OUMH1303 English For Oral Communication PDF

OUMH1303
ENGLISH FOR ORAL

COMMUNICATION
S Sivagnanachelvi
Dr Chong Poh Wan
Chua Eok Keng
Cik Norazlina Mohamad
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Project Directors: Prof Dr Mansor Fadzil
Prof Dr Widad Othman
Open University Malaysia
Module Writers: S Sivagnanachelvi

Dr Chong Poh Wan
Chua Eok Keng
Cik Norazlina Mohamad
Enhanced by: Assoc Prof Dr Woo Tai Kwan

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First Printing, April 2008

Second Printing, December 2012 (rs)
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM), December 2012, OUMH1303
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form or by any means
without the written permission of the President, Open University Malaysia (OUM).

Table of Contents
Course Guide xiăxv
Topic 1 Communcation: An Overview 1

1.1 What is Communication? 2
1.1.1 Defining Communication 3
1.1.2 Types of Communication 6
1.1.3 The Purposes of Communication 9
1.2 Models of Communication 9
1.2.1 Linear Model 10
1.2.2 Interactive Model 10
1.2.3 Transactional Model 11
1.3 Forms of Oral Communication 13
1.3.1 Intrapersonal Communication 14
1.3.2 Interpersonal Communication 15
1.3.3 Small Group Communication 15
1.3.4 Public Communication 15
1.3.5 Mass Communication 16
1.3.6 Corporate Communication 16
1.3.7 Intercultural Communication 16
Summary 18
Key Terms 19
Topic 2 Oral Communication: Some Basic Principles 20

2.1 Principles of Oral Communication 21
2.1.1 Listening Skills 21
2.1.2 Speaking Skills 26
2.2 Why We Need Good Oral Communication Skills 31
2.2.1 Building Friendships 31
2.2.2 Knowledge Acquisition 31
2.2.3 Developing Workplace Competencies 32
2.3 Roles of Speaker and Listener 32
2.3.1 Evaluate the Situation 32
2.3.2 Understand Needs 33
2.3.3 Use Interpersonal Skills 35

iv  TABLE OF CONTENTS
2.4 Interference in Communication 37

2.4.1 Physical Interference 37
2.4.2 Physiological Interference 38
2.4.3 Psychological Interference 38
2.4.4 Semantic Interference 38
Summary 39
Key Terms 40
Topic 3 Active Listening Skills 41

3.1 Need for Active Listening 41
3.2 Tips for Active Listening 42
3.3 Implicit Listening: Comprehension of Speaker Intention 46
3.4 Listening for Emotive or Persuasive Language 50
3.5 Listening for Speaker Bias and Stereotyping in Messages 51
3.6 Listening for Enjoyment 53
Summary 54
Key Terms 54
Topic 4 Listening in Formal/Academic Contexts 55

4.1 Different Purposes in Listening 61
4.2 Listening for Sequence in Ideas 58
4.3 Listening for Specific Language Cues to Understand 63
Facts and Opinions
4.3.1 Facts 63
4.3.2 Opinions 63
4.4 Listening for Meaning from Intonation 69
4.4.1 Falling Intonation  69
4.4.2 Rising Intonation 70
4.5 Listening for Comprehension from Complete Discourse 77
Rather than from Isolated Words: How to Take Notes
Summary 86
Key Terms 87
Topic 5 Speaking: Speech Training 88

5.1 Pronunciation 89
5.2 Tips on How to Improve Your Pronunciation 96
5.3 Enunciation 98
5.4 Stress 102
5.5 Intonation 106
5.5.1 Grammar and Intonation 107
5.5.2 Intonation and Attitude 107
5.6 Rhythm 108

TABLE OF CONTENTS  v
5.7 Voice Modulation and Projection 109

Summary 112
Key Terms 112
Topic 6 Speaking in a Social Context 113

6.1 Making Small Talk 114
6.2 What Tense Do We Use? 117
6.3 Topics Suitable for Small Talk 118
6.4 Asking For and Giving Information 119
6.5 Making Suggestions and Recommendations 122
6.5.1 Making Suggestions 123
6.5.2 Making Recommendations 124
6.6 Making Requests and Offers 126
6.7 Extending Invitations 129
6.7.1 Useful Phrases 130
6.8 Expressing Thanks 131
6.9 Speaking in Cross Cultural Situations 132
6.10 Guidelines in Social Communication 135
Summary 137
Key Terms 137
Topic 7 Group Interaction Skills 138

7.1 Asking and Responding to Questions 139
7.1.1 Different Ways of Asking Questions 140
7.1.2 Purpose of Questions and Responding to Them 141
7.2 Expressing Opinions, Agreeing and Disagreeing 143
7.2.1 Suitable Expressions 145
7.2.2 Analysing the Conversation 146
7.3 Negotiating 148
7.4 Arguing and Conceding 152
7.5 Turn-taking 154
7.5.1 Signals 155
7.5.2 Making Everybody Active 155
7.6 Explanation and Justification 157
7.6.1 Ways to Support and Justify Your Opinions 158
7.6.2 Helpful Phrases to Show Support 158
7.7 Interrupting and Expressing Disagreement 160
7.7.1 Useful Phrases to Interrupt with 161
7.7.2 Useful Phrases to Express Disagreement 161
Summary 166
Key Terms 167

vi  TABLE OF CONTENTS
Topic 8 Public Speaking 168

8.1 The Importance of Public Speaking 169
8.1.1 Improve Your Social Skills 169
8.1.2 Improve Your Academic and Professional Skills 169
8.1.3 Improve Your Public Speaking Skills 169
8.2 How to Build Confidence in Public Speaking 171
8.2.1 Change the Way You Think 171
8.2.2 Systemic Desensitisation 172
8.2.3 Skills Training 172
8.2.4 Prepare and Practise Your Speech 172
8.2.5 Relaxation Techniques 172
8.2.6 Gain Experience 172
8.3 Tips for Giving an Effective Speech 174
8.3.1 Appearance 174
8.3.2 Body Language 175
8.3.3 Voice 175
8.4 Different Types of Speeches 177
8.4.1 The Informative Speech 178
8.4.2 The Persuasive Speech 179
8.4.3 The Negotiation Speech 180
8.4.4 The Argumentative Speech 181
Summary 185
Key Terms 186
Topic 9 Preparing an Oral Presentation 187

9.1 Input and Output 188
9.1.1 Occasion for the Speech 188
9.1.2 The Audience 188
9.1.3 The Setting 189
9.2 Determining the Purpose and Topic 193
9.2.1 Determine the Aim 193
9.2.2 Determine the Objectives 193
9.3 Collecting Material 196
9.3.1 Information Resources 196
9.3.2 Life Experience 196
9.3.3 Adapt Material 196
9.3.4 More is Best 197

TABLE OF CONTENTS  vii
9.4 Structuring the Oral Presentation 198

9.4.1 Why Structure is Important 198
9.4.2 Basic Procedures 198
9.4.3 Main Ideas 198
9.4.4 Sequencing of Main Ideas 199
9.4.5 Outlining the Material 199
9.4.6 Wrting Out the Presentation 200
9.5 Using Visual Aids 204
9.5.1 The Need for Visual Aids 204
9.5.2 Examples of Visual Materials 205
9.5.3 Guides for Using Visual Aids 208
Summary 210
Key Terms 211
Topic 10 Making an Oral Presentation 212

10.1 Introducing the Topic 213
10.2 Presenting the Content 216
10.2.1 A General Outline 216
10.2.2 The Actual Presentation Itself 217
10.3 Giving the Conclusion 219
10.4 Inviting Participation 220
Summary 223
Key Terms 223
References 224

viii  TABLE OF CONTENTS

COURSE GUIDE

COURSE GUIDE  xi
COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION

You must read this Course Guide carefully from the beginning to the end. It tells
you briefly what the course is about and how you can work your way through
the course material. It also suggests the amount of time you may need to spend
in order to complete the course successfully. Please refer to this Course Guide
from time to time as you go through the course material as it will help to clarify
important study components or points that you might miss or overlook.
INTRODUCTION
OUMH1303 English for Oral Communication is designed to acquaint learners
with important communication strategies for formal and academic interactions.
The discussion also touches on listening in non-academic contexts and for
enjoyment. This course will provide learners with the foundation for skills that
will be further enhanced in other courses as they progress in their programme of
study at OUM. By the end of this course, learners will be able to apply the
knowledge and skills that they have learnt in this module academically, socially
and professionally.
This course guide is prepared to give learners a clear picture of the overall
content of this module.
COURSE AUDIENCE
This is a compulsory course for all students of OUM. As an open and distance
learner, you should be prepared to learn independently and able to optimise the
learning modes and environment available to you. Before you begin this course,
please ensure that you have the right course material, as well as understand the
course requirements and how the course is conducted.
As an open and distance learner, you should be acquainted with learning

independently and being able to optimise the learning modes and environment
available to you. Before you begin this course, please ensure that you have the
right course material, as well as understand the course requirements and how the
course is conducted.

xii  COURSE GUIDE
STUDY SCHEDULE
It is standard OUM practice that learners engage in 40 study hours for every
credit hour. As such, for a three-credit hour course, you are expected to engage in
120 study hours. Table 1 gives an estimation of how the 120 study hours could be
accumulated.
Table 1: Estimation of Time Accumulation of Study Hours
Study
Study Activities
Hours
Briefly go through the course content and participate in initial discussion 3
Study the module 60
Attend 3 to 5 tutorial sessions 10
Online participation 12
Revision 15
Assignment(s), Test(s) and Examination(s) 20
TOTAL STUDY HOURS 120
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this course, you should be able to:
1. Demonstrate the use of specific skills and strategies required in oral
communication; and
2. Apply these skills and strategies in social as well as formal and academic
interactions.
COURSE SYNOPSIS
This course is divided into 10 topics. The synopsis for each topic is presented
below:
Topic 1 gives you an overview of communication in general, including what

communication is all about, the types and purposes of communication, etc. You
will be introduced to three models of communication ă the linear, interactive and
transactional models. This topic also covers different forms of communication
including interpersonal, intrapersonal, small group, mass, public, corporate and
cross-cultural communication.

COURSE GUIDE  xiii
Topic 2 outlines some basic principles in oral communication. It also explains the
role of speakers and listeners in the communication process and identifies the
types of interferences that can cause a breakdown in communication.
Topic 3 explores active listening techniques such as listening to comprehend

speaker intent; understand emotive and persuasive language; detect speaker
bias; and for sheer enjoyment. The aim is to enhance learnersÊ skills for successful
listening in academic and non-academic contexts as well as for enjoyment.
Topic 4 explains that listening in formal and academic settings often requires
listening to and understanding long stretches of discourse. This process requires
knowledge of specific skills in order to discern the main ideas from the trivial
details. This topic covers the different purposes of listening ă listening for
sequence of ideas; listening for specific cues to understand facts and opinions;
listening for meaning from intonation; and listening for comprehension in long
stretches of discourse.
Topic 5 explains speaking as a skill that needs to be developed and practised

independently of the grammar curriculum. In face-to-face communication, many
aspects contribute to how the message is delivered and understood. This topic
covers all the aspects of speaking such as how to pronounce words clearly,
enunciate them well, employ correct intonation, word and sentence stress, and
employ rhythm and voice projection.
Topic 6 describes our daily interactions with people. This requires us to seek
information by asking and answering questions, and making suggestions and
recommendations. In this topic, learners will be guided on how to employ
interactive skills to convey meaning accurately, use words appropriately and
speak politely.
Topic 7 highlights techniques that will help learners participate actively in

meetings and group discussions. It emphasises techniques for asking questions
politely and responding to them appropriately; for expressing, agreeing and
disagreeing with opinions; for putting forth arguments and conceding, etc.
Learners will also be introduced to turn-taking in group discussions; explaining
and justifying opinions, and interrupting and expressing disagreement.
Topic 8 discusses the importance of public speaking and offers tips on

how to effectively deliver a speech. Learners will also be introduced to four
different types of speeches, that is, the informative, persuasive, negotiation and
argumentative speech.

xiv  COURSE GUIDE
Topic 9 explains the initial preparations before presenting a paper. These include
analysing the audience, determining the purpose, gathering materials, organising
and writing main ideas and preparing visual aids.
Topic 10 describes the important steps that one takes when giving a speech
or oral presentation. It also offers tips on how to confidently deliver an oral
presentation.
TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

Before you go through this module, it is important that you note the text
arrangement. Understanding the text arrangement will help you to organise your
study of this course in a more objective and effective way. Generally, the text
arrangement for each topic is as follows:
Learning Outcomes: This section refers to what you should achieve after you
have completely covered a topic. As you go through each topic, you should
frequently refer to these learning outcomes. By doing this, you can continuously
gauge your understanding of the topic.
Self-Check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations

throughout the module. It may be inserted after one sub-section or a few sub-
sections. It usually comes in the form of a question. When you come across this
component, try to reflect on what you have already learnt thus far. By attempting
to answer the question, you should be able to gauge how well you have
understood the sub-section(s). Most of the time, the answers to the questions can
be found directly from the module itself.
Activity: Like Self-Check, the Activity component is also placed at various

locations or junctures throughout the module. This component may require you
to solve questions, explore short case studies, or conduct an observation or
research. It may even require you to evaluate a given scenario. When you come
across an Activity, you should try to reflect on what you have gathered from the
module and apply it to real situations. You should, at the same time, engage
yourself in higher order thinking where you might be required to analyse,
synthesise and evaluate instead of only having to recall and define.
Summary: You will find this component at the end of each topic. This component
helps you to recap the whole topic. By going through the summary, you should
be able to gauge your knowledge retention level. Should you find points in the
summary that you do not fully understand, it would be a good idea for you to
revisit the details in the module.

COURSE GUIDE  xv
Key Terms: This component can be found at the end of each topic. You should go
through this component to remind yourself of important terms or jargon used
throughout the module. Should you find terms here that you are not able to
explain, you should look for the terms in the module.
References: The References section is where a list of relevant and useful

textbooks, journals, articles, electronic contents or sources can be found. The list
can appear in a few locations such as in the Course Guide (at the References
section), at the end of every topic or at the back of the module. You are
encouraged to read or refer to the suggested sources to obtain the additional
information needed and to enhance your overall understanding of the course.
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE
No prior knowledge required.
ASSESSMENT METHOD
Please refer to myVLE.
TAN SRI DR ABDULLAH SANUSI (TSDAS)

DIGITAL LIBRARY
The TSDAS Digital Library has a wide range of print and online resources for
the use of its learners. This comprehensive digital library, which is accessible
through the OUM portal, provides access to more than 30 online databases
comprising e-journals, e-theses, e-books and more. Examples of databases
available are EBSCOhost, ProQuest, SpringerLink, Books24x7, InfoSci Books,
Emerald Management Plus and Ebrary Electronic Books. As an OUM learner,
you are encouraged to make full use of the resources available through this
library.

xvi  COURSE GUIDE

Topic  Communication:
An Overview
1
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Define what is meant by communication;
2. List the main types of communication;
3. Describe three models of communication; and
4. Explain the different forms that oral communication can take.
 INTRODUCTION
This topic aims to give you an overview of communication in general. It
highlights different definitions of communication as offered by experts in the
field. The topic also touches on types and models of communication. It then
zooms in on oral communication, in particular, the forms it normally takes.
Why do we need to study communication? From the

time we were born, we communicated with the world
(Figure 1.1). Even as babies, we babbled, cried, screamed
and gurgled our way into our parentsÊ hearts. Then, as we
grew up, we learnt words and began to communicate
through language. Communication comes naturally to
Figure 1.1: Even most of us except those who are physically challenged.
babies communicate
Source health-in-
action.org

2  TOPIC 1 COMMUNICATION: AN OVERVIEW
Communication, just like love, makes the world go round. Studying about
communication enables us to improve our skills at interacting with people.
Professionally, people who are good communicators tend to do better in their
careers. The good news is, effective communication is a skill that can be acquired
if you make an effort to study the fundamentals of communication theories and
principles.
1.1 WHAT IS COMMUNICATION?

Communication is an essential part of our lives. We communicate everyday ă
with different people, at different times, in different ways. We communicate with
ourselves in our thoughts. We also communicate with our family, friends, people
at work, and people we meet, socially or professionally. At times, we may even
need to communicate with a larger audience such as members of the public.
Now, put on your thinking cap. Before looking at what experts have to say about
communication, try and formulate some ideas about the nature of communication
by drawing upon your prior knowledge. Reflect on these questions:
(a) What do you think communication is?
(b) Is it something static or does it involve a process?
(c) What happens during communication?
(d) Can a person communicate with himself?
(e) How many people does it take to communicate?
(f) In what ways can you communicate with another?
(g) Are geographical boundaries barriers to communication?
(h) How does information technology affect the nature of communication?

TOPIC 1 COMMUNICATION: AN OVERVIEW  3
ACTIVITY 1.1
Respond to each of the following statements with Y (yes) if you agree
with it or N (no) if you disagree.
_______1. Communication can involve only one person.
_______2. Communication involves two or more people.
_______3. In order for communication to take place, there must be a

source (or speaker) and a receiver (or listener).
_______4. In a communication act, the speaker can become the

listener and the listener, the speaker.
_______5. You can communicate by speaking, writing letters or

memos, sending faxes and e-mails.
_______6. You can communicate via facial expressions and body

movements.
_______7. You can communicate without having to be physically

present in a particular country.
The answers to all of these statements should be „Yes‰. Read on to find out more.
1.1.1 Defining Communication

Carl Rogers (1952) (Figure 1.2) says that:
„Real communication occurs ... when we listen with understanding ă to see the
expressed idea and attitude from the other personÊs point of view, to sense how it
feels to him, to achieve his frame of reference in regard to the things he is talking
about.‰

This is particularly apt in the case of oral communication as oral communication

is not just speaking and articulating your thoughts well but also involves
listening to what has been said and interpreting the message accurately as
intended by the speaker.
Figure 1.2: Carl Rogers

Source: psychology4a.com
Elizabeth Tierney (1998) describes communication as a process which begins

when you have a message that you want to deliver to an audience. Your
audience receives the message, reacts to it and then responds to your message.
That response may lead you to react and give another message. This process may
then go on and on.
The message can be anything that you wish to communicate to an audience. It

may be an idea, a thought or a feeling that you wish to share with someone else.
It can range from a simple greeting to a friend to a lengthy report at a formal
meeting where many people may be present. What is important is that there is a
sender and a receiver of the message.
According to Julia T. Wood (2009), „Communication is a systemic process in

which people interact with and through symbols to create and interpret
meanings.‰
The key terms in this definition are:
(a) Process ă it is ongoing, continuous and always changing.
(b) Systemic ă It happens within a system of interconnected parts that affect

each other.
(c) Symbols ă These are what people use to represent things e.g. all language,
non-verbal behaviours, art, and music.

(d) Meanings ă Any act of communication involves two essential aspects ă the
literal message and the relationship between those who communicate with
each other.
Joseph Devito (2009) says that:
„Communication occurs when one person (or more) sends and receives messages
that are distorted by noise, occur within a context, have some effect, and provide
some opportunity for feedback.‰
He lists six elements which are present in all communication acts.
(a) Context
All communication takes place within a context that includes at least four
sub-contexts:
(i) Physical
The real environment in which communication takes place, e.g. a
classroom, lecture hall, office, a public place.
(ii) Social-psychological
For example, the status/relationship among the senders and receivers,
the roles and communication games that people play, cultural rules
and the friendliness/unfriendliness or formality/informality of the
situation.
(iii) Temporal
The time context in which communication takes place like the time of
day or night, as well as historical time, e.g. 20th or 21st century.
(iv) Cultural
The values, behaviour and beliefs of the society.
(b) Source-receiver
There is a source (speaker) and a receiver (listener). You send a message
whenever you speak, write, gesture or smile. You receive a message when
you listen, read or smell something. As you send, you are also receiving
your own message, e.g. you can hear yourself talk and move. At the same
time, you are also receiving the messages sent by the other person.
(c) Message/s
May be verbal or non-verbal.

(d) Channels
This refers to the medium through which the communication passes ă vocal
(speech), visual (gestures, words, pictures), olfactory (smells), and tactile
(touch).
(e) Noise
Anything that interferes with you receiving a message.
(f) Effect/s
Communication affects people in many ways ă intellectual effects (changes
in thinking), affective effects (changes in attitudes) and psychomotor effects
(changes in behaviour).
SELF-CHECK 1.1
1. Give four definitions of communication.
2. Based on any one of these definitions, briefly describe (from real

life) an example of a communication experience that has taken
place.
1.1.2 Types of Communication

According to Camp & Satterwhite (2002), there are three types of communication:
(a) Oral Communication

In oral communication, information, thoughts and ideas are conveyed via a
spoken language (see Figure 1.3). Basically, this takes place in the following
ways:
(i) Face-to-face conversations;
(ii) Meetings;
(iii) Voice mail messages;
(iv) Teleconferencing;
(v) Oral presentations; and
(vi) Public speaking.

Very often, spoken messages are sent very quickly and feedback received
almost immediately. However, there is little or no chance to reflect on what
is said.
Figure 1.3: Oral communication

Source: 4-hontario.ca
(b) Written Communication

In written communication, we exchange information using the written language,
that is, words and sentences (refer to Figure 1.4). This can take place via:
(i) Letters;
(ii) Faxes;
(iii) Memos;
(iv) E-mail;
(v) Reports; Figure 1.4: Written communication
(vi) Minutes of meetings; Source: a08.ngu.edu
(vii) Tables;
(viii) Diagrams;
(ix) News releases;
(x) Charts; and
(xi) Graphs;
Written communication provides documentation and proof of the exchange

of information. The drawback is that immediate feedback is not always
possible.

(c) Non-verbal Communication

In non-verbal communication, no words are used (refer to Figure 1.5).
Feelings are expressed and conveyed through facial expressions, gestures
and body movements. A certain look or gesture can speak a thousand
words. Non-verbal communication, also known as body language, can be a
very powerful form of communication and often includes the following
(Camp & Satterwhite, 2002):
(i) Appearance;
(ii) Posture;
(iii) Eye contact;
(iv) Nervousness;
(v) Grooming; and Figure 1.5: Non-verbal communication
Source: grahamwatsondesign.com
(vi) Dressing.
In face-to-face interactions, oral communication often goes hand-in-hand

with non-verbal communication. Effective communicators combine these
two modes of communication to reinforce their message.
Body language can be very powerful in supporting what you say. For
example, when you thank somebody, a grateful look will re-inforce your
feelings very strongly. Likewise, you may tell your boss that you are not
tired but your body language betrays you if you keep on nodding and
falling asleep.
ACTIVITY 1.2
In the scenarios below, what type of communication would you use?

State the reason for your choice. Jot down your answers in a notebook
and discuss these during your next tutorial session.
1. You receive a message on your telephone answering machine,

asking you to call up a client to set an appointment to meet him.
2. You need to make a speech on „Helping Needy Students‰ at a

Parent-Teachers Association meeting in a school.
3. You are at a television studio. You receive a message on your

handphone to go to the next room immediately to appear on a live
international television show.

1.1.3 The Purposes of Communication

According to Camp & Satterwhite (2002), there are four main purposes in
communication:
(a) To inquire ă This involves obtaining information in various ways, for

instance, by asking questions or through formulating questionnaires.
(b) To inform ă This entails the dissemination of information using different

channels of communication.
(c) To persuade ă This aims to influence people and bring them round to your
way of thinking.
(d) To develop goodwill ă This involves maintaining and forming cordial and
harmonious relationships with people you are communicating.
SELF-CHECK 1.2
1. Differentiate between to inquire, to inform, to persuade and to

develop goodwill.
2. In your opinion, which of the purposes of communication

mentioned above is the most prevalent in your workplace? Give
reasons for your answer.
1.2 MODELS OF COMMUNICATION

In this section, you will learn about three models of communication:
(a) Linear model;
(b) Interactive model; and
(c) Transactional model.

1.2.1 Linear Model

The linear model views communication as a one-way or linear process in which
the speaker speaks and the listener listens. LaswellÊs (1948) model was based on
the five questions below, which effectively describe how communication works:
Shannon and WeaverÊs (1949) model includes noise or interferences that distort
understanding between the speaker and the listener. Figure 1.6 shows a linear
model of communication.
Figure 1.6: A linear model of communication

Source: Wood, J. T. (2009). Communication in our lives (4th ed.). Belmont, CA: Thomson-
Wadsworth.
1.2.2 Interactive Model

The main flaw in the linear model is that it depicts communication as a one-way
process where speakers only speak and never listen. It also implies that listeners
listen and never speak or send messages.

Schramm (1955) in Wood (2009) came out with a more interactive model that saw
the receiver or listener providing feedback to the sender or speaker. The speaker
or sender of the message also listens to the feedback given by the receiver or
listener. Both the speaker and the listener take turns to speak and listen to each
other. Feedback is given either verbally or non-verbally, or in both ways.
This model also indicates that the speaker and listener communicate better if they
have common fields of experience, or fields which overlap (see Figure 1.7).
Figure 1.7: An interactive model of communication

Wadsworth.
1.2.3 Transactional Model

The main drawback in the interactive model is that it does not indicate that
communicators can both send and receive messages simultaneously. This model
also fails to show that communication is a dynamic process which changes over
time.
The transactional model shows that the elements in communication are

interdependent. Each person in the communication act is both a speaker and a
listener, and can be simultaneously sending and receiving messages.

There are three implications in the transactional model:
(a) „Transactional‰ means that communication is an ongoing and continuously

changing process. You are changing, the people with whom you are
communicating are changing, and your environment is also continually
changing as well.
(b) In any transactional process, each element exists in relation to all the other
elements. There is this interdependence where there can be no source
without a receiver and no message without a source.
(c) Each person in the communication process reacts depending on factors

such as their background, prior experiences, attitudes, cultural beliefs and
self-esteem.
SELF-CHECK 1.3
Briefly describe the main features of the following models of

communication:
(a) Linear model.
(b) Interactive model.
(c) Transactional model.
Figure 1.8 shows a transactional model of communication that takes into account
„noise‰ or interference in communication as well as the time factor. The outer
lines of the model indicate that communication happens within systems that both
communicators share (e.g., a common campus, hometown, and culture) or
personal systems (e.g., family, religion, friends, etc). It also takes into account
changes that happen in the communicatorsÊ fields of personal and common
experiences. The model also labels each communicator as both sender as well as
receiver simultaneously.

Figure 1.8: A transactional model of communication

Wadsworth.
ACTIVITY 1.3
Using the models described in this topic, analyse the communication

that takes place in your family. Which model best reflects the
communication between family members?
Jot down notes and present your analysis to your tutorial group
members when you next meet. You may want to show pictures of your
family members when you make your presentation.
1.3 FORMS OF ORAL COMMUNICATION

Oral communication has been described as the process of people using verbal
and non-verbal messages to generate meanings within and across various
contexts, cultures, channels and media. It encompasses various sets of skills
including the ability to speak coherently and persuasively, understanding of
communication theory and processess, knowledge of verbal and non-verbal cues,
audience analysis, listening skills as well as communication ethics.

In this section, we will describe seven forms of oral communication:

(a) Intrapersonal communication;
(b) Interpersonal communication;
(c) Small group communication;
(d) Public communication;
(e) Mass communication;
(f) Corporate communication; and
(g) Intercultural communication.
1.3.1 Intrapersonal Communication

Intrapersonal communication is self-talk or a conversation you hold with
yourself under certain circumstances ă for example, when you need to make an
important decision or learn something about yourself. You may wonder whether
intrapersonal communication is just another way of describing the thinking
process. In a way, that would be correct.
Intrapersonal communication is a form of thinking that goes on inside us which

relies on language to express itself. It is similar to the Shakespearean „soliloquy‰
where the character in question engages in self-talk to reflect on events that have
transpired (see Figure 1.9). Intrapersonal communication often increases self-
awareness and mindfulness, and hones critical thinking skills.
Figure 1.9: Shakespearean soliloquy

Source: literaryzone.com

1.3.2 Interpersonal Communication

Interpersonal communication is communication between several people. This
form of communication may range from the impersonal to the very personal.
Impersonal communication is when you talk with a person you do not really care
about ă there is often a coldness or an indifference in your attitude when you
engage in this kind of communication.
Then, there is social communication where you engage in niceties with people
you meet in a social context. The most personal type of communication occurs
when you talk with people who are close to you, for example, your best friend,
family members and colleagues. Such relationships are interdependent, meaning
that the actions of one party very often directly affects the other party.
Interpersonal communication can take place face to face as well as through
electronic channels like video-conferencing, chat rooms, e-mail and Twitter.
1.3.3 Small Group Communication

Small group communication takes place in a group,
usually comprising five to 10 people. This form of
communication serves relationship needs (like
companionship, family bonding and affection or
support) as well as task-based needs, for example,
deciding on disciplinary action or resolving conflict in
the workplace.
Figure 1.10: Small group
In academic institutions, students often form small communication
groups which meet regularly for study discussions or Source: csus.edu
to work collaboratively on projects. At the workplace,
small groups may meet to discuss issues related to work, or for problem-solving
or team-building purposes. Learning to communicate effectively in teams
contributes to success and advancement in many careers. Small group
communication allows you to interact with others, be it at home, in school, at the
workplace or in public. You learn to exchange ideas, solve problems and share
experiences.
1.3.4 Public Communication

Public communication, also known as public speaking, involves communication
between a speaker and an audience. This audience may range from just a few
people to thousands or even millions of people. The aim of the speaker is usually
to inform or to persuade the audience to act, buy, or think in a certain way. A

teacher may address an assembly of students on codes of behaviour or school

rules. A politician may make speeches on how he will be dealing with certain
issues in order to win their votes. An executive may give a business presentation
to get more sales. It is important to understand some of the basic principles of
effective public speaking so that you are able to influence, persuade as well as
entertain your audience when you communicate with them.
1.3.5 Mass Communication

Mass communication is communication that is sent out from a source to many
receivers all over the world. It takes place through media like films, radio, videos
and television. Modern avenues of mass communication like the Internet and
blogs can be very powerful indeed as information is disseminated instantly.
1.3.6 Corporate Communication

Corporate communication is communication that takes place among members of
an organisation, within that organisation. Interacting in teams, conferencing with
co-workers, talking with a supervisor or manager, giving employees explanations
and directions, interviewing and making presentations are some examples of
corporate communication. Effective corporate communication skills enhance
corporate image and impact positively on morale, commitment, and productivity
in corporations.
1.3.7 Intercultural Communication

Intercultural communication is communication between people of diverse
cultures and ethnicities. The world is increasingly becoming a global village and
every country has people of various ethnicities. Thus, it is important to note
differences in the communication practices of different cultures if intercultural
harmony, as well as understanding is to be maintained. For example, in many
Asian countries, students will seldom contradict or disagree with a teacher in the
classroom as this shows disrespect. In Western academic institutions, however, it
is the norm for students to think for themselves and engage their teachers in
debate and discussion. It is important to make efforts to recognise and respect the
communication practices of people from different cultures and nationalities.

SELF-CHECK 1.4
Describe the different forms of communication below:

1. Intrapersonal communication
2. Interpersonal communication
3. Small group communication
4. Public communication
5. Mass communication
6. Corporate communication
7. Intercultural communication
ACTIVITY 1.4
Audio 1.1: Forms of Communication

Listen carefully to each of the five conversations in the audio provided.
Identify the form of communication that is taking place. Write down
your answers in the space provided next to the numbered dialogue.
Choose from the suggested answers below:
Intrapersonal Public Mass Intercultural

Interpersonal Small group Corporate
Dialogue 1: _____________
Dialogue 2: _____________
Dialogue 3: _____________
Dialogue 4: _____________
Dialogue 5: _____________

 There are many definitions of communication.

ă Carl Rogers (1952) defined communication as listening with
understanding to what has been said and interpreting the message
accurately as intended by the speaker.
ă Elizabeth Tierney (1998) defined it as a process which comprises the
following steps ă you have a message you want to deliver, you send it
out, your audience receives the message, reacts to it and then responds to
your message.
ă Julia Wood (2009) defined it as a systemic process in which people
interact with and through symbols to create and interpret meanings.
ă Devito (2009) said that communication occurs when one person (or more)
sends and receives messages that are distorted by noise, occur within a
context, have some effect, and provide some opportunities for feedback.
 The linear model of communication views communication as a one-way or

linear process in which the speaker speaks and the listener listens.
 The interactive model views communication as a process in which the

speaker and listener take turns speaking, listening and giving feedback to
each other.
 The transactional model views communication as an ongoing and

continuously changing process which takes into consideration the effects of
noise, time, and systems. In this model, communicators can send and receive
messages simultaneously.
 Oral communication can be in the form of intrapersonal, interpersonal, small

group, public, mass, corporate, and intercultural communication.

Corporate communication Non-verbal communication

Feedback Oral communication
Interactive Model Public communication
Intercultural communication Receiver
Interpersonal communication Small group communication
Intrapersonal communication Source
Linear Model Speaker
Mass communication Symbols
Message Systemic process
Noise Transactional Model

Topic  Oral
2 Communication:
Some Basic
Principles
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Classify the basic principles of oral communication;
2. Explain why oral communication is important;
3. Describe the roles of speakers and listeners in the communication
process; and
4. Identify interferences in communication.
 INTRODUCTION
This topic outlines some basic principles of oral communication, focusing on the
need for good listening and speaking skills (Figure 2.1). It also describes the roles
of speakers and listeners in the communication process, and identifies possible
sources of noise that interferes with this process.
Figure 2.1: Oral communication involves good listening and speaking skills
Source: karumudi.com

TOPIC 2 ORAL COMMUNICATION:SOME BASIC PRINCIPLES  21
2.1 PRINCIPLES OF ORAL COMMUNICATION

The way you use oral communication skills can either help or hinder your ability
to influence or bond with family and friends, and affect your performance at
work. Many corporate organisations and professional positions require people
who are able to speak well and convincingly. Teachers, professors, doctors, sales
people, corporate management personnel, trainers and politicians make use of
this skill extensively. Clearly, mastery of oral communication skills can play a
vital role in helping you achieve success.
When writing on the essential principles of communication, Camp and

Satterwhite (2002) explained that oral communication is a two-way process that
requires both a speaker and a listener. It is most effective when the sender of a
message has good speaking skills and the receiver has good listening skills.
Oral communication therefore involves two crucial skills ă listening and

speaking.
2.1.1 Listening Skills

How would you rate your listening skills? Take this test to find out how good a
listener you are.
ACTIVITY 2.1
What kind of a listener are you?

This activity helps you to learn more about your listening habits. Do
you listen effectively? Respond to the following questions, rating
yourself on a scale of 1 to 5, using the following key:
1 = always, 2 = often, 3 = sometimes, 4 = seldom, and 5 = never.
I listen actively, I show respect to the speaker, and
1.
prompt the speaker to develop his thoughts further.
I listen to the speakerÊs message and feelings; I try to feel
2.
what the speaker feels.

22  TOPIC 2 ORAL COMMUNICATION:SOME BASIC PRINCIPLES
I always look for the underlying message by listening

3.
for subtle verbal or non-verbal cues.
I listen mostly to the surface meaning of what a
4. speaker says; I donÊt concentrate so much on the
hidden meanings.
I listen without getting actively involved; I mostly
5.
listen silently and take in the speakerÊs message.
I listen objectively; I keep focused on the logical
6. meaning rather than on the emotional meaning of
what the speaker says.
I listen critically and evaluate the speaker as well as
7.
his message.
8. I listen to the speaker without being judgmental.
(Adapted from Devito, 2009)
How did you fare in the test above? Well, you might be surprised to learn that
there is no single „best‰ way of listening. If the majority of your answers were
„mostly‰, „often‰ and „sometimes‰, then you could probably consider yourself
an effective listener. But if your answers were mainly „always‰ and „never‰, then
perhaps you need to review and improve on your listening skills. Of course, how
you listen is influenced by a host of factors, including what is happening in the
actual listening situation itself. The methods described in Activity 2.1 above
apply to many situations but not ALL possible scenarios.
Does this explanation make you feel even more confused? DonÊt worry ă just
read on and you will soon learn more about listening, including the various ways
this takes place, in different situations, under different conditions. Clearly, you
cannot listen with undivided attention to everything that people around you are
saying, all the time. Neither can you focus on every sound uttered near you, day
and night. If you try to do that, you will probably end up as a victim of burn-out.
A good way to start improving on your listening skills is to identify the listening
behaviour appropriate for different situations. Later, you can work on actually
improving your listening skills.

(a) Mindful Attention

Listening is the skill that is the least taught formally. Unless you have a
hearing disability, everybody assumes that just because you have ears, you
can listen. This is a wrong assumption as listening and hearing are different
sets of skills.
Hearing, which is merely the physical ability to hear sounds, occurs

unconsciously. Listening is to hear something mindfully. Effective listening
requires you to listen intently and pay close attention to the speaker. If you
do not pay full attention or miss part of the message, you cannot replay
what has been said unless you have recorded the message or lecture.
According to Devito (2009), effective listening comprises five components

as shown in Figure 2.2 below:
Figure 2.2: A model of listening

Source: Devito, J. A. (2009). Human communication: The basic course. Boston, USA:
Pearson Education.
(i) Receiving
Hearing begins and ends when one receives a sound stimuli.
Listening is different. Listening does not begin and end just with
hearing a sound as it involves deriving meaning from the sound.
When you listen, you concentrate on the verbal as well as non-verbal
message. This involves reading gestures, body movements and facial
expressions.
(ii) Understanding
This is the stage where you learn to decipher the meaning of the
message as well as pick up cues from the emotional tone of the speaker.

(iii) Remembering
Listening also involves remembering interpreted sounds or messages
and saving them for use later on. However, you may not be able
to remember exactly what you hear. Your mind deciphers and
reinterprets messages and sometimes, you just cannot recall 100% of
the message.
(iv) Evaluating
Evaluating a message means that you make some judgement about it.
This process is often done unconsciously by the listener. In some
cases, you might want to identify the speakerÊs intention or motive.
This judgement might be critical or analytical and cause you to
wonder whether what you hear is based on facts or emotion. You may
need to decide whether the speaker has a personal agenda, or is
biased and prejudiced.
(v) Responding
Responses are feedback based on what you have heard. You respond
in two ways. First, you respond while the speaker is talking and,
second, you respond after the speaker has stopped speaking. In
responding you allow the speaker to know what you think or feel
about what he has said.
(b) Listening
There are two types of listening ă passive and active. The difference
between them is the level of involvement of the listener.
In passive listening, you listen passively, at a low level of concentration and

absorb the minimum number of words. Very often, you remember, or
understand, very little of what has been said. You may respond to the
speakerÊs voice by smiling or nodding but do not pay full attention to
him/her.
This kind of listening happens when you are on holiday or relaxing. You
may be lazing on the beach, listening vaguely to music or voices in the
background. You only begin to listen attentively when you hear something
that interests you, for instance, the call to go for lunch.
Active listening involves a higher level of concentration. You listen actively

at school, university or work, when you need to obtain information.

You can improve your active listening skills through various techniques:
(i) Paraphrasing the speakerÊs message and ideas, using simpler words
without changing the meaning.
(ii) Identifying your weaknesses, e.g. are you hearing-impaired, mentally

unprepared, or easily distracted?
(iii) Preparing yourself mentally and physically to listen, using various

listening strategies, e.g. the Memory Helper (see Figure 2.3).
(iv) Setting priorities, e.g. what are the important things you want to listen
to?
The Memory Helper

This method helps you remember the speakerÊs message better.
Use the strategies represented by the letters „IS A FACT‰:
 Identify the speakerÊs ideas and connection between ideas.

 Summarise the main ideas.
 Assess whether the ideas are true or correct.
 Formulate questions.
 Associate speakerÊs ideas with other known concepts.
 Consider ways in which the ideas might be used.
 Take notes to help you recall the information.
(Camp and Satterwhite, 2002)
Figure 2.3: The memory Helper
You will learn more about listening skills and ways to become better listeners in
later topics.

ACTIVITY 2.2
1. What is the difference between „hearing‰ and „listening‰?
2. What is the difference between „passive listening‰ and „active

listening‰?
3. Give examples of different situations in which you listen passively

and actively.
2.1.2 Speaking Skills

This is the skill that you will use most in oral communication. Wood (2009) lists
three principles that explain oral communication and how they affect us. The
fourth, concerning speech quality, is obtained from Camp & Satterwhite (2002).
(a) Interpretation of Symbols Create Meaning

Symbols, like words, which are used in communication do not have
meanings on their own. Their meanings are derived from people. This
means that you have to look into people to uncover the meaning. Every
word has a dictionary meaning but when used by a person in an
expression, you have to look into the person and the context in which the
word is used to get the actual meaning. For example, „go out‰ is literally a
command or directive. You say these words when you want someone to
physically move from the inside of a building to the outside. However, if a
man says to a woman, „LetÊs go out.‰ he is not necessarily asking her to go
outside. He might actually be asking her to go on a date.
Also the meanings attached to words change from time to time. Words
which used to have a positive or neutral connotation may now have a
negative connotation, and vice-versa. The word „gay‰ used to mean
„merry‰. Nowadays, the same word may be used to refer to people who
are homosexuals.
(b) There Are Rules in Communication

Verbal communication has its own set of unspoken but widely understood
rules. „Communication rules are shared understandings of what
communication means and what kinds of communication are and are not
appropriate in various situations‰ (Wood, 2009).

These rules are not formalised or intentionally formed but are unconsciously
developed as we interact with family, friends and people at work. There are
two sets of rules that guide communication:
(i) Regulative Rules

These unwritten rules tell you when, where, how and with whom
you can have a conversation. An example is turn-taking when talking
with someone. You know that you should not interrupt the person
speaking but you also need to look out for signals that will tell you
when to enter into a conversation and when to end it.
Regulative rules also define when, where, and with whom you can
communicate in a particular way. For example, traditionally, in Asian
homes, the elders speak first while the youngsters listen without
interruption or contradiction (Figure 2.4).
At work, junior officers are expected not to interrupt superior officers

when they speak. However, superior officers can interrupt their junior
officer any time. Employees are also expected to show respect and
interest when their employers speak to them.
Figure 2.4: Elders speak first

Source: firstpeople.us
(ii) Constitutive Rules

These rules „define what communication means by showing us the
meaning behind certain kinds of symbols used in communication.‰ For
example, head bowing in Asia is a symbol of respect (Figure 2.5),
kissing and hugging denotes love and affection while yawning and
shouting during a conversation denotes rudeness.
Another example of a constitutive rule is to clap after a speaker has

given a talk even though we may have found the talk absolutely boring.

Figure 2.5: Head bowing

Source: dkimages.com
(c) Punctuation Affects Meaning

Punctuation in communication affects meaning. The full stop, for instance,
marks the end of one sentence or idea and the beginning of another.
Similarly, punctuation can signal the beginning or the end of a particular
interaction.
For example, when a professor enters the lecture hall, his entry marks the
beginning of the lecture. When he switches off the overhead projector, takes
off his reading glasses and says „ThatÊs all for today‰, it signals the end of
the lecture. Tension is created when people disagree on punctuation.
(d) Voice Attributes

To be an effective speaker, you need to pay attention to the following voice
attributes as they affect the quality of your speech.
(i) Volume
Your voice must be heard clearly for effective oral communication.
You need to have good breath control in order to speak with sufficient
volume. If you speak too softly, the audience will not be able to hear
and understand what you are saying.
(ii) Pitch
You should speak with a pleasing pitch that is neither too high nor too
low. Your voice will be shrill if it is pitched too high, and deep if it is
pitched too low. Speakers need to learn to vary the pitch of their
voices when they speak so as to get the right intonation.

(iii) Intonation
Intonation is the rhythm, or the rise and fall of your voice when you
speak. For example, the intonation rises at the end of the utterance
when you ask a question. The intonation remains level at the end of
the utterance when you make a statement. Subtle nuances in meaning
can arise when you vary the pitch.
(iv) Tone
The tone of your voice reflects your emotions and attitude. A cheerful
and pleasant tone is usually appreciated by your listeners (Figure 2.6).
Telephone operators and frontline people who man phones need to
develop a polite, cheerful and pleasant tone. The tone that you use
must also be suitable for the words and the message that you intend
to convey.
Figure 2.6: Let your listener hear you smile

Source: popartmachine.com
(v) Tempo
Tempo refers to the speed at which you speak. Do not speak too fast
or too slowly. If you speak too fast, your listeners will not be able to
catch what you are saying. However, if you speak too slowly, your
listeners may get bored and their attention may wander. Worse still,
you may end up making them sleepy. A recommended speaking rate
is 125 words per minute.
(vi) Enunciation
This refers to the clarity or distinctiveness with which you articulate
each part of a word. Clear enunciation of words will help your listener
to better understand your message.

Many speakers do not enunciate the end sounds of words, for

example, dropping the /g/ sound in „walking‰ to sound like
„walkin‰. When they speak fast, they run the sounds of a group of
words together and drop some sounds, e.g., „Whadijado?‰ for „What
did you do?‰
(vii) Pronunciation
Pronunciation refers to the reproduction of the sound of individual
letters or group of letters that make up a word. It also includes
speaking with the correct stress and emphasis.
ACTIVITY 2.3
Read the following statements and decide which rules are constitutive
and which are regulative. Write „C‰ (constitutive) and „R‰ (regulative)
in the box next to the particular statement.
Nodding your head means you agree with what your

1.
colleague is saying.
Clasping your parentsÊ hands when you greet them
2.
shows respect.
You interrupt your friends only when they stop
3.
speaking.
Being punctual and doing your work well shows that
4.
you are a good worker.
5. You only talk to your mother about personal issues.
You never talk about family disagreements at a social
6.
gathering.
7. Hugging your friends shows affection.
8. You keep quiet and listen when your father is talking.

2.2 WHY WE NEED GOOD ORAL

COMMUNICATION SKILLS
Possessing good oral speaking skills will make you a more effective
communicator as you will be able to influence and persuade people. This is
beneficial for you at a personal level as well as socially and professionally.
2.2.1 Building Friendships

Socially, good oral communication skills enable you to effectively share
information, thoughts, feelings, needs and intentions. You can create close
relationships and bond with family, friends and people at work (see Figure 2.7).
A good listener is almost always appreciated. If you are a good listener, you also
tend to win friends as most people regard someone who listens to their problems,
fears, joys, and successes as a true friend.
Figure 2.7: Oral communication skills help to foster friendships

Source: singaporearmystories.blogspot
2.2.2 Knowledge Acquisition

The learning process often requires you to have an inquiring mind. Good
oral communication skills will help you acquire knowledge more effectively,
especially when you are able to ask questions, express opinions and ideas, and
summarise information.

Providing such feedback will enable your lecturers, teachers, or instructors to

gauge how well you understand what has been taught. Good listening skills will
also help you comprehend course content better.
2.2.3 Developing Workplace Competencies

Business and professional people depend a lot on oral communication
skills when they engage in different activities. Educationists deliver lectures
and hold tutorials, discussions, forums and seminars. Business people use oral
communication skills a great deal when they interact with customers and
suppliers, make reports or give explanations, participate in meetings, and hold
informal discussions with employers and employees.
Speaking is an important skill when interviewing or training new employees,

participating in social-business discussions and giving public presentations or
speeches. Listening is important for both employers and employees. As an
employer, you need to listen to the suggestions, complaints and feelings of your
employees. Conversely, an employee needs to listen to the instructions, demands
and advice given by his superiors at work.
2.3 ROLES OF SPEAKER AND LISTENER

Both the speaker and the listener are responsible for ensuring that effective
communication takes place. Remember that the speaker is the sender of the
message while the listener is the receiver. Let us look at the some of
responsibilities of both the speaker and the listener in the communication process
(Camp & Satterwhite, 2002).
2.3.1 Evaluate the Situation

Effective communication can only take place when the speaker is clear about his
own views and interpretation of ideas and experiences. Communication with
yourself must take place before you can communicate effectively with others. The
speaker needs to evaluate the communication situation and try to do the
following:

(a) Avoid Miscommunication

The ideal situation is when the intended message, actual message, and
interpreted message are the same. This is what Carl Rogers meant when he
defined „communication‰ way back in 1952. The speaker needs to choose
his words precisely and the receiver should listen with full attention so
that the message is understood correctly. There should be no room for
miscommunication.
(b) Give and Receive Feedback

Misinterpretation and breakdown in communication can be avoided if the
sender gets feedback. In a dialogue, the speaker can observe signals given
out by the listener (e.g. body language, gestures, and facial expression) to
see whether his message has been interpreted correctly.
Another technique is to ask questions. The speaker can ask the receiver
questions to determine whether his message is getting across accurately.
As communication is a continuous two-way process involving sender and
receiver, the receiver can, in turn, ask questions to clarify what is unclear.
(c) Maintain Goodwill

Effective communication is more easily achieved if the listener accepts
and receives the speakerÊs message with an open mind. An effective
communicator needs to be good at public relations so as to maintain
goodwill between sender and receiver. Do not offend or anger people with
what you say or you will make enemies. This will affect how your message
is received and interpreted.
2.3.2 Understand Needs

As an effective communicator, you will try to fulfil your own needs as well as the
needs of the receiver of your message. Abraham Maslow categorised human
needs into five levels. Figure 2.8 shows MaslowÊs hierarchy of needs:

Figure 2.8: MaslowÊs hierarchy of needs
(a) Physical Needs

These are basic needs like food, clothing, and shelter. These basic needs
must be satisfied before receivers can think of other things.
(b) Security Needs

These include the desire for a safe and secure environment that is free from
physical harm and emotional or mental abuse.
(c) Social Needs

Everyone wants to have a sense of belonging and be part of a group. These
needs are satisfied by being part of a family, social circle or workforce.
(d) Esteem Needs

These needs are actualised through feelings of self-worth, self-respect,
prestige, power and recognition.
(e) Self-actualisation Needs

These are higher level needs which are met through a sense of achievement
and helping other people realise their goals.

2.3.3 Use Interpersonal Skills

Good interpersonal skills are useful when dealing with people as they help to
build goodwill. The late American president, Ronald Reagan, was known as „the
great communicator‰ as he had an easy way of speaking and could handle
people very well. He also had great personal charisma. Of course, it helped that
he used to be a good-looking Hollywood actor.
Try to use the following techniques to help you develop good interpersonal
skills:
(a) Make You-statements

This technique involves saying things in such a way that you put the
interests of your receiver first. Keep things nice and friendly. The receiver
of your message will warm up to you as he feels that you have his interests
at heart. An example of a You-statement message is „To help customers get
value for their money, we have lowered the price by five percent.‰
Do not use the I-statement as it makes you sound like you are putting your
own interests ahead of everybody elseÊs interests. An example of this is „In
order to sell off our stock quickly, we have lowered the price by five
percent.‰
(b) Have A Positive Attitude

Demonstrate a positive attitude by developing good relationships with
your superiors, subordinates, co-workers, customers, and clients when you
are at work. Do the same when dealing with family and friends. A cheerful,
optimistic, and enthusiastic outlook will win you points (Figure 2.9).
Figure 2.9: Positive attitude

Source: pensionriskmatters.com

(c) Be A Good Listener

Show that you are a good listener by listening intently, taking notes,
paraphrasing and asking questions.
(d) Keep Things Confidential

A good communicator knows the importance of keeping information
confidential and releasing it to only authorised people at the appropriate
time.
(e) Be Considerate
Treat people well. Be polite, courteous, honest, and respect the opinions
of others. Use tact and diplomacy especially when dealing with difficult
people.
ACTIVITY 2.4
Change the following I-statements into You-statements.
I-statement You-statement
For my convenience, I have decided to
1.
open the shop at 10am.
2. I feel hurt when you scold me.
In order to keep my business going,
3. you have to work harder.
I feel humiliated when you insult me in

4. public.
To cut down on my electricity bill,

5. switch on the air-conditioner only when
necessary.
As it fits my schedule, I am extending
6. business hours.

2.4 INTERFERENCE IN COMMUNICATION

According to Devito (2009), there are several types of „noise‰ that might interfere
with the communication process:
(a) Physical interference;
(b) Physiological interference;
(c) Psychological interference; and
(d) Semantic interference.
These interferences or noise may distract and prevent the receiver from paying
full attention to the message. When this happens, the message may not be heard
and interpreted fully or correctly. Similarly, interferences may cause the speaker
to lose concentration and this can lead to incomplete or erroneous
communication on the part of the sender. As a result, receivers will interpret the
messages wrongly and not as intended by the speaker.
2.4.1 Physical Interference

This kind of interference is external and outside the control of both the speaker
and the receiver. It affects the physical transmission of the message. Examples are
noise disturbances like loud music (Figure 2.10), the sound of traffic from a busy
road, static coming from a faulty loudspeaker system, or loud drilling from a
nearby construction site.
Figure 2.10: Loud music

Source: elmbridge.gov.uk

2.4.2 Physiological Interference

These are barriers to communication due to physiological challenges on the part
of the speaker or the receiver. The speaker or receiver may be hearing-impaired,
have speech articulation problems, or suffer from short-term memory loss. Even
if a speaker delivers his message clearly and loudly, a listener who has hearing
problems will not be able to understand and receive the message fully. On the
other hand, if a sender speaks with a lisp and cannot pronounce the /r / and /s/
sounds properly, the listener may not be able to understand what has been said.
2.4.3 Psychological Interference

This type of interference stems from the mental makeup of the receiver or sender,
and includes biases, prejudices, narrow-mindedness, and extreme emotional
behaviour. For example, if you are emotionally distracted or preoccupied, you
may find it hard to understand a message. Feelings like anger or hatred may also
interfere with how you interpret a message.
2.4.4 Semantic Interference

These barriers include language, dialectal and cultural differences. When these
interferences are present, the speaker and listener operate on different meaning
systems. What the speaker says can be interpreted differently, thus resulting in
misunderstanding. A computer analyst may use the word „mouse‰ to refer to the
device used to navigate a computer screen. However, a computer illiterate
person may interpret the word „mouse‰ to be a rodent (see Figure 2.11 and 2.12).
Figure 2.11: Mouse (computer device) Figure 2.12: Mouse (rodent)

Source: fabbrotech.com Source: freeclipartpictures.com

ACTIVITY 2.5
Audio 2.1 Types of Interference

Listen to the audio conversations and identify the type of interference
in communication involved in each case.
Dialogue 1: _____________________
Dialogue 2: _____________________
Dialogue 3: _____________________
Dialogue 4: _____________________
Dialogue 5: _____________________
 Oral communication is a two-way process that requires a speaker and a

listener. It is most effective when the sender has good speaking skills and the
receiver has good listening skills.
 Hearing is different from listening in that hearing is the physical ability to

hear sound and occurs unconsciously, while listening is to hear something
with thoughtful and close attention.
 There are two types of listening ă passive listening and active listening.
 Active listening can be improved by paraphrasing the speakerÊs message,

identifying your weaknesses, preparing yourself mentally and physically,
and setting priorities.
 The principles of speaking include:

ă Interpretation of symbols creates meaning.
ă There are regulative and constitutive rules.
ă Punctuation affects meaning.
ă Voice attributes (e.g., volume, pitch, tone, tempo) affect speech quality.

 Possessing good oral communication skills is beneficial not only at a personal

level but also socially and professionally.
 The roles and responsibilities of speakers and listeners include the speaker
having to:
ă Evaluate the communication situation to avoid miscommunication; give
and receive feedback; and maintain goodwill.
ă Fulfil his own needs as well as the needs of the receiver of the message.
ă Make use of interpersonal skills, e.g., make You-statements, have a
positive attitude, be a good listener, keep things confidential, and be
considerate.
 The barriers to effective communication include physical, physiological,

psychological and semantic interferences.
Active listening Punctuation

Constitutive rules Recalling
Hearing Regulative rules
Interference Retaining
Interpreting Voice attributes
Listening You-statements
Passive listening

Topic  Active
3 Listening Skills
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. List down the benefits of active listening;
2. Propose suggestions for improving listening skills;
3. Identify a speakerÊs intended/implicit message;
4. Describe emotive and persuasive language used by the speaker; and
5. Identify bias and stereotype in messages.
 INTRODUCTION
This topic aims to equip you with the skills required for successful listening in
academic and non-academic contexts. Besides tips for enhancing listening, the
topic has activities to help you identify speakersÊ intent, and to use of emotive
and persuasive language. You will also learn to detect speaker bias and
stereotyping in messages, as well as listen for sheer enjoyment.
3.1 NEED FOR ACTIVE LISTENING

Active listening refers to ways of listening attentively and responding to another
person so as to improve mutual understanding. When people talk to each other,
they often do not listen carefully. They are sometimes distracted and thinking
about something else. In an argumentative situation, they assume that they have
heard what their opponent is saying, so rather than pay attention, they focus on
how they can respond to win the argument.

42  TOPIC 3 ACTIVE LISTENING SKILLS
In active listening, the listener must take care to attend to the speaker fully and
then interpret or try to make sense of what is heard (Figure 3.1). The listener does
not have to agree with the speaker but needs to understand the message or
content being conveyed. If the listener does not understand clearly, then he or
she needs to ask for clarification or further explanation from the speaker.
Often, the listener is encouraged to interpret the speakerÊs words not only
semantically but also in terms of feelings. Thus, instead of just receiving what is
heard, active listeners need to pay attention to psychological elements coming
across with the message(s), such as whether the speaker is angry, frustrated,
happy or unsure of what is being addressed. This will add to the overall
comprehension of the messages being heard.
Figure 3.1: Listening

Source: tickledbylife.com
Active listening has several benefits:
(a) It enables people to listen attentively to others;
(b) It prevents misunderstanding as people have to confirm that they really

understand what the speaker has said; and
(c) It encourages the speaker to explain more because he/she feels that you are
really attuned to his/her concerns and wants to listen.
3.2 TIPS FOR ACTIVE LISTENING

Active listening enhances your oral communication skills. Fortunately, it is a skill
that can be acquired. Below are some tips for active listening:
(a) Focus on the Message

Think about what the speaker is saying and do not let your attention stray.

TOPIC 3 ACTIVE LISTENING SKILLS  43
(b) Anticipate What the Speaker Wants to Say

Try to figure out where the speaker is going and what the next point is. This
may be easy with some speakers who are well organised and who present
their points clearly. However, most speakers are not that organised, and
that may make the work of the listener difficult. If you are interested in
getting the main details, you may have to do the organising yourself.
(c) Identify Main and Supporting Points

Begin by breaking what is said into main points and supporting points.
Most speakers repeat themselves. As a listener, your task is to distinguish
important details from the supporting ones. The speaker sometimes helps
you to make the distinction by emphasising a point with voice cues or
repeating it several times, or telling you that this is a key point to note.
(d) Check for Bias

Ask yourself questions about the speakerÊs sources and their validity. Do
you find the evidence convincing, complete, valid or logical?
(e) Listen between the Lines

To listen effectively, one has to listen to two „channels‰ at the same time. The
first channel is the content of the speech, the words the speaker is saying and
the topic itself. The second channel refers to all the non-verbal signals the
speaker is sending while talking, such as the tone of voice, gestures and facial
expressions. The second channel tells you about the speakerÊs feelings and
gives you a great deal of information on how to distinguish the main
details of the speech. Both verbal and non-verbal elements are important to
understand fully what the speaker is putting across. Listen for the feelings of
the speaker as you listen to his words. This is called listening between the
lines. It is a difficult task and takes a great deal of sensitivity and patience as
people have numerous ways to hide their feelings.
(f) Minimise Distractions

In active listening, it is important not to get distracted easily. These
distractions come from:
(i) Within us, such as when we daydream;
(ii) Our surroundings and environment such as noise, people talking,

temperature of the room, etc; and
(iii) The speaker. We are sometimes distracted by a speakerÊs accent, style,

dressing, language, etc.

Although it is difficult to fight off distractions, you need to train yourself to

ignore them. Besides the physical aspects of the speaker or environment
that may disturb your concentration, you may react also to certain
emotionally loaded words or trigger words. If you can identify these words,
you can try to reduce the impact when you hear them.
ACTIVITY 3.1
Audio 3.1: Chocolate Chip Cookies

You are making cookies for the first time. Listen to the instructions
below on how to make Chocolate Chip Cookies. Then complete the
following exercise.
Instructions:
(a) Listen to Audio 3.1.
(b) Answer the following questions to check your understanding.
Based on the audio recording to which you have listened, circle the
correct answer:
1. Which of the following is not an ingredient in the recipe?

A. Brown sugar
B. Oat bran
C. Butter
D. Baking soda
2. At what temperature should the oven be set?

A. 357F
B. 375F
C. 400F
D. 450F

3. When do you add in the vanilla and egg?

A. After stirring in the flour, salt and baking soda.
B. After adding in the chocolate chips and chopped nuts.
C. Once the sugar, margarine, and shortening are light and
fluffy.
D. Once all ingredients have been mixed well.
4. Which of the following statements is true?

A. Do not grease the cookie sheets.
B. Bake the cookies for half an hour.
C. Remove cookies immediately from baking sheet.
D. The recipe makes 30 cookies.
5. How do you place the dough onto the baking sheet?

A. Shape the soft dough with your fingers and place onto the
baking sheet.
B. Use a teaspoon to scoop the dough onto the baking sheet.
C. Drop the dough onto the baking sheet using a fork.
D. Lightly drop the mixture onto a baking sheet with a dessert
spoon.

3.3 IMPLICIT LISTENING: COMPREHENSION

OF SPEAKER INTENTION
In active listening, it is sometimes necessary to predict where a speaker is going
or will say next. There are certain cue words that can help us identify this.
For instance, in a lecture, phrases such as „Today, IÊm going to talk about ⁄‰,
„Firstly⁄‰, and „My point is that ⁄‰ offer clues as to how the speaker is going
to structure the talk (Figure 3.2).
Figure 3.2: When listening to a talk, pay attention to words that tell us where the speaker
is trying to lead us
SELF-CHECK 3.1
How can we tell what a speaker intends to say next or what meaning
the speaker intends to convey?

Let us do the following activities to help you become aware of this skill.
ACTIVITY 3.2
Audio 3.2: Genetic Engineering
Instructions:
(a) Listen to the talk which has been divided into four parts. For
each part, there are questions to help you with your listening.
(b) Take notes using the speakerÊs signals to help you.
(c) Use the outline guide.
(d) Then, read the transcript and underline the specific signal words
in the talk.
(e) Answer the questions at the end of the talk.
Genetic Engineering Part I
My talk today will be on genetic engineering. IÊm going to

analyse the positive and negative sides of genetic engineering.
First, let me explain what genetic engineering is. I think we are
all aware that the study of genetics today is so far advanced that
we shall soon be able to produce a kind of genetically perfect
„superhuman‰, using techniques known as genetic engineering.
Well, at first, this may seem an attractive possibility but when
we consider it in detail, we find there are many problems
involved.
Questions
1. What do you think the speaker will talk about next?
2. Can you guess the speakerÊs attitude towards the topic at this
point?

Genetic Engineering Part II
What might some of these problems be? A distinction is usually

made between negative and positive genetic engineering. In
negative genetic engineering, we try to get rid of harmful genes
to produce genetically normal people. The aim is, of course, a
desirable one; however, it does pose the problem of what a
harmful gene is. Now⁄ genes are not really „good‰ or „bad‰.
The gene which causes certain forms of anaemia, for example,
can also protect against malaria. So, if we eliminate this gene,
we may eliminate anaemia but we increase the risk of malaria.
Questions
1. Which statement describes the speakerÊs attitude?
2. What are some signal words or phrases, e.g. to signal listing ideas
or examples, definition, caution, or reminder?
Genetic Engineering Part III
OK ⁄ and now ⁄ the other point is ⁄ in positive genetic

engineering we try to create better people by developing the
so-called „good‰ genes. But although this form of genetic
engineering will give us greater control over mankindÊs future,
there are several reasons for caution.
First, there is the possibility of mistakes. While accepting that

geneticists are responsible people, we must also admit that
things can go wrong, the result being the kind of monster
we read about in horror stories. Secondly, there is the problem
of deciding what makes a „better‰ person. We may feel, for
example, that if genetic engineering can create more intelligent
people, then this is a good thing. On the other hand, intelligence
does not necessarily lead to happiness. Do we really want to
create people who are intelligent, but perhaps unhappy?

Questions
1. How many problems are there as mentioned by the speaker?
2. Do you detect a sceptical tone in the speakerÊs voice?
3. What are the signal words found in this part of the talk?
4. What do you think the speaker will speak on next?
Genetic Engineering Part IV
In sum, then ⁄ the basic question is whether or not we should

interfere with human life. We can argue that much human
progress (particularly in medicine) involves interference with
life. Well, to some extent, this is true but we should not forget
the terrible consequences genetic engineering can have.
Consider, for example, the possibilities of genetic warfare, in
which our enemies try to harm us by using the techniques of
genetic engineering ⁄ think about that.
In the talk, the speaker expresses some reservations about genetic

engineering. What are these reservations? Complete the notes below.
Point Reservations
1. Producing „superhumans‰ is 1. Many problems
an attractive possibility. involved.
2. The aim of negative genetic
2. ⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄
engineering is desirable.
3. ⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄ 3. Several reasons for
⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄ caution.
4. Geneticists ⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄
4. ⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄
are responsible people.
5. Creating more intelligent
5. ⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄
people is a good thing.
6. Much progress involves
6. ⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄
interference.
Adapted from: Johnson, K. (1981). Communicate in writing.

Essex: Longman.

3.4 LISTENING FOR EMOTIVE OR PERSUASIVE

LANGUAGE
So far, you have seen how language can be used to convey information.
Language is also used to convince and to persuade. Thus, the ability to detect the
objective and precise use of language is just as important as being able to identify
language which appeals to the emotions because this could influence our
decisions on various matters in life. Listening for emotive and persuasive use of
language by speakers is an important skill.
Sometimes, speakers use words not just to convey information but also to
persuade listeners. The words are chosen for their emotive force or their impact
on a listenerÊs feelings, desires and needs. Emotive language reveals a speakerÊs
attitude and feelings towards the subject and persuades the listener to feel the
same rather than increases the listenerÊs knowledge of the subject.
Figure 3.3: Emotive speaker

Source: live.psu.edu
Good speakers often use emotive words to arouse feelings and emotions in us
(Figure 3.3). It is thus important to be able to detect the use of emotive and
persuasive language in speaches and in daily conversations so that we can be
objective, precise and fair in our judgment of the message conveyed.
Let us do the following activities to practise detecting the use of emotive

language.

ACTIVITY 3.3
Instructions:
Listen to the audio for the following activities on advertisements. Read
the transcripts.
Audio 3.3: Advertisement for a Home

Charming, cozy three-bedroom double-storey in an older
neighbourhood, big and spacious rooms, exquisite imported tiles,
highly modern kitchen, new roof, garage, affordable price, needs
some tender loving care.
Audio 3.4: Personal Advertisement

Female, mature, petite, attractive, spiritual, intelligent, business
professional, occasional drinker, enjoys quiet evenings, serious
movies, and long novels.
Audio 3.5: Advertisement for a Baby Sitter

Mature female, home-maker, no own children, loves children,
provides food, wash and iron babyÊs clothes, warm and loving,
weekends too.
Questions
1. Identify the emotive language used.
2. Which terms are manipulative and which are appropriate?
3.5 LISTENING FOR SPEAKER BIAS AND

STEREOTYPING IN MESSAGES
Listening for the use of biased language and stereotyping in speech is another
important skill. As a critical listener, you need to be aware of the use of such
language in order to be able to make an objective and fair judgment of the
message you are hearing.

ACTIVITY 3.4
Audio 3.6: Travelling in Italy

Instructions:
Listen to Audio 3.6 about a talk on travelling in Italy.
Questions
1. Fill in the blanks with the missing nouns.
2. Read the text again, and identify words or phrases which you think
contains biased language.
3. Discuss your answers with your friends or tutor.
Travelling in Italy
If you think the traffic in your country is terrible, consider this.

I was travelling in _________ once and I remembered the _________
fed to me by my friends who travelled to Italy before me. I was
told that the _________ are very relaxed about many things.
_________ in Italy can be bent at anytime, provided you can afford
to pay for the _________. I heard too that the Italians are
unsystematic and disorganised in many ways. But of course, this is
a _________. IÊm sure there are some Italians who are the _________.
Anyway, I remember an _________ when I was there with a
_________ of my English _________ and we were driving round
one of those seaside _________ on the _________, looking for a
_________. Eventually, we found a _________, so we stopped and
asked him for _________. The policeman decided that he would
accompany us to the restaurant, so I climbed into the _________, he
got into the _________, and we set off. At the end of the
_________ we came to a set _________, which were red. Naturally,
our _________ came to a halt, waiting for the lights to turn green.
At this point, the policeman turned to the driver, removed his
Rayban sunglasses and, with obvious bewilderment, asked him
what he thought he was doing. By way of _________, the driver
pointed at the red traffic light. The policeman made a series of
dismissive _________, replaced his _________, and said, „Nonsense!
If everybody behaved like this the traffic would come to a
complete standstill. Move on! Avanti!‰ So, now I am convinced the
Italians are an easy-going _________.

3.6 LISTENING FOR ENJOYMENT

Listening skills are not just required for serious, formal, and academic purposes.
We depend much on our listening skills during our leisure time. Even while
driving the car, we need our listening skills to be able to listen to and appreciate
what we hear on the radio. Listening for pleasure includes listening to songs,
poems, and other aesthetic and enjoyable materials that we indulge in in our
daily lives (Figure 3.4).
Listening in these situations requires active listening skills, too. For example,
when listening to songs, we need to listen to the lyrics against the background of
music. Knowing the words in a song provides us with additional pleasure,
allowing us to relate to the images and connotations which the lyrics trigger.
Figure 3.4: Listening to music

Source: mentalmirage.com
ACTIVITY 3.5
Instructions: Audio 3.7 ă Si Tenggang

Listen to Audio 3.7 (recitation of the poem entitled Si Tenggang).
1. Identify the tone, themes, and moral values found in the poem.
2. In your own words, describe the content of the poem.
3. What are some literary devices used in the poem, e.g. metaphor,
alliteration, symbol, personification, etc.?
4. Did you like the poem? Why?

 Active listening refers to listening attentively and responding to another

person so as to improve mutual understanding.
 Active listening requires us to stay focused on the speaker and the topic.
 Implicit listening involves trying to understand what the speaker is saying

and what is to be said next.
 The use of emotive and persuasive language may influence us in various

aspects such as decision making.
 In order to make fair judgment of what we hear, we should be able to identify

the use of biased language and stereotyping in the speakerÊs message.
Active listening Implicit

Bias Persuasive language
Emotive language Speaker intention

Topic  Listening in
Formal
4 Academic
Contexts
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain the different purposes of listening in an academic setting;
2. Determine the logical sequence of ideas in a complete discourse;
3. Describe specific language cues to understand facts and opinions;
4. Identify meaning from intonation through the activities provided; and
5. Take notes by recalling from complete discourse rather than isolated
words.
 INTRODUCTION
In the previous topic, you were introduced to active listening skills. This topic
explains the techniques and skills of listening in a formal and academic context.
Listening in formal and academic situations requires knowledge of specific skills
such as knowing the purposes of listening, listening for ideas in a sequence,
listening for language cues to differentiate between fact and opinion, determining
meaning from the speakerÊs intonation and enhancing understanding based on
complete texts. These are skills which are useful in your studies. For instance,
when you listen to lectures, you need to be able to discern and pick out main ideas
from trivial details.

56  TOPIC 4 LISTENING IN FORMAL ACADEMIC CONTEXTS
4.1 DIFFERENT PURPOSES IN LISTENING

In an academic situation, the skills you need for efficient listening mainly revolve
around the ability to listen to content delivered in classrooms (Figure 4.1). An
important skill would thus be the ability to identify the overall topic of a lecture
and follow the development of main ideas. In addition, you need to be able to
identify relationships between ideas and supporting points. You also need to be
able to make interpretations and inferences, including identifying cause and
effect relationships, and drawing logical conclusions. Other than that, familiarity
with the lecturerÊs delivery style, spoken and written registers, and non-verbal
cues (intonation, pause, emphasis) is also important.
Figure 4.1: Listening in classrooms

Source: providence.edu
ACTIVITY 4.1
Think about the different purposes of listening. List them out and
discuss with your friends at the next tutorial session.
Research has shown that when listening to lectures, students often face the
following problems (James, 1977, cited in Jordan, 1977, p. 179):
(a) Decoding or recognising what has been said;
(b) Comprehending, i.e. understanding the main and subordinate points

delivered; and
(c) Taking notes or writing down quickly, briefly and clearly, the main points
presented for future reference.

TOPIC 4 LISTENING IN FORMAL ACADEMIC CONTEXTS  57
The lecturing style of the lecturer can also cause difficulty. For example,
some lecturers require students to listen to long stretches of talk without the
opportunity to ask questions and interact in the discourse such as asking for
repetition, negotiating meaning, etc.
In addition, students are often expected to combine and process what they hear
with other input from handouts, OHP transparencies or video.
LecturersÊ presentation or lecturing styles include the following:
(a) Reading Style

The lecturer reads from his lecture notes; the speech is characterised by
short tone-groups, few changes in intonation and use of a falling tone.
(b) Conversational Style

The lecturer speaks informally, with or without notes, using longer tone
groups and key sequences that range from high to low.
(c) Rhetorical Style

The lecturer is in his element as a performer; the presentation is
characterised by wide intonation range, with the lecturer often using the
high key and frequently making digressions and asides.
In addition, the lecturers often use memorisation and rote learning, read aloud
techniques, chalk and talk, give and talk (materials are given to encourage
discussion), and report and discuss (topics are assigned before the lecture so that
students participate).
As students, you need to be aware of some important aspects of lectures,

including the ability to differentiate between:
(a) Lectures that give information, and
(b) Those that develop an argument, point by point, with a discussion of ideas
within a problem-solving framework.
(Olsen & Huckin, 1990, cited in Jordan, 1997, p. 182).
Whatever style the lecturer uses, there will always be cues that point listeners to
important ideas and information in the lecture. Some of these devices or cues
include:
(a) Stress, Intonation, Pauses

Example: falling or rising intonation, long pauses, etc.
(b) Use of Relative Clauses or Other Supporting Clauses

Example: The original painting, found in 1780, was the most beautiful of ⁄
(c) Logical Connectors, Number, and Other Phrases

Example: and, so, however, first, secondly, etc.
(d) Vocal Underlining

Example: varying the pace, pitch and volume of speech to emphasise
certain important points.
Sometimes, the lecturer may also use his body to emphasise certain points,
especially through the use of hand gestures. In delivering lectures, both macro
and micro markers are often used:
Macro-markers are higher-order discourse markers signaling major changes

and emphasis in lectures, while micro-markers are lower-order markers of
segmentation and inter-sentence connections.
Examples of macro-markers are given in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1: Examples of Macro-markers
Segmentation Temporal Causal Contrast Emphasis

Well At that time So Both Of course
OK And Then But You can see
Now After this Because Only You see
And For the In view of that On the other Actually
moment hand
Right Eventually Therefore However Obviously
All Right Then As a result Unbelievably
Consequently As you know
In fact
Naturally
Examples of micro-markers are:

 What IÊm going to talk about today is something that you probably already
know ⁄
 What [had] happened [then/after that] was [that] ⁄
 WeÊll see that ⁄
 That/This is why ⁄
 To begin with ⁄
 Another interesting development was that ⁄
 This/that was how ⁄

 The next thing was ⁄
 This meant that ⁄
 One of the problems was ⁄
 The problem [here] was that ⁄
 Here was a big problem ⁄
 You can imagine what happened next ⁄
 In this way ⁄
 ItÊs really very interesting that ⁄
 This is not the end of the story ⁄
 Our story doesnÊt finish there ⁄
 And thatÊs all weÂll talk about today ⁄
 So that ends our talk today⁄
(Jordan, R. R. (1997). English for academic purposes. Cambridge: CUP)
In this section, you will practise and improve on your listening skills by doing
the activities provided.
ACTIVITY 4.2
Audio 4.1: Making an Oral Presentation
Instructions:
Listen to Audio 4.1 on a lecture about giving an oral presentation.
Questions:
1. Determine the outline of ideas.
2. Write short notes on each main point and supporting ideas.
3. Develop questions to ask about the main points.
4. Share your ideas with your friends.
5. Identify cues, such as logical connectors or markers, in the lecture

which tell you that the speaker is signaling/stressing important
points or changes in sub-topics.

Lecture Outline:
Title of Talk:
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
Main Points:
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
Supporting Ideas:
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
Main Verbs Used:

______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
Main Nouns Used:

______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
Adjectives Used:
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
Markers Used:
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

ACTIVITY 4.3
Audio 4.2: Sudan
Instructions:
(b) You will hear about something that happened to the speaker
while he was in Sudan.
(c) There are three parts to the narrative.
Questions:
1. Part 1
(a) What was the first thing the person noticed in Khartoum?
(b) Initially, why didnÊt the speaker use the mosquito netting?
(c) Why did he use it later?
(d) What do you think the speaker did next?
2. Part 2
(a) What were his early symptoms?
(b) What disease did he suspect he had caught?
(c) How did the girl in Kenya describe her experience of the
disease?
(d) Where is the author from?
3. Part 3
(a) What was the diagnosis of the doctors?
(b) How did the author get better?
4.2 LISTENING FOR SEQUENCE IN IDEAS

As with lectures, there are other situations which may require you to listen and
look out for the sequencing of ideas in speech. Can you list some cues that you
often hear that may tell you which ideas come first and what words tend to follow
next? What are some of the sequence words commonly used to organise ideas?
Let us do the following activities to help you become aware of some of these cues
in speech.
ACTIVITY 4.4
Audio 4.3: Breathing Exercise
Instructions
1. Listen to Audio 4.3 on the instructions about Breathing Exercises.
2. Read the instructions.
3. Rearrange the instructions in the correct order.
4. Use the sequence words provided. Choose an appropriate word.
5. Write up a simple instruction. Read it to your friend.
6. See if your friend can follow the instruction.
First First of all Next

After you have Finally Lastly
Second Then Following that
Breathing Exercises
Do you breathe deeply? Before you begin the exercises, check that you
can breathe deeply. Place your hands on your stomach and breathe.
Your stomach (not your chest) will expand if you are breathing deeply.
Let us do the exercise.
Pause, without breathing in, for three or four seconds.

Hold your breath in for three or four seconds.
Place your hands by your sides. Breathe in slowly through the nose
for three or four seconds.
Start again and continue doing this for at least two minutes.
Breathe out slowly through the mouth for three or four seconds
while lowering your arms.
While youÊre breathing in, raise your arms to the shoulder level ă
parallel to the ground.
Adapted from: Viney, P., & Viney, K. (1997). Handshake:

A course in communication. Oxford: OUP.

4.3 LISTENING FOR SPECIFIC LANGUAGE CUES

TO UNDERSTAND FACTS AND OPINIONS
How can you determine if what a person is saying is a fact or an opinion?
There are cues which can help you determine the difference. These cues comprise
certain words or phrases that signal whether what the speaker is saying is
actually a fact or just his/her opinion.
ACTIVITY 4.5
Can you think of words which can help you differentiate between
facts and opinions?
4.3.1 Facts
Determining what is a fact and what is not a fact can be tricky. This is because
something that initially appears to be certain and indisputable may turn out to be
not true at all and may actually be just an opinion.
A fact is something that has objective reality; it is not a matter of perception or

opinion, and is true.
(Bassham, Irwin, Nardone, Wallace, 2000).
Usually, facts can be verified with reliable sources or data and are known with
some degree of certainty. Facts include statistical data, reports of observation and
examples of actual events and happenings.
4.3.2 Opinions
Although we are entitled to our opinions, this does not mean that all opinions are
true. Opinions, unlike facts, can be very subjective ă sometimes, they are based
on nothing more than prejudice or wishful thinking. Of course, some opinions
can be based on a thorough examination of facts and are formed after years of
study and research.

Opinions are often based on what one believes to be true or on how a person
feels about something.
(Bassham, Irwin, Nardone, Wallace, 2000).
Complete the following activity to find out what some of these words or phrases
which can differentiate facts from opinions are.
ACTIVITY 4.6
Audio 4.4: Prejudice
Instructions:
Listen to Audio 4.4 on a conversation between two people.
1. Underline the statements which are facts or opinions.
2. How did you know this? What are the signal words or phrases?
3. Discuss your answer with your friends.
Prejudice
Paul: Good heavens!
Jean: What?
Paul: ThereÊs a story in the paper of a man who didnÊt get a job
because of his Australian accent.
Jean: Well, I suppose it could be a disadvantage. It depends on the

job.
Paul: This was a job for a Maths teacher.
Jean: Do you want English children to have Australian accents?
Paul: No, but a maths teacher is not going to have that much of an
affect, I would have thought. Especially in secondary school.

Jean: Yes, it does sound a bit odd. All the same, my opinion is that
the Australian accent is ugly
Paul: ThatÊs just prejudice. It shouldnÊt stop you from getting a job. I
know lots of research that show oneÊs accent does not affect
what one wants to put across. Psychologists and psycholinguists
too say that ideas are just ideas and you can say them
whichever way you want to. And I think they are right, too.
Jean: Nevertheless, I tend to judge people by the way they speak.
Paul: ThatÊs different, you know. Of course, one can tell about a
personÊs character from the way he speaks. But, really, I hope
the days are past when we automatically notice whether
someone has been to a public school or is middle-class or
something by the way he spoke.
Jean: Yes, I donÊt think people pay much attention to that kind of
thing anymore.
[Adapted from: Cook, V. J. (1974). English Topics. p. 70. London: OUP]

ACTIVITY 4.7
Instructions:
(a) Look at the following statements. Determine whether each is a

fact or opinion.
(b) Underline the signal words used.
No Statements Fact/Opinion
1. The cerebral cortex or brain is characterised by
a division into halves termed hemispheres
which are connected by tissue called the
corpus callosum.
2. I think it is more interesting to watch a movie
than to watch football at the stadium.
3. The majority of drug addicts are between the
ages of 12 and 35.
4. I believe that kids skip school because teachers
are unsympathetic.
5. As a matter of fact, oil spills from factories
have been found to be related to the death of
marine life.
6. In my view, men are better at raising children
than women.
7. It is a matter of opinion that all facts are
scientific facts.
8. According to the national weather service,
there is a 90% chance of rain today. Therefore,
it will probably rain today.

ACTIVITY 4.8
Audio 4.5: Making the Grade
Instructions:
(a) Listen to Audio 4.5 on an article entitled „Making the Grade‰
written by an American professor. Do not refer to the transcript.
(b) There are two parts to the article.
Questions:
1. Part I
(a) What is the argument?
(b) What is the evidence given?
(c) Are these the narratorÊs opinion or are they facts?
2. Part 2
(a) What are the three effects of grade inflation?
(b) What action did Boston University take?
(c) Why were the students unhappy?
(d) What was the studentÊs comment?
(e) Is this a fact or an opinion?
Transcript: Making the Grade
(Making the Grade: ref: Bostonia, Fall 2006, The Alumni Quarterly of Boston
University)
Part I
While other universities grapple with charges of grade inflation ă an epidemic
of flabby As ă some Boston University students say they face grade deflation,
that their best efforts are undercut by a University policy of grading on a
predetermined curve. Boston UniversityÊs administration says that isnÊt the
case, that GPAs are raising, and that professors are free to grade as they
please. To determine what was actually happening, students, faculty, and
University administrators were interviewed and spreadsheets of average
grades and grading distributions at Boston University covering many years
and departments were reviewed.

It was found that the commotion reflected a battle of perceptions. It was the
story of rising expectations of students colliding with the pressures of a
university bent on keeping academic rigour.
Stories about easy As began to surface in the early 1990s. For example, a study
of 34 colleges by a professor revealed that between 1992 and 2002 the average
GPA at private colleges went from 3.11 to 3.26.
Part II
Exactly how severe and widespread grade inflation is, the consensus seems to
be that wherever it occurs, it has the potential to rob students of the
motivation to excel and to dull the shine of extraordinary accomplishment.
Furthermore, because the trend has been more pronounced in humanities
classes, it is surmised that grade inflation might be driving students away
from studying the sciences, where grading has remained relatively strict.
To promote fairness by decreasing grading disparity, Boston University took

two courses of action. First, as a policy, honours were limited to the top 30% of
a collegeÊs graduating class. Second, the university began distributing data to
deans showing the grading by each professor along with the grades the
students received in their other courses.
But students were unhappy. Financial aid and scholarships depended on good
grades. However, a bigger worry than financial-aid cutoffs among students
was how Boston UniversityÊs uninflected grades were interpreted by post-
graduate admissions officers, fellowship selection committees, and potential
employers.
„If Boston University wants to restore grade integrity, fine,‰ said a student,
Susan Spellman, a history and classical civilisation major. „But I want it to be a
known policy, so that people know that my 3.3 matters more than a 3.7 from
someplace else, because I had to earn my 3.3.‰

4.4 LISTENING FOR MEANING FROM

INTONATION
Intonation refers to the use of melody and the rise and fall of the voice when
speaking.
(Dale and Wolf, 2000)
It is the musical sound of a language. The voice goes up and down in pitch and
by this it expresses not only grammatical meaning but also emotions, attitudes,
and reactions. It is, therefore, important to be able to listen for meaning conveyed
by intonation patterns.
Although there are various intonation patterns in actual speech, they basically
fall into two main types:
(a) Falling intonation; and
(b) Rising intonation.
Let us now look at some of these intonation patterns.
4.4.1 Falling Intonation 

This type of intonation pattern usually accompanies positive statements or
declarative sentences. Key words are usually signaled by a slightly higher pitch
level, with a slight fall in intonation.
The fall in intonation signals confidence and authority, and is often used to gain
attention and make statements. It is also used in answers, commands and some
types of questions. In questions, a falling intonation tells the listener that the
person asking the question expects an explanation, or an agreement with the
point expressed.

ACTIVITY 4.9
Audio 4.6: Falling Intonation
Instructions:
Try saying the different types of questions below with a fall in
intonation.
Question Type 1 : Wh- Questions (Seeking Information)

Hey, the boss wants to see you!
1. Why?  Where ?  When ? 
2. Where is it? 
3. What timeÊs the next train? 
4. How late will it be? 
5. Why is it always late? 
Question Type 2: Tag Questions (Seeking Agreement)

1. That was nice, wasnÊt it? 
2. SheÊs a good teacher, isnÊt she? 
3. You didnÊt like that, did you? 
4. I believe you are already aware of that, arenÊt you? 
Question Type 3: Choice Questions (Seeking between Choices)

1. Is it late or on time? 
2. Shall we wait or take a taxi? 
3. Is there a seat or must we stand? 
4. Do we first go to the bank or the post office? 
5. Did you say to turn right or left? 
4.4.2 Rising Intonation 

This type of intonation pattern usually accompanies statements expressing
doubt or yes/no questions. A rising tone indicates uncertainty and sometimes
politeness. It is also used in polite requests and in information-seeking questions.

ACTIVITY 4.10
Audio 4.7: Rising Intonation
Instructions:
Try saying the different types of questions below with a rising tone.
Question Type 1: Yes/No Questions

1. Is the train on time? 
2. Can I make a call from here? 
3. Is the phone working? 
4. Do you agree with me? 
5. You ate twenty-five sandwiches? 
6. Did it rain? 
7. Are you listening? 
8. Can you believe that? 
Question Type 2: Echo Questions (Request for Repetition)

1. Ten minutes late? 
2. It stops at every station? 
3. Why is it late? (repeat, I didnÊt hear you properly) 
4. What did he say? 
Question Type 3: Informational Tag Question (Seeking for

Assurance or Information)
1. It stops at Bandar Tasek Selatan, doesnÊt it? 
2. I got an A? 
3. ThereÊll be plenty of taxis at the next station, wonÊt there? 
4. The train runs up to midnight, doesnÊt it? 

ACTIVITY 4.11
Audio 4.8: Certain/Uncertainty
Instructions:
(b) Determine whether the statements signal certainty or uncertainty
(doubt).
No Statements Certainty/Uncertainty
1. The study used a thousand subjects.
2. He drank twelve cups of coffee.
3. She lifted five hundred pounds.
4. They have twenty children.
5. HamidahÊs CGPA is 4.0 this semester.
ACTIVITY 4.12
Audio 4.9: Intonation (Part 1)
Instructions:
(a) Listen to the following questions and responses on Audio 4.9.
(b) Put an arrow () or () at the end of each question and response to
show the type of intonation.
Questions Intonation Responses Intonation

Can you see? Yes, I can.
Are we leaving? No, weÊre staying.
May I help you? Yes, please do.

ACTIVITY 4.13
Audio 4.9: Intonation (Part II)
Instructions:
(a) Listen to the following statements and questions on Audio 4.9.
(b) Next to each sentence, draw an upward arrow () if rising
intonation is used and a downward arrow () if a falling
intonation is used.
1. I feel fine.
2. WhenÊs your birthday?
3. Did you see Tom?
4. Why did Alageswary leave?
5. We like to travel.
6. As a matter of fact, Einstein was a mediocre student.
7. Do you believe that?

8. Really?
9. Really!
10. ThatÊs lovely!

ACTIVITY 4.14
Audio 4.9: Intonation (Part III)
Instructions:
(a) Listen to Audio 4.9 on the following pairs of statements and
questions.
(b) Figure out whether each is said with a falling () or rising ()
intonation.
Lecturer : Your English instructor is ill!

1.
Students : Our English instructor is ill?
Mary : The electricityÊs off!
2.
You : The electricityÊs off?
Presenter : The students performed very well!
3.
Interviewer : The students performed well?
Instructor : You didnÊt forget your assignment, did you?
4.
Student : I didnÊt forget my assignment!
Teacher : Your father wrote to me!
5.
Student : My father wrote to you?

ACTIVITY 4.15
Audio 4.10: Walking Out of Films
Instructions:
(a) Listen to Audio 4.10 about films (first without referring to the
transcript).
(b) Refer to the transcript the second time you listen to the
recording.
(c) Answer the questions that follow.
Audio 4.10 Walking Out of Films
There have been few occasions on which I have actually walked

out of the cinema halfway through a film. The first time this
happened, I was watching a story intended for children about
animals living in a small village, riding in trains, shopping, and so
on; the novelty was that the animals were all real. It was a sweet
little film till you started wondering how the effects were
achieved and began to look for the wires and things that forced
the animals to behave in such a human-like way. The moment
which had me walking out was a scene of a fox giving a shampoo
to a hen. The look on the animalsÊ faces and the faint signs of
blood that appeared in the lather were too much for me: how
many hens died to make that particular sequence?
The other two occasions on which I remember walking out were,
curiously enough, when I had gone to see films that had appeared
on some criticÊs list of the 10 best films. Both of them were
extraordinarily boring. In one, the characters sat in a French country
house, drinking and smoking and doing nothing except a little
shooting; presumably there was a profound comment on life
hidden somewhere in this but I, for one, missed it. The other was a
recreation, in slow painstaking detail, of the life of a soldier in the
First World War; it told me more about life in this period than I had
any wish to know. For two out of 10 films to be boring, it must
show that critics love being bored; IÊve never been to see the other
eight.
Adapted from: Cook, V. (1974). English Topics. London: OUP. p 125.

Questions:
Circle the letter of the phrase that fits the passage best.
1. The speaker ________________.

A. often goes to the cinema
B. seldom goes into the cinema halfway through a film
C. seldom leaves the cinema halfway through a film
2. He dislikes the animal film because it was ___________.

A. sweet
B. cruel
C. for children
3. He walked out ____________ a fox was giving a hen a shampoo.

A. when
B. because
C. although
4. The characters in the country house presumably shot _________.

A. films
B. birds
C. themselves
5. The speaker thinks that film critics are ____________.

A. usually right
B. often wrong
C. boring

4.5 LISTENING FOR COMPREHENSION FROM

COMPLETE DISCOURSE RATHER THAN
FROM ISOLATED WORDS: HOW TO TAKE
NOTES
Listening in an academic setting often requires listening to and understanding
long stretches of discourse.
For instance, in listening to lectures or presentations, you need to be able to listen

for the main ideas and important supporting details, i.e. important information
within sentences; to recognise logical connections between sentences; to determine
the flow of ideas within sections of a talk; and to follow closely complete talks.
Listening to a full-length lecture demands your concentration and the ability to

take notes over a lengthy period. Long talks and lectures are often characterised
by texts that contain incomplete sentences, pauses, and verbal fillers, organisational
cues, rhetorical questions, definitions, conclusions and inferences made.
Let us begin with some ideas on how to take notes during a talk or lecture.
The objective of taking notes is to help you concentrate on what the speaker is
saying and to provide you with a summary for later reference or revision. The
general principle is to reduce the length by shortening sentences and words
(Jordan, 1997, p. 313).

ACTIVITY 4.16
Read the following guidelines. Think about what you can include to
make your note-taking a fruitful and efficient task.
1. To take quick notes you must:

(a) Omit completely certain sentences which are not necessary to
the main ideas.
(b) Concentrate on the important sentences, i.e. those giving the
most information, and on important words, i.e. usually
nouns, sometimes verbs or adjectives.
(c) Write in short phrases and not in complete sentences.
(d) Use common symbols or signs and abbreviations (short forms).
2. Show connections between ideas by using:

(a) Space. How you present your notes is important; you should
be able to later see the main points clearly when you read the
notes again.
(b) Numbers and letters, e.g. 1, 2, 3; (i), (ii), (iii); A, B, C; (a), (b), (c).
(c) Underlining, to draw attention to something or to emphasise
something.
(d) Common symbols and signs, for example:
Symbols Meaning
 therefore
 because
 statement/answer is correct
x statement/answer is wrong
? question; is the statement correct
/ or (this/that = this or that)
& or + and/plus
a dash (often to join ideas and replace words or
-
punctuation marks that have been omitted)
„ „ ditto (same as words immediately above ditto marks)
( leads to/results in/causes
 does not equal /is the opposite of/differs from

Examples of common abbreviations are:
Abbreviation Meaning Abbreviation Meaning

e.g. For example 1st first
i.e. that is 2nd second
etc. et cetera and so 3rd third
on
cf. compare U.K. United Kingdom
viz. namely c. approximately/about
N.B. note Brit. British
C19 19th century Q. question
A. answer excl. excluding
Imp. important info. information
lang. language ltd. Limited
max. maximum min. minimum
no. number p. /pp. page/pages
Ss students thoÊ though
thruÊ through probs. problems
You can also create your own symbols and abbreviations, just as long
as you use them consistently.

ACTIVITY 4.17
Audio 4.11: WomenÊs Lib
Instructions:
(a) Listen twice to Audio 4.11 on a talk entitled „WomenÊs Lib‰.
(b) The second time you listen to the audio, complete the following
notes on it.
(c) Once youÊve completed the note-taking, do the comprehension
task.
I. Note-taking:
19th Century Women:
(a) Had no vote.
(b) CouldnÊt sign contracts
(c) _____________________
(d) _____________________
(e) _____________________
(f) _____________________
(g) _____________________
TodayÊs Women:
(a) Can vote.
(b) _____________________
(c) _____________________
(d) _____________________

Inequalities Today:
(a) Work
(i) Earn ó what men earn for a job.
(ii) Only small proportion work.
(b) (i) University students women.

(ii) _____________________
II. Comprehension Task:

Which of these descriptions best summarises the speakerÊs main
points?
(a) In the nineteenth century, women were worse off than today.
Many improvements have been made.
(b) Although nineteenth century women were worse off than
women today, there are still many improvements to make.
(c) Although there are still many improvements to make, women
in the nineteenth century were worse off than women today.

ACTIVITY 4.18
Audio 4.12: Women in England
Instructions:
(a) Listen to Audio 4.12 on an interview between Ms Y, a supporter
of WomenÊs Lib and a news reporter. In this interview she talks
about the present and future position of women in England.
(b) After listening to it, read the transcript below. Pick out the main
words (nouns, verbs) signaling important ideas.
(c) Write a paragraph describing her views.
(d) Write a short reaction to the interview. Share some of your ideas
on the topic and relate it to the Malaysian situation, i.e. the
situation on the position of women in present Malaysian society.
Audio 4.12 Women in England (An Interview)
Q: Do you think there is discrimination against women in

England today?
Y: Mmm ⁄ yes, certainly. Without a doubt. And not just in
education ⁄ education and work too. In fact, in many other
fields as well. The tax situation for women is very unfair for
example.
Q: Are women better off in other countries then?
Y: Um ⁄ it depends on the country. There is certainly much less
discrimination in Scandinavia, for example, and maybe in
America too. But, you see, women are better off in England
than in some countries. ThereÊs no question about that.
Q: Do you think the position of English women will improve?
Y: Well, in some ways it will, of course. IÊm sure ⁄ IÊm sure ⁄
um ... more women will go out to work ⁄ earn a living ⁄
get a career in the next fifteen ⁄ er ⁄ 20 years, and will earn
more money. But, women have a ⁄ um ⁄ much greater
problem than this to solve.
Q: WhatÊs that?

Y: The problem is⁄menÊs attitudes. We can earn more money

in the future, but IÊm not sure we can change menÊs attitudes.
You see, um ⁄ most men ă probably all ă really think that
women are inferior ă you know, the „weaker sex‰. Maybe we
are physically weaker, but I donÊt think this means we are
inferior. ItÊll be a hundred, possibly two hundred years
before we can really change menÊs attitudes. Really,
seriously. But thereÊs another problem⁄
Q: Yes?
Y: The problem of womenÊs attitudes! Lots of women are
unhappy with their present situation, but most of them
probably donÊt want to fight for change. It could be that
WomenÊs Lib has to spend more time changing womenÊs
attitudes than it spends in changing menÊs!
Q: I see. One last question. What about marriages? Some
supporters of WomenÊs Lib believe that marriages should be
abolished. Do you agree?
Y: No ⁄ No, I donÊt. It canÊt happen. Really. What may (and
should) happen is that we teach men to spend more time
looking after the children and doing housework. You know, I
mean, the workload and responsibility should be shared.
After all, many women have careers too ⁄ becoming
breadwinners ⁄ Let the men share some of the domestic
work. And who knows? They might even enjoy it ⁄
[Adapted from: Johnson, K. (1981). Communicate in Writing. Essex:

Longman Group Limited. p. 90]

ACTIVITY 4.19
Audio 4.13: Class and the English People
Instructions:
(a) Listen to Audio 4.13 on a talk about class and the English people.
(b) Then read the questions.
(c) Listen to the talk again.
(d) Answer the questions.
(e) Discuss any points that arise and look at the written text.
Questions
Circle the answer that fits the passage best.
1. English people ____________ about whether they speak correctly.
A. used to worry
B. still worry
C. are not worried
2. If you were upper-class you might own ____________.

A. a bike
B. a cycle
C. a horse
3. The speaker thinks that people ____________.

A. wish to study English
B. should pay more attention to English
C. paid too much attention to „U‰ and „non-U‰
4. A restricted code is used for ____________.

A. expressing your own ideas
B. writing down laws
C. being sociable

5. Teachers thought working class children did badly at school

because ____________.
A. they spoke restricted codes
B. they spoke elaborated codes
C. they didnÊt work well
Discussion Points
1. How seriously should one take the distinction between „U‰ and
„non-U‰?
2. How healthy is it to be interested in this?
3. Do you believe in restricted and elaborated codes? Are they found
in your language?
4. How much of a handicap is working class speech in school?
5. If it is a handicap, should something be done about the child or
about the school?
6. What sort of English is accepted in Malaysia?
7. What is your opinion of „Malaysian English‰?
Class and English People
The English have always been singularly worried about whether

they are speaking correctly. Two recent examples spring to mind.
One was the extraordinary national passion in the nineteen-fifties
for „U‰ and „Non-U‰. This started with an article by Professor
Alan Ross in which he coined the terms „U‰ (Upper-class) and
„Non-U‰ (Non-upper-class) and gave examples of differences
between the two. In „U‰ speech, for instance, one talked of a
„bike‰, not a „cycle‰; one looked at oneself in a „looking glass‰,
never in a „mirror‰. Soon all over England, people were testing
themselves and their friends, taking the division into „U‰ and
„Non-U‰ much more seriously than any real student of English
would.

The second example comes from the nineteen sixties. Another

English professor, Basil Bernstein, developed a theory of language
which recognised two distinct forms, called „restricted‰ and
„elaborated‰ codes. A restricted code is used to make people
feel part of a group and consists of greetings and talk about the
weather and so on. An elaborated code is used to express personal
opinions and original ideas. It was claimed that middle-class
people used mostly the elaborated code and working class people
the restricted code. A working class child would do badly in
school because he was used to the wrong kind of code for the
school environment.
(Cook, V. J. (1974). English topics. London: OUP)
 In this topic, our discussion focused on the listening activities in formal and
academic contexts.
 We started the discussion by highlighting the different purposes of listening.
 You were introduced to listening for the sequence of ideas and listening for
specific cues to understand facts and opinions.
 Another listening skill discussed in this topic was listening for meaning from
intonation.
 Towards the end of the topic, our discussion focused on listening for
comprehension in long stretches of discourse.

Facts Micro-markers
Falling intonation Opinions
Rising intonation Reading style
Listening Rhetorical style
Macro-markers Rising intonation

Topic  Speaking:
5 Speech
Training
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Pronounce words properly;
2. Enunciate words clearly;
3. Use correct intonation, word and sentence stress;
4. Employ rhythm; and
5. Modulate your voice using the correct projection.
 INTRODUCTION
Speaking is a skill that needs to be developed and practised independently of
the grammar curriculum. Speaking entails not only knowing vocabulary and
grammar, and pronouncing words and sentences properly, but also the
interactive element, namely, the management of turn-taking. The basic elements
in speaking are pronunciation, articulation, stress and intonation. Words and
sentences correctly voiced help to get the intended message across. To a certain
extent, pronunciation errors can inhibit successful communication. For example,
if soup is pronounced as soap in a restaurant, waiters and waitresses can get
confused. Generally, learners like their pronunciation mistakes brought to their
attention even though they may not have difficulty in communicating. There are
five components in this topic, as outlined in the learning outcomes. You will be
introduced to each component and guided through every section. Rules and
other information relevant to the components are also given.

TOPIC 5 SPEAKING: SPEECH TRAINING  89
5.1 PRONUNCIATION
In this section, you will learn about the different sound groups formed by the 26
letters in the English alphabet.
A B C D E F G H I J K
L M N O P Q R S T U V
W X Y Z
Read and try to pronounce the following words and sounds.

1. Initial a (a at the beginning of a word)
/Õ/: act apt add age aspirin average accident
ai = /eI/: ate ache aim ail
ar =/a:/: arm arc art apart announced affair attend
2. Initial e (e at the beginning of a word)

/e/ edge enemy energetic examination
/i:/ equal even evening evil
/I/ elastic event embarrass
3. Initial i (i at the beginning of a word)

/I/ intelligent important invitation inn imprison
/aI/ ice icy idea ideal idle
identify iron island item
4. Initial o (o at the beginning of a word)

/a/ obvious off operate
/ə/ obey occasion official
(if stress is on the second syllable, the o is pronounced)
5. Initial u (u at the beginning of a word)

/^/ uncle umbrella until unable unimportant
/ju:/ universe unit university

90  TOPIC 5 SPEAKING: SPEECH TRAINING
6. Letter c
/k/ (hard sound): call company cap candidate camp
/s/ (soft sound): ceiling cell cycle circle
If c is followed by ia, ea, iou or ien, it is normally pronounced so:
/ʃ/ special ocean precious ancient
Exceptions:
science scientist scientific
Note: When there are two c Ês in a word; the first c is a hard sound and the
other is a soft sound.
accept succeed
Exceptions:
tobacco accommodation occasion
7. Letters ch
/tʃ/ church Richard children chide

/k/ ache anchor architect chaos chemist
/ʃ/ chalet chauffeur chef moustache
8. ea
/i:/ eat beat heat meal speak
/e/ head dead deaf
Exceptions:
/ɪeɪ/ create
/ɪÕ/ reaction
/eI/ break great
/Iə/ idea ideal real
9. ear
/Iə/ ear dear appear
/3:/ earn early pearl
/eə/ wear bear swear

10. ei
/i:/ deceive receipt
/eI/ eight neighbour freight veils vein
/aI/ height
/e/ leisure
/ə/ foreign
11. g
/g/ (hard sound): glass great magazine girl guilty
/d3/ (soft sound): change age geography giant gypsy
gu is also pronounced as
/g/: guard guest figure
Exceptions:
gu is pronounced as
/gw/: guava guano
12. ie
/i:/ chief field niece relief
/e/ friend
/ə/ conscience ancient
/Iə/ convenience fierce
/aIə/ quiet science scientist
/aI/ die
/ju:/ view
13. ng
/ŋ/ reading song singer strong ringing
/g/ hunger hungry single stronger
/ndg/ strange challenge
14. oa
/əu/ boat road float coat
/ɔ:/ roar oar broad
15. oo
/u/ book foot took cook
/u:/ boot too fool pool school moon
Exceptions
/d/ blood flood
/d:/ door floor
/uə/ poor
16. or
/J:/ for horse corner
/3:/ work worse worship world worm
/o/ moral forest corridor foreign orange
/^/ worry thorough
17. ou
/au/ about house
/^/ young rough plough
/u:/ soup you
18. ough
/_f/ cough
/^f/ enough tough rough
/u:/ through
/au/ bough plough
/ə/ thorough borough
/J:/ brought bought ought thought
/əu/ although dough
19. our
/ɑʋə/ our flour

/ɔ:/ course tour
Exceptions:
/^/ courage
20. ow
/au/ how towel crowd
/əu/ below show pillow
21. qu(e)
/kw/ queen liquid cheque
/k/ quay quiche
22. th
/θ/ At the beginning of a word, th is pronounced as in thing, theatre.
/ð/ In the middle of a word, the th is pronounced as follows:
father clothing other
Exceptions:
(pronounced as )
athletics authority author nothing something method
At the end of the word, it is pronounced as //

cloth breath bath
Exceptions:
(pronounced as /ð/)
with smooth breathe
In a few words, th is pronounced as /t/.

Thames Thailand thyme Thomas
23. Adding e
If the e is added to a short word, pronounce the vowel.
bat ... bate pet.... Pete bit ... bite hop... hope cut ... cute
hat ... hate shin... shine cap ...cape plan... plane not ... note

24. Final se
At the end of the word se is pronounced either /s/ or /z/.
These words are pronounced with /s/.

nurse mouse promise purpose sense loose base
These words are pronounced with /z/.

rise noise vase please increase cause lose
But take note of some differences. These words can be pronounced as /s/
or /z/ depending on what part of speech it is.
/s/ A close thing. (adjective)
Close by was a farm. (adverb)
/z/ Close the door. (verb)
/s/ The use of arms is banned. (noun)

/z/ Use the red pen. (verb)
/s/ There was a lot of refuse outside. (noun)
/z/ He refused to do it. (verb)
/s/ She gave an excuse. (noun)

/z/ Please excuse me. (verb)
25. Final y
In one-syllable words where y follows a consonant, it is pronounced /aI/.
why fly cry
In multi-syllable words where y follows f, it is pronounced as /aI/,

modify simplify
and in the following common words:

deny reply rely apply supply July multiply
In other multi-syllable words, when y follows after a consonant, it is

pronounced as /i:/.
many equality anarchy money

26. Past Endings

The regular past ending -ed can be pronounced in three ways, depending
on the final sound of the root word.
/d/ After voiced sounds ă opened
/d/ After vowel sounds ă covered
/t/ After unvoiced sounds ă stopped
27. Silent Letters

Some words contain letters that are not pronounced. These silent letters can
be at the beginning, middle or end of a word.
At the beginning:
pneumonia psychology honest hour knee know knit
knife gnat gnaw wrong write Wright
In the middle:
straight debt doubt science castle ghost
stalks folk palm calm talk half
answer handkerchiefs receipt listen island sword
At the end:
Bomb hymn
In words beginning with wh, the h is silent.

Why which when
Words where the w is silent.

Who whole whose
28. Homographs
Some word have the same spelling but are pronounced differently in
different contexts.
e.g. lead ă to follow/lead ă a type of metal

ACTIVITY 5.1
1. Say these tongue twisters quickly.

(a) Quick liquor and quiet quiche.
(b) The liquid squid questions the quarrelling queen mosquito.
2. The following words are homographs, i.e. they share the same
spellings but have different meanings. For each word, make
sentences to differentiate the meaning.
(a) wind (b) row (c) tear (d) bow (e) read
(f) close (g) use (h) lives (i) sows
5.2 TIPS ON HOW TO IMPROVE YOUR

PRONUNCIATION
One way to learn how to pronounce words correctly is to listen to the way good
speakers of English articulate them. In addition, it helps if you create a list of
words and practise speaking them aloud.
Pronunciation is not about acquiring a native English accent. The primary

concern in learning pronunciation skills is to be able to speak clearly so that you
are easily understood by the listener. Here are some tips on how to improve your
pronunciation.
You can start learning the correct pronunciation for English words by listening
and watching a lot of English programmes on radio and television. Listen to
English songs, observe the way deejays pronounce the words, and watch English
news and movies.
You can also use a dictionary that has a phonetic alphabet page. Most good
dictionaries have a phonetic alphabet page, usually in the initial pages, to guide
learners on how to pronounce words (refer to Figure 5.1). You can practise by
referring to the phonetic symbols and examples given in the guide. Some
dictionaries also provide CDs with samples of speech, together with
pronunciation of words.

Figure 5.1: International phonetic alphabet

Source: englishbiz.co.uk/grammar
Dictionaries are also useful as a tool to learn word stress or emphasis. An

apostrophe (Ê) is used to indicate the syllable stress. The apostrophe is placed
before the syllable that needs to be stressed.
Example: / ' / represents primary stress as in about / ə ' baʊt /
Different people have differing problems with pronunciation. Some sounds are
difficult to some people but not to others. To a certain extent, pronunciation
problems are sometimes related to our first language. Many native speakers of
the Chinese language, for instance, find it hard to pronounce the „r‰ sound.
To overcome this problem, list down words and phrases that contain the sounds
you find difficult to pronounce, then practise.
Intonation, word stress and sentence stress are related to pronunciation as well.
To make sure that your pronunciation is correct, use the right intonation,
especially when making sentences.
Below are some useful tips on the use of intonation:

(a) Use rising intonation to show it is a question;
(b) Use falling intonation to show it is a statement;
(c) Use a very high pitch to indicate that you are surprised;

(d) Use a very low pitch to indicate that you are angry; and
(e) If your pitch is too neutral it may suggest that you are bored or uninterested
in the conversation.
Do not speak too fast because the tendency to make mistakes is then higher. For
example, you may mispronounce words and sound unclear, thus making it hard
for listeners to get your message. It is always better to speak slowly and clearly.
5.3 ENUNCIATION
Verbal enunciation is the act of speaking. Good enunciation is the act of speaking
clearly and concisely. The opposite of good enunciation is mumbling, slurring or
bad pronunciation.
When people donÊt bother to pronounce every syllable of each word properly,
words can get slurred together. Listeners then have a hard time understanding
what is said, especially if there is noise or disturbances around them. Most
listeners find it irritating to listen to speakers who do not enunciate words
properly (Figure 5.2).
Figure 5.2: Good enunciation

Source: Cartoonstock.com

ACTIVITY 5.2
Enunciation Exercises
1. As a warm-up practice, try the following exercises.
To open and close mouth easily, repeat:
Fah Fah Fah Fah Blah Blah
2. To loosen your jaw, repeat:
Sah Kah She Fah Rah

Pah Kah She Fah Rah
Wah Kah She Fah Rah
Bah Kah She Fah Rah
Dah Kah She Fah Rah
3. To loosen your lips:
www www www bbb bbb bbb wbw
wbw wbw lll ldl www ldl wlwd
4. Now say these lines for precise articulation:
(a) The tip of the tongue, the teeth and the lips.
(b) Lah lee loo lee. Zip e do da.
(c) Repetition, repetition, repetition.
(d) We'll weather the weather whatever the weather,
whether we like it or not.
(Adapted from Susan Ward. Speak for success speech lessons.

Retrieved from www.sbinfocanada.about.com).

ACTIVITY 5.3
„DonÊt Drop Your g‰ Exercise

Dropping the g is a common example of poor enunciation. Sometimes,
people say goinÊ or walkinÊ or jogginÊ, instead of going or walking or
jogging. If they say the former, then they are g-droppers.
Say this list of words out loud:
going walking jogging

thinking striking selling
singing running jumping
Did you say „go-ing‰ or did you say „go-in‰? If you said „go-in‰ (or
„walk-in‰, „jog-gin‰, etc.), youÊre a g-dropper.
Note: Pronouncing words in isolation is different from what we

normally do when we speak.
Say these sentences out loud:
(a) We are going to have to rethink that bid.

(b) Waiting to hear from the bank is very nerve-wracking and
stressful.
(c) Before starting my business, I looked at a lot of different
business opportunities.
(d) ThereÊs more to learning than just reading, writing and
arithmetic.
Did you drop any gs? Did you enunciate every syllable of each word?

ACTIVITY 5.4
Tongue Twisters
Say each of the following sentences out loud three times, as quickly as
you can, while fully enunciating each word.
1. Keeping customersÊ content creates kingly profits.
2. Success seeds success.
3. Bigger business isnÊt better business but better business brings
bigger rewards.
4. Wanting wonÊt win; winning ways are active ways.
5. Seventeen sales slips slithered slowly southwards.
6. DonÊt go deep into debt.
7. Ensuring excellence isnÊt easy.
8. Time takes a terrible toll on intentions.
Repeat this exercise as many times as you wish.
ACTIVITY 5.5
Speech Exercise: The Mirror Test

The mirror can help you enunciate properly. When you enunciate
properly, your mouth, tongue, lips and jaw move.
Stand in front of the mirror and say out loud the sentences given at
the end of Activity 5.3. For example, when you say the sentence: „We
are going to have to rethink that bid‰, watch your lips when you say
the words „go-ing‰ and „bid‰. Notice how your lips purse and retract
when you say „go-ing‰. Notice how your lips jut out when you say
the „b‰ in „bid‰.
Now say the sentences out loud again in front of the mirror. But this
time, slow down your rate of speech and exaggerate your facial
movements.
Do these exercises five minutes every day. You will soon be conscious
of the way you speak and begin to speak more clearly.

5.4 STRESS
Stress and intonation are important in speech. They signal meaning, attitude and
grammar. There are two kinds of stress: word stress and sentence stress. In word
stress, stressing certain syllables signal their meaning. In a sentence, stress picks
out the most important words. They point to new and unknown information in
the sentence.
In the examples below, capital letters denote stress:
Example: REfuse ă garbage reFUse ă do not want to.
CAN you come here now! (Ordering/requesting firmly)

Can YOU come here now! (Stressing the person)
Can you come here NOW! (Stressing time)
Word Stress
In word stress, the emphasis can fall on the first, middle or end syllables.
Example:
Ooo oOo ooO

SYLlabus enGAGEment usheRETTE
SUBstitute baNAna kangaROO
TECHnical phoNEtic underSTAND
A rough guide to word stress (adapted from Kelly, G. (2000). How to Teach
Pronunciation. Pearson Longman) is provided below.
Core Vocabulary
Many nouns and adjectives of two syllables are stressed on the first syllable.
SISter BROther MOther WAter PAper

TAble COFfee LOvely
Prefixes and Suffixes

Prefixes and suffixes are not usually stressed.
QUIetly oRIGinally deFECtive
Exceptions:
BIcycle DISlocate

Compound Words
Words formed from two words tend to be stressed on the first syllable.
POSTman NEWSpaper TEApot CROSSword
Words Acting as Nouns and Verbs

The noun tends to be stressed on the first syllable.
The verb will be stressed on the last syllable
IMport (n) imPORT (v)
Sentence Stress
The use of stress in a sentence helps us to both understand and deliver meaning,
especially in long utterances.
Look at this example:

He LIVES in the HOUSe on the CORner.
This sentence conveys three separate ideas:

(a) a male resides in a house .... and not in a flat or a bungalow
(b) the location of the house is at a junction
(c) listeners are probably familiar with this junction.
The stressed words are content words and they convey the most important ideas
in the sentence: lives, house, corner.
When questions are asked, notice how the required information in the answers is
stressed.
(a) Where is JohnÊs house?

ItÊs on the CORner.
(b) Where did you say John lives?

He lives in a HOUSE on the CORner.
(c) John lives in a block of flats on the corner, doesnÊt he?

NO, he lives in a HOUSe on the CORner.
(d) JohnÊs buying the house on the corner, isnÊt he?

NO, he already LIVES in the house on the corner.

How Can We Say the Same Thing in Different Ways by Using Stress?
(i) When we say words of two or more syllables in isolation, we stress one of
the syllables.
(ii) When words are arranged in a sentence, certain syllables will be stressed to
convey the message.
(iii) Intonation is used to give further subtleties of meaning to the syllables that
are deliberately stressed.
ACTIVITY 5.6
Word Stress
1. Look at these words. Stress the correct syllable to show the noun
and the verb forms respectively.
(a) permit (b) rebel (c) increase (d) export
(e) decrease (f) insult (g) content
2. Put these words in the correct columns according to the stress

pattern.
Use a dictionary if you have to.
plumber electrician doctor journalist

musician shop assistant teacher soldier
novelist architect carpenter actor
policeman fireman lecturer florist
businessman artist farmer scientist
researcher gardener designer
Oo Ooo oOo Oooo ooOo

ACTIVITY 5.7
Misunderstandings
Work in pairs. Read the dialogue below, with varying expressions.
Stress the words correctly.
Learner A Learner B
IÊd like a big, red, cotton skirt, Here you are. A big, red, cotton skirt.
please.
No, I said a big, red, cotton shirt. Here you are. A big, red, nylon shirt.
No, I said a big, red, cotton shirt. Here you are. A big, blue, cotton shirt.
No, I said a big, red, cotton shirt. Here you are. A big, blue, cotton shirt.
No, I said a big, red, cotton shirt. Sorry, we donÊt have one.
Learner A Learner B
ItÊs a pity you werenÊt at the I was at the dinner.
dinner.
Did you say you were at the No, I was at the dinner.
party?
Did you say you were at the Yes, I was at the dinner.
dinner?
ACTIVITY 5.8
Guess the Meaning

Work in pairs. Take turns reading the sentences in three different
ways by stressing different words. Your partner has to guess what the
intended meaning is.
1. I said you are not to go.
2. Can I see that letter?
3. You have to come early tomorrow.
4. IÊm sorry you canÊt take part in the concert.
5. I said the car is at the workshop.

ACTIVITY 5.9
Role play
Work in pairs. Read out the dialogue in three different ways. Decide
on the characters and the mood they are in before reading aloud.
A: So you have to go.
B: Yes.
A: But why canÊt you stay?
B: Because I have to go, thatÊs why.
A: ThatÊs not a good reason, if I may say so.
B: IÊm bored thatÊs why... terribly bored of everything!
A: That canÊt be true. I thought you were the one person who enjoys
life the most!
5.5 INTONATION
The way our voice goes up and down in speech is referred to as intonation. This
is an important aspect of language that we are sensitive to but mostly at an
unconscious level. In turn-taking, for example, rise and fall is often used to signal
when to speak and when not to. If you want to continue speaking, you should
remain at high intonation. A fall, on the other hand, shows you have completed
what you want to say and that someone else can now take the floor.
Intonation can be used to mark new information shown in Table 5.1.
Table 5.1: Intonation Used to Mark New Information
Question Intonation Meaning

What time does your train leave? Falling A question asking for new
intonation information.
What time does your train leave? Rising A question asking for
intonation confirmation of something that
has already been said.

5.5.1 Grammar and Intonation

Some attempts have been made to show the connection between intonation
patterns and types of grammatical structures illustrated in Table 5.2.
Table 5.2: Connection Examples Between Intonation Patterns and Types of Grammar
Structures
Grammatical Item Intonation Example

Information questions with Falling WhatÊs your name?
Who, What , Where, etc. intonation WhatÊs the time?
(if asking for
Where do you live?
the first time)
Questions expecting a „yes/no‰ Rising Is it the small one?
answer. intonation Did you take my book?
Statements Falling He lives in a house on the corner.
ItÊs here.
Imperatives Falling Close the door.
Put the bags down.
Question tags expecting Falling YouÊre Thai, arenÊt you?
confirmation SheÊs pretty, isnÊt she?
Question tags showing less Rising YouÊre Thai, arenÊt you?
certainty SheÊs pretty, isnÊt she?
Lists of items Rising, rising, You need a pen, some coloured
and finally pencils and a sheet of paper.
falling The stall sells ribbon, beads, elastic
thread and buttons.
5.5.2 Intonation and Attitude

Intonation can also signal attitude towards a situation. For example, in
responding to an invitation, the words „That would be nice‰ can be said in
several ways to indicate enthusiasm, mild pleasure, relief, surprise, sarcasm or
boredom. However, in face-to-face communication, many things contribute to
how the message is delivered and understood, such as the speakerÊs body
language, his/her personality, and his/her choice of words.

ACTIVITY 5.10
Read these sentences using different intonation patterns to signal
different attitudes.
1. That would be nice. (pleasure, sarcasm, boredom, relief)
2. Can I see that? (anger, interest, curiousity)
3. ThatÊs a beautiful dress. (sincerity, disinterest)
4. What terrible fellows! (fear, amusement, disgust)
5. IÊm just waiting for the holidays. (tiredness, desperation)
6. I hope this is going to be good! (firmness, hope)
5.6 RHYTHM
Every language has its own rhythm or speech patterns that become the basis
for pronunciation and general communication in that language. In this respect,
speech rhythm exercises often help learners improve their pronunciation and
increase their confidence. When reading aloud, learners who apply speech
rhythms feel a greater sense of control over their pronunciation of words and
phrases.
Speech rhythm is simply a way of breaking down sentences into component

parts so that the sentence is easily understood.
Example: Prepositional phrases

in the evening, after the show, at night, across the street
Look at the following sentence:
After lunch, I went to the library to get a book.
It should be read as follows:
After lunch/I went to the library/to get a book.
When reading aloud, it is important to pause at the end of each word grouping.
In normal speech, these pauses may not be distinct. However, at business
meetings and in drama, speech patterns take on more deliberate characteristics
that allow for thoughtful consideration and explanation.

ACTIVITY 5.11
Read these sentences out loud. But before doing so, mark the pause at
the end of the word groupings.
1. Eggs are natureÊs perfect food containing every known nutrient

except for Vitamin C.
2. Look for free-range eggs, preferably organic, as commercial eggs

come from battery-farm-raised chickens which are typically under-
nourished and badly treated, leading to inferior eggs.
3. Free-range chickens are birds that live the way their ancestors
would have lived during caveman times, meaning they are free to
run and move about. They eat a variety of plants and animal foods.
They are free of antibiotics, hormones and other growth promoters.
Unlike the poor chickens in a commercial farm, they are not under
pressure to produce more eggs than normal cycles allow.
5.7 VOICE MODULATION AND PROJECTION

In public speaking, one should be able to project oneÊs voice so that people at the
back of the room can hear. However, remember that projection is more than just
loudness. It is about distance, clarity and „connection‰ with the audience.
In this respect, there are two key areas of voice projection: breathing techniques
and resonators (the speakers in our head).
Breathing technique: Good voice projection requires efficient working of the

lungs, intercostals muscles and diaphragm. The diaphragm is an umbrella-
shaped muscle which helps push air out of the lungs.

ACTIVITY 5.12
Work in pairs. Whisper these sentences as loudly as you can. This will
force you to open your mouth as wide as possible and make you
breathe through your stomach to push out your voice.
A: Do you want to hear a secret?
B: What?
A: ItÊs about so-and so and so-and so.
B: Who?
A: You know... them! (pointing)
B: Who?
A: Mary and John!
B: What?
A: They are going to get married!
B: Oh! ThatÊs old news!
ACTIVITY 5.13
Locating the Diaphragm

Work in pairs.
1. Locate your diaphragm by placing your hands with fingertips

touching, across your body below the rib cage.
2. Now, breathe out, making the sound „huff‰. Feel the diaphragm
working and see your fingertips being pushed apart. This allows
you to experience how proper voice production should feel.

ACTIVITY 5.14
Work in Pairs
1. Pinch your nose and say „Many mighty men making much money
in the moonshine‰ with as much force as possible.
2. Now let go of your nose and say the same phrase.
3. Notice the difference in the force of your vocal sound.
Note: Humming before speaking is another way of improving voice

projection through resonation (though this should be done before you
go onto the speakersÊ platform, of course!)
ACTIVITY 5.15
Recite a well-known nursery rhyme in angry, puzzled, anxious and

many other voices. This helps to modulate the voice.
ACTIVITY 5.16
Work in pairs. Take turns reading your texts.
1. Choose a paragraph from any text.
2. Underline words and create accents at the words you would like
the audience to really remember.
3. Plan and practise, and then read out the words in front of the whole
group. Change modulation, pace, pause and effect accordingly.

 The different sound groups are formed by the 26 letters in the English
alphabet.
 Here are some tips on how to improve your pronunciation:

ă Listen to English programmes on the radio and television;
ă Learn the alphabet and their sounds;
ă Learn word stress;
ă Learn to identify difficult sounds, then practice;
ă Learn intonation and stress; and
ă Learn to pace your speech.
 Verbal enunciation is the act of speaking. Good enunciation is the act of

speaking clearly and concisely.
 Stress and intonation are important in speech. They signal meaning, attitude
and grammar.
 The way our voice goes up and down in speech is referred to as intonation.
 Every language has its own rhythm or speech patterns that become the basis
for pronunciation and general communication in that language.
 In public speaking one should be able to project oneÊs voice so that people at
the back of the room can hear. However, remember that projection is more
than just loudness. It is about distance, clarity and „connection‰ with the
audience.
Enunciation Speaking
Intonation Stress
Pronunciation Voice modulation
Rhythm Voice projection

Topic  Speaking in a
6 Social Context
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain how to make small talk;
2. Describe how to ask and give information;
3. Give examples of how to make suggestions and recommendations;
4. Discuss how to make requests and offers and respond to them
appropriately;
5. Extend invitations and respond to invitations; and
6. Demonstrate how to speak appropriately in cross-cultural situations.
 INTRODUCTION
In everyday life, we interact with people. We interact with family members
at home, with friends and colleagues at the workplace or place of learning, and
also with people in town. In our interaction with people, we sometimes make
small talk with strangers. With others, we seek information or clarification
by asking questions. We answer questions, and also make suggestions and
recommendations. We invite people over to our homes on various occasions and
in turn, we are invited. We thank people for the help they have given us and in
turn, others thank us. The art of speaking, therefore, is a skill and to convey
meaning accurately, we must use words appropriately and speak politely.

114  TOPIC 6 SPEAKING IN A SOCIAL CONTEXT
6.1 MAKING SMALL TALK

Sometimes, we start conversations with people we do not know. This can happen
at the bus stop, in a queue, at the cafeteria, etc. Small talk is conversation about
everyday topics such as the weather or sports. Such conversation is usually brief.
Listen to Audio 6.1 for an example.

For further examples, listen to Audio 6.2 or Audio 6.3.
Audio 6.1: Waiting for a Bus
Listen to Audio 6.1 but do not read the transcript below. Try to understand
the gist of the conversation.
Man: The bus is late today, isnÊt it?
Woman: Yes, itÊs rather unusual. Usually the buses are punctual.
Man: Hope the bus comes soon. ItÊs so hot these days. IÊm already
dripping with sweat.
Woman: Yes, it sure is hot. In fact, I ⁄
Man: Hey⁄ I see a taxi. IÊm going to hail it. Hope the bus comes soon.
Woman: Yes, I hope so, too.

TOPIC 6 SPEAKING IN A SOCIAL CONTEXT  115
Audio 6.2: An Accident
Woman: That was a terrible accident.
Man: Yes, the bus crashed into a stationary lorry.
Woman: How bad was it?
Man: 10 passengers died. 20 were hurt. The front of the bus is
gone.
Counter man: Sorry, madam, to keep you waiting.
Woman: No problem. And a bottle of mineral water, please. Was the
driver sleepy?
Man: Perhaps. Or the lorry did not have its parking lights on.
Woman: Well, got to go now. Bye.

Audio 6.3: At the Market
Woman 1: Things are so expensive these days!
Woman 2: Yes. Imagine! Ikan tenggiri is now RM20 a kilo!
Woman 1: Blame it on the toll increase.
Woman 2: And also on the increase in oil price!
Woman 1: At this rate, weÊll all end up eating ikan bilis!
Woman 2: Hey! Even that has gone up!
Fishmonger: Puan⁄ your fish ⁄ total bill⁄ RM36.
Woman 1: Here you are⁄ OK, then, bye.
Woman 2: Bye.

6.2 WHAT TENSE DO WE USE?

In making small talk, we can use different tenses depending on the subject
matter. If you refer to something in the past, then you would use the past tense. If
you are talking about something in the present, then you will use the present
tense. Let us look at the earlier examples.
Example 1
Man: The bus is late today, isnÊt it? Present tense
Woman: Yes, itÊs rather unusual. Usually the buses are Present tense
punctual.
Man: Hope the bus comes soon. ItÊs so hot these days. Present tense
IÊm already dripping with sweat.
Woman: Yes, it sure is hot. In fact, I ⁄.. Present tense
Man: Hey⁄. I see a taxi. IÊm going to hail it. Hope Present tense
your bus comes soon.
Woman: Yes, I hope so, too. Present tense
In this conversation, the present tense is used. This is because the people are
talking about things in the present.
Example 2
Woman: That was a terrible accident. Past tense
Man: Yes, the bus crashed into a stationary lorry. Past tense
Woman: How bad was it? Past tense
Man: 10 passengers died. 20 were hurt. The front Past tense
of the bus is gone.
Counter man: Sorry, madam, to keep you waiting. Present tense
Woman: ItÊs all right. A bottle of mineral water, Past tense
please. Was the driver sleepy?
Man: Perhaps. Or the lorry did not have its Past tense
parking lights on.
Woman: Well, got to go now. Bye. Present tense
In this conversation, more past tense is used because the man and the woman are
talking about an accident that took place the previous day.

6.3 TOPICS SUITABLE FOR SMALL TALK

Some topics may be more suitable for small talk than others. Examples are:
Topics to avoid as they are personal and/or sensitive are:
ACTIVITY 6.1
Listen to Audio 6.4 and read the conversation simultaneously. Note the
structure of the conversation. Then answer the questions.
A: Hi! TheyÊre really slow at the counter, arenÊt Greeting

they? ⁄⁄⁄⁄....
B: Yes.

A: I wish theyÊd hurry up. I want to get out of
here before it rains.
A: Yes, the rains are bad these days.
Making small
B: The road would be flooded and I would get
talk
caught in this massive jam.
A: Oh⁄ where do you stay?
B: In PJ and I use the Federal Highway.
A: Hey look! TheyÊve opened another counter
and theyÊre signalling for you to go over.
B: Ok, then. Bye!  Leave-taking
A: Bye! Enjoy your burger.
(a) Do the speakers know each other? Give a reason.

(b) Where do you think the speakers are?
(c) What is the topic of the small talk?

6.4 ASKING FOR AND GIVING INFORMATION

In many situations, we ask for information and we are asked for information. In
other words, we are required to give information. When asking for information,
it is important to phrase the question carefully so that we get the information we
want. On the other hand, when we respond to a question, it is important to give
the information asked for. The response should be relevant, brief and to the
point. Avoid giving long-winded answers.
Audio 6.5: The Photocopy Shop
Listen to Audio 6.5 but do not read the transcript below. Try to understand the
gist of the conversation. Answer the question to check your listening skills.
You can read the transcript later to check the actual dialogue and answer.
Woman: I need to go to a photocopy shop. Is there one around here?

Man: Not along this row. But thereÊs one across the road.
Woman: Where exactly?
Man: See the hardware shop at the end? The one with the big JOTUN
paint sign?
Woman: Aah ⁄ yes! The blue and red sign ...?
Man: ThatÊs right! ThatÊs the one! The shop is next to it.
Woman: Thanks a lot!
Question: Where is the photocopy shop located?

Audio 6.6: Booking a Court
gist of the conversation. Answer the question to check your listening skill. You
can read the transcript later to check the actual dialogue and answer.
Man: Oh ⁄ excuse me ⁄?
Counter man: Yes ⁄
Man: I want to book a court. Can you tell me the rate?
Counter man: ItÊs RM20 an hour.
Man Can I book the court from 4.00ă6.00 in the evening for this
Sunday?
Counter man: Mmmm ⁄ let me see ⁄ oh, sorry, no. ItÊs already booked.
Man: Any other time on Sunday?
Counter Man: Yes ... letÊs see ... yes ... Court 3 ⁄ 8ă10 in the morning.
Man: Oh dear ⁄ what a time! ⁄ OK ⁄ IÊll take it. The guys will
just have to get up early if they want a game!
Question: When is the manÊs court booking?

ACTIVITY 6.2
Read the conversation below and answer the questions that follow.
Martin: Excuse me. Can you tell me when and what time the on-line
sessions begin?
Sheila: Oh! IÊm sorry. IÊm not sure. LetÊs ask Malik.
Malik, do you know the time and the days?
Malik: Yes. ItÊs at 8.00 p.m. every Tuesday and Thursday.
Sheila: Oh, thanks Martin.
1. What expressions did he use to ask for information?

2. What was SheilaÊs response?
3. How did Malik respond?
ACTIVITY 6.3
Complete the following dialogue with the correct question words.
A: Did you read about the landslide yesterday?

B: ⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄.
A: In the middle of the night.
The residents heard a roar and then half the road was gone.
B ⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄.
A: About five houses. The residents are all terribly angry.
B: ⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄.
A: TheyÊre going to get in touch with the developers and also talk to
the Town Council.
B: ⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄.
A: Perhaps some compensation, new accommodation, etc.

ACTIVITY 6.4
This is a dialogue between two people. Rewrite it by making it more

polite and socially acceptable. Then role-play the dialogue with a friend.
A: Tell me the way to the registrarÊs office.
B: I donÊt know. (walks away)
A: Hey, you. Tell me how to get to the registrarÊs office?
B: Go up the stairs. Turn left. Office is at the end of the corridor.
A: (walks away)
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
6.5 MAKING SUGGESTIONS AND

RECOMMENDATIONS
In life, we are often asked for suggestions and decisions, especially when we
need to help solve a problem. Below are some useful phrases for giving
suggestions and responding to them.
Some Useful Phrases

Responding to Suggestions
Giving Suggestions
Agree Disagree
How about ⁄? ThatÊs a good idea ⁄ I donÊt think so ⁄
What about ⁄? OK ⁄ I donÊt know⁄
Maybe we/he/she/could ⁄? That would be nice ⁄ No, it may not be such a
What do you think about ⁄? ThatÊs fine ⁄ good idea ⁄
Could he/she/they/it/we ⁄? IÊd rather not ⁄
Perhaps he/she /we could
LetÊs ⁄
It might be a good idea to ⁄
DonÊt you think we should ⁄

6.5.1 Making Suggestions

The followings activities will help you to practise making suggestions.
ACTIVITY 6.5
Jerry is flying to London. This is his first trip abroad.

He wants to avoid jet lag. Martin makes a suggestion.
Role-play the conversation and then answer the following questions.
Jerry: To prevent jet lag, IÊll have to sleep early for the next few
days.
Martin: Oh, but donÊt you think it would be better to sleep a little
later than usual for the next few days.
Jerry: Oh! But why?
Martin: YouÊll be flying west. So this means youÊll be losing hours.
By sleeping later, youÊll be able to sleep at the right time in
London.
Sheila: Oh, really? IÊll try this then.
Question: Which structure in the conversation above expresses a

suggestion.
A. ⁄⁄ donÊt you think it would be ⁄..
B. ⁄⁄ this means youÊll be ⁄..
C. ⁄⁄ by sleeping later, youÊll be ⁄..

ACTIVITY 6.6
Jerry is packing for his London trip. What should he take? Work in
small groups. Take turns giving suggestions for the things he needs to
pack. Start by using the items below. Then think of other items he
needs to take.
alarm clock, toothbrush, toothpaste, comb, socks, charger, mobile

phone, pajamas, suitcase, towel, shirts, trousers, passport
Start the conversation as follows:

A: How about an alarm clock?
B: ThatÊs a good idea. Maybe he should take a small torchlight as
well.
C I donÊt know. He can use his mobile phone. It has a small light
built-in.
6.5.2 Making Recommendations

Study some of the phrases used when one is making recommendations. Listen to
Audio 6.7 for examples.
Responding to Recommendations
Giving Recommendations
Agree Disagree
I strongly recommend that ⁄ I totally agree⁄ I do not support ⁄
I strongly advise that ⁄ I fully support⁄ I oppose ⁄
I propose that ⁄ I fully agree⁄ I do not approve ⁄
IÊm sorry, I donÊt agree to ⁄

Audio 6.7: Changing a Lock
gist of the conversation.
Woman: I want to change my lock on my front grille. Can you recommend a

good strong lock?
Man: Well, these are from USA. They are RM75 each.
Woman: Anything else?
Man: Those are from China. There are different sizes with different prices.
Woman: Which would you suggest?
Man: Try this. ItÊs big and strong. It costs only RM25.
Woman: All right then. IÊll take it. Can you also make three duplicate keys,
please?

ACTIVITY 6.7
Some teachers are having a conversation. Read the conversation below

and state the function of each utterance. Choose from the options
given below.
insisting on earlier proposal; making a recommendation;

agreeing with suggestion; suggesting an alternative
Utterances Function
1. I recommend that we use the money for the old
folks home in Jalan Carey.
2. But donÊt you think it would be better to use the
money to improve our canteen?
3. I agree. LetÊs begin with charity at home.
4 But the canteen is okay as far as I can see.

I propose we use the money to improve our school
sports facilities.
5. Hey people, canÊt you all be a bit more generous?
The home needs a new roof. DidnÊt you all see
their appeal letter recently?
6.6 MAKING REQUESTS AND OFFERS

There are situations where we make requests of others, and times when we
offer to do something for others. Being able to respond appropriately to people
requesting us to do things for them or making offers to us is an important
social skill.

Useful Phrases
Study more of the phrases used to make requests and offers, and possible
responses.
Responding to Requests
Making Requests
Agree Disagree
Can/Could/Will/Would Sure I will ⁄ IÂm sorry, I canÊt ⁄
you ⁄ Please ⁄ Yes, of course ⁄ IÊm sorry, I donÊt have ⁄
My apologies but I donÊt/canÊt ⁄
Is it possible for me to ⁄
I would be most obliged if ⁄
I wonder if you would be so
kind as to ⁄
ACTIVITY 6.8
Decide whether these are offers or requests.
1. 3.
May I borrow your ladder, IÊm happy to buy you a
please. Mine is broken. burger if you want. IÊm
Two rungs have given way! going to the stall myself.
............................................... ............................................
2. 4.
IÊll wash your car for Would you mind
you. You, in turn, shall dropping me off at the
cook me lunch. LRT. I need to get
home early today.
................................................ ..............................................

ACTIVITY 6.9
Work in pairs. Complete the telephone conversation below.

Then role-play the conversation.
A Hello Ramona. ⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄.. fetching Ben from school?
IÊm still at a ⁄⁄⁄.. and will get home a little ⁄⁄
B ⁄⁄⁄... But will he get into my car?
A IÊll ............ him now. Oh by the way, donÊt go home and prepare
dinner.
IÊll buy ⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄.. and ⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄..
B Oh, but you donÊt ⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄ WeÊll manage somehow.
A Oh no, I insist. This is the ⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄..
ACTIVITY 6.10
Work in pairs. Look at the cue cards. Then role-play the conversations.
1. A and B are two people who have just met at an MBA course. They
are both taking the course part-time.
A B
Tell B you want to borrow Agree to the request. Say that
that dayÊs lecture notes. Tell the notes may not be very
her that you may have to good but you are willing to
leave the class at break time. lend him. Tell him that next
Reason: You have to fetch time he has to return the
your son from school. favour.
2. The flight is en route to Taiwan. The passengers are trying to settle

down for the long flight ahead.
Passenger A Flight Attendant

Request a blanket from the Agree to the request.
flight attendant. Say the Also offer to bring a mug of
cabin is extremely cold. hot chocolate and some
⁄⁄⁄⁄.. biscuits.
Agree to the mug of hot
chocolate and biscuits.

6.7 EXTENDING INVITATIONS

There are many situations in daily life when we extend invitations to people. We
invite friends to visit us, certain people to give a talk or other people to work on a
project with us. In turn, we are invited to friendsÊ houses, to give a speech to a
group or to participate in a task. Sometimes, we accept, sometimes we decline,
often giving reasons.
ACTIVITY 6.11
Read the conversation below. Then answer the questions that follow.
Amy: Hi Jane. How are you?

Jane: IÊm fine, thank you. And how are you, Amy?
Amy: IÊm fine, too. Hey listen, the reason I called you is to invite you
over to my house for dinner this Saturday. ItÊs at eight.
Jane: Oh! WhatÂs the occasion?
Amy: IÊm getting together a few friends and I thought weÊd celebrate
all the good times we had together. Can you come?
Jane: Oh no, IÊd love to but IÊm sorry, I canÊt. ItÊs my fatherÊs birthday
and we are all taking him out to dinner.
1. Who are the speakers and what is their relationship?

2. What is the invitation?
3. What is the occasion?
4. Was the invitation accepted or declined? What was the reason
given?
5. Is this a formal situation or an informal situation? Give reasons.
6. What phrase did Amy use to invite her friend over?
7. What phrase was used to accept or decline the invitation?

6.7.1 Useful Phrases

Here are some useful phrases to extend an invitation and in response to accept or
decline.
Extending an Invitation Accepting an Invitation Declining an Invitation

Would you like to ...? Yes IÊd love to ... IÊm so sorry but I canÊt
Yes, that would be because .....
wonderful ....
Yes, that would be fun ...
IÊd be delighted
Would you care to ...? ThatÊs very kind of you. Thank you. But I donÊt
Thanks. think I really can
because .....
How about .....? Yes, that sounds ThatÊs very kind of you but
fantastic/fun/exciting/ I canÊt because .....
interesting/wonderful Some other time perhaps.
ACTIVITY 6.12
In pairs, role-play the dialogue in Activity 6.11. Change the occasion,

time and date. However, this time, make Jane accept the invitation.

ACTIVITY 6.13
In pairs, role-play a situation where a speaker is being invited to speak

on a given topic. Take turns to be the person inviting and the invited.
Look at the topics of the speech or talk below. For each and every topic,
change the details as you go along: for example, the jobs of the speakers,
the date, time, place and number of people attending the function, etc.
Accept or decline the invitation to speak. Give reasons for declining.
1. 2.
3. 4.
6.8 EXPRESSING THANKS

Expressing thanks is part and parcel of good manners. A word of thanks goes a
long way in expressing appreciation. At the same time, you need to know how to
respond to someone who thanks you.
Look at these examples.
A: Thanks for the ride. A: Thanks for all the help. I really
appreciate it.
B: YouÊre welcome.
B: Not at all.
A: Thank you for the meal.

B: ItÊs my pleasure.

ACTIVITY 6.14
In pairs, look at the cue cards below. First, discuss what the situation
is. Then decide who is thanking whom. Finally, role-play each of the
situations below.
1. 2. 3.
A man bows slightly
A man holds the A man holds to the woman at the
lift door open the door open dinner table. This
and waits for the for a woman to occurs after dinner
lady to get out of go in first. and both are
the lift. standing.
4. 5. 6.
The lecturer is at At the parking A mechanic

the podium. A meter, a man points at a car.
student stands to gives the Then the
the side of the parking ticket to mechanic
podium. The a woman. She shows a
audience is smiles at him. thumbs up
clapping. sign.
7. 8. 9.
It is a hot day. A boy gets out of A man slips
A woman the back seat of a and falls to
shares her car. A woman is in the ground.
umbrella with the driverÊs seat. A woman
another Her daughter is in helps him up.
woman. the front seat.
6.9 SPEAKING IN CROSS-CULTURAL

SITUATIONS
In everyday life, we also communicate with people from different cultures. Many
of the principles of cross-cultural communication need to be observed in both
domestic and international communication. Domestic communication is confined
to within oneÊs own country, although Malaysia is a unique multi-cultural

country consisting of people of different ethnicities. International communication

goes beyond oneÊs national boundaries like when we communicate with people
from the rest of the world. Effective communication happens only when you
understand and have respect for cultural differences. You must also be prepared
to be accommodating and adaptable in such social situations. When you interact
with people from different cultural, religious and ethnic groups, remember to be
mindful of the following:
(a) The different social and cultural practices;
(b) The different significant religious holidays; and
(c) Language and expressions which may be difficult for people of a different
country to understand.
ACTIVITY 6.15
Work with a partner from a different culture, ethnic group, country or

state. Both take turns to pick a cue card each. You then exchange notes
with each other and talk about the social and cultural practices in your
community as mentioned in the cue cards.
1. 2. 3. 4.
Proper How you greet How you Celebrating

behaviour and people on social celebrate weddings in your
manners at the occasions. birthdays. community.
dining table.
5. 6. 7. 8.
Celebrating the How you address Traditional How children are

birth of a baby. different dances. brought up in
members of your your community.
family and
relatives, for
example, parents,
siblings, aunties,
uncles etc.

ACTIVITY 6.16
When you socialise with friends and acquaintances from other

countries, you might need to explain to them the different celebrations
and religious holidays in Malaysia. Work with a partner. Take turns to
role play and talk to each other about your celebrations or religious
holidays. For the purpose of the role play, pretend that your partner is
from another country and is new to Malaysia.
The following cues should help you carry on the conversation.
Talk about:
(a) What the religious holiday is called.
(b) When it takes place.
(c) What its significance is.
(d) How it is celebrated.
(e) Where it is celebrated.
(f) The duration of the celebration.
You can begin the conversation as follows:

You: Hi (name of friend)! IÊd like to invite you to my house for
(name of religious holiday/celebration) on (day/date).
Partner: Oh, thatÊs great, thank you. IÊll definitely come over. WhatÊs
the celebration about?
You: WeÊre celebrating
________________________________________ .
Partner: Does it take place at the same time every year, like Christmas
which falls on the 25th of December?
You: _____________________________________________________ .
Partner: WhatÊs the significance of
________________________________ ?
You: _____________________________________________________.
Partner: How long does the celebration last?
You: ____________________________________________________.

6.10 GUIDELINES IN SOCIAL

COMMUNICATION
Although English is widely spoken in Malaysia, it is a second language. Very
often Manglish, or Malaysian English, is spoken by the man in the street. Each
ethnic group speaks its own brand of English with a particular accent, jargon
and intonation. You should try to speak using simple, plain and easily
understandable English when you speak to Malaysians as well as to people from
other countries. When communicating with people from different cultures and
ethnicities, use these guidelines:
(a) Avoid figures of speech or idiomatic expressions. Instead of listened with

undivided attention, say listened with attention. Instead of as tame as a
pussycat, say tame.
(b) DonÊt use fancy, cute or trendy terminology. Instead of hot chick, say
beautiful girl (refer to Figure 6.1).
(c) Use specific and accurate terms. Instead of go a little further down the road
⁄ say go 500 metres down the road.
(d) Be careful of words which may have different meanings in different

cultures or nationalities. The Manglish term syok does not mean shock in
the normal sense. It has a positive connotation which means a great feeling
or just great.
(e) Avoid the use of slang, e.g. cool which means in style.
(f) Avoid using abbreviations e.g. Atty instead of Attorney; or acronyms e.g.
MOE instead of Ministry of Education. Use the full term when speaking to
people from foreign countries.
Figure 6.1: Fancy, cute and trendy terminology

Source: www.fun-at-work.org

ACTIVITY 6.17
Read the following extracts. Change the terms written in italics to

language which is more understandable, specific or accurate. In some of
these conversations, you may need to put on your thinking cap and
figure out what the term, abbreviation, idiom or acronym means.
1. Scenario: A School in Kota Bahru

A: Hey, Ash, I havenÊt seen you for quite a few days. WhereÊve
you been?
B: Oh, I went for a briefing at the CDC in Kuala Lumpur on the
new English language curriculum.
2. Scenario: A Restaurant at an International Hotel in Kuching

Foreign guest: Excuse me. Could you show me where the CR is?
Waitress: Huh? CR?
Foreign guest: You know... the place for ladies to ...
Waitress: Oh, itÊs straight ahead on your right after the pillar.
3. Scenario: A Farewell Scene

Nathan: Goodbye mother. IÊm off to the training camp.
Mrs. Chandran: Bye, son. You make sure you go and come, lah.
Nathan: IÊll see you in a monthÊs time.
4. Scenario: A Kampung
Father: When you go to Kuala Lumpur, you must watch out for
opportunities that come your way.
Son: Yes, papa.
Joe Smith: IÊll keep an eye on your son, Encik Ali.
Father: Thanks, Joe. Now son, be proactive and donÊt be like a
frog under a coconut shell.
Joe Smith: What?
5. Scenario: At a Town Centre

Tourist: Excuse me, sir. Could you tell me how to get to the
Merdeka Square?
Man: No problem. You just go straight on. Walk further down
the road and then you turn right and then you turn left. ItÊs
very easy.

 In this topic, you learnt how to make small talk. Sensitive or personal topics
should be avoided.
 Small talk is usually brief as it is a filler while waiting.
 People usually use the present tense in small talk, but if we talk about things
which have already happened, then the past tense is used. Similarly, if we are
talking about things in the future, then the future tense can be used.
 When interacting with people from different cultural, religious and ethnic
groups, remember to be mindful of:
ă Different social and cultural practices;
ă Significant religious holidays; and
ă Language and expressions which may be difficult for people of other
cultures, living in different countries, to understand.
Cross-cultural communication Present tense

Future tense Small talk
Past tense

Topic  Group
7 Interaction
Skills
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain how to ask and respond to relevant questions;
2. Examine an expression and response to opinions;
3. Describe what is meant by negotiation, argument and conceding;
4. Participate in a discussion by taking turns to talk; and
5. Justify opinions and express disagreement.
 INTRODUCTION
Successful group interaction requires active group participation (Figure 7.1).
Members may be invited to ask and respond to questions, express opinions,
negotiate and give suggestions, all to achieve the objectives of the meeting.
Towards this end, every member of the group has a role to play. However, there
is usually one person who manages the discussion. This person has to open the
discussion, introduce the subject, invite people to contribute ideas, interrupt to
seek clarification and finally, close the discussion. The other members of the
group may be required to put forth arguments, substantiate them, negotiate, and
seek clarification, etc. If the discussion is managed well, it may turn out to be a
most fruitful and enjoyable event. The emphasis in this topic is thus on the oral
communication skills which group members who need to interact in groups
should have in order to work effectively in groups.

TOPIC 7 GROUP INTERACTION SKILLS  139
Figure 7.1: Group interaction skills are essential for successful meetings
7.1 ASKING AND RESPONDING TO

QUESTIONS
If you are a member of a group that is working together, you may need to ask
and respond to questions, after the group leader has introduced the topic or
subject of discussion.
Click on Audio 7.1 for an example.
Audio 7.1: Cut-off point
Group leader: So, people, we are here to decide how we can help the really
poor pupils in our school.
Judy: A question, Mr Chairman. What is our definition of poor?
What figure shall we take as the cut-off point?
Group leader: Can we take the fatherÊs earnings as RM1,000 (mumbles the
figures) and below per month as the cut-off point?
Judy: IÊm sorry. I didnÊt catch that. Can you repeat the amount,
please?
Group leader: RM1,000. Has anyone any objection to RM1,000 as the cut-
off point?

140  TOPIC 7 GROUP INTERACTION SKILLS
7.1.1 Different Ways of Asking Questions

(a) Wh-Questions
It is common to ask Wh-questions when you wish to get more information
or seek clarification about an issue.
Below are some examples of Wh-questions:

(i) Who are the poor pupils?
(ii) What is the cut-off point for poverty?
(iii) How can we help the poor pupils?
(iv) Why have these pupils not been given aid earlier?
(v) When are we going to extend aid to them?
(b) Yes / No Questions

There are some questions that we respond with a „Yes‰ or „No‰. When
replying orally, you need not answer in complete sentences.
For example:
(i) Are these pupils poor? Yes / No
(ii) Are you going to help them? Yes / No
(iii) Was the amount given RM1,000? Yes / No
(c) Using Polite Forms

The forms below help you to get information in a polite way.
(i) Could you please tell ⁄
(ii) May I know ⁄ what sum ...
(iii) Do you know ⁄ how many ...

7.1.2 Purpose of Questions and Responding to Them

Let us now find out the purpose of the questions asked, as shown in Table 7.1:
Table 7.1: Purpose of Questions
Conversation Function of Question

Chairperson So, people, we are here to decide how we
can help the really poor pupils in our
school.
Judy A question, Mr Chairman. What is our Asking for information
definition of poor? What figure shall we
take as the cut-off point?
Chairperson Can we take the fatherÊs earnings as Responding to question:
RM1,000 (mumble the figures) and below asking for agreement
per month as the cut-off point?
Judy IÊm sorry. I didnÊt catch that. Can you Asking for clarification
repeat the amount, please?
Chairperson RM1,000. Has anyone any objection to Responding to question;
RM1000 as the cut-off point? Asking for agreement

ACTIVITY 7.1
Below is part of a discussion during a Parent TeachersÊ meeting. Read

the excerpt and write the purpose of each question asked. Choose
between asking for information and asking for clarification.
Conversation Purpose of Question

Chairperson So, there is a suggestion to double the
number of security guards. Any
response to this?
Judy Are we sure doubling the number of
guards works ... that the school will
be more secure?
Meng Chee Mr Chairperson, IÊm sorry but can
you tell us again as to how many
guards weÊre going to hire?
Chairperson Three.
Salmah ItÊll be expensive, wonÊt it? Does the
school have the budget for this?
Judy CanÊt we get the PTA to help out?
Chairperson Good questions, people. Let me
answer them one by one.

ACTIVITY 7.2
Complete the following discussion by forming correct questions and

providing relevant responses. Then, role-play the conversation with two
friends.
A: The toilets are filthy. _____________ ensure ____________ students

keep them clean?
B: LetÊs _________ students to clean the toilets. __________ allocate

toilets to classes ___________ responsible for toiletÊs cleanliness.
C: __________ wonÊt parents complain and _____________ ?
B ___________ get more workers __________ clean toilets ________ in

the morning and _________ in the afternoon?
A: ___________will the students _____________ responsible?
B: Not all _______ apples ______ bad but ______ bunch of them.
A: ____________ identify the guilty ones?
C: Perhaps_____________ station a worker outside ___________ to

check ____________ like ____________ at public toilets.
B: ___________ really work, ___________ think?
7.2 EXPRESSING OPINIONS, AGREEING AND

DISAGREEING
Sometimes, you may be asked for your opinion or required to respond to
anotherÊs. Opinions are formed based on oneÊs knowledge and feelings. To make
your opinions sound logical and credible, cite reasons and facts. Opinions can be
prejudiced and you may have to listen critically to be able to spot this.
You can listen to the examples on how to express opinions and agree or disagree
with them on the audio tracks provided.

Click on Audio 7.2 and Audio 7.3. Listen first and then read the text below.
Audio 7.2: Cross Country Run
Pn. Salmah: I think we should let the students run through the housing
estate for the school cross-country run. There would not be
much traffic in the morning.
Cik Hanis: I disagree. ItÊs safer for them to run round the lake and
through the lake gardens. ThereÊs absolutely no traffic there
and we can spot them easily.
En. Amin: Oh dear, I donÊt agree to both your suggestions. LetÊs challenge
the students. LetÊs make them run up and down the forest trail.
The „Gasing Hutan Pendidikan‰ trail is perfect for this.
Pn. Salmah: Oh no! That trail is too tough. The weaker ones will not be able
to make it!
Cik Hanis: I second that. I agree with Salmah totally. Amin, that route is
just out of the question! Salmah, I agree to your route... running
through the housing estate. LetÊs tell the rest of the committee.
Audio 7.3: Another Girl
Wife: I think I shall tell Sofia that we saw Adam with another girl.
Husband: No, we shall not! Why do we want to interfere? Adam may have
been talking to a colleague.
Wife: For such a long time? And they looked so cosy together!
Husband: ThatÊs your imagination, my dear! Adam loves our Sofia very much.
Wife: If that is so, then how can he go out with another girl?
Husband: You women are always like that ... suspicious all the time! It may
be nothing and now you have created something!

7.2.1 Suitable Expressions

Some suitable expressions for asking and giving opinions, agreeing and
disagreeing are given below in Table 7.2. You can use them as a guide to express
your opinion, to agree or disagree with members of your group.
Table 7.2: Suitable Expressions
Function Expressions
Expressing an opinion I think (that) ...
I feel (that) ...
In my opinion ...
In my view ...
IÊm certain (that) ...
From my point of view ⁄
Agreeing I agree.
YouÊre right.
ThatÊs right.
ThatÊs for sure. (informal)
Yeah, thatÊs right. (informal)
Disagreeing I donÊt agree.
I donÊt think so.
I disagree.
IÊm not so sure.
YouÊre wrong.
Asking for an opinion What do you think of/about ...?
What is your opinion of ...?
What are your views of ...?

7.2.2 Analysing the Conversation

Let us analyse the conversation in Table 7.3 below:
Table 7.3: Analysis of a Conversation
Conversation Function
Wife: I think I shall tell Sofia that we saw Adam States an opinion
with another girl.
Husband: No, we shall not! Why do we want to Disagrees. Gives reason.
interfere? Adam may have been talking to a
colleague.
Wife: For such a long time? And they looked so Supports her opinion
cosy together!
Husband: ThatÊs your imagination, my dear! Adam Disagrees. Gives a reason
loves our Sofia very much. to support his opinion.
Wife: If that is so, then how can he go out with Supports her opinion with
another girl? a question.
Husband: You women are always like that ...
suspicious all the time! It may be nothing
and now you have created something!

ACTIVITY 7.3
Analyse this conversation. State the

function of each utterance.
Conversation Function
Jill: My dear sister, I think we should have a
maid in the house.
Jane: Oh no! May I ask for what purpose? There
are only two of us in the house, so why do
we need a maid?
Jill: To help clean the house and cook the
meals, of course.
Jane: What for? We can always take turns
cleaning the house and cooking or buying
food. WhatÊs the big deal?
Jill: My dear sister, there are times when you
are outstation on work for several days on
end. I am terrified of being alone in the
house... especially at night! A maid will
keep me company.

ACTIVITY 7.4
Work in pairs. One person supports the

topic and the other person disagrees. Give
two reasons each to support your opinion.
Use the expressions given in sub-section
7.2.1.
Topic Opinion
1. Living in the countryside is much Speaker 1 a ....................................
better than living in towns. b ....................................
Speaker 2 a ....................................
b ....................................
2. The National Service should be Speaker 1 a ....................................
scrapped. b ....................................
Speaker 2 a ....................................
b ....................................
3. It is good to impose a curfew Speaker 1 a ....................................
on teenagers at night. The law b ....................................
should not allow teenagers to be
out of their homes after 11 pm. Speaker 2 a ....................................
b ....................................
7.3 NEGOTIATING
There are times when members at a meeting or discussion take opposing sides on
a particular issue. In this case, the art of negotiation is helpful. Through the
presentation of alternative suggestions and arguments supported by reasons, you
can get the group to reach a compromise or agree to what you want. Negotiation
is aimed at resolving conflict among people.
Most negotiations are to do with people, time and money. You can either
negotiate for a win-win situation where all parties win; or a win-lose situation; or
even a lose-lose situation. But whatever the situation, an important part of any
negotiation is the presentation of alternatives.
These are some phrases that we can use to negotiate:

(a) Can we do this another way ⁄?
(b) What about ⁄. /How about ⁄?
(c) All right then ⁄
(d) Okay, then ⁄
(e) Are you sure ⁄?
Listen to these audio recordings. Do not read the transcripts below until you
have listened to the recording.
Audio 7.4: Use of Funds
Singh: I think we should use the extra money for the old folksÊ home. We
can give the home a coat of paint.
Ben : I donÊt agree. I think we should give it to that private orphanage near
the lake gardens. I heard they are in dire need of funds.
Jamal: Hey people! HavenÊt you all forgotten something? We promised to
give a treat to the boys and girls who helped out. They worked so
hard for this fund-raising campaign.
Singh: Actually, we can always use school funds to give the students a treat.
Right now, we need to support that old folksÊ home. The place looks
so run-down and not many people support them.
Ben: What about the children at the orphanage then? The orphanage is
growing and there arenÊt much funds available.
Jamal: Hey people, IÊve just thought of something. Why donÊt we share the
money ... half for the orphanage and half for the old folksÊ home. As
for giving the students a treat, weÊll use the school funds for that.
Singh: Well, I can go along with that.
Ben: Me too.

Audio 7.5: Buying a Car
Buyer: All right, Sam, IÊll take the car but IÊll only pay RM16,000 for it.
Seller: Oh no, thatÊs too low. The market value is RM19,000.
Buyer: Look, thereÊs another one available. And the owner says I can have it
for RM15,000.
Seller: IÊm sure the fittings are not the same. This car has bucket seats, new
alloy rims and modifications which have been approved by JPJ. I can
come down by another RM1,000, thatÊs all.
Buyer: RM18,000! Hey, thatÊs still too high! Come on man, make it lower
still. My budget is only RM17,000. ThatÊs about it.
Seller: Hey man! You drive such a hard bargain.
Buyer: Look man, just think about it. Then give me a call.
Seller: All right! All right! RM17,000. ItÊs a deal.
ACTIVITY 7.5
Read the conversation below and answer the questions that follow.
Boy: I have to go on this trip. ItÊs an important nature study.
Woman: IÊm sure itÊs not compulsory. ItÊs only a club outing.
Boy: But all my friends are going!
Woman: Yes, their parents probably allowed them to go because
they agreed to do their chores and some studying.
Boy: All right, then. IÊll do my chores and my homework once I
get back from my trip.
Woman: Oh no, my dear boy. The chores and your homework must
be done over the next two days. After all, the trip is on
Saturday.
Boy: Yes, but IÊve lots of school things to do and donÊt have
much time to do your things.
Woman: Really? Then youÊll have to skip this trip and go on the next
one. By then youÊll have lots of time to do the work!
Boy All right! All right! IÊll do what you want me to do. Tell me
what you want.
Woman: Okay. Now, let me see what you have to do. First, ...

Questions:
1. What is the relationship of the two parties in this conversation?
2. What is the conflict in this situation?
3. Is this a win-lose situation or a win-win situation or a lose-lose
situation?
Give reasons.
4. How can this be a win-lose situation for the boy? (that is, the boy wins)
5. Who is negotiating? How does he/she negotiate?
6. Who appears to stand firm? How does he/she stand firm?
ACTIVITY 7.6
Role-play with two friends. Look at the following situations. One party
has to negotiate his/her way out of the situation.
Situation 1: You want to buy a new small car. You can afford the
monthly instalments. Your spouse and your son disagree.
They want you to carry on using the car you have and use
the money for things they want to purchase. They give
their reasons. Negotiate your way out of the situation.
Situation 2: There is an outing day for the staff. You and two other
members of the staff are to decide on the destination of
the outing. Your friends and you have different ideas.
Negotiate in such a way that they agree with your idea.

7.4 ARGUING AND CONCEDING

In a conversation, there are times when one person states an opinion and the
other disagrees. Both speakers support their positions with facts and reasons.
Sometimes, one speaker concedes that the other speaker is right. This means the
speaker agrees that the other person is right after much discussion. It appears
that the other person has „won‰ the argument.
Look at some of these useful phrases that can be used in your conversation or
discussion as shown in Table 7.4:
Table 7.4: Useful Phrases for Arguing and Conceding
Conceding a Point and Ending the Discussion

Conceding Finally
Continuing the Discussion Without Conceding
Maybe youÊre right, but ... You win. I respect your opinion, but I
donÊt agree.
I see your point, but ... I give up. We just donÊt see eye to eye on
this.
You have a point there, but ... YouÊre right. I just donÊt see it that way.
That may be true, but ... ă ă
Source: Tanka & Baker. (2002). Interactions 2: Listening /Speaking. McGraw-Hill.
ACTIVITY 7.7
Read the following conversation between

three friends. In groups of three, role-
play the conversation and then answer
the questions that follow.
Jerry: Hey, whatÊs wrong, May? Surely you enjoyed the film, didnÊt
you?
May: No. It was awful! There was too much violence. They
shouldnÊt show such movies at all.

Jerry: Hey, hold on. You saw how full the cinema was. Obviously, people
love such movies. You canÂt impose your views. If you do not like
such movies, you should stay at home.
May: I should have. How was I to know that the movie would be so
violent?
Sue: I donÊt think there should be total censorship ... not for adults
anyway. But I read somewhere that there may be a connection
between watching violent films and acting violently.
Jerry: Yes, there may be. But not all of us act violently after seeing such
films. If people do so, then there is something seriously wrong with
the person in the first place.
May: But what about all those children and teenagers watching the film?
This was a PG-rated movie. (PG = parental guidance)
Jerry: You have a point there, May. Parents should supervise their
children better and the cinema authorities should enforce such
ratings. They should not have allowed children in without their
parents. But this is different from total censorship which was what
you were talking about, May.
May: Okay, Jerry, you win. No total censorship. But next time, we shall
see a comedy.
Questions:
1. What is MayÊs problem?
2. What is MayÊs stand on violent films?
3. What is JerryÊs stand?
4. What point did Sue bring up?
5. How can children and teenagers be stopped from seeing such films?
6. Who won the argument and why?

7.5 TURN-TAKING
According to Thornbury (2005), the fundamental rule of turn-taking is that
speakers should take turns to hold the floor. This means that no two speakers
should speak at the same time. There are also two other rules to be observed,
which are that:
(a) Long silences are to be avoided, and
(b) We should listen when others speak.
The skills we can employ in turn-taking include:

(a) Recognising the appropriate moment to get a turn;
(b) Signalling the fact that you want to speak;
(c) Holding the floor while you have your turn;
(d) Recognising when other speakers are signalling to speak;
(e) Yielding the turn; and
(f) Signalling the fact that you are listening.
Listen to the following conversations for two examples of turn-taking in group

discussions. Click on audio 7.6 and audio 7.7. Do not read the texts below until
you have listened to the recordings.
Audio 7.6: Canteen
Group leader: ... And what do you think about the canteen operator, Mr Chua?
Mr Chua: I notice the food he serves is rather bland, for example, the
meehoon. ThereÊs hardly anything in the noodles for the
students. ItÊs just plain curried noodles! But in the noodles for
teachers, there are lots of stuff.
Pn Rosnah: I agree. The food for students is getting from bad to worse.
Not only that, the cleanliness is also nothing to shout about. I
often get this funny smell in the cooking area... rather like the
smell of stale food.
Cik Judy: And the packets of junk food that are sold at one corner of the
canteen. So unhealthy! So disgraceful! Something must be
done about that.
Group leader: People, shall we take a vote then whether to terminate or
extend the manÊs contract?

Audio 7.7: Speech Day
Chairperson: Good morning, people. We are here to discuss the Speech Day
and Prize-giving Concert. Any ideas, anyone?
Jagjit Kaur: Can we do something different this year like getting groups of
students to perform rather than individuals?
Mrs Ng: I agree. LetÊs show off our studentsÊ abilities. LetÊs have choral
speaking, a modern dance and the choir.
Abu: What about the school band? We can get part of the band to go
through some drill routines. By the way, the band is getting a
new set of uniforms just before the concert. I think the new
uniforms are stunning! What do you think, Mr Chairman?
Chairperson: I think that would be wonderful. But donÊt you think the band
would be a bit too loud for the school hall? People, what do
you all think of AbuÊs suggestion?
7.5.1 Signals
In formal contexts such as meetings or a classroom situation, people who wish to
speak often signal formally by raising their hand.
In casual talk, however, people use certain phrases and words known as
discourse markers to indicate their wish to speak. Some of these are:
(a) That reminds me (= IÊm continuing the same topic)
(b) By the way (= IÊm indicating a topic change)
(c) Well, anyway (= IÊm returning to the topic)
(d) Like I say (= IÊm repeating what I said before)
(e) Yes, but (= IÊm indicating a difference of opinion)
7.5.2 Making Everybody Active

These are some ways to make group members participate. Invite other people to
give their views. Usually, this is the role of the chairperson but members of the
group can also invite their peers to give views. This ensures that everybody
participates in the discussion or meeting.

Examples:
What do you think, Mrs Ang?
DonÊt /Do you agree, Mr Chairperson?
YouÊre very quiet, Leela.
I donÊt know what Joe thinks, but ...
Jagjit, you havenÊt said much so far ...
ACTIVITY 7.8
Get into groups of four and decide
how you all as teachers would advise
the students in situation 1 and 2
below. Ensure that all members of
your group participate in the
discussion. Use the words and
phrases in 7.5.1 and 7.5.2.
Situation 1
Two girls in Form 6 want to stop schooling. Both are bored with
classroom studies. One of them wants to work, the other wants to do
voluntary work. Both are intelligent girls and have been getting good
grades in class.
Situation 2
A group of older boys have been bullying several Form 2 boys. The Form
2 boys have discreetly come to you for help. They are afraid of
repercussions if it gets out that they have talked to a teacher. These
younger boys are afraid for themselves and their families. Among other
things, they are also forced to give money to the older boys.
You, however, are not sure what to do. You discuss the situation with
three good teachers.

7.6 EXPLANATION AND JUSTIFICATION

In a discussion, we are sometimes asked for our opinions. Since opinions are
formed based on our knowledge and feelings, it is better to give reasons and facts
to support them if we want our opinions to sound logical. Sometimes, we are
asked to explain and justify what we have said. It is good, therefore, to have
thought of reasons or explanations before we express our opinions.
Click on Audio 7.8 for an example:
Audio 7.8: Funfair
Farah: So, teachers, what kind of stall shall we, Blue House, have at the
funfair?
Hanis: I propose a food stall.
Farah: Any reason for that?
Hanis Yes. The food business is always lucrative. We can make at least 80%,
if not 100%, profit selling cooked food.
Das: I disagree. Profit is one thing but the messiness is another. ItÊs a
messy business having a food stall and thereÊs a lot of work involved.
Farah: How so?
Das: Well, for one thing, weÊll have to bring a gas stove for cooking. WeÊll
also have to provide water for washing and cooking. DonÊt forget,
we will be in the middle of a field without taps or water supply.
Then, thereÊll be spills to be wiped and cleaned up. Not all the food
may be sold so weÊll have to worry about carting it back. Again, for
the food to be sold, we would need food bags and cutlery, etc. And if
we run out of these, the food would just sit in those big pots. And, if
it rains, thatÊs another thing altogether. Gosh! Can you imagine the
mess then?
Hanis: Hey, Puan Das, donÊt be so negative. IÊm sure it wonÊt be all that bad.
Das: Okay, okay, go ahead and have your food stall. But donÊt say I didnÊt
warn you. People, can I propose something? Can I propose we run a
games stall, instead. Anybody with me?

7.6.1 Ways to Support and Justify your Opinions

According to Solorzano and Schmidt (1998), some ways to support your opinions
are as shown in Table 7.5.
Table 7.5: Ways to Support and Justify your Opinions
Ways of Supporting Example

Facts Spanking helps to prevent crime and not
Give facts to show that your ideas are increase it. I say this because in the 1950s when
based on true information and not spanking was a more common form of
just on feelings. punishment, there was less crime. So it appears
that as spanking decreased, crime increased.
Statistics I strongly oppose spanking because it can

Give numbers to show that your easily be turned into child abuse. This is
ideas are based on research. because 85% of child abuse cases begin with
the parent resorting to spanking as a way to
discipline the child.
Examples I donÊt think spanking teaches the child
Describe a situation to explain what anything. For example, your child hits another
you mean. child and then you spank him for it. WonÊt the
child be confused as to when hitting may be
bad and when itÊs OK?
Personal stories I think spanking helps the child to learn. For
example, I once stole a bar of chocolate from a
shop. My mother spanked me for it. Never
again did I take anything away from a shop
without paying for it.
7.6.2 Helpful Phrases to Show Support

Some phrases to introduce support are:
(a) For example ...
(b) For instance ...
(c) Let me give you an example.
(d) I say this because ...
(e) The reason for my opinion is ...

ACTIVITY 7.9
Get into groups of four. Discuss the four types of support, namely, giving
facts, quoting statistics, giving examples and telling personal stories.
Which is the most persuasive? Which is less persuasive? Are personal
stories more persuasive than facts? Give reasons for your answers. At the
end, come to a group consensus and report back to the class.
ACTIVITY 7.10
Listen to the discussion on Audio 7.8 (Funfair) again and answer these
questions.
1. What are the different persuasive tactics used in the discussion?

Give the names of the people involved as well.
2. If you were one of the teachers in that discussion, how would you
have reacted to (a) Cik Hanis and (b) Puan Das? Give reasons for
your answer.
3. Would you have seconded Puan DasÊs proposal to run a games

stall? Why or why not?

ACTIVITY 7.11
In groups of four, read the discussion topics below. On an individual

basis, first decide whether you agree or disagree with the statement.
Give a fact, statistic, personal story or example to support your stand.
Then, present your opinion to the group, explaining and justifying
your stand. Use your notes to help you.
At the end, come to a group consensus and present this to the class.
Which type of support was the most persuasive with the class?
Discussion Topic 1
Parents should spank their children.
Opinion: Agree/Disagree
Support: ____________
____________
Discussion Topic 2
Teachers should be allowed to spank their students.
Opinion: Agree/Disagree
Support: ____________
____________
7.7 INTERRUPTING AND EXPRESSING

DISAGREEMENT
Sometimes, in a meeting or discussion, we do not agree with what is said.
Some interrupt and voice their disagreement. Some wait for their turn to speak
and then voice their disagreement. It is more convincing to listeners if your
disagreement is supported by facts.

7.7.1 Useful Phrases to Interrupt With

Some expressions to interrupt with are shown in Table 7.6.
Table 7.6: Useful Phrases to Interrupt With
Formal Informal
Excuse me but ... Hey people!
May I interrupt please?
Sorry, but may I say something?
7.7.2 Useful Phrases to Express Disagreement

Some useful phrases to express disagreement are shown in Table 7.7.
Table 7.7: Useful Phrases to Express Disagreement
Formal Informal
I donÊt agree. ThatÊs a joke.
I donÊt believe that. ThatÊs a laugh!
I donÊt think so at all. YouÊve got to be kidding!
No, definitely not. YouÊve got to be joking!
IÊm afraid not.
I understand what you mean, but ...
Yes, but isnÊt it also true that ...

Listen to Audio 7.9 and Audio 7.10 for examples of people expressing
disagreement. Do not read the texts below until you have listened to the
recordings.
Audio 7.9: Bali
Singh: Friends, I think we should all go to Bali this coming holidays.

Ben : I second that. I think itÊs ⁄
Jamal: Hey! Excuse me, people. I thought we were all going to the Mulu
Caves.
Singh: Yes, but then this fantastic offer was in the papers ⁄
Jamal: Hey, sorry, man ... but I was so looking forward to seeing the caves
and doing some jungle trekking.
Singh: But arenÊt you attracted to the glamour of Bali?
Jamal: Well, definitely not at this moment. My heart is set on Mulu. Perhaps
you should join Chua and team to Bali?
Singh: Hey! YouÊve got to be kidding! ArenÊt we a team ... you, Ben and ...?
Ben: Hey, people. Cool it. What are we getting so emotional about? Now,
letÊs go over this thing again. Jamal, what is your suggestion?

Audio 7.10: Caterers
Harits: I suggest we use Syabas Caterers for the tea on Prize-Giving

Day.
Arieyanna: ThatÊs a joke. At the last function, they did not arrive ...
Daniel: Sorry to interrupt ... but at the last function, they were not
given clear instructions.
Harits: Oh no, it was not like that. Somebody at their office messed up
the instructions, not us!
Daniel: Oh! So that was how it was. Actually, I thought they served a
pretty good tea. The sandwiches were good and the tea was ...
Arieyanna: Excuse me! Excuse me! I thought the sandwiches had too little
filling, the tea was cold, the kueh looked and tasted terrible,
and the ...
Chairperson: All right! All right! YouÊve made your point. Anybody has any
good suggestions?

ACTIVITY 7.12
Use of Appropriate Expressions

Read the following conversations in which expressions of agreement
and disagreement are used both appropriately and inappropriately.
Then answer the questions that follow.
Conversation 1
In a college classroom, the student is challenging the lecturer.
Lecturer: And furthermore, it is my opinion, that if this small

country had not received financial aid from certain
countries, it would have lost the war.
Student: Are you kidding? Military planning was the key.
Question: Do you think the student was being rude or polite? Why?
Conversation 2
Now read how a different student responds in the same situation.
Lecturer: And furthermore, it is my opinion, that if this small

country had not received financial aid from certain
countries, it would have lost the war.
Student: Yes, but isnÊt it true that excellent military planning
helped the country to win the war?
Question: Do you think the student was being rude or polite? Why?
Conversation 3
At a company boardroom meeting, two members are discussing the
current situation in the company.
Executive 1: It is quite obvious that if our sales do not pick up, we

may have to retrench staff.
Executive 2: I canÊt believe that. We must first cut costs.
Question: Do you think these two executives will reach an

agreement easily?

Conversation 4
Now read the discussion between two other executives in a similar
conversation.
Executive 1: It is quite obvious that if our sales do not pick up, we may
have to retrench staff.
Executive 2: That may happen eventually if things go bad, but wonÊt it
be better to cut costs even further?
Question Do you think these two executives will reach an agreement

more easily?
ACTIVITY 7.13
Role-play with four friends. Look at these situations and cue cards.
Politely interrupt each other and agree or disagree with what is being
said. At the end of five minutes, reach an agreement as to what your
group decides.
Situation 1: You, as head of the household, have won a good sum of

money in a word puzzle contest.
Head: You want to buy a compact car.

Spouse: Wants to renovate the house.
Son: Wants the family to go on a vacation.
Daughter: Wants you to buy her a second-hand car.

Situation 2: A Form 6 student has been awarded a scholarship to further

his studies overseas. However, his mother has just been
diagnosed with cancer. He turns to four of his favourite
teachers for guidance. Below is the advice given by the
teachers. At the end of five minutes, reach an agreement as
to what your group decides.
Chua: Take the scholarship but be in constant touch with mother.

Farah: Give up the scholarship. Mother is more important.
Indra: Ask for the scholarship to be deferred to the following year.
John: Ask help from relatives to look after mother.
 In this topic, you learnt how to put forth arguments and concede an
argument; ask questions politely and respond to them appropriately; express
opinions, and agree or disagree with opinions; give explanations and
justifications; interrupt and take turns to speak.
 Members of group discussion have to participate actively by asking

questions, responding to questions, offering opinions, etc. to make the
discussion successful.
 Cite reasons and facts to make our opinions sound logical and credible.
 Negotiation will be successful if we provide alternative suggestions and

support arguments with reasons.
 There are two ways of negotiation:

ă To seek a compromise; and
ă To make others agree with you.

 We should listen when the others speak and avoid long silences in turn-
taking.
 People can use discourse markers as a signal that they wish to speak.
 Inviting other people to give views is one way to make group members
participate.
 It is always convincing to listeners when you support your disagreement

with facts.
Agree Interrupting and expressing disagreement

Argue Negotiate
Concede Purpose of question
Disagree Respond
Explanation and justification Showing support
Expressing opinions Turn-taking

Topic  Public
8 Speaking
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain the importance of public speaking;
2. Identify four main types of speeches in public speaking; and
3. Demonstrate an effective speech.
 INTRODUCTION
Public speaking is one skill that can really help you if you wish to perform well
in todayÊs world. In a way, a speech can be viewed as an enlarged conversation
as the skills involved are similar to those we use in everyday conversation. There
are, however, some differences. For one thing, making a speech requires more
preparation. Then, you need to speak for a longer period of time. Turn-taking in
public speaking is also delayed because the listeners listen to you at length and
only provide feedback when you pause, or at the end of your speech. The role of
public speaking in professional life is more evident in some occupations than in
others. If you are an educator, lawyer, community leader or salesperson, then
public speaking will be a routine part of your job. Even people in other
professions will find that at one time or other, they may be called upon to make
public speeches.

TOPIC 8 PUBLIC SPEAKING  169
8.1 THE IMPORTANCE OF PUBLIC SPEAKING

The importance of public speaking is that it improves your:
(a) Social skills;
(b) Academic and professional skills; and
(c) Public speaking skills.
8.1.1 Improve Your Social Skills

Public speaking can be a training ground for you to improve your social skills.
You may learn to conquer your fear of speaking in front of an audience, boost
your self-confidence and project yourself better in diverse situations. Very often,
an effective speaker exerts a dynamic hold on an audience and can be very
persuasive. A good speaker is usually sensitive to audience needs and reactions,
so you also learn to be a good listener who is mindful of verbal and non-verbal
feedback.
8.1.2 Improve your Academic and Professional Skills

Public speaking can also enhance your academic and professional abilities. You
will learn to be:
(a) A persuasive and effective communicator;
(b) More confident and able to project a positive self-image to others;
(c) More critical when analysing arguments and information given to you; and
(d) Able to respond appropriately to criticisms and arguments.
8.1.3 Improve Your Public Speaking Skills

Even if you are not a born orator, you can definitely learn to be a better speaker
than you already are. With the right training, you can overcome feelings of self-
consciousness and fear of speaking at length to an audience.
Public speaking skills will help you become more confident, charismatic and
influential. You will also learn to be more adept at reaching out to various types
of people as you tailor your speech to the needs of different audiences.

170  TOPIC 8 PUBLIC SPEAKING
The training will also enhance your leadership skills as you will learn to present
your views and convince and sway your audience, all without causing offence or
slight to any group of people. This is especially important in a multi-cultural
society like ours.
SELF-CHECK 8.1
Public speaking will help you to improve the following skills:

(a) ________________________
(b) ________________________
(c) ________________________
ACTIVITY 8.1
How Do You Rate?

Find out how apprehensive you are of public speaking. Complete the
questionnaire below by rating to what extent you think each statement
applies to you, using the given scale:
1: strongly agree 2: agree 3: not sure

4: disagree 5: strongly disagree
______ 1. I am not afraid of giving a speech.
______ 2. Some parts of my body feel tense when I am giving a

speech.
______ 3. I am completely at ease when giving a speech.
______ 4. I feel confused and tied up in knots when I am giving a

speech.

______ 5. I feel confident at the prospect of giving a speech.
______ 6. While delivering a speech I become so nervous that I

forget some things that IÊm supposed to say.
How Did You Score?

Compute your score in this way:
Add scores for items 1, 3 and 5.

Subtract scores for items 2, 4 and 6.
Add 18 to the total to get your score.
If your score is below 18, it means that you are not apprehensive
about public speaking. Any score above 18 indicates some degree of
apprehension. The higher your score, the more apprehensive you are.
If you score above 18, read on for suggestions to help you overcome
your fear of public speaking. And if your score is below 18, read on as
there are lots of tips to help you become an even better speaker.
(Devito, Joseph A. (2009). Human communication (11th ed.). Boston: Pearson.)
8.2 HOW TO BUILD CONFIDENCE IN PUBLIC

SPEAKING
Many speakers suffer from some degree of nervousness and anxiety before they
speak to an audience. There are many ways to try and alleviate this. Below are
some suggested techniques. Try them out and see which ones work best for you.
8.2.1 Change the Way You Think

Think positively and do not be intimidated by other speakers. Build your
confidence through careful preparation. Make use of a positive visualisation
process to reduce anxiety. Go through a positive public speaking experience in
your mind or enlist the help of someone who can guide you. This technique has
helped many people. Banish any thoughts of inferiority or failure from your
mind and focus only on one thought: „I can do it.‰

8.2.2 Systemic Desensitisation

Systemic desensitisation is used to treat many fears. It focuses on reducing the
physical symptoms related to anxiety associated with any event, and teaches
people how to relax. The aim is to associate feeling good and relaxed with
communication situations.
8.2.3 Skills Training

Apprehension arises if you feel that you lack the necessary skills, so go for skills
training if you feel that you will benefit from it. Skills training in public speaking
will teach you ways to organise ideas as well as prepare and deliver speeches.
Learning more about oral presentation skills will also help you feel confident
about giving speeches.
8.2.4 Prepare and Practise Your Speech

There is nothing like making careful preparations for your speech and then
practising many times. The worst thing you can do is to just memorise your
speech. What you should do is to remember the main points, write down notes
on cue cards, and express what you have to say naturally. Get family or friends
to listen to you. Practise your speech on them and get feedback.
8.2.5 Relaxation Techniques

Many relaxation techniques can be used to help you release tension when you are
about to give a speech. A simple one is to breathe deeply and then exhale slowly.
You can also close your eyes and roll your head slowly to relax when you are still
backstage.
8.2.6 Gain Experience

It is natural that speakers feel nervous before they make a speech. The best way
to minimise fear or anxiety is to get as much public speaking experience as you
can. With experience, your initial fears will give way to comfort, confidence and
even enjoyment.

SELF-CHECK 8.2
State six ways by which you can overcome your fear of public
speaking:
1. ________________________________________
2. ________________________________________
3. ________________________________________
4. ________________________________________
5. ________________________________________
6
ACTIVITY 8.2
Carry out the following activity at home.
Follow these instructions in order to experience systemic desensitisation.

This theory proposes that you overcome fear by adapting to a situation
gradually, exposing yourself in stages, from lesser to greater versions
of the thing that you fear.
Below is a suggested hierarchy of activities that you can engage in to

overcome your fear of public speaking.
5. Delivering a speech in front of an audience.

4. Introducing a speaker to an audience.
3. Speaking in a group in front of the class at a tutorial.
2. Answering a question during a tutorial session.
1. Asking your tutor a question during a tutorial session.

Use small baby steps to help you overcome your fear. Start at the
bottom with activity number 1. In your mind, visualise asking your
tutor a question at a tutorial session without feeling any anxiety or
apprehension. Visualise feeling very comfortable and at ease when you
are asking the question. Rehearse this step over a few days. Then, when
you are ready, go on to the next activity. Repeat this process until you
reach activity number 5. By then, you should, theoretically, have been
able to overcome your fear of public speaking.
Well? Did you practise the activity? How effective was it in helping you
overcome your fear of public speaking? Share your experience with
others at your next tutorial session.
(Devito, J. A. (2009). Human communication: The basic course (11th ed.).

Boston: Pearson.)
8.3 TIPS FOR GIVING AN EFFECTIVE SPEECH

We will now focus on the final aspect of public speaking, the actual delivery
itself. All the preparation in the world will not do you any good if you fail to
deliver and your speech falls flat. Read the following guidelines to help you
deliver a speech effectively.
8.3.1 Appearance
Dress suitably for the occasion. Go for formal dressing if the speech is to be given
at an official or corporate function. However, if the speech is for an informal
occasion or setting, then casual dress would be more appropriate. Take care that
you dress according to the dress codes of the community or society who will be
your audience.

Adapt your dressing to look similar to that of your listeners. This is one of the
tricks of the trade. Notice how community leaders tend to dress casually in batik
or wear head-dress or garlands when they speak to different communities all
over Malaysia. This is to convey the „I-am-one-of-you‰ message which develops
rapport and builds a bond between the speaker and the listeners. In this way the
speaker breaks down tension and diffuses feelings of hostility (if any) on the part
of the audience even before he speaks.
8.3.2 Body Language

Your body language says a lot about you. Adopt a confident posture, even
though you may have butterflies in your tummy. Stand tall and erect, with your
arms relaxed at your side. Keep your feet slightly apart for good balance. You
would not want to trip and fall flat on your face in front of your listeners. Walk
confidently onto the stage to speak.
Use gestures to emphasise a point or reinforce ideas. You can use arm
movements to complement verbal messages. However, do not overdo this. It is
distracting and irritating to listen to a speaker who continuously waves his arms
as if he is sawing the air.
Maintain good eye contact with your listeners. Focus your gaze on the audience
seated in different sections of the hall. If you are speaking to a large crowd, do
not forget to focus your eyes on the back of the crowd. You want to make the
listeners feel that you are speaking to each and every one of them.
8.3.3 Voice
When it comes to voice, you need to pay attention to your pronunciation,
intonation and articulation; pauses; and volume.
(a) Pronunciation, Intonation and Articulation

How you speak enhances your message. Pronunciation, intonation and
articulation are important vocal qualities that allow you to be easily
understood, especially when you want to emphasise important points. If
you speak with an accent, try to minimise this so that everyone can
understand you. Speak the standard language to be safe. However, if you
are speaking in a specific region known for its individualistic dialect or
accent, you may want to speak in their style.

(b) Pause
For maximum effect, pause at intervals when you speak. Do not speak too
fast or continuously without pause. It is better to speak at an unhurried
pace, stopping a while after raising a point, before going on to another.
Pause also when the listeners give verbal or non-verbal responses to your
speech, e.g. laughter, claps or hoots.
(c) Volume
Speak loud enough to be easily heard by all your listeners. How loud you
need to speak depends on the size of your audience. You will probably need
to speak louder to a crowd of 100 than to an audience of 30. Adjust your
voice accordingly, depending on whether you are speaking into a
microphone, loudspeaker etc. Be aware of noise interference like noisy
traffic or air-conditioners and adjust your voice volume accordingly.
SELF-CHECK 8.3
Fill in the blanks.
A good speaker takes care to adapt his appearance to look

(1) _____________ to his audience. He needs to have a confident
(2) _______________ by standing erect with shoulders back and feet
slightly apart. He will need to maintain good (3) _______________
contact with the audience. When he speaks, his voice is not too
(4) _______________. He should (5) ________________ his words clearly
and not speak too fast.

ACTIVITY 8.3
You have prepared a speech on „The Importance of Lifelong Education

in the 21st Century‰. You will be speaking at a seminar organised by the
Ministry of Higher Education. You will be speaking on stage at the
podium. There is a microphone and a good public address system. Your
audience will consist of members of the public, Ministry officials as well
as educationists.
Make short notes to remind yourself of what you need to do in order to

give an effective speech. You know your own strengths and weaknesses.
What kind of preparations do you need to make?
Reminder
Things to do/get ready:
1. ......................................................................................................................
2. ......................................................................................................................
3. ......................................................................................................................
4. ......................................................................................................................
5. ......................................................................................................................
8.4 DIFFERENT TYPES OF SPEECHES

There are four different types of speeches:
(a) The informative speech;
(b) The persuasive speech;
(c) The negotiation speech; and
(d) The argumentative speech.

8.4.1 The Informative Speech

This kind of speech aims to increase your listenersÊ knowledge, understanding or
abilities pertaining to a particular issue, topic or skill. In your working life, you
will probably need to make quite a few informative speeches. If you are a
teacher, you may need to give such speeches to students as well as to parents at
PTA meetings. If you are in the corporate sector, you may need to give speeches
to workers and administrative staff or to members of the Board of Directors at
meetings, for example.
(a) Types of Informative Speeches

The following are some types of informative speeches and their specific
purposes:
(i) Instruction
This speech is made to teach listeners how to do a certain task. The
steps are outlined clearly, e.g. how to change a punctured car tyre or
play futsal.
(ii) Demonstration
This type of speech is made to show listeners how to perform a certain
task. The actual task is demonstrated, e.g. how to bake a cake, perform
a science experiment or dance the cha cha.
(iii) Explanation
This type of speech gives an explanation for certain occurrences or
phenomena, e.g. how earthquakes happen or what global warming is
all about.
(iv) Description
This kind of speech is purely descriptive and gives you details of a
place, object or occurrence, e.g, a description of scenery, land or a
person.
(v) Briefing
This kind of speech summarises information that the speaker wants to
share with his listeners. It is usually presented at a meeting, e.g. a
briefing to headmasters on a new examination format or a summary
of the performance of the company for the year.
(vi) Reporting
This kind of speech provides detailed information on a particular
topic of interest, e.g. the outcome of a sales campaign or the results of
a survey on the reading habit among school children.
(b) Guidelines for Making Effective Informative Speeches

(i) Begin with a clear thesis statement.
(ii) Organise your speech well so that it is easy to follow.
(iii) Be sensitive to your listenersÊ values and experiences.
(iv) Adjust the level of complexity, usefulness and relevance of your
content to your listeners.
(v) Design your speech to facilitate retention and learning.
(vi) Invite audience participation.
(vii) Make use of presentation or visual aids.
8.4.2 The Persuasive Speech

The persuasive speech aims to influence listenersÊ attitudes, behaviour, beliefs or
even values. You may want to change, strengthen or weaken these attitudes,
behaviour, beliefs or values. There are times when you may want to persuade
them to take action, for example, start a study group or change their eating
habits. You may need to understand the nature of persuasion when making such
speeches. Changes cannot be made by coercion or by using the element of fear.
You may need to interact with the listeners and be sensitive to their needs and
emotions. Change takes place gradually and incrementally, if it takes place at all.
(a) Types of Persuasive Speeches

Persuasive speeches can be classified based on the main issue that each
speech addresses. Some examples are speeches that focus on:
(i) Facts
Questions of fact concern what is true and what is not, what
happened and what did not, and what exists and what does not. Facts
are based on evidence. However, persuasive speeches on questions of
fact may not be so simplistic. Think of the defence attorney making a
persuasive speech to a jury in a court of law. He will try to raise doubt
based on factual evidence forwarded by the prosecution. Were the
facts and evidence raised true or falsified? That is the question.
(ii) Values
Questions of value concern what people deem to be morally right or
wrong, just or unjust, good or evil. Some speeches may seek to
strengthen these values, attitudes or beliefs while others try to change
or modify them. Think of the teacher of Moral or Religious Studies
speaking to students in class or at a school assembly on such topics.
(iii) Policy
Questions of policy concern what rules should be adopted, what
procedures should be implemented, what laws should be changed or
what policy should be followed. Such speeches are made by people in
power, community leaders, heads of organisations, educational policy
makers and others involved in making changes.
(b) Guidelines for Making Effective Persuasive Speeches

The following guidelines will help you make an effective persuasive
speech:
(i) Anticipate selective exposure;
(ii) Expect gradual changes, a little at a time;
(iii) Identify with your audience;
(iv) Make logical appeals; and
(v) Use emotional appeals.
8.4.3 The Negotiation Speech

This type of speech is used in situations where you have to resolve a conflict, or
negotiate, mediate, or be the third-party for intervention in a crisis situation.
Usually, the parties are committed to reaching a decision, preferably one that
grants them what they consider minimally acceptable. They choose to focus on
the change-seeking function of argument in negotiation. They do not recognise
how it can include cooperation with the other party involved in the negotiation
process. However, in a cooperative perspective on negotiation, negotiators will
argue to negotiate aims to resolve, or reduce, conflict to the satisfaction of all
parties involved. Negotiation and bargaining involve concession exchange and
tactical use of power, which may be contrasted with attempts to convince others
through argument.
(a) Types of Negotiation

There are four types of negotiation techniques:
(i) Distributive Bargaining

Distributive negotiation forces opposing negotiators into a competitive
situation where one must win and the other must lose. This is the win-
lose situation („I win-you lose‰, or it might be the other way round).

(ii) Integrative Bargaining

Integrative negotiation allows for outcomes which benefit both
parties. This negotiation style allows for the possibility of goal
alteration, the expansion of outcomes, and sacrifice of some goals.
(iii) Attitudinal Bargaining

Attitudinal bargaining is negotiation that seeks to alter the relational
patterns between the involved parties. The negotiator must obtain a
consensus with the other party. It is more cooperative as the
interaction need not be constrained by fixed potential outcomes as in a
„I win-you lose‰ outcome.
(iv) Intra-organisational Bargaining

Intra-organisational bargaining is also more cooperative like
attitudinal bargaining as it seeks internal consensus among the parties
involved.
(b) Guidelines for Making Effective Negotiation Speeches

Below are some guidelines for making effective negotiation speeches:
(i) Do your research well;
(ii) Abide by the rules set out by both parties;
(iii) Make sure the parties involved trust you;
(iv) Use deductive arguments;
(v) Know yourself and take stock of your intellectual and emotional
makeup;
(vi) Understand your and the other partyÊs expectations; and
(vii) Be prepared to make bids and also give concessions.
8.4.4 The Argumentative Speech

Argument is often used to deal with conflicting opinions or beliefs. The
argumentative speech is concerned mainly with reaching conclusions through
logical reasoning based on evidence. This category of speeches also includes civil
debates, dialogues, conversations and persuasions. It is based on rules of logic
and making inferences. The argumentative speech also includes negotiation,
which is concerned with reaching mutually acceptable conclusions. It is often the
channel through which people can protect their beliefs or self-interests.

(a) Types of Argumentative Speeches

The following are some types of argumentative speeches:
(i) Debate and Negotiation

This includes civil debate and negotiation.
(ii) Eristic Dialogue

A branch of social debate in which victory over the opposition is the
main objective.
(iii) Legal Debate

This is used in a court of law. The theory of argument is used. This
includes the gathering of evidence, analysis of proposition, case
building, cross-examination, refutation, composition and delivery of
argumentative speech.
(iv) Tournament Debate

This consists of competitive debates, usually held between schools
and colleges.
(b) Guidelines for Making Effective Argumentative Speeches

(i) Arguments ought to comply with certain principles or norms;
(ii) Give reasoned arguments for and against a proposition;
(iii) Make rational arguments, not emotional statements and personal
viewpoints;
(iv) Debaters need to follow the rules of debate depending on the debate
format e.g. the Parliamentary Debate format;
(v) Critically evaluate and analyse the opponentÊs speech; and
(vi) Be ethical, fair and honest.

SELF-CHECK 8.4
Fill in the blanks.

1. When you are acting as an arbitrator in a trade dispute
between two parties, you may be called upon to make a
___________________ speech at the start of the meeting.
2. A speaker at an International Debate will deliver an

_________________ speech.
3. _________________ speeches are often made by people in the

education and training professions to increase the knowledge of
their students or trainees.
4. The lawyer representing the alleged offender made a brilliant

_______________ speech to prove his clientÊs innocence.
5. The environmentalist made a _______________ speech in an effort

to encourage people to reduce, reuse and recycle their garbage.
ACTIVITY 8.4
Introduction to Writing and Delivering a Speech

(The teaching-learning aids required for this activity are a recording
device and player. Students will be required to record their speech
and play it out at the tutorial sessions.)
Choose one type of speech and a simple topic that interests you. Write
out a brief speech using the outline in the following page. Practise
delivering your speech at home. When you think you are ready,
record your speech on a cassette tape. Play your speech out to the
class and ask them to identify the type of speech you have made. Do
not worry about making mistakes. This is just a practice exercise to see
how you fare. In the next two topics (Topics 9 and 10) you will
improve on this further and learn how to write speeches in detail and
make oral presentations.

Outline of a Speech
Purpose of the speech:
1. Introduction
(a) Attention-getting device (Capture listenersÊ attention, perhaps with a
joke or something interesting that is relevant to the topic you are
speaking on).
(b) Motivate the audience to listen to you (Give a good reason why they
should listen to you speak. Say something which has their interests at
heart).
(c) Thesis statement (What will you speak about? Provide your stand on
the topic).
(d) Preview of speech (Give a very brief outline of what you will be
talking about).
2. Body
(a) First main point:
(i) Supporting statement.
(ii) Supporting statement.
(iii) Transition statement (Sentence linking the main points).
(b) Second main point:

(i) Supporting statement.
(ii) Supporting statement.
(iii) Transition statement.
3. Conclusion
(a) Summary of main points.
(b) Closing statement.
4. References
(Wood, J. T. (2009). Communication in our lives.

Boston: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.)

 Public speaking can improve your personal and social skills, academic and
professional skills, as well as your public speaking skills.
 You can build your confidence in public speaking by:

ă Changing the way you think;
ă Going for systemic desensitisation;
ă Getting skills training;
ă Preparing and practising your speech;
ă Using relaxation techniques; and
ă Gaining experience
 Tips for giving an effective speech:

ă Dress suitably for the occasion.
ă Adopt a confident posture and use positive body language.
ă Speak well with good pronunciation, intonation and articulation.
ă Pause at intervals when you speak.
ă Speak loud enough so that you can be heard by all your listeners.
 The informative speech increases the listenersÊ knowledge, understanding or

ability pertaining to a particular issue, topic or skill.
 The persuasive speech aims at influencing listenersÊ attitudes, behaviour,

beliefs or even values.
 The negotiation speech is used in conflict negotiation, mediation, and for

third-party intervention in a crisis situation.
 The argumentative speech is concerned mainly with reaching conclusions

through logical reasoning that is based on evidence.

Argumentative speech Intra-organisational bargaining

Articulation Leadership skills
Attitudinal bargaining Legal debate
Body language Negotiation speech
Communication style Persuasive speech
Debate and negotiation Positive visualisation
Distributive bargaining Pronunciation
Eristic dialogue Skills training
Information speech Systemic desensitisation
Integrative bargaining Tournament debate
Intonation

Topic  Preparing
9 an Oral
Presentation
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Select a topic for an oral presentation;
2. Plan a speech related to the topic;
3. Organise the main ideas; and
4. Write the speech for an oral presentation.
 INTRODUCTION
Delivering an oral presentation requires good communication skills and
preparations (Figure 9.1). This topic explains some basic guidelines that you
should heed if you wish to deliver an effective oral presentation. Before presenting
a paper to an audience, it is advisable that you do some homework first.
Figure 9.1: Public speaking

Source: vocalworks.com.au
This includes checking out the audience attending the presentation, researching
the topic to be presented and interacting with the audience. It is very important
that you set aside time to make initial preparations such as analysing the
audience, determining the purpose, gathering materials, organising and writing
the main ideas as well as preparing visual aids.
188  TOPIC 9 PREPARING AN ORAL PRESENTATION
9.1 INPUT AND OUTPUT

As a presenter, you need to profile three factors:
(a) The occasion for the speech;
(b) The audience for whom the speech is intended; and
(c) The setting where the speech will be made.
All this input will give you some idea as to the preparations required and help
you to focus on the main points of the speech so that you do not touch on
unnecessary and irrelevant aspects.
9.1.1 Occasion for the Speech

Profiling the occasion for the speech involves asking questions about the aim,
that is, what the speech is meant for. Is it for commemorating a victory or
celebrating national day? Or is it a political speech?
You would also need to find out more about the organisation hosting the speech
as well as details and rituals like whether there is a need to recite prayers before
the start of the speech event, etc. As a speaker, you need to be aware of all this.
Other details such as the agenda for the event/day, and the specific length of
time given to you as a presenter can also help you to become more familiar with
the situation. This will contribute to putting you at ease and help you to
concentrate on organising the structure and content of your presentation.
9.1.2 The Audience

Profiling the audience for your speech could be difficult but it may be worth your
time to make the effort. Make enquiries about the audience, with respect to their
gender, age, social, economic and educational backgrounds, prior knowledge,
expectations, likes and dislikes, occupational backgrounds, place of residence,
habits, personality etc.
Basically, in order to create a connection between the speech and the audience,
you need to ask yourself these basic questions:
(a) Whom will I be speaking to?
(b) What do they know about the topic?
(c) What do they want to know about the topic?
(d) What do I want them to know at the end of the presentation?
TOPIC 9 PREPARING AN ORAL PRESENTATION  189
Once you know more about your audience, you can create speeches that are
appropriate for them in terms of content, the language used and even style. For
instance, a speech that is intended for school children would be different from
one that is meant for businessmen. Unlike adults, school children are usually less
able to handle content that is too abstract and language style that is indirect. The
use of metaphors and symbolism may also be lost on school children.
The style of your presentation should also be in tune with your audience.
9.1.3 The Setting

Making yourself familiar with the setting in which the speech is to be made is
one way to reduce panic attacks and minimise the risk of unexpected problems
cropping up at the last minute (Figure 9.2). For instance, you should find out the
exact location of the place where the presentation is to be held. Start off early for
the place if it is in the midst of a traffic congestion area. If you arrive early, check
whether you need to go up on stage to present your talk, and if there is a rostrum
or not.
Also check the public address system and the equipment that needs to be
utilised. There is always the risk that the computer and the LCD projector might
not function properly; find out how you can get in touch with the technicians
who can assist you should this happen.
You also need to know whether the speech will be held in a formal or informal
setting. If it is formal, you would need to be appropriately dressed and very
punctual; if it is not, then a certain amount of flexibility with respect to arrival
time and dress code could perhaps be tolerated.
Figure 9.2: SeminarÊs setting

Source: www.kucits.ca

ACTIVITY 9.1
1. Why is it necessary to complete a profile when you are making an

oral presentation? To be focused has been cited as one of the reasons
for completing a profile. Discuss this in terms of limitations to
content and time.
2. If you are required to give a talk on „Factors to consider when

applying for a job‰ to a group of graduates, which of the following
elements would you include? Explain.
Tick the appropriate box.
No. Factors Tick

(i) Writing application letter
(ii) Salary
(iii) Distance from the place of residence
(iv) Interest in the job
(v) Application through the Internet
(vi) Job promotion prospects
(vii) Paper qualifications
(viii) Looking through advertisements
(ix) Enquiry from friends
(x) Benefits
(a) Miss Aida has given several kinds of speeches. For each speech,
there is a time limit. How long do you think each of the following
speeches would normally take?
No Speeches Duration
(i) Birthday speech
(ii) Farewell speech
(iii) Assembly talk
(iv) Political speech

ACTIVITY 9.2
1. Why is it necessary to profile the occasion for a speech? You have

been invited to give a talk on motivation. What elements would you
like to include in your content?
2. Provide examples of opening addresses for formal and informal

occasions.
ACTIVITY 9.3
1. Why is it important to profile the audience for your talk? What are
some important characteristics of your audience that you should
know about before you make your presentation?
2. Suppose you are invited to deliver a speech on „Personal Hygiene‰

to a group of lower secondary school students. What would your
speech sound like? You have to take into consideration the content,
style and language used in your speech as well as the formality of the
occasion. Try to write two or three sentences on (a) body shampoo,
(b) hair shampoo and (c) brushing teeth.
No Aspects Sentences
(a) Body (i) __________________________________________
shampoo __________________________________________
(ii) __________________________________________
__________________________________________
(b) Hair (i) __________________________________________
shampoo __________________________________________
(ii) __________________________________________
__________________________________________
(c) Brushing (i) __________________________________________
teeth __________________________________________
(ii) __________________________________________
__________________________________________

ACTIVITY 9.4
1. Why profile the location/setting for your speech? Before beginning

a speech, there are several things that you need to do. Rank the
following steps according to priority or importance. Place your
numbers in the boxes. Use (1) for the least important and (5) for the
most important.
(i) Make phone calls to appropriate persons.
(ii) Start early on the speech day.
(iii) Check out the place several days before the event.
(iv) Enquire from people who know the place.
(v) Obtain a map of the location.
2. When you are at the location, you may want to check the specific
room or hall in which you are going to make your presentation.
What are the things you would check on? List four of these items.
(i) ________________________________________________________
(ii) ________________________________________________________
(iii) ________________________________________________________
(iv) ________________________________________________________
3. Are there any other aspects that need to be analysed? If you have to
analyse the following, what specific items would you look at?
(i) Protocol
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
(ii) Topics that have been previously covered

________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________

9.2 DETERMINING THE PURPOSE AND TOPIC

Once you know the occasion and location for your presentation, and the type of
audience attending, you are ready to set the aims and objectives of the
presentation. For instance, do you aim to convey, inform, relay, relate, influence,
persuade, appease, encourage, motivate, illustrate, clarify or appeal?
After determining the purpose, you can then set the topic. If your aim is to
motivate, then you would need to come up with a topic that suits the purpose.
Topics dealing with themes like procrastination, determination, endurance, not
giving up hope, would be appropriate.
9.2.1 Determine the Aim

As discussed above, the aim must be linked to the presentation topic. For
instance, if the occasion is to celebrate Independence Day in school, then the aim
is to relay the success of the nation. Based on this aim, you must then spell out
the objectives.
9.2.2 Determine the Objectives

The objectives should be more specific. For example, if the aim is as mentioned
above, the objectives could be spelt out as follows:
At the end of the presentation, the audience should be able to:

1. Understand the progress that the nation has made;
2. Cite examples of the nationÊs achievements;
3. Accept the important roles people play in nation building; and
4. Identify problems and solutions vis-a-vis the nation achieving its goals.

Alternatively, you could express the objectives in terms of what you want to do,
as in the example below.
Specifically, the speaker will:

1. Explain the progress that the nation has made;
2. Illustrate the achievements of the nation;
3. Provide awareness about the important roles the people play in nation
building; and
4. Clarify the problems and solutions of the nation towards achieving its
goals.
ACTIVITY 9.5
Given below are the purposes and topics of a particular presentation.
Match the purpose with the topic. One topic may have more than one
purpose. Draw an arrow to match the correct pairs.
Topic Purpose
 Progress and Development of a Nation Persuade
 Tips to Obtain Good Grades Appeal
 Positive Aspects of Computers: Buy One Inform
Get One Free Motivate
 Ways to Boost Confidence
 Building of Old Folks Home: The Need
for More Funds

ACTIVITY 9.6
Which specific objectives are related to which aims? Choose the

objectives below and write them against the appropriate aims.
No. Objectives
1. Explain the manner in which money would be spent
2. List the body parts that need to be cleaned
3. State the steps that can be taken to achieve good results
4. Explain why we need to be clean
5. Point out areas where the money would be channelled to
6. Provide tapes for achieving academic excellence
7. Mention the reasons why donation is needed
8. Cite specific activities that lead to improvement in grades
9. Show ways how cleanliness can be practised.
No. Aim Objectives

1. To convey the (i) ____________________________________
importance of ____________________________________
self-cleanliness
(ii) ____________________________________
____________________________________
(iii) ____________________________________
____________________________________
2. To motivate (i) ____________________________________
students to excel ____________________________________
in studies
(ii) ____________________________________
____________________________________
(iii) ____________________________________
____________________________________
3. To appeal for (i) ____________________________________
donation ____________________________________
(ii) ____________________________________
____________________________________
(iii) ____________________________________
____________________________________

9.3 COLLECTING MATERIAL

Collecting material related to the topic of presentation is one of the most
important initial steps in preparing an oral presentation. If the topic that you
have been invited to talk on is unfamiliar to you, you would need to start from
scratch. Firstly, you would need to be aware of which sources to go to, in order to
obtain input or material for your talk. This material can also be drawn from oneÊs
experiences. Sometimes, the material needs to be adapted so as not to go beyond
the time allocated for the presentation.
Even if you are familiar with the topic of presentation, you should still carry out
some research for new material. This way, you can break new ground in your
talk.
9.3.1 Information Resources

There are various sources from which you can obtain information. Resources
such as libraries and the Internet are very familiar to most of us. Information
from newspapers, magazines, CDs and journals should also be referred to. If you
wish to go beyond these usual sources of information, you can also conduct
interviews to get more information.
9.3.2 Life Experience

Tapping into your own life experience can provide thought-provoking and
inspiring material which can enhance the effectiveness of your presentation.
Genuine life experiences can help you to establish a real connection with the
audience.
9.3.3 Adapt Material

Material collected often needs to be adapted because of time constraints (length
of time allocated for talk) and to suit the needs of your audience. Facts and
figures should be kept to a minimum as the audience would not be able to digest
too much information in a short period of time. Select only significant facts and
figures if you wish to hold the listenersÊ attention.

9.3.4 More is Best

It is better to prepare more material than needed. This is to ensure that you do
not run short of material midway through your presentation. Having more
material than you need would also help to boost your confidence, especially
during the question-and-answer session. However, given the limited time frame,
take care not to go beyond the scope of the content and allocated time. Too much
information may make the speech lengthy and this could bore the audience.
ACTIVITY 9.7
1. Why is research still needed although what the presenter is going to

deliver is a topic within his area of expertise?
2. Name some databases where research materials can be accessed and
give some examples of online journals.
ACTIVITY 9.8
Get into groups of three. Try to relate some of your personal experiences
to your group members. Observe the extent of attentiveness shown by
your listeners. Do they seem extra attentive? Why?
ACTIVITY 9.9
1. If you are required to adjust and adapt material to be used for a

speech, what are the important aspects to bear in mind?
2. List two advantages and disadvantages of having more research
material than required.
No Advantages Disadvantages
1.
2.

9.4 STRUCTURING THE ORAL PRESENTATION

The oral presentation must be structured in such a way so as to reflect clarity and
smoothness. Bear in mind that your audience is a listening audience and not a
reading one. They do not have the luxury of going back to information they may
have missed or not comprehended. It is, therefore, important to frame your
points systematically so that the paper or presentation is effectively delivered.
9.4.1 Why Structure is Important

You need to have a structure for the presentation because the audience cannot
pay attention for a long period of time and may find the presentation difficult to
follow if it is not systematically structured and organised. A good structure helps
to capture and hold their attention.
9.4.2 Basic Procedures

Basically, you need to:
(a) Inform the audience what they are going to listen to;
(b) Present the content of the presentation; and
(c) Summarise the main points.
Hence, the basic procedure is to present a lucid introduction, well-researched

content and a comprehensive conclusion.
9.4.3 Main Ideas

It is advisable to limit the main ideas to between three and six only. Going
beyond this number would attract boredom rather than improve attentiveness.
The issues that need to be discussed within each main point should be reduced in
scope, especially when there is a likelihood that the presentation would go
beyond the time limit.
For better comprehension and retention, the gist of what is to be conveyed

should be spelt out clearly at the beginning of the presentation. Each of the main
ideas should be properly introduced, arranged and concluded.

9.4.4 Sequencing of Main Ideas

The sequencing of main ideas should be in a manner that makes it easy for the
audience to follow. One way is to start from the easier to the more difficult, or
from the known to the unknown. You can also opt to follow a time sequence. For
example, you can explain the progress of a nation by reporting first on the
earliest development and ending with the latest development. The arrangement
of the points can also follow a logical sequence.
9.4.5 Outlining the Material

The material collected can be put into certain categories based on the main ideas
raised. There might be a need to create sub-ideas under each main idea illustrated
in Figure 9.3. These sub-ideas should not be more than five to avoid confusion.
Figure 9.3: Sub-ideas
The sequence should be clear and logical. For instance, material for a talk entitled
„The Progress of a Nation‰ may have the following structure:
The Progress of a Nation

(a) Introduction (e) The third development
(b) The goals of the nation (f) Problems and solutions towards progress
(c) The first development (g) Conclusion
(d) The second development
Another way of developing a structure is by webbing or mapping. This provides

the presenter with a clearer picture of what issues he wants to include, or
exclude, in his paper. This technique gives the speaker an opportunity to see his
content holistically.

9.4.6 Writing Out the Presentation

After developing the structure, proceed with the writing process, which will be a
lot smoother if you adhere to the outline. You already have most of the material
ready. What is left now is to write up the points.
There are two aspects that you should bear in mind when writing:
(a) Language; and
(b) Style.
As mentioned earlier, the audience is listening to the presentation (refer to

Figure 9.4). This means that the language used for the paper should be simple
and not too complex:
(a) Words should be simple and comprehensible.
(b) Sentences should be short.
(c) Some ideas need to be repeated so that the audience would not be in doubt.
(d) Avoid clichés.
(e) Lastly, sentences constructed should be grammatically acceptable so that
clarity and comprehensibility are the outcomes.
With respect to style, be as simple as possible. The style of writing an academic

paper and a speech is not the same.
Figure 9.4: Audience is listening to the presentation

Source: www.squidoo.com

ACTIVITY 9.10
Get into teams of three. Discuss reasons (other than those mentioned
in the text) why structuring a speech is important.
ACTIVITY 9.11
1. The following is a speech delivered to juvenile delinquents. Locate

the main ideas in the speech.
Good morning boys. As you know, you are to be made aware

about the importance of „Showing Respect to your Elders.‰
Showing respect means showing admiration or feelings of honour

towards others. When we respect someone, we normally show our
best behaviour and habits. We would not show our bad behaviour
such as being rude, cruel, lazy, impatient and so on.
Do you know who your elders are? They are people who are
older than you. Clearly, your elders can be your parents, your
grandparents, your older relatives, your principal, teachers and so on.
We all should respect our elders. There are several reasons why we
should respect them. Firstly, our elders are the ones that take care of
us. For instance, our parents make sure that we are safe by giving us
a place to live, food to eat and clothes to wear. Secondly, our elders
teach us basic manners. Our parents and teachers always stress the
need to greet people, the importance of saying „thank you‰ and so
on. Thirdly, our elders provide us with the education that would
help us survive in this world. Parents would normally send their
children to schools so that teachers can provide their children with
knowledge and skills in reading, writing and counting.

I hope that after this, you will reflect on what I have presented, such
as on the meaning of showing respect to our elders, and the reasons
why you should respect them. I hope that from today, you would
show more respect to your elders. If you donÊt, your children and
grandchildren in turn may be mean and cruel to you in the future.
Thank you for listening.
Main Ideas
(i) ___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
(ii) ___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
(iii) ___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
2. Did the presenter state the main ideas at the beginning of the
speech? If not, what should he have stated?

ACTIVITY 9.12
1. You have been invited to give a speech on „Road Safety.‰

How would you sequence the main points given below?
Ć Cars, buses, lorries, vans, wagons, four-wheeled drives should
be in good condition. Drivers, adhere to speed limit; do not
follow behind other vehicles too closely; motorists should put
on seat belts and obey traffic rules.
Ć Cyclists and motorcyclists should wear helmets; wear bright-
coloured jackets; switch on headlights and obey traffic rules.
Ć Pedestrians should walk on pedestriansÊ pathway; when
crossing, should look left and right; use pedestrian crossing,
use overhead bridge if available and obey traffic rules.
2. Based on your answer above, fill in the main ideas and sub-ideas
on the mind map below.
3. By referring to the mind map, write a speech on „Road Safety.‰

9.5 USING VISUAL AIDS

Using visual aids is important in any presentation. However, it is important for
you to understand that a good presentation does not only rely on visual aids. The
key to a good presentation lies in the presenter himself.
Every presenter has to understand that visual aids are important tools in
presentations. However, they must also realise that the purpose of these aids is to
enhance the presentation and not replace the presenter or the presentation (refer
to Figure 9.5). The reason why visual aids are sometimes not used much in
presentations is because it is time consuming to prepare them.
Figure 9.5: Visual aids

Source: avsii.com
However, a speech without visual aids is usually less effective compared to one
that uses visual aids. If you want to achieve specific goals, for instance, sell a
product, attract an audience or get students to enroll in a private college, visual
aids should be used. You can even use a combination of aids to add variety to
your presentation.
9.5.1 The Need for Visual Aids

Why should we use visual aids? The way we take in information during a
presentation is one of the factors why visual aids are important. Professor Albert
Mehrain, who did a lot of research in this area, concluded that 55% of the
information we take in during a presentation is visual; only 7% is text; as shown
in Figure 9.6.

Figure 9.6: Visual aids are important in presentations

Source: http://www.consultpivotal.com/visual_aids_presentation.htm
In short, visual aids are used for various reasons.

(a) Firstly, they can enhance the audienceÊs comprehension of the subject matter.
As mentioned earlier, the audience is merely listening and looking at the
presenter while he is presenting. It would take them a while to digest the
information that they receive through their ears. Very often, they may not
even interpret the message as intended. Visual aids would probably help
them grasp the content of the message more quickly, and minimise
miscommunication, misunderstanding and misinterpretations caused by
intervening variables such as environmental and personality factors while the
message is being transmitted. Points which are not clear could be explained
through the use of such aids. Similarly, elements and concepts which are
difficult to explain through words can also be clarified via such aids.
(b) Secondly, the use of visual aids helps listeners to be more focused as they
can catch their attention and hold it for a longer period of time.
(c) Thirdly, visual aids can add authenticity, beauty, credibility and variety to
the entire presentation. The messages presented via visual aids stay longer
in the mind of the audience and ensure that they really „listen‰ and not just
„hear‰.
9.5.2 Examples of Visual Materials

There are numerous kinds of visual aids and materials available in the market.
They can be divided into three categories:
 Unprepared materials;
 Prepared materials; and
 Visual equipment.

(a) Unprepared Materials

Unprepared materials consist of information which is not prepared in
advance but are displayed to the audience there and then. The information
can be written on the board or on flipcharts illustrated in Table 9.1.
Table 9.1: Unprepared Materials
Writing Board  Can be in the form of blackboard, chalkboard or

whiteboard.
 The most available and accessible aid.
 While talking, the presenter can write the main points
on the board.
 Can be used to draw simple sketches and diagrams.
 When writing on the board, the speaker has to ensure
that the writing and diagrams are large and clear
enough for the audience to read from where they sit.
 The whiteboard should be written using an erasable
marker and not permanent ink. Unwanted information
could then be easily erased if new information needs to
be shown.
Flipcharts  An alternative to the chalkboard or white board.
 The presenter should adhere to the same rules as when
using the chalkboard.
 When the presenter is done with the first flipchart, he
can flip to the next blank flipchart.
(b) Prepared Materials

Prepared materials consist of information which is prepared in advance.
This kind of materials include:
(i) Non-projected materials; and
(ii) Projected materials.
Non-projected materials refer to pictures, posters, realia, models and

handouts. Projected materials comprise slides, transparencies, video clips
and digital data in CD as shown in Table 9.2. Information printed on A4
size paper can be projected if a special projector is available.

Table 9.2: Prepared Materials

(c) Visual Equipment

There are several equipment that you should be familiar with and know
how to operate when making presentations. Examples include OHP,
opaque, slide and LCD projectors; video, CD and DVD players; television;
and computer.
9.5.3 Guides for Using Visual Aids

Below are some simple rules that can be followed when using visual aids:
(a) Do not use aids just for the sake of using aids. You need to know the
reasons for using visual aids in any presentation.
(b) Refrain from using too many visual aids.
(c) This is because the audience could be more attracted to the aids than to the
speaker and the speech. Instead of functioning as an attraction, visual aids
could end up becoming a distraction.
(d) After the aids have been prepared, practise delivering your speech, using
these aids.
(e) Showing aids to the audience means adding more time to the duration of
the presentation, so you would need to practise using the aids in order to
make the necessary adjustments to the length of your presentation.
(f) If you wish to use equipment such as overhead projector, opaque projector
or LCD projector, ensure that you are thoroughly familiar with the
equipment. Practising using them before the presentation will help you in
the actual presentation.
(g) Prior to the speech, check to make sure that the equipment you want to
utilise is available. However, note that availability of the equipment does
not mean that it is definitely in good working condition. Hence, it is very
important to check the condition of the equipment. For instance, an
overhead projector might have a blown bulb which needs to be replaced.
(h) The presenter must ensure that the aids shown relate to the specific points
discussed.
It is very important that the visual aids help to make your points interesting,
memorable, and clear. Do not show a visual aid stressing one point when you are
talking about another point. This will confuse the audience.
If you are going to get an assistant to flash the transparencies or slides, make sure
that the assistant knows what you are talking about and shows the right slide at
the right time.

ACTIVITY 9.13
1. Have you ever heard a speech in which the speaker did not make
use of visual aids? How did you feel?
2. Conversely, think back to a speech that you heard, in which the

speaker did make use of visual aids. How did you feel?
3. In court, defense lawyers often use visual aids during their

presentation. Why is this so?
4. When delivering a political speech, is it necessary for a politician to

use visual aids? Why?
ACTIVITY 9.14
1. What other aids have not been mentioned in the text?
2. What the advantages and disadvantages of using the following

aids?
Aids Advantages Disadvantages
Posters
Realia
Video Clips
Digital data

ACTIVITY 9.15
If you encounter the following problems, what would you do? What
precautions should you have taken?
Problem 1 You prepared your presentation materials on PowerPoint.

Unexpectedly, however, you find that the version of your
PowerPoint file is incompatible with the software on the
computer to which the LCD projector is connected. What
should you do?
Problem 2 You are now in Australia to present a paper at a conference.
To your dismay, you find that you have forgotten to bring
along the transparencies that you prepared in Malaysia.
What should you do to overcome this problem?
SELF-CHECK 9.1
What important steps would you take to ensure that you are prepared
for any presentation?
 In this topic, you learnt about various aspects related to making preparations
for your oral presentation.
 Aspects that have been touched on include completing a profile of the

occasion for the speech, finding out more about the audience and the venue
of the speech, determining the purpose and objectives of the presentation,
collecting materials and structuring your presentation.
 You also learnt about the importance of using visual aids to make more
effective presentations.

Aim Profiling audience

Material adjustment Profiling location
Material limitation Profiling occasion
Objective Structure
Outline Visual aids

Topic  Making
10 an Oral
Presentation
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Express a proper introduction to the topic of the speech;
2. Demonstrate the content in an organised manner;
3. Summarise a suitable conclusion; and
4. Create participation from the floor.
 INTRODUCTION
You have now come to the last topic in this module. After reading Topic 9, you
will realise that giving a speech or making an oral presentation is a skill that can
be acquired. Most of us fear or hesitate to speak before a crowd. However, half
the battle is won if we are sure of what we want to talk about. So, the first thing
we should do is to know how long we are going to speak and who our audience
is. Then, we prepare the content accordingly. Well-prepared content helps to
build confidence.
The next step is the actual presentation itself. Many people have butterflies in
their stomachs and actually cringe before a crowd. But the thing to do is to calm
the butterflies and build up our confidence. Rehearsing in front of a mirror (to
see how we stand, look and deliver) and before friends (who will give us fair and
honest feedback about content and delivery) are important before the actual
presentation itself.

TOPIC 10 MAKING AN ORAL PRESENTATION  213
10.1 INTRODUCING THE TOPIC

An important step when giving a speech or making an oral presentation is to
introduce the topic before beginning to talk about it. This helps to prepare the
audience to listen to the presentation or „cue them in‰, so to speak.
You can listen to both a good and a bad example of a speech on Audio track 10.1.
Click on Audio 10.1 (Part I) for a poor example or Audio 10.1 (Part II) for a better
example.
Listen to the recording first, and then read the transcript below.
Audio 10.1: Media (Part I)
Good morning, ladies and gentlemen.

The media should not play up results. They should not highlight winners
and losers. Not only is it in poor taste, it is also not fair to students who have
studied very hard but did not make the grade. The media should be more
sensitive to these students. In fact, the media should do the reverse and
highlight students who have moved up a notch rather than focus on top
scorers.

214  TOPIC 10 MAKING AN ORAL PRESENTATION
Audio 10.1: Media (Part II)
Good morning, ladies and gentlemen.

Today, I stand here before you to talk about examination results and the
media. I feel that the media should not play up examination results. They
should not highlight winners and losers. Not only is it in poor taste, it is also
not fair to students who have studied very hard but did not make the grade.
The media should be more sensitive. In fact, they should do the reverse, and
highlight students who have moved up a notch rather than focus on top
scorers.
SELF-CHECK 10.1
After listening to both speeches on Audio 10.1, do you think Part II is

better than Part I? Identify their respective strengths and weaknesses.
As mentioned in Topic 9, it is very important to start your speech or oral

presentation with an introduction. Some useful phrases commonly used to
introduce a topic are as follows:
(a) Good morning ladies and gentlemen,

Today, IÊd like to talk about ⁄
(b) Good morning ladies and gentlemen,

My topic for today is ⁄
(c) Good morning ladies and gentlemen,

⁄ is the topic of my presentation today.

Techniques
Here are some suggestions on how you can start giving your presentation:
1. Begin with one of the useful phrases above.
2. Begin with a question. For example: What do you think of examination

results?
Then use one of the phrases above.
3. Begin with a statement about the topic. For instance: Examination

results can either make or break students.
Then use one of the phrases above.
Note: When you start a topic, it is better to be specific rather than vague.
Example:
Today, IÊd like to talk about examination results. (general)
Today, IÊd like to talk about examination results and the media. (specific)
ACTIVITY 10.1
1. Work in pairs. Choose three topics and make them more specific. Then
prepare an introduction for each topic. Use the outline given below.
Oral Presentation Topics

fashion discipline studies teachers traditional
fast food obesity friends cities customs
Outline
General topic: .......................................................................................................
Specific topic: .......................................................................................................
Some notes on content: .......................................................................................
2. Meet in small groups. Take turns presenting your introductions. The

group will then predict what the topic is about and what they think
the rest of the presentation will include.

10.2 PRESENTING THE CONTENT

When presenting the content, it is important to organise your presentation. The
more time you spend on preparation, the more organised and coherent the
content of your speech. For example, if you have been invited a month back to
speak on ChildrenÊs Day, you have more time to prepare and a well-organised
speech is expected.
In contrast, impromptu speeches are those that people make on the spot without
any preparation. These speeches challenge us to think quickly and are a favourite
teaching tool among teachers to get students used to speaking before a group of
people.
10.2.1 A General Outline

In gathering information about the topic, the first thing you should do is to find
out how long you are to speak. Find out too, about the audience that you will be
speaking to. Are they all adults (parents) or teenagers, or a mix of both? Then,
gather the necessary information. It is good to outline what you are going to
speak about. You can prepare the outline as below:
(a) Introduction of the topic.
(b) Body of the talk:

(i) Definition of terms (if any);
(ii) Describing the situation;
(iii) Points in favour; and
(iv) Points against.

(c) Conclusion
(i) Summarising the main points; and
(ii) Concluding with an appeal, proposal, etc.
10.2.2 The Actual Presentation Itself

When making the actual presentation, bear in mind the following:
(a) Stand straight, donÊt slouch.
(b) Maintain eye contact with the audience.
(c) Greet the audience, and then start your presentation.
(d) Give an overview of what you are going to talk about.
(e) Try not to read from your notes. Talk to the audience instead.
(f) Use your notes as prompts only.
(g) As you speak, turn your head slowly to look at one section of the crowd
before turning to another section.
(h) Pause between ideas. DonÊt rattle on at full speed.
(i) Speak with an even tone. Be loud enough to be heard but do not shout.
Similarly, donÊt talk to yourself, mumble or speak too softly.
(j) At the end, summarise what you have said.
(k) Then, thank the audience for being good listeners.
(l) Invite comments and participation.
(m) When itÊs over, leave with a smile.

ACTIVITY 10.2
Let us make some impromptu speeches. Work in pairs. Select a topic

each. Take five minutes to prepare a speech on the topic selected.
Make brief notes only. Do not write out the speech as you do not have
time. Look at the suggested topic and outline below for help and as a
guide. Then present your speech in two minutes. Invite comments
from the floor.
Example: Topics on Fashion
Suggested Outline for Presentation
(a) Describe the fashion item.
(b) What did people do in our culture before the fashion was
invented?
(c) What do people do now as a result of this fashion item?
(d) Do you like the fashion? Why or why not?
(Adapted from Solorzano, H. S. and Schmidt, J. (1998) North Star: Focus on

Listening & Speaking. N.Y. : Addison Wesley Longman.)
Listening Task for the Audience

To share your thoughts after the presentation, think of answers to these
questions:
1. How do people in our culture feel about the fashion item?
2. Compare the views of the speaker with your own. Are they similar
or different? Explain the similarities or differences.

10.3 GIVING THE CONCLUSION

An important step when giving a speech or making an oral presentation is to
conclude the talk well. In concluding, there are two steps involved.
(a) First, you should summarise the main points of your presentation or, at
least, give a line that summarises the presentation. This helps the audience
to grasp what has been said (refer to Figure 10.1).
(b) Second, thank the audience for being good listeners. And smile as you
leave.
Figure 10.1: The audience response

Source: www.bdnewtech.com
Some useful phrases to conclude a presentation are shown in Table 10.1 below:
Table 10.1: Useful Phrases to Conclude a Presentation
Type of Conclusion Phrases

Straight conclusion  In conclusion, ladies and gentlemen, let me say (that
children have their rights and we should respect those
rights.) Thank you.
Summarising  In conclusion, ladies and gentlemen, let me first summarise
the main points of my talk. First, ... Second, ... Thank you
for being a wonderful audience.
 Before I conclude, ladies and gentlemen, let me summarise
what I have said. First, ... Second, ...
Inviting participation  And that, ladies and gentlemen, is the end of my talk. Now
let me open the floor for any questions or comments.
 And that, ladies and gentlemen, concludes my talk for the
day. I now invite questions and comments from the floor.

ACTIVITY 10.3
Work in pairs. Write conclusions for the three topics chosen earlier in
Activity 10.1 (1). Summarise and conclude. Take turns presenting to
each other.
Examples of Oral Presentation Subjects

fashion discipline studies teachers traditional
fast food obesity friends cities customs
Try to write the conclusion for your presentation using suitable phrases.
................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................
10.4 INVITING PARTICIPATION

At the end of your talk, you can invite questions and comments from the floor.
However, you have to be cautious. Generally, at the end of speeches, speakers do
not invite participation from the floor, for example, on occasions such as a school
assembly or ChildrenÊs Day celebrations.
Some useful phrases to invite participation are as follows:
And that, ladies and gentlemen, is the end of my

talk.
Now let me open the floor for any questions or
comments.
And that, ladies and gentlemen, concludes my talk

for the day. I now invite questions and comments
from the floor.

ACTIVITY 10.4
Work in Pairs
1. State the function of each utterance. Use the clues given.
Giving examples Urging action

Thanking the crowd Thanking the chairperson
Passing the floor back to the chairman Stating the problem
Identifying oneself Greeting
Text of Talk Function

Good afternoon, ladies and gentlemen.
Thank you, Mr Chairman, for letting me speak.
I am Mrs Tan and I live at No. 12, 13/1. I
want to talk about the lack of security in our
neighbourhood.
Of late, our neighbourhood seems to be the target of
thieves and robbers.
In just over three months, four houses have been
robbed. And in the same period, too, there have
been about five snatch theft incidents in broad
daylight. I know for sure that some households
have installed alarms, but is this enough?
CanÊt we do something collectively to keep the
neighbourhood safe? Must we continue living in
fear?
Thank you, ladies and gentlemen, for listening to
me. Over to you, Mr Chairman.
2. Role-play presenting the talk to each other.

ACTIVITY 10.5
Work in Pairs
1. Complete the text of the talk below.
2. Role-play presenting the talk to each other.
Text of Talk
Good afternoon ladies and gentlemen,
As chairman of the neigbourhood committee, I thank you all for
coming today. The last time we met about _____________ , not
many of us turned up. Today I see a __________ . Perhaps it is the
urgency of the matter.
As you all know, our neigbourhood has been the target of
______________________. Mrs Tan and a number of you voiced
your concerns the last time. We have to take steps to keep our
neigbourhood safe.
On behalf of the committee, I want to put forward three
proposals.
Proposal 1: That we hire ________________ ___________________
from seven in the evening to seven in the morning. For this
purpose, each household will have to _____________________ .
Proposal 2: That we install gates at both ends of our back lanes.
Each household will get a set of duplicate keys for the locks on
these gates. This will prevent ______________ ____
_________________.
And last but not least, I propose that we write to our local police
station to urge the police to _____________________________.
These, ladies and gentlemen, are our proposals. ______
_________________________. I now open the floor for questions,
comments, and counter-proposals.

ACTIVITY 10.6
Oral Presentations
You have been invited by various clubs of a school to speak to their
members (both boys and girls) on one of the following topics. They
have asked you to speak for 15 minutes. Prepare suitable content and
make your presentation.
 In this topic, you learnt how to make an oral presentation confidently.
 An important step when giving a speech or making an oral presentation is to

introduce the topic before beginning to talk about it.
 When presenting the content, it is important to organise your presentation.
 It is good to outline what you are going to speak about.
 When making a presentation, try not to read from your notes. Talk to your
audience instead.
 At the end, summarise what you have said and thank the audience for being
good listeners.
Body of the talk Introducing the topic

Concluding Inviting participation
Impromptu Outline

224  CASE STUDY
References
Baran, S., & Davis, D. (1995). Mass communication theory: Foundations, ferment
and future. Belmont, California, USA: Wadsworth Publishing Co.
Bassham, G., Irwin, W., Nardone, H., & Wallace, J. (2000). Critical thinking: A
studentÊs introduction. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Camp, S. C., & Satterwhite, M. L. (2002). College english and communication

(8th ed.). USA: Glencoe/McGraw-Hill.
Cook, V. J. (1974). English topics.. London: OUP.
Cragan, J. F., & Wright, D. W. (1999). Communication in small groups: Theory,

Process, Skills. Belmont, California, USA: Wadsworth Publishing Company.
Daniels, T. D., Spiker, K. A., & Papa, M. J. (1997). Perspectives on organisational

communication. Boston, USA: McGraw-Hill.
Devito, J. A. (2009). Human communication: The basic course (11th ed.). Boston:
Pearson.
Golebiowska A. (1987). Getting students to talk. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Hanreddy, J., & Whalley, E. (2002). Mosaic 1: Listening and speaking (4th ed.).
Wisconsin: McGraw Hill Contemporary.
Johnson, K. (1981). Communicate in writing. Essex: Longman Group Limited.
Jordan, R. R. (1997). English for academic purposes. Cambridge: OUP.
Matthews, C. (1994). Speaking solutions. USA: Longman.
Ng Keat Siew et al. (2001). Study skills for the MUET. Kuala Lumpur: Federal
Publications.
Rogers, C., & Roethlisberger, F. J. (1952) Barriers and Gateways to

Communication. In Harvard Business Review. Nov 1, 1991. US: Harvard
Business Publishing.

REFERENCES  225
Solorzano, H. S., & Schmidt, J. P. (1998). North star: Focus on listening and
speaking. NY: Addison Wesley Longman.
Thornbury, Scott. (2005). How to teach speaking. UK: Pearson Education Ltd.
Thrush, E. Blass, L., & Baldwin, R. (2003). Interactions access:

A.,
Listening/speaking (4th ed.). New York: McGraw Hill International.
Tierney, E. (1998). 101 ways to better communication. London: Kogan Page.
Viney, P., & Viney, K. (1997). Handshake: A course in communication. Oxford:

OUP.
Wolf, J. C., & Dale, P. (2000). Speech communication made simple. UK: Pearson.
Wood, J. T. (2009). Communication in our lives. Boston: Wadsworth Cengage

Learning.

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OUMH1303

ENGLISH FOR ORAL

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Module Writers: S Sivagnanachelvi

Enhanced by: Assoc Prof Dr Woo Tai Kwan

Developed by: Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

Printed by: Meteor Doc. Sdn. Bhd.

First Printing, April 2008

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 1 Communcation: An Overview 1

Topic 2 Oral Communication: Some Basic Principles 20

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2.4 Interference in Communication 37

Topic 3 Active Listening Skills 41

Topic 4 Listening in Formal/Academic Contexts 55

Topic 5 Speaking: Speech Training 88

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5.7 Voice Modulation and Projection 109

Topic 6 Speaking in a Social Context 113

Topic 7 Group Interaction Skills 138

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Topic 8 Public Speaking 168

Topic 9 Preparing an Oral Presentation 187

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9.4 Structuring the Oral Presentation 198

Topic 10 Making an Oral Presentation 212

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Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION

As an open and distance learner, you should be acquainted with learning

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Table 1: Estimation of Time Accumulation of Study Hours

Topic 1 gives you an overview of communication in general, including what

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Topic 3 explores active listening techniques such as listening to comprehend

Topic 5 explains speaking as a skill that needs to be developed and practised

Topic 7 highlights techniques that will help learners participate actively in

Topic 8 discusses the importance of public speaking and offers tips on

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TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

Self-Check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations

Activity: Like Self-Check, the Activity component is also placed at various

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References: The References section is where a list of relevant and useful

TAN SRI DR ABDULLAH SANUSI (TSDAS)

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Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Why do we need to study communication? From the

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1.1 WHAT IS COMMUNICATION?

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_______1. Communication can involve only one person.

_______2. Communication involves two or more people.

_______3. In order for communication to take place, there must be a

_______4. In a communication act, the speaker can become the

_______5. You can communicate by speaking, writing letters or

_______6. You can communicate via facial expressions and body

_______7. You can communicate without having to be physically

1.1.1 Defining Communication

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This is particularly apt in the case of oral communication as oral communication

Figure 1.2: Carl Rogers