SANUSI (TSDAS)

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Knowing the various definitions of communication will help to explain in detail

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1.1 VARIOUS DEFINITIONS OF

Based on your understanding, what is communication? Can we say

The general definition considers communication as a process of interaction

There are various definitions of communication. Some regard it as the act of

(a) Wood (2001)

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Table 1.1: Four Important Aspects of Communication

Process Communication is continuous and always undergoes