CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Reactive powder concrete

Reactive powder concrete (RPC) is ultra-high strength and high ductile composite material with
advanced mechanical properties. Reactive powder concrete is a concrete without coarse aggregate, but
contains cement, silica fume, sand, quartz powder, super plasticizer and steel fiber with very low water
binder ratio. The absence of coarse aggregate was considered by inventors to be key aspect for the
microstructure and performance of RPC in order to reduce the heterogeneity between cement matrix and
aggregate.
1.2 History and development of RPC
The concept of reactive powder concrete was first developed by P. Richard and M. Cheyrezy and RPC
was first produced in the early 1990s by researchers at Bouygues laboratory in France. The world’s first
Reactive Powder Concrete structure, the Sherbrook Bridge in Canada, was erected in July 1997. The
addition of supplementary material, elimination of coarse aggregates, very low water/binder ratio,
additional fine steel fibers, heat curing and application of pressure before and during setting were the
basic concepts on which it was developed. Compressive strength of RPC ranges from 200 to 800 MPa,
flexural strength between 30-50 MPa and Young’s modulus up to 50-60 GPa. There is a growing use of
RPC owing to the outstanding mechanical properties and durability. RPC structural elements can resist
chemical attack, impact loading from vehicles and vessels, and sudden kinetic loading due to
earthquakes. Ultra high performance is the most important characteristic of RPC. RPC is composed of
more compact and arranged hydrates. The microstructure is optimized by precise gradation of all
particles in the mix to yield maximum density. It uses extensively the pozzolonic properties of highly
refined silica fume and optimization of the Portland cement chemistry to produce highest strength
hydrates.
1.3 Scope of RPC
RPC will be suitable for pre-stressed application and for structures acquiring light and thin components
such as roofs of stadiums, long span bridges, space structures, high pressure pipes, and blast resistance
structures and the isolation and containment of nuclear wastes. In India the work on RPC has started
from last few years. The utility of RPC in actual construction is minimal or nil in India, it is because of
non-availability of sufficient experimental data regarding production and performance of RPC.

Page | 1
 Fig.1.1.Reactive powdered concrete
1.4 Basic purpose of reactive powdered concrete
• Elimination of coarse aggregates for enhancement of homogeneity
• Utilization of the pozzolonic properties of silica fume
• Optimization of the granular mixture for the enhancement of compacted density
• The optimal usage of super plasticizer to reduce w/c and improve workability
• Application of pressure (before and during setting) to improve compaction
• Post-set heat-treatment for the enhancement of the microstructure
• Addition of small-sized steel fibers to improve ductility
• Application of these principles without steel fibers produces a matrix with very
highcompressive strength, but with ductility no better than that of conventional mortar. The
inclusion of fibers improves tensile strength, and also makes it possible to obtain the required
level of ductility

Page | 2
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

Many researchers have carried out studies on RPC in the past years to assess the properties and its
behavior. Some of the works carried out re discussed below:
Richard and Cheyrezy [1995] developed an ultrahigh strength ductile concrete with the basic
principles of enhancing the homogeneity by eliminating the coarse aggregate, enhancing the
microstructure by post-set heat treatment and the tensile strength of concrete was increased by
incorporating small, straight, high tensile microfiber. Two types of concretes were developed and
designated as RPC200 and RPC800, which had exceptional mechanical properties. The mean
compressive stress obtained for RPC200 was 218MPa and for RPC800 was exceeding 600MPa. For
RPC800, a value of 810MPa has been obtained with a mixture incorporating steel aggregate. The
concrete finds its applications in industrial and nuclear waste storage silos.
Chan and Chu, [2002] has studied the effect of silica fume on the bond characteristics of steel fiber in
matrix of reactive powder concrete (RPC) by bond strength, pullout energy, etc. Various silica fume
contents ranging from 0% to 40% are used in the mix proportions. Results of them show that the
incorporation of silica fume can effectively enhance the fiber–matrix interfacial properties, especially in
fiber pullout energy.
Yang ET. al., [2007] has carried out direct uniaxial tension tests on ‘8-shaped’ RPC200 specimens. The
bond-slip process, mesoscopic structural variation and mechanical characteristics of a fiber pullout of the
matrix have been investigated using the real-time SEM loading system and CCD observation techniques.
Results of them show that there exists an optimal threshold of fiber volume ρv, opt=1.5% at which the
bond performance of a fiber pullout of RPC behaves best.
Yun shenget. al., [2008] prepared (C200 GRPC) by utilizing composite mineral admixtures, natural fine
aggregates, short and fine steel fibers. They investigated mechanical properties under three different type
of curing (standard curing, steam curing and autoclave curing) condition. Their experimental results
show that the mechanical properties of the C200 GRPC made with the cementations materials consisting
of 40% of Portland cement, 25% of ultra-fine slag, 25% of ultra-fine fly ash and 10% of silica fume, 4%
volume fraction of steel fiber are higher than the others. The corresponding compressive strength,
flexural strength, fracture energy and fiber–matrix interfacial bonding strength are more than 200MPa,
60MPa, 30,000J/m2and 14MPa, respectively.
Prabhaet. al., [2010] conducted a study on complete stress-strain curves from uniaxial compression
tests. The effect of material composition on the stress strain behavior and the toughness index were
studied. The highest cylinder compressive strength of 171.3 MPa and elastic modulus of 44.8 GPa were
recorded for 2% 13 mm length fibers. The optimum fiber content was found to be 3% of 6mm length or
Page | 3
2% of 13mm length fibers. A new measure of compression toughness known as MTI (modified
toughness index) was proposed by them and it is found to range from 2.64 to 4.65 for RPC mixes.
Yang ET. al., [2010] studied dynamic mechanical properties of reactive powder concrete subjected to
compressive impacts with high strain by means of SHPB (Split-Hopkinson-Pressure-Bar) tests of the
cylindrical specimens with five different steel fiber volumetric Fractions. The dynamic stress-strain
relationships of RPC were modeled based on the experimental data. The investigations indicate that for
the plain RPC the stress response is greater than the strain response, showing strong brittle performance.
The RPC with a certain volume of fibers sustains higher strain rate impact and exhibits better
deformability as compared with the plain RPC. With a constant fiber fraction, the peak compressive
strength, corresponding peak strain and the residual strain of the fiber-reinforced RPC rise by varying
amounts when the impact strain rate increases, with the Residual strain demonstrating the greatest
increment.

Page | 4
 CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

3.1. RPC components

3.1.1 Cement
Cement is binding material for production of primary hydrates. Its particle size ranges from 1µm to
100µm. Optimum cement properties are C3S: 60% C2S: 22% C3A: 3.8% C4AF: 7.4%
3.1.2 Fine aggregates
Coarse aggregates are replaced by fine sand. It gives strength to the concrete. Maximum size of sand is
600µm. Size ranges from 150µm to 600µm. It eliminates mechanical chemical and thermo mechanical
failures.
3.1.3 Quartz powder
Its particle size ranges from 5µm to 25µm. It must be in crystalline form.

Fig 3.1.3.Quartz powder

3.1.4 Silica fume

Silica fume is used for filling voids and enhance rheology and for production of secondary hydrates. Its
particle size ranges from 0.1µm to 1µm .

Page | 5
 Fig :3.1.4 silica fume
3.1.5 Steel fibers
It should have good aspect ratio and should be able to improve ductility. Its length ranges from 13mm to
25mm. It should be straight.

Fig:3.1.5 steel fibres

3.1.6 Super plasticizer
A copolymer of acrylic ester (CAE), a poly naphtalene Sulfonate (PNS) and a polymelamine sulfonate
(PMS) are normally employed for the purpose. These admixtures are synthetic polymers.
3.2 Material specifications
The basic materials used for manufacture of reactive powdered concrete are cement, fine
aggregate, quartz powder, silica fume, steel fibers, and super plasticizers.Table 3.2 shows the
important specifications of these materials.

Page | 6
 Table: 3.2 Material specifications

Component Selection parameter Function Particle size

Sand Good hardness Gives strength 150 µm to 600 µm

Readily available and low
cost.
Cement C3S: 60% C2S: 22% C3A: Binding material, 1 µm to 100 µm
3.8% C4AF: 7.4% Production of primary
hydrates
Quartz powder Fineness Max. reactivity during 5µm to 25µm
heat-treating
Silica fume Very less quantity of Filling the voids, 0.1µm to 1µm
impurities Enhance rheology,
Production of
secondary hydrates
Steel fibers Good aspect ratio Improve ductility Length 13mm to 25mm
Dia. 0.15 – 0.2 mm

Super plasticizer Less retarding Reduce w/c Polyacrylate based

characteristic

3.2.1 Properties of Materials

• Cement

Ordinary Portland cement was used for casting all the specimens. The important features
required in Transparent concrete are shown in Table 3.2

Page | 7
 Table :3.2.1 Properties of cement

S. Value
Properties of cement
obtained
No

1 Fineness of cement as retained on 90 µ sieve 3%

2 Grade of cement 53

3 Specific gravity 3.15

4 Initial setting time 30min

• Fine aggregate

Clean and dry river sand available locally is used. Sand passing through IS 4.75mm Sieve is
used for casting all the specimens. The values of specific gravity and fineness modulus are
shown in Table 3.3.
Table: 3.2.2: Properties of fine aggregate

S. No Properties Values obtained

1 Specific gravity 2.53

2 Fineness modulus 2.64

• Coarse aggregate
Coarse aggregate passing through 10mm sieve is used for casting all specimens. Table
3.4 indicates the important values of properties of coarse aggregate.
Table: 3.2.3 Properties of coarse aggregate

S. No Properties Values

1 Size of Aggregate 10mm

2 Fineness of Modulus 5.01

3 Specific Gravity 2.35

Page | 8
 • Silica fume

A highly reactive silica pozzolan is an essential component of reactive powder concrete. The Simcoa
silica fume is a more common silicon- smelting by-product and has been densified, i.e. the primary silica
particles are agglomerated into micro-pellets by aeration and the application of pressure. This increases
the bulk density of the silica fume making transportation a more viable process

Table: 3.2.4 Properties of Properties of silica fume

• Quartz powder

For RPC mixes designed to be cured at temperatures exceeding 90ºC, including autoclaving at
elevated pressures, additional silica is necessary to modify the CaO/SiO ratio of the binder. In
these cases powdered quartz flour with a mean particle size of 10 – 15 μm was employed

Table: 3.2.5 Properties of Properties of Quartz powder

Page | 9
 • Super plasticizer

The very low w/b (cement + silica fume) ratios used in RPC are only possible because of the fluidizing
power of high-quality third generation super-plasticizing agents. ViscoCrete-5 was selected as the most
suitable for use. This is described as an aqueous modified carboxylate, designed specifically for ultra-
high water reduction applications such as self-compacting concrete. To minimize any air-entrainment
effects due to the high-dosage rates necessary, 1% Pronal 753S defoaming agent, was also added to the
super-plasticizer before use.

Table 3.2.6 Properties of super plasticizer

• STEEL FIBERS

To enhance the RPC ductility, some mixes were produced with micro-fibers of straight carbon Steel
wire, 13 mm in length and 0.2 mm in diameter, with a minimum on-the-wire tensile strength of 2,000
MPa.

• Properties of water

Ordinary potable water of normally pH 6 is used for mixing and curing the concrete

3.3 Specimen casting and testing

Casting and testing of specimen was carried out as per IS codes IS: 516-1959 for compression
strength, flexural strength, modulus of elasticitySpecimens were prepared by the cementitious
materials were mixed at low speed for 2 min. Then 75% water and 75% SP were added to the
premixed composition and the mixture was remixed at low speed for 3 min. Then the sand was added
and mixed at low speed for 3 minute remaining 25% water and 25% SP were added and mixed at low
speed for 3 min and then at high speed for 3 min. When steel fiber was added, an additional 3–5 min
of mixing at high speed was required. The mixture was poured into molds that were 40 × 40 × 160
mm and compacted with a vibration table. The specimens were kept in the standard curing case
Page | 10
 (temperature 20 ±1°C and moisture above 95%) for 24 h. The specimens were immersed in saturated
lime water after demolding and kept in the curing room with a temperature of 20 ± 2°C and moisture
above 50% until the tests

3.4 Manufacturing process of reactive powdered concrete

Ordinary Portland cement, ultrafine active silica fume, river sand (the maximum particle diameter is
1.25 mm),super plasticizer, steel fiber (12–15mm long, the diameter is0.2–0.25 mm, and tensile
strength exceeds 2850mpa), and tap water were used. Table 1 shows the mix proportion of

RPC200.A forced mixer is the mixing machine for RPC preparation. Mix the sand, cement, and silica
fume for 2 minutes under dry condition; pour the super plasticizer and water and mix for 5 minutes.
Finally add the steel fiber and mix for 3–6 minutes. Cast RPC into the mould for 24 hours. Then

Remove the mould and put RPC in the curing box under 80∘C steam curing condition for 72 hours.
After that, let them cool naturally in the curing box for 24 hours and conduct performance test. The
whole period lasts five days after adding the mixing water.

3.5 Basic procedure

3.5.1 Mix composition
The material used in this study includes cement(53 grade), silica fume, fly ash, GGBS, sand (2.36mm
below size), steel fiber having 0.2mm diameter and 10mm length, and water binder ratio of 0.2. The mix
proportions used are based on Yun sheng et al., (2008). A control mix CRPC without cement
replacement is tested. Fly ash and silica are used to replace cement content at 5% (RPC1), 10% (RPC2)
and15% (RPC3) in the mixes. All mixes contains same amount of silica fume of 0.1%. Two mix
compositions tested by Yun sheng et al.,(2008) containing 2% (M3–2%) and 3% (M3–3%)of steel fibers
issued for comparison with control RPC, RPC1, RPC2 and RPC3.
A polycarboxylate-based SP was used. Brass-coated steel fibers used had lengths of 13 mm and
diameters of 0.22 mm. The aspect ratio of the fiber was 60 and the tensile strength was 2,850 MPa .The
various mix proportions are as tabulated in Table

Page | 11
 Table: 3.5.1: Mix proportions of various RPC mix

3.5.2 Particle size distribution

The particle size distributions of natural sand and crushed quartz used were similar, as shown in Fig.
The grain size of recycled powder ranged from 2 to 50 μm mainly, and D50 was12 μm, which was
similar to the particle size distribution of the cement used.

Fig: 3.5.2 Particle size distribution of the recycled powder, cement, and silica fume.

Page | 12
Fig: 3.5.3. Particle size distribution volume of (a) natural sand; and (b) crushed quartz

Page | 13
3.6 Factors effecting strength of RPC
• Silica Fume Percentage
It is observed that the compressive strength tends to decrease as the silica fume dosage increases. The
compressive strength is seen to fluctuate in the range of 15 % to 25% of silica fume regardless of
water/binder ratio. As silica fume content increases, mix requires more super plasticizer to disperse in
fresh concrete.
• Quartz Powder
Hydrated cement alone cannot help to elevate the strength of RPC, but other finer materials also
contribute marginally. Quartz powder improves the filler effect in RPC mix. Addition of quartz powder
produce the better result under accelerated curing condition than that of normal curing condition. The
results show that the addition of quartz powder increases the compressive strength by 20% under the
accelerated curing condition.
• Curing Regime
An adequate supply of moisture is necessary to ensure that hydration is sufficient to reduce the porosity
to a level such that the desired strength can be attained. The compressive strength increased by 10%
when cured in hot water as compared to normal curing. This indicates that curing temperature has a
significant effect on the early strength development of RPC. The increased strength is due to the rapid
hydration of cement at higher curing temperatures of 90°C compared to that of 27°C. Moreover, the
pozzolonic reactions are also accelerated by the higher curing temperatures.
• Compressive and tensile properties of RPC at elevated temperatures
Cube compressive strength decreases at 100 °C, increases at temperatures from 200 to 500 °C, and
decreases at temperatures above 600 °C. Below 300 °C, the cube compressive strength of RPC increases
as the fiber content increases, but decreases above 300 °C as the fiber content increases. The tensile
strength of RPC with steel fibers decreases at temperatures below 200 °C, increases at temperatures
ranging from 200 to 300 °C, and decreases at temperatures above 300 °C. 2% steel fibers prevent
spalling and significantly increase mechanical properties.
• Effect of pre-setting pressure
It is observed that application of pre-setting pressure increased compressive strength of the RPC about
twice.

3.7. Other applications

Structures built using RPC
• First bridge that used RPC-pedestrian Bridge in Sherbrook, Quebec, Canada. (230mpa) .It was used
during the early days of RPC production.
• Portugal has used it for seawall anchors
Page | 14
• Australia has used it in a vehicular bridge
• France has used it in building power plants
• Side walk of Qinghai-Tibet Railway Bridge.

3.8 Advantages
• As fracture toughness is higher, RPC exhibits high ductility.
• Since RPC is an Ultra dense micro structure, porosity and permeability is less and therefore can be
used for waste storage holding facility.
• RPC has limited shrinkage, increased corrosion resistance and so can be used inaggressive chemical
environments.
• Its superior strength combined with higher shear capacity results in significant dead load reduction
and limitless structural member shape.
• Its superior strength combined with higher shear capacity results in significant dead load reduction
and limitless structural member shape.
• With its ductile tension failure mechanism, RPC can be used to resist all stresses except direct
primary tensile stresses. This eliminates the need for supplemental shear and other auxiliary
reinforcing steel.
• RPC improve seismic performance reduces inertia loads with lighter members, reduced cross
sections of members provides higher energy absorption.
• Low and non-interconnected porosity reduces mass transfer, making penetration of liquid/gas or
radioactive elements nearly non-existent.

3.9 Disadvantages
• The least costly components of conventional concrete are basically eliminated or replaced by more
expensive elements.
• The fine sand used in RPC becomes equivalent to the coarse aggregate of conventional concrete
• The Portland cement plays the role of the fine aggregate and the silica fume that of the cement of
conventional concrete.
• The mineral component optimization alone results in a substantial increase in cost over and above
that of conventional concrete (5 to 10 times higher than HPC)
• Applying pressure to mix and applying heat treatment in the field has got technological difficulties
and cost.
• RPC should be used in areas where weight savings can be realized

• Since RPC is in its infancy, the long-term properties are not yet known
Page | 15
 CHAPTER 4

EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES

4.1 Compressive strength results

• Compressive strength of RPC mixes at different ages (7, 28 & 56 days) are presented. The mixes
achieved a 56 days compressive strength ranging from 36.6 to 58.8 N/mm2. The incorporation of
the quartz into the mix significantly increased the strength to range from 55.9 to 92.5 N/mm2.
• Similarly, the incorporation of the silica fume into the mix significantly increased the strength to
range from 76.5 to 99.5 N/mm2.
• Mixes contain both quartz and silica fume displayed higher strength values that range from 81.0 to
151.0 N/mm2. The maximum achieved compressive strength at 56 days is 158.0 N/mm2 for Mix
34 that contains quartz, silica fume and steel balls. This level of compressive strength is Greater
than that of high strength concrete. The typical values of compressive strength of high Strength
concrete are in the range of 60.0-100.0 N/mm2.
• The rate of increase in compressive strength between ages 7&28 days ranged from 25% to 55%.
This rate is greater than that between ages 28&56 days, the latter ranged from 10% to 21%.
4.1.1 Relationship of compressive Strength & W/C Ratio for Quartz Mixes

• In order to determine the optimum water cement (w/c) ratio for the RPC mixes which contain
quartz, three mixes (15, 16 &17) were made with w/c ratios of 0.17, 0.19, and 0.21, respectively.
These mixes had quartz content equal 20% of cement weight. The relationship between w/c ratio
and compressive strengths of the mixes at 7, 28, and 56 days is illustrated in Figure . The figure
shows that the RPC mix with w/c ratio of 0.19 had higher compressive strengths than those mixes
with 0.17 and 0.21 w/c ratios

Page | 16
 Fig: 4.1.1 Relationship of compressive Strength & W/C Ratio for Quartz Mixes
4.1.2 Relationship of compressive Strength & W/C Ratio for Silica Fume Mixes
• The effect of w/c ratio on silica fume mixes, eight mixes with various w/c ratios (0.15, 0.17, 0.19,
0.21) were made. Four mixes (6, 7, 8& 9) contained 15% silica fume while the other four mixes
(10, 11, 12& 13) contained 25% silica fume. Figure - a & b presents the relationship between the
w/c ratio and 7, 28 and 56 days compressive strengths for the mixes

Fig:4.1.2 a.compressive Strength & W/C Ratio for 15% Silica Fume Mixes

Page | 17
 Fig no 4.1.2.b compressive Strength & W/C Ratio for 25% Silica Fume Mixes
• The results demonstrate that increasing the w/c ratio from 0.15 to 0.17 resulted in an enhancement
in the compressive strength of silica fume mixes.
• This is because water cement ratio below 0.17 was not adequate for efficient hydration of cement
in the matrix. Further increase of w/c ratio beyond 0.17 reduced the compressive strength due to
the increase in the porosity of the mix.
• The optimum w/c ratio for RPC mixes containing 15% or 25% silica fume is 0.17. When quartz
was introduced in the silica fume mixes, the optimum w/c ratio increased from 0.17 to 0.19. This
trend was observed for different contents of silica fume or quartz, see Figure 3. The increase in the
optimum w/c ratio of quartz mixes was to overcome the friction of the quartz grains which are
characterized by their rough and irregular surface.

Page | 18
 Fig: 4.1.2.c compressive Strength & W/C Ratio for 40% Silica Fume Mixes
4.1.3 Relationship of Comp. Strength & W/C Ratio for Silica Fume Mixes Containing Quartz
• Based on the previous findings, It is concluded that the optimum value of water cement ratio for
reactive powder concrete mixes ranges from 0.17 to 0.19 based on the matrix composition.
• The effect of quartz content on the compressive strength of RPC made with 0.19 w/c ratio and cured
in water is demonstrated. It can be seen that the compressive strength values at 7, 28, and 56 days
increases with the increase of the quartz content in the RPC mix till the quartz content is 32% of
cement.
• At this value, mix 20 shows the highest 56-days compressive among the quartz mixes that equaled
92.5 N/mm2. The incorporation of quartz powder into the mix filled the grade between the cement
and sand particles.
• Accordingly, the matrix becomes denser and the compressive strength improved. However,
increasing the quartz content to 40%, reduced the 56-days compressive strength by 28%, Mix 19.
So, it can be concluded that quartz is necessary for producing RPC provided that the appropriate
content is utilized.

Page | 19
Fig: 4.1.3.a. Compressive Strength & W/C Ratio for Silica Fume Mixes Containing Quartz

Fig: 4.1.3.b .Effect of Quartz Content on Compressive Strength of RPC

Page | 20
4.1.4 Effect of Silica Fume Content on Compressive Strength of RPC
• Effect of using 15% and 25% silica fume on the compressive strength of RPC made with 0.17
w/c ratio and cured in water. The compressive strength of RPC at 7, 28, and 56 days increased
with increasing the amount of silica fume in the RPC mix.
• The improvement, in the 56 days compressive strength of RPC reached 56% and 69%, when
silica fume of 15% and 25% of cement weight was used, respectively. It should be mentioned
that the utilization of 15% silica fume resulted in significant improvement in the compressive
strength.
• When silica fume content was raised by 10% to reach a 25%, the extra added silica fume
produced less significant improvement. This may be due to that the amount of calcium hydroxide
developed through the cement hydration process is not sufficient for the pozzolanic reaction of
the extra silica fume.
• On the other hand, a positive interaction between the quartz and silica fume was observed.
• Introduction of quartz into mixes with either 15% or 25% silica fume enhanced the compressive
strength. A high strength level of 151 N/mm2 was recorded for mix 31 that contains 40% quartz
and 25% Silica Fume, like Mix 31 that achieved 1510 kg/cm2 compressive strength at 56 days.
• It can be said that the utilization of silica fume and quartz together is indispensable for producing
RPC. The optimum contents for silica fume and quartz are in the ranges of 15-25% and 30-40 of
the cement weight, respectively

.
Fig: 4.1.4 Effect of Silica Fume Content on Compressive Strength of RPC

Page | 21
4.1.5 Effect of steel fibers Content on Compressive Strength of RPc
• Steel fibers can increase the strength and ductility of RPC .However, too many steel fibers can
impact the density and thus reduce the strength of RPC. The influence of steel fiber proportion
on the compressive strength was different for different ages, as shown in Fig. For early ages (3
and 7 days), the compressive strength increased with the increase of steel fibers.
• As the steel fiber proportion exceeded 1.5%, the strength increase rate reduced. For 28 days, the
strength decreased as the steel fiber proportion exceeded 2.0%, which indicated that extra steel
fibers can impact the compressive strength. Too many fibers can result in clusters and a poor
distribution, as shown in Fig.
• The failure of concrete specimens by compression resulted from local tension, or from a
combination of tension and shear. Fibers can bridge the cracks that develop in the matrix when
the strain of the composite exceeded the ultimate strain capacity. The bond between the steel
fiber and matrix is provided by a combination of chemical adhesion, mechanical interlock, and
friction.

Fig: 4.1.5(a) Fracture faces of RPC specimens with different steel fiber proportions: steel fiber
volume percentage of (a) 1.0%; (b) 1.5%; (c) 2.0%; and (d) 2.5%.

Page | 22
 Fig: 4.1.5(b) Compressive strength versus steel fiber content of RPC
• The 28-day compressive strength of GRPC with crushed quartz was higher than that of natural
sand by 9%–14% for different recycled powder replacements due to the greater hardness and
higher SiO2 proportion of the crushed quartz than natural sand.
4.2 Flexure strength results
• Plain RPC was found to possess marginally higher flexural strength than HPC. Here the increase
of flexural strength of RPC with the addition of fibers is higher than that of HPC.
• RPC have an approximate flexural strength of 40 MPa. Fiber reinforced RPC (with appropriate
fibers) has the potential to be used in structures without any additional steel reinforcement. This
cost reduction in reinforcement can compensate the increase in the cost by the elimination of
coarse aggregates in RPC to a little extent.
• The flexural strength decreased as the recycled powder increased, as shown in Fig. Compared
with the compressive strength, the early development of flexural strength was slower and the later
gain was faster. This may be because the porosity has more influence on the flexural strength and
the porosity at early age is large.

Page | 23
 Fig: 4.2 Flexural strength versus recycled powder replacement percentage.

• Flexural strength to compressive strength ratio (f:c) of GRPC with different recycled powder
replacement was calculated, as shown in Fig. 10. The high brittleness is one of the Disadvantage
of concretes, especially of high-strength concrete.

Fig: 4.2.1 Flexural strength to compressive strength ratio (f:c) versus RP Replacement
percentage.

Page | 24
4.2.2 Effect of recycled powder & natural sand on flexural Strength of RPc

• For recycled powder replacement less than 30%, the f:c increased as recycled powder increased,
which indicated recycled powder can improve toughness. As recycled powder replacement
increased from 30% to 40%, the f:c decreased except that of .7 days. Considering the toughness,
recycled powder replacement of 30% is suggested.
• The 28-day flexural strength of GRPC with crushed quartz was close to or even lower than that of
natural sand, which was different from the compressive strength. This is because the particle size
of natural sand is relatively larger than that of crushed quartz.

Fig: 4.2.2 Effect of recycled powder & natural sand on flexural Strength of RPc
4.2.3 Effect of steel fibers on flexural Strength of RPc

• Steel fibers have more effect on the flexural strength than the compressive strength. Because the
main effects of steel fibers include crack resistance, strength enhancement, and toughness
improvement, f:c was analyzed to evaluate the toughness improvement. The use of steel fibers
reduced the f:c of GRPC significantly, as shown in Fig. As the steel fiber proportion reduced to
2.0%, f:c increased, and after 2.0%, f:c decreased

Page | 25
 Fig: 4.2.3 Strength increase versus steel fiber content
4.3 Fresh concrete properties
• The workability of RPC mixtures (with and without fibers), measured using the mortar flow table
test will be in the range of 120 – 140%. On the other hand, the workability of HPC mixtures (with
and without fibers), measured using the slump test will be in the range of 120 – 150 mm. The
density of fresh RPC and HPC mixtures was found to be in the range of 2500 – 2650 kg/m3.

4.4 Water absorption

• Fig presents a comparison of water absorption of RPC and HPC. A common trend of decrease in
the water absorption with age is seen here both for RPC and HPC. The percentage of water
absorption of RPC, however, is very low compared to that of HPC. This quality of RPC is one
among the desired properties of nuclear waste containment materials.

• The incorporation of fibers and the use of heat curing is seen to marginally increase the water
absorption. The presence of fibers possibly leads to the creation of channels at the interface
between the fiber and paste that promote the uptake of water. Heat curing, on the other hand,
leads to the development of a more open microstructure (compared to normal curing) that could
result in an increased absorption.

Page | 26
 Fig: 4.4 Water absorption of RPC and HPC

4.5 Water permeability

A comparison of the surface water permeability of RPC and HPC is shown in Fig.
It can be seen from the data that water permeability decreases with age for all mixtures. 28th day water
permeability of RPC is negligible when compared to that of HPC (almost 7 times lower). As in the case
of water absorption, the use of fibers increases the surface permeability of both types of concrete.

Fig: 4.5 Surface Water Permeability of RPC and HPC

Page | 27
4.6 Water-to-Cementitious Materials Ratio
The flow increased as W: CM increased, as shown in Fig. 4.Normally, flow between 140 and 180 mm is
considered acceptable, and that larger than 180 mm is considered good For W: CM of 0.14, the flow was
less than 140 mm, which was unacceptable. As W: CM increased to 0.16, the flow increased to 198 mm,
larger than 180 mm. The compressive strength decreased with the increase of W: CM, as shown in Fig.
5. The flow was bad for W: CM of 0.14. It was difficult to fabricate the specimens, and thus only one set
of specimens for 28-day strength was prepared. The 28-day compressive strength increased for 7.9% as
W: CM decreased from 0.18 to 0.16, while the increase was 1.0% as W: CM decreased from 0.16 to
0.14.The 28-day flexural strength for W: CM of 0.16 was higher than that

Fig: 4.6. Flow versus W: CM.

Page | 28
4.7 CASE STUDY
4.7.1 THE SIDEWALK SYSTEM OF THE QINGHAI-TIBET RAILWAY BRIDGE

Fig: 4.7.1 Qinghai-Tibet Railway Bridge

The Qinghai-Tibet railway lies in the west area of China at an altitude of more than 4,000 meters. The
576-km railway is being built on frozen earth. The bad climate and sandstorms of the tundra require the
concrete of the bridge to have superior mechanical properties and high durability. By adding Portland
cement, silica fume, superfine fly ash, and super plasticizers, reactive powder concrete (RPC) is used in
the sidewalk systems of bridges with compressive strength of 160 MPa.There are a lot of different
problems with conventional concrete sidewalks such as corrosion, rust of reinforcing steel bars, and
breakability of concrete slab. The steel brackets rust in a conventional concrete sidewalk. As a result, a
conventional concrete sidewalk system requires maintenance every year. Dead weight of the traditional
sidewalk system is greater than that of the RPC sidewalk system, which makes bridges have a bad
dynamic performance.
The sidewalk system made of RPC has such merits as small deadweight, excellent durability, low cost,
and minimum maintenance. Thus, RPC is more suitable for the sidewalk system of Qinghai-Tibet
Railway than conventional concrete.

Page | 29
4.7.2 Pedestrian bridge in Sherbrooke
Spanning 197 ft ( 60 m), this precast, pre stressed pedestrian/bikeway bridge in Sherbrooke, Quebec, is a
post-tensioned open-web space truss containing no conventional steel reinforcement. Made up of six
prefabricated match-cast segments, it was manufactured using RPC.
An extensive program monitoring bridge deflections and forces in the pre stressing tendons has been
implemented to Provide information on long-term performance of RPC.

Fig: 4.7.2 Sherbrooke pedestrian bridge

Page | 30
 CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION

Based on the test results and discussion and within the scope of the investigated parameters, the
following conclusions were drawn:
• Reactive powder concrete can be produced using locally available materials
• Reactive powder concrete has superior structural properties. A compressive strength up to 160
N/mm2 and a flexural strength up to 46 N/mm2 were achieved.
• The optimum value of water/cement ratio for reactive powder concrete mixes ranges from 0.17
to 0.19 based on the matrix composition.
• The utilization of silica fume and quartz is indispensable for producing RPC.Optimum contents for
silica fume and quartz are in ranges of 15-25% and 30-40% of the cement weight respectively.
• It will be more convenient to evaluate the compressive strength of RPC based on its 56 days age
rather than the 28 days used for conventional concrete.
• Curing regime plays a dominant role in determining the strength of RPC. Air curing adversely
affected the performance and did not allow the RPC to achieve its target Strength level.
• Reactive powder concrete possesses superior durability compared to conventional Concrete.It has
higher resistance to sulphate attack and drying shrinkage.
• The presence of steel balls improves the resistance of RPC against drying shrinkage.
• The 28 days compressive strength increased for 5% (RPC1) and10% (RPC2) replacement of cement
by fly ash and GGBS each.
• For 15% replacement (RPC3) the results were lower than the control mix (RPC).
• RPC1 with 5% cement replacement gave highest 28 days compressive strength of 128MPa as
compared to RPC having 28 days strength of 126.33MPa.
• The 7 days and 14 days compressive strength values were lower than RPC for all mixes with cement
replacement, which is because of slow hydration of cementitious matter at initial days.
• Flexural strength of RPC with 10% and 15% replacement of cement by fly ash and GGBS each
(RPC2 and RPC3) were higher than that of control mix (RPC). For RPC with 5% replacement of
cement (RPC1), the flexure strength was lower than the strength of control mix (RPC).RPC with
15% replacement of cement by fly ash and GGBS each (RPC3) gave higher 28 days flexural strength
of 28.525MPa.
• As the finer material increases flexural strength also increased for each RPC mix with cement
replacement

Page | 31
• Modulus of elasticity of RPC with 5% and 10% replacement of cement by fly ash and GGBS each
(RPC2 and RPC3) was higher than that of control mix (RPC). For RPC with 15% replacement of
cement (RPC1), the modulus of elasticity was lower than the, that of control mix (RPC).
• RPC2 mix with 10% replacement of cement gave increase in compressive strength, flexural strength
and modulus of elasticity of126.67MPa, 25.604MPa and 42.433GPa respectively, when compare to
the strengths of control mix (RPC).
• The various mix considered RPC2 mix with 10% replacement of cement gave better results.

Page | 32
 REFERENCES
• Abbas, S., A. M. Soliman, and M. L. Nehdi. 2015. “Exploring mechanical and durability properties
of ultra-high performance concrete incorporating various steel fiber lengths and dosages.” Constr.
Build. Mater. 75:429–441. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2014.11.017.
• Bektas, F., K. Wang, and H. Ceylan. 2008. “Use of ground clay brick as a pozzolanic material in
concrete.” J. ASTM Int. 5 (10): 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1520/JAI101681.
• Bonneau, O., C. Vernet, M. Moranville, and P. C. Aitcin. 2000. “Characterization of the granular
packing and percolation threshold of reactive powder concrete.” Cem. Concr. Res. 30 (12): 1861–
1867. https://doi .org/10.1016/S0008-8846(00)00300-8. BSI (British Standards Institution). 2011.
Methods of testing cement Part 5: Pozzolanicity test for pozzolanic cement. BS EN 196-5-2011.
London:
• Arnaud Poitou, Francisco Chinesta, and Ge´rard Bernier, “Orienting fibersby extrusion in reinforced
reactive Powder concrete”, Journal of engineering mechanics, June, pp.593-598, 2001.
• JU Yang, JIA YuDan, LIU Hong Bin and CHEN Jian, “Meso mechanism of steel fiber
reinforcement and toughening of reactive powder concrete”, Sciencein China Series E:
Technological Sciences, vol. 50, no. 6, December, pp.815-832, 2007.
• JU Yang, LIU Hong Bin, SHENG GuoHua & WANG Hui Jie, “Experimental study of dynamic
mechanical properties of reactive powder concrete under high-strain-rate impacts”, Science China
Technological Sciences, Vol.53No.9, September, pp. 2435–2449,2010.
• Mahesh K Maroliya and Chetan D Modhera, “A comparative study of reactive powder concrete
containing steel fibers and recron 3s fibers”, Journal of Engineering Research and Studies, Vol.,Issue
I, July-September, pp.83-89, 2010

Page | 33