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Electrofusion Welding
and
Heated Tool Welding
2.4.3 Thermoset Transfer and Compression Molding Pros and Cons ................................ 46
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5.3.5 Cooling ............................................................................................................................. 88
5.4.1 Indicative values for PE and PP according to DVS 2207 – Parts 1 and 11 ................ 89
5.4.2 Indicative values for PB according to the Pipe-Life corporate literature .................. 90
5.4.3 Indicative values for PVDF according to DVS 2207 – Part 15 ..................................... 90
6.3 Selection of heated tool butt, socket and saddle welding ........................................99
8.2.1 Mis-alignment between fittings and pipe and pipes between ................................... 108
8.3.1 Mis-alignment between fittings and pipe and pipes between ................................... 111
8.4.1 Mis-alignment between fittings and pipe and pipes between ................................... 113
11.3 Selection of heated tool butt, socket and saddle welding ......................................138
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12.1 General on Polymer health and safety issues.......................................................140
Annex .................................................................................................................................154
Polymers are a large class of materials consisting of many small molecules (called
monomers) that can be linked together to form long chains, thus they are known as
macromolecules (a term introduced by H. Staudinger in the 1920’s).
A typical polymer may include tens of thousands of monomers. Because of their large size,
polymers are classified as macromolecules.
Polymers occur naturally in the form of proteins, cellulose(plants), starch(food) and natural
rubber.
Engineering polymers, however, are usually synthetic polymers.
1.1.1 Definitions
Polymer
Large molecule consisting of a number of repeating units with molecular weight typically
several thousand or higher
Repeating unit
The fundamental recurring unit of a polymer
Monomer
The smaller molecule(s) that are used to prepare a polymer
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Oligomer
A molecule consisting of reaction of several repeat units of a monomer but not large enough
to be consider a polymer
Single repeat unit: MONOMER
Many repeat units: POLYMER
Degree of polymerization
The number of the repeating units
INCPEN, Towards greener households, June 2001 p. 580.0400 A of the Chemical Economics Handbook
The addition polymer is often named according to the monomer that was used to form it
Example : poly(vinyl chloride) PVC is made from vinyl chloride -CH 2 -CH(Cl)-
The most common method for condensation polymers since the polymercontains different
functional groups than the monomer
PC = Polycarbonat
PPE = Polyphenylether
SMA = Styrol-Maleinsäureanhydrid
ABS = Acrylnitril-Butadien-Styrol
PMMA = Polymethylmethacrylat
PS = Polystyrol
SAN = Styrol-Acrylnitril-Copolymere
PVC = Polyvinylchlorid
PET = Polyethylenterephthalat (PETP)
PBT = Polybutylenterephthalat (PBTP)
PA = Polyamid
POM = Polyoxymethylen
RF-PP = Resorcin-Formaldehyd-Polypropylen
PE-UHMW = Polyethylen-ultra high molecular weight
PP = Polypropylen
PE-HD = Polyethylen hoher Dichte (High Density)
PE-LD = Polyethylen niedriger Dichte (Low Density)
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1.2 Classification of polymers
1.2.2.1 Elastomers
Elastomers are polymers possessing high elasticity - may be reversibly stretched at high
degree. Elastomers consist of long lightly cross-linked molecules.
Common elastomers are:
• Polyisoprene (natural rubber)
• Butyl
1.2.2.2 Thermoplastics
Thermoplastics are polymers, which soften (become pliable and plastic) and melt when
heated. In the melted conditions thermoplastics may be formed by various methods (injection
molding, extrusion, Thermoforming).
No new cross-links form (no chemical curing) when a thermoplastic cools and hardens.
Thermoplastics may be reprocessed (re-melt) many times.
Molecules of most of thermoplastics combine long polymer chains alternating with monomer
units.
Thermoplastic materials may contain filler materials in form of powder or fibers, providing
improvement of specific material properties (strength, stiffness, lubricity, color etc.).
Thermoplastic can be distributed by different groups:
• Polyolefines: Low Density Polyethylene (LDPE), High Density Polyethylene (HDPE),
Polypropylene (PP).
• Styrenics: Polysterene (PS), Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene (ABS), Styrene-Acrylonitrile
(SAN), Styrene/Acrylic (S/A), Styrene-Maleic Anhydride (SMA).
• Vinyls: Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC), Chlorinated Polyvinyl Chloride (CPVC).
• Acrylics: Polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA), Polyvinilchloride-Acrylic Blend (PVC/MA).
• Fluoropolymers: Polychlorotrifluoroethylene (CTFE), Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE),
Polyvinylidene Fluoride (PVDF).
• Polyesters: Polyethylene Terephtalate (PET), Polyester PETG (PETG),
PolybutyleneTerephtalate (PBT), Polyarilate (PAR), Liquid Crystal Polyester (LCP).
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• Polyamides (Nylons): Nylon 6 (N6), Nylon 66 (N66), Nylon 11 (N11), Nylon 12 (N12),
Polyphtalamide (PPA), Polyamide-imide (PAI).
• Polyimides: Polyimide (PI), Polyetherimide (PEI).
• Polyethers: Polyacetal (POM), Polycarbonate (PC), Polyphenylene Oxide Blend (PPO),
Polyaryletherketone (PAEK), Polyetheretherketone.
• Sulfur Containing Polymers: Polyphenylene Sulfide (PPS), Polysulfone (PSF),
Polyethersulfone (PES), Polyarylsulfone (PAS).
Thermoplastic
High Density Polyethylene (HDPE)
Property Value in metric unit Value in US unit
Density 0.95 *10³ kg/m³ 59.3 lb/ft³
Modulus of elasticity 1.86 GPa 270 ksi
Tensile strength 31 MPa 4500 psi
Elongation 100 % 100 %
Flexural strength 40 MPa 5800 psi
Thermal expansion (20 ºC) 12.6*10-5 ºCˉ¹ 7*10-5 in/(in* ºF)
Thermal conductivity 0.48 W/(m*K) 3.33 BTU*in/(hr*ft²*ºF)
Melting point 130 ºC 266 ºF
Maximum work temperature 120 ºC 248 ºF
• Good strength;
• Good impact strength;
• Good chemical resistance;
• Good stiffness;
• Poor UV resistance.
Applications: packaging films, heavy duty shrink film, pipes, containers, bags, blown bottles.
Thermoplastic
Low Density Polyethylene (LDPE)
Property Value in metric unit Value in US unit
Density 0.92 *10³ kg/m³ 57.4 lb/ft³
Modulus of elasticity 0.29 GPa 42 ksi
Tensile strength 17 MPa 2500 psi
Elongation 500 % 500 %
Flexural strength 14 MPa 2000 psi
Thermal expansion (20 ºC) 16*10 -5
ºCˉ¹ 9*10 -5
in/(in* ºF)
Thermal conductivity 0.33 W/(m*K) 2.29 BTU*in/(hr*ft²*ºF)
Melting point 120 ºC 248 ºF
Maximum work temperature 90 ºC 194 ºF
13 16 15 18
Electric resistivity 10 -10 Ohm*m 10 -10 Ohm*cm
Dielectric constant 2.3 - 2.3 -
Applications: packaging films (general purpose, shrink, and lamination), containers, cable
insulation, and chemically resistant linings.
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1.2.2.2.3 Thermoplastic Polypropylene (PP)
Thermoplastic
Polypropylene (PP)
Property Value in metric unit Value in US unit
Density 0.91 *10³ kg/m³ 56.8 lb/ft³
Modulus of elasticity 1.36 GPa 195 ksi
Tensile strength 37 MPa 5300 psi
Elongation 350 % 350 %
Flexural strength 49 MPa 7000 psi
Thermal expansion (20 ºC) 90*10 -6
ºCˉ¹ 50*10 -6
in/(in* ºF)
Thermal conductivity 0.16 W/(m*K) 1.11 BTU*in/(hr*ft²*ºF)
Glass transition temperature -10 ºC 14 ºF
Maximum work temperature 150 ºC 302 ºF
7 9 9 11
Electric resistivity 10 -10 Ohm*m 10 -10 Ohm*cm
Dielectric constant 2.4 - 2.4 -
Thermoplastic
Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)
Property Value in metric unit Value in US unit
Density 1.44 *10³ kg/m³ 89.9 lb/ft³
Modulus of elasticity 3.32 GPa 475 ksi
Tensile strength 47 MPa 6700 psi
Elongation 60 % 60 %
Flexural strength 91 MPa 13000 psi
Thermal expansion (20 ºC) 75*10-6 ºCˉ¹ 42*10-6 in/(in* ºF)
Thermal conductivity 0.18 W/(m*K) 1.25 BTU*in/(hr*ft²*ºF)
Glass transition temperature 87 ºC 189 ºF
Maximum work temperature 80 ºC 176 ºF
Electric resistivity 106 Ohm*m 108 Ohm*cm
Dielectric constant 4 - 4 -
Applications: drainage pipes, water service pipes, bottles, window frames, wire and cable
insulation, resilient floors, automotive interiors, stationary, packaging, footwear.
1.2.2.3 Thermosets
Thermosets are Polymers that do not melt when heated. Thermosets molecules are cross-
linked by strong covalent intermolecular bonds, forming one giant molecule. Since cross-
linking is irreversible, thermosets can not be reprocessed (re-melt).
Cross-linking is achieved in a curing process initiated by heat, chemical agents or radiation.
Before this process occurs thermoset materials are stored in partially polymerized condition.
Vulcanization (cross-linking, curing) results in sharp increase of strength, elasticity and
stability of thermosets. Thermosets are stronger and stiffer than Thermoplastics, and in some
cases, stronger than specific types of metals (i.e. aluminum). Thermosets also have higher
thermal, chemical and creep resistance than thermoplastics.
Thermoset materials may contain filler materials in form of powder or fibers, providing
improvement of specific material properties (strength, stiffness, Modulus of Elasticity,
thermal resistance, lubricity).Common filler materials are glass in various forms, metal
powders, Graphite or molybdenum disulfide powder.
Thermosets groups:
• Epoxies (EP)
• Unsaturated Polyesters (UP)
• Phenolics (PF)
• Urea Formaldehyde (UF)
• Melamine Formaldehyde (MF)
• Alkyds (AMC)
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1.3 Polymer structure
1- Primary bonds: the covalent bonds that connect the atoms of the main chain
2- Secondary bonds: non – covalent bonds that hold one polymer chain to another including
hydrogen bond and other dipole –dipole attraction
3- Crystalline polymer: solid polymers with high degree of structural order and rigidity
4- Amorphous polymers: polymers with a low degree of structural order
5- Semi – crystalline polymer: most polymers actually consist of both crystalline domains and
amorphous domains with properties between that expected for a purely crystalline or purely
amorphous polymer
6- Glass: the solid form of an amorphous polymer characterized by rigidity and brittleness
7 – Crystalline melting temperature (Tm): temperature at which crystalline polymers melt
8 - Glass transition temperature (Tg): temperature at which an amorphous polymer converts to
a liquid or amorphous domains of a semi crystalline polymer melt
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9 – Thermoplastics (plastics): polymers that undergo thermally reversible Interconversion
between the solid state and the liquid state
10- Thermosets: polymers that continue reacted at elevated temperaturesgenerating increasing
number of crosslinks such polymers do not exhibitmelting or glass transition
11- Liquid – crystalline polymers: polymers with a fluid phase that retainssome order
12- Elastomers:rubbery, stretchy polymers the effect is caused by light crosslinkingthat pulls
the chains back to their original state
Semi-crystalline Amorphous
Crystalline
Glassy Rubbery
• The glass transition, Tg, is temp. Below which a polymer OR glass is brittle or glass-
like; above that temperature the material is more plastic.
• The Tg to a first approximation is a measure of the strength of the secondary bonds
between chains in a polymer; the stronger the secondary bonds; the higher the glass
transition temperature.
Ex:
Polyethylene Tg = 0°C; Polystyrene = 97 °C
PMMA (plexiglass) = 105 °C.
Since room temp.is<Tg for PMMA, it is brittle at room temp.
For rubber bands: Tg = - 73°C.
Amorphous Tret
Amorphous High elastic Fluid-viscous glassy state
glassy state state state
T T
Tg Tc Tg Tc
Figure 1-8 : Typical thermomecanical curve and the physical states of an amorphous polymer
with linear and flexible chain (a) Typical thermomecanical curve and the physical states of a
macromolecular substance which trends to become glassy (b)
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Physical Properties of polyethylene
Branched Low Medium Density High Linear High
Density Density Density
Optical Transparent to Transparent to Transparent to Transparent to
opaque opaque opaque opaque
Tmelt 98 – 115 C 122 – 124 C 130 – 137 C 130 –137 C
Oxidation Resistance Low, oxides Low, oxides readily Low, oxides Low, oxides
readily readily readily
UV Resistance Low, Crazes Low, Crazes readily Low, Crazes Low, Crazes
readily readily readily
Solvent Resistance Resistant below Resistant below 60C Resistant below Resistant below
60C 60C 60C
Alkaline Resistance Resistant Resistant Resistant Resistant
Acid Resistance Oxidizing Acids Oxidizing Acids Oxidizing Acids Oxidizing Acids
Worldwide there is a large variety of HDPE pipes and fittings, differentiated from each other
by a classification system. In UE classification of these materials is based on regulations in
force, according to:
- Coding properties (density, index of hot mass flow);
- Information on the processing method and / or use;
- Important properties, additives, dyes;
- Extruded materials;
- Reinforcing materials.
An important characteristic of HDPE pipes and fittings is the nominal wall thickness (e),
which can be expressed by the following equation:
e = K x Dn
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2. Polyethylene pipes shall be color black But at least with three blue/yellow strips.
Markings - The pipes shall be clearly marked with the following information:
1.The manufacturers:Tradmark
2.The dimensions (nominal outside diameterX nominal wallthickness).
3.The word “WATER” at any interval within 1 meter;
4.The designation of the pipe material PE 100;
5.The nominal pressure (PN)
6.The pipe series (S or SDR)
7.The production period.(Date or code);
8.The Resin type, Brand and Class:
9.MWCI or Manila Water
10.ISO 4427
11.PS quality marking or equivalent ISO 9002 qualitymarking.
The marking shall be shaded with white, the depth ofmarking on the pipe shall not exceed
0.15mm for pipewhose wall thickness is 12mm and below.
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2 Processing of Thermoplastics (2hrs)
2.1 How polymers are made
2.1.1 Polymerization
Polymers are created by forming a series of chains or strings of monomers. Processing the
polymers in one of two methods results in the formation of plastic. With the thermosetting
method, liquid monomers are poured into a mold and allowed to cool. The liquefied
monomers are permanent in shape, producing durable goods. With the thermoplastic
approach, the liquid monomers are heated and slowly molded into shape. After the heating
and manipulation into the desired shape, the product is cooled and allowed to set into a solid.
Both the thermoplastic and the thermosetting approaches are referred to as polymerization.
The process by which these monomers bond is called polymerization.
Polymerization isn't a complicated subject, but the ways in which monomers are put together
vary so much that scientists find it easier to have more than one system of describing
polymerization. One system of separating polymerization processes asks the question of how
much of the original molecule is left when the monomers bond. In "addition polymerization",
monomers are added together with their structure unchanged. Not so in condensation
polymerization. This process results in a polymer that is less massive than the two or more
monomers that joined to form it. This happens because not all of the original monomer is
allowed to stay on the polymer. Hydrogen chloride and water are usually thrown from the mix
when polymers form in this manner. A good analogy might be what happens when kids try to
make a popsicle-stick village. The popsicle itself has to be discarded (most often through
eating!) in order to be able to use the stick itself.
While the condensation versus addition systems of describing polymerization may be useful,
it is not the only way to see how polymers might form. Another way of explaining how
monomers form polymers involve observing how the monomers combine with one another. In
chain growth polymerization, one monomer is added to the collection at a time until a
polymer is formed. This is the simplest process of polymerization. A more complicated
process is called step-growth polymerization. Here, it isn't just one monomer joining the party
at a time. It can happen that way, but it's also possible for a group of monomers to show up
together. Eventually, there will be enough monomers to create a polymer.
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11. ISOCYANATE RESINS - Based on the combination with polyols (such as polyesters,
polyethers, etc.). The reaction joins members through the formation of the urethane linkage.
12. LAY-UP - Process of placing reinforcing material into position in a mold.
13. MODULUS - A key physical property than any user of a material will definitely
experience. The modulus is basically the stiffness of the material, or more specifically, the
modulus is the amount of force needed to deform a material a set amount. Modulus is
measured in psi (pounds per square inch). Modulus can be measured in any mode of
deformation, i.e., tension (stretching), compression, (crushing), flexing, (bending), or torsion
(twisting).
14. MOLD RELEASE AGENT (separator or parting agent) - A lubricant used to coat a
surface to prevent plastic from sticking to it.
15. MOTHERMOLD - A rigid material used to hold or house a flexable inner mold.
16. POT LIFE AND GEL TIME - These two terms are sometimes used interchangeably but
really have two different meanings. Pot life is the amount of time, after two materials have
been mixed, that the material remains workable, i.e., pourable for a liquid, trowelable for
paste. Gel time is the time after mixing when the materials become a continuous mass.
17. SLURRY - Mixture of a liquid and a fine filler material.
18. SLUSH CASTING - A method for casting thermoplastic in which liquid resin is poured
into a mold where a viscous skin forms.
19. SPECIFIC GRAVITY - The specific gravity of water is 1. When a resin has a lower
specific gravity than water, less than 1, it is lighter, will float, and has more volume for less
weight. Conversely, a resin with a higher specific gravity than water is heavier, will not float,
and has less volume.
20. TEAR PROPERTIES - How resistant the material is to tearing measured in pli (pounds
per linear inch).
21. TENSILE PROPERTIES - Ultimate tensile strength, elongation at break, 100% modulus.
Ultimate tensile strength is the force, measured in psi, needed to stretch a material until it
breaks. Elongation at break is how much the material stretches before it breaks, as a
percentage of its original dimensions. 100% modulus is the force, measured in psi, needed to
stretch the material to twice its original dimensions.
22. THERMOPLASTIC - Material that softens when heated and hardens on cooling.
23. THERMOSETTING - A substance that does not soften when heated.
24. THIXOTROPIC - The ability of a liquid to resist the pull of gravity. Materials that are
gel-like at rest and fluid when agitated.
2.2.1 Generals
The word “extrusion” comes from Greek roots, meaning to ‘push out’.
It is a continuous process, process which is forcing a molten materials (plastic) through a
shaped die by means of pressure- e.g. melting of plastic resin + adding mixing fillers.
In this process, screws are used to progress the polymer in the molten or rubbery state along
the barrel of the machine.
Single screw extruder is widely used, however twin screw extruder are also used where
superior mixing is needed
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Figure 2-1 : Extrusion of polymers
Solid polymer is fed in at one end, inside the polymer melts and homogenizes and molten
extrude emerges from the other. There are 3 zones; feed zone, compression zone and metering
zone (figure 2.2)
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2.2.2.1 Extruder screw
• Located in this region is the screen pack (comprises a perforated steel plate called
breaker plate and sieve pack)
• The breaker plate-screen pack has three functions;
– To sieve out/remove unwanted particles, e.g. dirt, foreign bodies (dies are
expensive and difficult to repair)
– To develop a head pressure that provides the driving force for the die
– To remove ‘turning memory along the spiral screw’ from the melt (Polymers
are made up of long chain molecules, coiled, etc. , they have tendency towards
elastic recovery)
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• Shallow flight depth ensures that high shear is added to the resin to accomplish any
melting of the residual solids.
• High shear also builds pressure on the melted resin and push out of the end of the
extruder
• Important extrusion parameter; Compression Ratio (measures of the work that is
Expanded on the resin)
• Compression Ratio = flight depth in the feed section / flight depth in metering section
(as low as 1.1/1 and as high as 5:1, typically 2.25:1)
• Melt fracture- Skin rupture usually occurs only on the outside surface of the film when
stretching and cooling occur too fast and cause micro tears.
• Melt fracture caused by skin rupture occurs when the surface of the film is stretched
too quickly on leaving the die.
• The extrudate has a rough surface, with short cracks that are oriented at the machine
direction or helically around the extrudate.
• Occur due to low temperature of the melt, high molecular weight; die is not properly
streamlined, etc.
• Solve by; streamlined the die, raising the melt temperature, selecting resin with low
molecular weight, etc.
Figure 2-5 : The effect of streamlining ina die to prevent melt fracture
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– Bambooing- defect in a surface of an extrudate that resembles bamboo
2.2.3.3 Contamination
• Excessive moisture/volatiles can be absorbed by resin and then vaporized when the
melt exits the die- resulting bubbling in the extrudate
• Solved by; dry the resin before fed into the hopper, store the resin in low humidity
location, etc.
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2.3.1.1 Description of welding method
The joining areas of the plastic pieces are pressed against an accordingly heated up element
until enough material is melted.
The heating element is removed and the plastified surfaces of the plastic pieces are pressed
together. The pieces cool down under pressure or way-limited until the melt is resolidified.
Weld fillers are not needed.
The ends of the plastic pieces are pushed into or over an accordingly heated up element until
enough material is melted. The heating element is removed and the plastic pieces are pushed
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2.3.3 Hotgas welding
The plastic pieces are fixed to each other at the joining areas.
The butt is melted with hot air until the surfaces are yielding under pressure.
The joint can be strengthened by means of a weld filler of the same plastic material.
The plastic pieces are fixed to each other at the joining areas. The butt is melted with hot air
until the pieces can be welded with additional material. The weld filler out of the same plastic
material is melted in a barrel extruder, ejected and pressed into the preheated butt.
The plastic pieces are positioned with the butts having a special distance to the accordingly
heated up element until enough material is melted. The input of heat is performed contactless
in form of infrared radiation and is for that reason not limited by the maximum temperature of
an anti-stick coating. The heating element is removed and the plastified surfaces of the plastic
pieces are pressed together. The pieces cool down under pressure or way-limited until the melt
is resolidified. Weld fillers are not needed.
The plastic pieces are fixed to each other and exposed to laser radiation. The input of heat is
performed by the absorption of energy on the surface exposed to radiation. The plastic pieces
cool down under pressure or way-limited until the melt is resolidified. Weld fillers are not
needed.
The joining areas of the rotation symmetric plastic pieces are pressed together and brought
40
into a rotating motion to each other. The input of heat is performed by friction losses in the
contact zone. The plastic pieces cool down under pressure or way-limited until the melt is
resolidified. Weld fillers are not needed.
The joining areas of the plastic pieces are pressed together and brought into an oscillating
motion to each other. This oscillating motion can be modulated in a linear, orbital or radial
manner with adjustable amplitude. The input of heat is performed by friction losses in the
contact zone. The plastic pieces cool down under pressure or way-limited until the melt is
resolidified. Weld fillers are not needed.
Ferromagnetic electric circuits are included in the joining areas of the plastic pieces, the
plastic pieces are pressed together and exposed to an electromagnetic field. The input of heat
is performed by electric losses within the ferromagnetic electric circuit. The plastic pieces
cool down under pressure or way-limited until the melt is resolidified. Additional welding
material is needed in form of ferromagnetic carriers.
The joining areas of the plastic pieces with dielectric features are pressed together and
exposed to an electromagnetic field of high frequency. The input of heat is performed by
dielectric losses in the basic material. The plastic pieces cool down under pressure or way-
limited until the melt is resolidified. Weld fillers are not needed.
The joining areas of the plastic pieces with dielectric features are pressed together and
exposed to a microwave field. The input of heat is performed by phase displacements and
effects of polarisation causing energy losses in the basic material. The plastic pieces cool
down under pressure or way-limited until the melt is resolidified. Weld fillers are not needed.
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2.3.12 Ultrasonic welding
The joining areas of the plastic pieces with energy directors are pressed onto each other and
ultrasonic is inserted. The input of heat is performed by friction losses in the energy director.
The plastic pieces cool down under pressure or way-limited until the melt is resolidified.
Weld fillers are not needed.
Thermoplastic injection molding is the most common way to manufacture plastic parts.
Thermoplastics are polymers that can be heated to soften or melt, and cooled to solidify as a
physical change, rather than a chemical change that takes place during molding of thermoset
materials.
The thermoplastic injection molding process begins by adding pelletized material to a hopper.
In most cases, the material must is dried prior to molding, and frequently requires the addition
of a color concentrate before loading. The material is gravity fed into a heated barrel and
screw. Rotation of the screw results in shearing action on the raw pellets causing them to
melt. The screw rotation also pushes the molten plastic forward in the barrel toward the mold.
The material is then injected into the closed mold at high pressure through a runner system to
fill all the cavities.
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for part removal, and some parts simply drop into a box, while others are removed by hand or
automated equipment.
Unlike thermoplastic injection molding, cured thermosets cannot be reground and mixed with
virgin material for reprocessing. In general, thermoset materials have a low viscosity, so when
the material fills the mold cavity under pressure, some of the material will leak between the
two halves of the mold typically at an area of the cavity where vents have been added to allow
for gas and air escapement. This is called flash. While this problem can normally be prevented
in thermoplastic injection molding by proper mold construction and processing parameters,
flashing cannot be avoided in thermoset injection molding. Therefore, flash must be removed
as a secondary operation. When possible, the parts are de-flashed in an automatic tumbling
operation rather than hand de-flashing to save costs.
Cycle times are longer for thermoset materials than thermoplastic materials due to the
chemical reaction and cure that takes place in the mold. Since thermosets are more abrasive
than thermoplastics, the producershave considerable expertise in mold design (including
choice of tool steels, heat treating and plating requirements) as well as mold maintenance will
insure a long lasting productive mold life.
Thermosets are materials that cure via an irreversible chemical reaction under heat and
pressure, rather than cooling to a rigid state as thermoplastic injection molding materials do.
This chemical reaction results in a strong highly cross-linked molecular structure and is the
reason that thermoset materials have the ability to retain their properties at elevated
The thermoset compression molding process begins by adding granular material directly into
the cavity(s) of the mold. Closing the mold provides the force necessary to flow the material
into the cavity voids; the heated mold (300° F and higher) initiates the chemical curing. Since
there is no runner and gate system in a compression mold, the mechanical properties of
compression molded parts are somewhat better than identical parts molded by transfer or
thermoset injection molding.
Thermoset transfer molding typically requires placing a preheated preform of material into the
mold “pot” before a plunger applies pressure to the material, forcing the material through a
runner and gate and into the mold cavity. Thermoset transfer molding is generally considered
more precise and creates less flash than compression molding. Transfer molding is ideal for
insert molding since the molding machine clamp opens and closes vertically and retention of
the insert is more readily accomplished through a closed mold.
Unlike thermoplastic injection molding, the extra material left behind in the mold must be
disposed of, since cured thermoset material from sprues and runners cannot be reground and
reprocessed. When the mold cavities are filled, the parts must cure to a solid form. The mold
opens for part removal, and parts are ejected and removed by hand or automated equipment.
Like thermoset injection molding, transfer and compression methods generate flash. In
general, thermoset materials have a low viscosity. So, when the material fills the mold cavity
under pressure, some of the material will leak between the two halves of the mold. This is
called flash. While this problem can normally be prevented in thermoplastic injection molding
by proper mold construction and processing parameters, flashing often cannot be avoided in
46
thermoset molding and in many cases is desirable. Therefore, we must remove the flash as a
secondary operation. When possible, the parts are de-flashed in an automatic tumbling
operation rather than hand de-flashing to save costs.
Also similar to thermoset injection molding is the amount of material waste in thermoset
transfer molding. The cured runners and flash material cannot be melted and reused, so it is
disposed as waste. Thermoset materials also tend to wear the mold more quickly, so tooling
maintenance and replacement costs are usually higher than that of thermoplastics.
Figure 2-20 : Common blow-molded products with some preblown, injection molded
preforms (tubes) shown in left of center near the foreground
48
Figure 2-21 : Techniques for producing reinforced plastics and composites. (a) Hand lay-up
technique for reinforced thermosets. (b) Vacuum bag molding method. (c) Spray-up method.
(d) Matched metal die molding. (e) Filament winding. (After R. S. Morrison, Reinforce
Figure 2-22 : Transfer molding. (a) In the molding cycle, material is first placed in the transfer
pot. (b) Material is then forced through an orifice into the closed mold. (c) When the mold
opens, the cull and sprue are removed as a unit, and the part is lifted out of the cavity by
ejector pins. (After E. W. Vaill, Thermoset molding, Modern Plastics Encyclopedia, vol. 45,
no. 14a, pp. 714–731, McGraw-Hill, 1968–1969)
50
3 Welded Joints and Terminology
(1hrs)
3.1 Welded Joints
52
• Heated element saddle weld
3.2 Terminology
Aggregate pipe coefficient The aggregate pipe coefficient (C) is a safety buffer (safety
(C) reserve) to allow for the additional loads that occur in pipe
systems. It corresponds to the safety factor (SF). 1.25 for water
and 2.0 for gas.
Bead formation in butt- Visual inspection of the form in which the bead is created can
welding provide an indication of weld quality. However, such evaluation
requires sound, appropriate, practical and theoretical expertise
about the welding process.
Bending radius In bending pipe, certain bending radius should not be exceeded
(See Specification Manual table 6.3)
Brackets Brackets (See Specification Manual paragraph 6.7) have the
task of transferring the effective loads on the pipe system to the
building structure or infra structure.
Building connections Connections of building can be exposed to settling, which can
be compensated by creating deformable zones.
Burning behaviour Plastics are organic compounds and therefore combustible by
nature.
Butt-welding equipment The principle pieces of butt-welding equipment are: plane (in
pipe construction machines), hot plate, clamping tool and
hydraulic unit. Construction site (portable, e.g. trench welding
machines) and workshop machinery (stationary welding
machines) may be used. Construction-site machines are
increasingly being converted to CNC controlled machines (fully
automatic), which enable the construction-site operation to
54
are needed, then a more expensive non-destructive (e.g.
ultrasonic or X-ray test) or destructive testing method has to be
adopted.
Expansion couplers Expansion couplers are predominantly employed in pressureless
systems as connection elements and compensation for length
changes.
Extruder An extruder (See Specification Manual paragraph 1.5.1) is
responsible for plasticising raw materials. Used, for example, in
the manufacture of pipes, profiles and plates. Continuous
process.
Extrusion welding Four different variants of extrusion welding (See Specification
Manual paragraph 9.2.4) are used. The individual variants are
different in terms of material supply, type of welding equipment
(e.g. hand extruder) and pressure tool (e.g. plunger, welding
shoe). An extrusion welding extruder generally has the
following elements: plasticising unit, hot gas tool and device for
applying the required welding pressure.
Fixed points Fixed points in association with suitable bracket concepts
prevent shifting or movement of pipe systems.
Flange connections Can be fixed or backing ring connections. Backing ring
connections consist of the components: stub flange, backing
ring and gasket. A combination of stub flange, backing ring,
blind flange and gasket can be used to seal pipes. At higher
loads, backing ring connections are preferable to fixed flange
connections.
General quality controls In connection with general quality controls, relevant tests
should be run to ensure the quality and functionality of the
employed fittings as well as the factory-made or on-site
manufactured pipe systems. Such tests are best served by non-
destructive test procedures.
Gluing Gluing is only very conditionally meaningful and possible as an
appropriate jointing technology for polyolefin materials. A bond
is produced only with special multi-component adhesives.
These glued connections are not at all capable of withstanding
mechanical loads.
Ground water Areas having a high ground water table can load external
overpressure on the pipe system. The same holds true for
concrete-encased pipe systems, which are exposed to short-term
heightened overpressures. Both cases require the calculation of
dent resistance.
Guide brackets (Guide They serve to absorb both vertical and horizontal forces. (See
saddles) Specification Manual paragraph 6.7)
Hand welding The welding tool in which the appropriate nozzle is mounted (in
most cases a round nozzle) is moved in a fanning motion over
the surfaces to be welded. In this way, the substrate and welding
filler are heated until the material in the welding zone is
placticised. The filler (mostly in the form of a rod) is
56
pressure load. The associated reference stress ( ref ) is a function
of the internal pressure, mean pipe diameter and wall thickness.
It is calculated using the boiler formula.
Internal pressure loads Internal pressure loads create stresses in various directions.
Radial stresses, axial stresses and tangential stresses can occur.
Internal underpressure / Exposed to internal underpressure or external overpressure, a
external overpressure pipe will tend to buckle, which means it deviates for its ideal
form (circular cross section). The critical buckle pressure
should be calculated with regard to stability.
Length change The length change of a pipe system is caused by varying
operating temperatures, varying ambient temperatures or
internal pressure loads. Frequently, several of these influences
are superposed.
Maximum operating pressure The internal pressure load capacity was formerly used to
(MOP) designate the nominal pressure "PN" of pipes and fit tings. In
the European standards, the designation has been abandoned
and replaced by (SDR) or (ISO-S).
Melt index The melt index indicates the flow capacity of a plasticised
plastic. Previously known as the MFI value, it is now referred to
as the MFR value.
Minimum required strength The minimum required strength corresponds to the reference
(MRS) stress ( ref ) of water at 20°C and a service life of 50 years.
Non-detachable connection Disassembly usually involves destruction of at least one of the
technology connecting elements. Examples are butt-welding and
electrofusion.
Notch effect The notch effect affects the strength of the component.
Grooves, scratches, inhomogenities or a component's structural
form can have adverse affects on the fittings.
Orientation Alignment of the macromolecules by external forces (e.g.
extraction speed).
PE welding Welding is for plastic pipe systems and equipment construction
a common jointing technology. PE pipe systems are
prominently jointed by butt-welding and electrofusion method.
Permeation Diffusion tendency of a material, which is the permeability of
fluids or gaseous elements through the plastic.
Pipe bending Pipe bending is usually caused by the dead weight of the pipe
and/or additionally incorporated valves and pipe fill. The
relevant bracket distances (support distances) must therefore be
determined and the suitable pipe brackets incorporated.
Pipe series number (ISO-S) The pipe series number (ISO-S) indicates the internal pressure
load capacity of a pipe, while taking a safety factor into
account.
Plastic Plastic is divisible into three main groups: thermoplastics,
thermosets and elastomers.
Plastic processing machines Extruders, injection moulding machines and calendars (not
discussed in the Akatherm Specification manual and website)
58
are oriented.
Safety factor (SF) The safety factor (SF) corresponds to the aggregate pipe
coefficient (C).
Seals Seals are needed to seal connections between two connecting
elements. In the flange connections used in plastic pipe
construction, flat gaskets (with and without steel inlays) and O-
rings are mostly used. The material of the seal is adaptable to
the flow medium.
Short-term tensile test The short-term tensile test involves stretching a sample bar to
the breaking point. The result provides an indication of the
mechanical values of the tested material. The most important
mechanical values are: expansion, tensile strength, breaking
strength and breaking strain.
Shrinkage In contrast to retraction, shrinkage designates a volume
contraction (negative volume change) as a result of cooling
processes. In contrast to retraction, a volume change is
discernible in every plastic component. These volume changes
are seen in the fitting structure and in the die or mould structure.
Sliding and hanging brackets They are only able to absorb vertical forces.
(sliding and hanging bracket
sleeves)
Soil load The soil layer on top of the pipe loads weight on the pipe and
can cause it to deform. This load therefore has a significant
effect on the pipe structure and the service life of the pipe.
Speed welding The heating of the substrate and filler occurs by means of the
beak-shaped tip at the lower end of the speed-welding nozzle.
The necessary welding pressure is applied by this nozzle.
Standard dimension ratio The Standard Dimension Ratio (SDR) indicates the relationship
(SDR) of the pipe outside diameter to wall thickness.
Surface hardness Designates the resistance against the penetration of the test
specimen. Most important procedures are Shore A, Shore D and
ball indentation hardness.
Temperature loads Temperature loads have a very large effect on the mechanical
properties of plastic pipe. Attention is first of all to be paid to
the relatively large thermal length change.
Tempering Heat treatment to reduce or eliminate residual stress potentials.
Tensile and compressive They are created during pipe manufacture due to differing
stresses on the pipe wall cooling conditions. Compressive stresses arise in the outer wall
of the pipe (usually the first surface to cool) and tensile stresses
on the warmer inner wall of the pipe.
Testing welds A distinction is made between destructive and non-destructive
tests. Destructive test methods are chiefly used to evaluate cases
involving damage claims.
Thermoplastics Thermoplastics can be divided into amorphous and semi-
crystalline thermoplastics.
Thermosets Thermosets possess a close-meshed interlinked macromolecular
60
4 Basics of heated tool butt welding (1
hr)
4.1 Generals
Butt-welding is an economical and reliable way of joining without using additional
components requiring only butt-welding equipment.
Butt-fusion joining is a thermofusion process which involves the simultaneous heating of the
ends of two components which are to be joined until a melt state isattained on each contact
surface. The two surfaces are then brought together under controlled pressure for a specific
cooling time and homogeneous fusion is formedupon cooling. The resultant joint is resistant
to end thrust and has comparable performance under pressure to the pipe.
The temperature of the heating element needs to be checked at several spots on the heating
element. Checking if the real temperature is the set one by using the thermostat or by
using different thermal measuring sticks or thermometers.
To remove dirt deposits, the heating element may be washed, when cold,with large
quantities of clean water at the start of the joining session. Only clean with lint free
materials. To remove grease and oily films the plate may be wiped with lint free material
dampened by a suitable solvent, eg. Isopropanol.
• Check that the pipes and/or fittings to be joined are of the same size, SDR and material.
62
4.3 Dummy Welds
Even though washing may remove large deposits of dirt, very fine particles of dust may still
remain on the heating element. To remove such dust it is necessary to make a dummy joint at
the start of each joining session, whenever the plate has been allowed to cool below 180°C, or
at a change of pipe size. Two dummy joints will be made if the pipe size is greater than
180mm. A dummy joint can be made using pipe off cuts of the same size, SDR and material
as the pipe being installed, It is not necessary to actually make a joint. The procedure can be
discontinued after the full heat cycle.
64
65 PLASTICS WELDER – Heated tool welding
Course support produced within the project LLP-LdV-TOI-2009-RO-003
a. Fixing the pipes
Place the pipes in the clamps with the ends against the machining tool and with the pipe
markings aligned.The fittings and or pipes need to be aligned in the welding machine to avoid
sagging in the pipe-wall.
Align and level the components using the support rollers.
Tighten the pipe clamps to gripand re-round the pipes.
Cover the free ends of the pipes to prevent cooling of the plate by internal draughts.
Switch on the machining tool and close the clamps slowly so that the pipe ends are moved
against the machining tool until continuous shavings are cut from each surface.
Keep the machining tool turning whilst opening the clamps to avoid steps on the trimmed
surfaces.
Remove the machining tool taking care not to touch the trimmed ends.
Remove loose shavings from the machine and component ends.
Check that both surfaces are completely planed. If they are not then repeat the machining
process.
Close the clamps and check that there is no visible gap between the trimmed faces.The
maximum permitted outsider diameter mismatch is:
• 1.0mm for pipe sizes 90mm to315mm
• 2,0mm for pipe sizes 316mm to800mm,
If the mismatch is greater than these values then the pipe must be realigned and re-trimmed.
66
Make sure that once the pipe and/or fitting ends have been machined, they do not get dirty.
Do not touch them with your hands. The surface needs to be clear of oil, grease and dirt.
Open and then close the clamps and note the drag pressure needed to move the pipes together
using the hydraulic system.
Drag pressure is the minimum gauge pressure required to overcome the sliding frictional drag
on the rams due to the operation of the machine and the weight of the pipes/fittings being
jointed.
The drag pressure (in bar) must be assessed accurately prior to making each fusion joint and
must be added to the basic ram pressure values shown on the machine. (When fully automatic
machines are used this operation will normally be carried out automatically.)
Remove the heater plate from its protective cover. Check that it is clean and up to
temperature.
Place the heater plate in the machine and close the clamps so that the surfaces to be joined are
touching the plate. Using the hydraulic system, apply the pressure previously determined.
Maintain the applied pressure until the pipe begins to melt and a uniform bead of 2-3mm is
formed on each end.
Polymers are good insulators, therefore it is necessary that the correct heating depth of the
pipe ends is obtained. Because of that, after the initial bead up, the pressure in the hydraulic
system shall be released so that the pressure gauge registers between zero and the drag
The heat will gradually spread through the pipe/fitting end. The size of the bead will increase
a little. Check that the pipe does not slip in the clamps. The pipe ends must maintain contact
with the heater plates.
When the heat soak time is completed, open the clamps and remove the heater plate ensuring
that the plate does not touch the melted surfaces. Immediately close the clamps (within 8 to
10 seconds of removing the plate) and bring the melted surfaces together at the previously
determined pressure. Do not push the ends abruptly onto each other.
The removal of the heating element needs to be done quickly to prevent the ends from cooling
down.
After the joining areas have made contact they should be joined gradually with increase in
pressure up to the specified value. The building-up of pressure should be done linearily and
not differ more than 0,01 N/mm2.When the buildup occurs too fast the plastic material will be
pushed away. When the pressure buildup is too slow the material cools down. In both cases
the quality of the weld is questionable.
Keep the specified welding pressure at a constant level during the complete cooling period.
68
Figure 4-5 : Welding
There must not be any load or strain at the joint and it should be allowed to cool naturally.
After this time the assembly can be removed from the machine but should not be handled for
a further period equal to the cooling times.
Examine the joint for cleanliness and uniformity and check that the bead width is within the
specified limits.
Remove the external bead and if required the internal beads using suitable debeading tools.
The beads and joint shall be numbered/coded using an indelible marker pen.
Twist the beads at several positions. If the bead is seen to split at any point then the joint must
be cut out from the pipeline and remade. If a similar defecte occurs, cease all further joining
until the equipment has been thoroughly cleaned, examined and new trial joints were made
and shown to be satisfactory.
P(bar)
P1 P3
P2
t(s)
t1 t2 t3 t4 t5
a) Temperature of the heating element (T) - is the temperature at which the components
will be heated and maintained. It is not allowed to exceed the thermal degradation temperature
of the polymer so as not to cause structural changes in the joint with direct consequences for
its mechanical resistance. As the temperatura of the heating element increases, the mechanical
strength of the seam decreases.
b) Heating time (t 1 , t 2 ) determines the amount of heat introduced into the material. The size
of the heating time is determined by the thickness of components.
The higher heating time (t 1 , t 2 ) inside appropriate limits, the greater the amount of molten
plastic which results in a significant increase in resistance welded.
However, longer heating times can have negative repercussions , due to the resulting excess
of molten material. During welding, the material is removed from the joint which leads to
putting in contact cold surfaces.The time for heating under pressure (t 1 ) is chosen based on
the height of the initial training ring of molten material (values in the tables).
c) Removing heater time (t 3 ) is the time elapsed since reducing the pressure to zero, removal
of the components and removal of the heating element, until bringing back the pipes into
contact. Experience has shown that this time should be as small as not to produce too much
cooling of heated surfaces.
70
d) Rising time of welding pressure from zero to (P 3 ) must be respected, so that molten
thermoplastic material to gradually repressed, resulting in a seam with the desired geometric
features. If it’s too low, it can lead to an expulsion of the molten material from the joint.
e) Welding time (t 5 ) refers to the cooling under pressure of the weld. This parameter must be
wide enough to accomodate a proper cooling of the seam.
f) Heating pressure (P 1 ) provides proper contact between the surfaces that are brought into
contact with the heating element.
72
73 PLASTICS WELDER – Heated tool welding
Course support produced within the project LLP-LdV-TOI-2009-RO-003
4.5 Welding Equipment
Heating element welding equipment generally consists of the following main parts:
a) Frameworks;
b) Fixing jaws with interchangeable reducers for standard pipe diameters;
c) System to assure the necessary pressure (mechanical system or hydraulic unit or
compressed air system);
d) Machining tool (milling cutter/trimmer)
e) System to drive the heating element - some mechanized equipment;
f) PTFE- coated heating element with uniform surface temperature;
g) Command and control system.
a. Mechanized equipment
b. Manually equipment
74
Figure 4-7 : Welding equipment
a) The framework of the welding equipment is the structure of the equipment, mounted on
different other parts of the equipment. It is done according to the destination and it is built in
modular structures.
b) Fixing elements are interchangeable jaws, for each standard pipe diameter, and the fixing
system is based on mechanical clamping.
c) pressure to the stages of heating, maintenance and welding is done using hydraulics.
b.
c.
76
d) The milling cutter assures proper processing of the ends of the pipes. It provide
simultaneous machining of the both surfaces that will participate to the welding process.
e) Some mechanized welding equipment (FUSION) heating element is fixed in the welding
equipment with a device so that after the end of the heating element enables automatic
removal of heating components.
g) The command and control equipment welding heating element generally meets two distinct
functions:
- Ensure the achievement of the desired work cycle;
- Controls the temperature of the heating element.
78
Other devices to be used in order to help prepare the process are shown in figure 4.15.
Fixing and axing the pipes Machining the end of the pipes
Pressing together the hot end of the pipes Removal of te joint from the welding device
80
5 Basics of heated tool socket and
saddle welding (1 hrs)
As principle, the heating element socket welding consists in the heating of the exterior surface
of the pipes and the interior surface of the fitting, in the areas that will participate to the
welding, up to the welding temperature that will put the material in the fluid-viscous state.
The heating element socket welding is recommended for pipe diameters between 16-125 mm
and SDR11,SDR17.
b.
a. outin threedistinct phases c.
The welding is carried (figure 5.2):
a. Heating of the welding components
b. Removing the heating element
c. Welding by putting the welding components in good contact.
In case of the saddle welding, the pipe is drilled before starting the welding process.
b.
Figure 5-2 : Socket welding phases (a.) and saddle welding phases (b.)
82
5.2 Types of polyfusion welding
According to the material size and dimensions of polyfusion welding heating adapters, this
method is broken down into three types, which are distinguished mainly by process of
material preparation. The first two types A and B are basically the same; while type C is
different in principle and comes close to the saddle welding Differences between these types
are as follows:
• Type A – the outside surface of the pipe is not calibrated and welded areas are only
chemically cleaned. Therefore the pipes and shaped pieces must be made with precise
dimensional tolerances allowing heating on heating adapters without any excessive extrusion
of the heated material. This type of polyfusion welding is the most frequented in the Czech
Republic and domestic manufacturers supply practically exclusively plastic pipes and shaped
pieces for type A.
• Type B – calibration of the outside surface of the pipe along the heated area is done by
calibrating tools which cut the oxidised top layer of the pipe, while at the same time ensuring
• Type C – polyfusion saddle welding of branch pipes onto pipes from 50 mm in diameter,
when the shaped piece is shaped like a saddle copying the pipe surface for welding and socket
for polyfusion welding in pipe’s drilled hole. Hot bodies are adapted by their shape to heat the
part of the pipe’s surface and saddle with socket of the shaped piece being welded. Prior to
welding, the pipe is drilled through by a special forming drill in the place of the welded
branch pipe. These way additional branches are mounted on pipeline distributions.
Note: Type C is not defined in DVS directives; this has been a corporate name, now generally
used.
84
5.3 Welding Technology
In socket welding, welded joints are between the outer surface of the pipe and the inner of the
socket. Heating components is performed using a pair of interchangeable profiles that are
mounted on the heating element.
The active surfaces of these profiles are covered by a layer of PTFE, and they are sized after
the diameter of welding components.
The main technological parameters that are used in the socket welding are:
- Temperature of the heating element
- Time for heating
-Time for removal of the heating elementsand for putting in contact the welding components
-Time for introduction thepipe into thesocket
-Time for Welding– cooling.
For certain plastic materials (piping or shaped pieces) a different dimension can be
determined by the manufacturer for working the pipe ends than given in tables for A type.
These are mostly other materials than polypropylene or polyethylene, e.g. for polybutene
where working is done according to the instructions of the manufacturer of piping and shaped
pieces. For PVDF, DVS 2207 Part 15 mentions only slightly different insertion depth. The
same case is with shaped pieces made according to the old ČSN standard, when non-standard
polyfusion welding adapters must be used that are manufactured for these shaped pieces,
because values mentioned here for A type are based on DIN standard under which pipes and
shaped pieces are manufactured also in the Czech Republic.
For B welding procedure, the calibration of the pipe’s outside surface along the heated part is
made and therefore it is not necessary to mark the depth of insertion, because this is given by
working the pipe in the length (l). Calibration tools for various pipe diameters serve for this
purpose.
Pipes must be worked evenly along the whole diameter of the pipe and without sharp notch at
the end of the part being worked.
86
Special calibration tools must be used for multi-jacket pipes and pipes with reinforcing metal
foil that enable working, including cutting of metal foils or metal jacket according to the pipe
manufacturer’s instructions. Calibration is done manually or by machine.
Preparation and working of the pipe surface for polyfusion C type welding proceeds
according to the pipe manufacturer’s instructions.
Before starting welding is necessary to proceed:
- Checking the integrity of the Teflon coating on the surface of the heating element. If it is
damaged it will proceed to repair or to replacement. Avoid it to come into contact with
objects (metal, etc.). That could damage the layer of Teflon. In this respect, to avoid soiling or
damage to, heating element is kept out of working time in specific protective support.
- Clean teflon-coated active surfaces of heating element with a soft paper soaked in a suitable
solvent (technical alcohol);
- Verifying the cutter knives - be sharp;
- Check equipment guides - are clean;
- Check the temperature of the heating element, at least once a day, before starting work
program. It is recommended to check the maintenance and uniformity of surface temperature
heating element.The temperature of various points on the surface heating element will be
measured with a contact thermometer. Measurements started after stabilization of heating
element temperature (at approx. 15 minutes) after the green light indicates that the desired
temperature is reached. There are not allowed variations in temperature with
differenceshigher than the set one ± 5oC.
- Before carrying out each welded joints, heater element is cleaned with a soft paper soaked in
a suitable solvent (technical alcohol).
5.3.2 Heating
The heating phase starts with slipping the pipe and shaped piece over the welding adapter
without turning, i.e. by applying uniform pressure, inserting the pipe into the heating
adapter’s opening until the insertion depth mark (l) and the shaped piece on the adapter’s pin.
After insertion of both parts, the heating takes place for a time period limited according to the
applicable welding tables. When molten material begins to appear, approx.1-2mm at the site
of contact between the pipe socket and heating profiles, components are extracted
simultaneously from the heating profiles. Pipe is inserted into the socket up to the mark and
5.3.3 Transposition
In the transposition phase both heated parts are removed from the heating adapter and put
close to each other to be prepared for joining as quickly as possible. Time referenced in the
tables is maximum time, so it cannot be prolonged.
5.3.5 Cooling
The phase of cooling, during which the joint must not be subject to strain and must cool down
naturally in a fixed position, takes place in minutes compared to other phases. However, the
prescribed time period is minimum and so it cannot be shortened.
88
5.4 Polyfusion welding parameters
Parameters for polyfusion welding - temperature, pressure, and time - are given for individual
materials separately.
Common principles must be followed for all materials, especially the welding temperature
requirements:
– For larger pipe diameters, lower welding temperature within the above range is chosen, with
a possibility to prolong the time of heating leading to perfect soaking of welded parts.
– For small diameters, higher temperature from the given temperature range is chosen and the
time of heating gets shorter to avoid the collapse of the thin wall of the pipe.
– For welding at ambient temperatures lower than 10°C, it is forbidden to increase the
temperature of the welding adapter. After the required temperature and depth of material
soaking is attained, it is possible to slightly extend the time of heating.
The alteration of welding parameters is suggested by a technologist or plastics welding
specialist or may be given in the welding procedure specification (WPS). The welder enters
the actually used parameters into the welding protocol.
1 2 3 4 5
Pipe outside Heating Transposition Cooling
diameter d n (s) (s) fixed total
(mm) forPN 103 PN 6 (s) (min)
SDR2) 11 SDR2) 17, 66
16 5 4 6 2
20 5 4 6 2
1)
25 7 4 10 2
1)
32 8 6 10 4
1)
40 12 6 20 4
1 1a 2 3 4 5
Pipe outside Minimum wall Heating Transposition Cooling
diameter d n thickness (mm) (s) (s) fixed total
(mm) (s) (min)
16 2.0 5
20 2,2 6 4 15 2
25 2,36
1 1a 2 3 4 5
Pipe outside Minimum wall Heating Transposition Cooling
diameter d n thickness (mm) (s) (s) fixed total
(mm) (s) (min)
16 1,5 4
20 1,9 6 4 6 2
25 1,9 8
32 2,4 10
40 2,4 12 4 12 4
50 3,0 18
63 20
75 3,0 22 6 18 6
90 25
110 3,0 30 6 24 8
90
5.5 Technological conditions after welding
After welding, it is necessary to observe conditions which greatly influence the weld quality,
i.e. spontaneous natural cooling without cold water or air or immediate priming of the
distribution system by cold water, which causes constant mechanical stressing of pipes.
Orientation time intervals for priming the pipes with water after the last weld at pipe’s
diameters:
16, 20, 25, 32 mm......................................... 60 min
40, 50, 63, 75 mm......................................... 90 min
90, 110, 125 mm ........................................ 120 min
a. b.
Figure 5-8 : Equipment for socket and saddle welding (a. for large diameters and b. for
low diameters)
92
6 Application of heated tool welding (1
hrs)
6.1 Effect of material
Thermoplastics are elastic and flexible above a glass transition temperature T g , specific for
each one—the midpoint of a temperature range in contrast to the sharp melting point of a pure
crystalline substance like water.
Below a second, higher melting temperature, T m , also the midpoint of a range, most
thermoplastics have crystalline regions alternating with amorphous regions in which the
chains approximate random coils. The amorphous regions contribute elasticity and the
crystalline regions contribute strength and rigidity, as is also the case for non-thermoplastic
fibrous proteins such as silk. (Elasticity does not mean they are particularly stretchy; e.g.,
nylon rope and fishing line.) Above T m all crystalline structure disappears and the chains
become randomly inter dispersed. As the temperature increases above T m , viscosity gradually
decreases without any distinct phase change.
During exploitation thermoplastics present the following advantages:
Main characteristics
- High temperature stability - Resistance to electrochemical corrosion
- Hygienic and environmental - Low thermal conductivity: λ=0,23W/mK
friendliness
- No siltation - Resistance to stray electric currents
- Easy and clean installation, easy - High heat insulating
welding
- High sound insulating - High impact rate
- Chemical resistance - Low loss of pressure
- Recyclable - Light weight
A report published today shows a steady increase in the use of plastics by Europe’s car
manufacturing industry since the 1970s, rising to nearly two million tonnes today.
By volume, plastics are now the most widely specified material. However, plastics’ low
weight means they account for about 10 per cent of the total weight of a modern car.
The study, carried out by Mavel on behalf of the Association of Plastics Manufacturers in
Europe (APME), examines the use of plastics in cars over the last three decades in Europe
with specific reference to France, Germany and Italy.
The report shows that this increase in the use of plastics is particularly dramatic in certain
types of cars. For example, some of the cars surveyed registered a four-fold increase in their
use of plastics between the 1970s and 1990s.
It is estimated that, on average, 100 kilograms of plastics replaces 200-300 kilograms of
conventional material, reducing fuel consumption by 750 litres over a life span of 150 000
kilometres.
Sports
• Playground equipment, various balls, golf clubs, swimming pools, and protective helmets
are often produced from polymers.
Piping is probably the most interesting application. Welded thermoplastics are used in:
94
• Cold and hot water supply systems
• Potable water supply systems
• Waste water transportation
• Heating systems
• Central air conditioning systems
• Water circulating and water supply systems in swimming pools
• Natural gas transportation
for both transportation and distribution.
a.
Specific polymers, like PE, PP and PVC are mostly used for pipes, fittings and accessories of
the piping systems, in following sizes and with following parameters (but not exclusive):
• PN10 pipes with diameter range Ø16-160mm for cold water transportation and floor
heating
• PN16 pipes with diameter range Ø16-160mm for cold and hot water transportation and
floor heating
• PN20 pipes with diameter range Ø16-160mm for hot water transportation and central
heating
• PN25 Outer layer thermo-fusion PPR/Al/PPR multilayer composite pipes with
diameter range Ø20-75mm for cold and hot water transportation and central heating
• PN25 Outer layer thermo-fusion PPR/Al/PE-RT multilayer composite pipes with
diameter range Ø20-75mm for cold and hot water transportation and central heating
• PN20 polymer composite pipes with diameter range Ø20-63mm for cold and hot water
transportation and central heating
• PN25 polymer composite pipes with diameter range Ø20-63mm for cold and hot water
transportation and central heating
96
• PN20 fittings and fittings with nickel-plated brass threaded inserts and cap nuts with
diameter range Ø16-160mm
• PN20 ball valves and stop valves
Estimated service life of the polymers piping systems is over 50 years and subject to proper
installation and maintaining of material’s characteristics. Short time peak temperatures up to
100 ºС are possible.
Long time usage of piping system at temperatures ranging from 70ºС to 90ºС reduces its
service life.
98
6.3 Selection of heated tool butt, socket and saddle welding
Usually, because of the economical meanings, but for technical as well, up to 60 (75) mm it is
recommended to use socket welding when butt welding pipes. Up to 60 mm the socket is not
very expensive, but brings more safety in work.
Higher than 60 mm the socket becomes exensive enough to be used only in specific
application that require supplementary safety work assurance.
7.1 Generals
Welded joints are potential sites of weakness in a plastic structure. Consequently, it is
important to be able to show that a welded joint is fit for purpose. This can be achieved by
appropriate mechanical testing techniques. There are several standard test methods for welded
plastics joints. Many of these methods were developed by the plastic pipe industry as quality
control techniques for welding processes. In addition, some standard plastic test methods can
be applied to plastic welds. Some of the more common test methods are summarised below.
Tensile tests
Tensile tests are perhaps the most common methods used to characterise welds. Weld beads
are usually removed in cases where they are removed in service. Typically, a tensile weld
strength of 80-100% of parent material strength is acceptable, depending on the material and
welding process. If failure occurs away from the weld, then a specimen with reduced cross-
sectional area at the weld may be used to optimise welding parameters.
Bend tests
Butt welded joints in plastics may also be assessed using a bend test. Specimens are typically
loaded in three point bending. The weld flash on the face in contact with the centre loading
point is removed prior to testing. The angle at which either fracture occurs or a crack initiates
is recorded. The bend angle and fracture appearance provide a guide to the ductility of the
joint and the weld quality.
Impact tests
100
can sometimes be more useful than tensile tests in distinguishing between different welding
conditions. For example, a joint may show a tensile strength equivalent to its parent material,
whereas the absorbed Charpy impact energy for the weld may be less than 50% of that of the
parent material. However, when applying this test to welded plastics, accurate positioning of
the notch at the weld line is essential. Also, any weld bead present should be removed.
Creep rupture tests can be used to compare the long-term performance of plastic welds with
those of the parent material. Normally, tests are carried out using tensile specimens under a
constant load and elevated temperature and the time to failure is measured. Tests are normally
carried out in water, but a surface-active medium can be used to accelerate failure. Although
more expensive to perform than short-term static tests, creep tests provide more useful
information when designing components which are under constant load.
More rigorous fracture mechanics type test methods can be used to quantitatively characterise
plastic welds, but these are not yet fully established and require extremely accurate notch tip
positioning and test procedures. Testing can be conducted under three point bend loading
using a single edge notch bend (SENB) specimen following standard methods for plastic and
metallic parent materials. Some of the more brittle plastics can be characterised using linear
elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM). However, many plastics show extensive crack tip
plasticity requiring a more complex elastic-plastic fracture mechanics (EPFM) analysis.
h2
h1
b1 b2
B
Note: The width of bead is the total width of the bead measured across both pipe ends.
102
Standard specimen is bended by pushing with constant force, using specific tool, when the
specimen is leaned on two cylinders. The specimen is extracted from a joint or, for low
diameters is the joint itself. It can be performed by pushing the tool on the root of the weld or
by pushing the tool on the surface of the weld. In the both cases the expulsed material during
welding process is cut away from the surface/root of the pipe.
Tensile test is performed in order to evaluate the elasticity and the plasticity of the polymer
and more, of the welded joints.
Tensile testing of a longitudinal strip will generally be carried out in accordance with
IRS/FDIS13953 but must be modified as follows:
a) The type A test specimen must only be used for all samples exceeding 20mm in thickness.
b) All test strips for Type A tests must be machines down to 20mm thickness by removing
material evenly from each side of the pipe and then tested in the Type A test apparatus.
Samples tested in the above manner are referred to as Modified Type A testing to avoid
confusion with ISO/FDIS 13953.
c) For polyethylene pipes with a wall thickness less than 20mm a Type B test must be carried
out.
104
a.
b.
Figure 7-5 : Tensile test principle and the curve strength against strain for different polymers
During testing there are checked different mechanical characteristics as elongation, the
maximum force, the yield strength, the position of the first crack, etc.
Below it is presented several mechanical characteristics of the polymers as refference.
106
Figure 7-7 : Tensile tested specimen – fragile fracture
Effects include:
108
• Reduction of the inner diameter with direct result in increasing the speed of the fluid,
so higher stress in the welded material
• Creates deposits of different solid particles when liquid is transported by the pipes.
110
8.2.7 Cracks
A crack is a two-dimensional discontinuity that occurs during cooling or thereafter (transverse
longitudinal). It is generally caused by a very fast cooling and/or by a too low heating during heating
process.
• Reducing of the inner diameter with direct result in increasing the speed of the fluid, so higher
stress in the welded material
• Creates deposits of different solid particles when liquid is transported by the pipes.
• Possible not appropriate contact between the ends of the pipes during welding and as result low
resistance of the weld
• Low aesthetic
• Possible not appropriate contact between the ends of the pipes during welding and as result low
resistance of the weld, or not-uniformly resistance for circumference
• Low aesthetic
• Deviation of the fluid flowing, so potential increasing of the inner local pressure
• Low aesthetic
8.3.7 Crack
Effects:
• It is possible to produce the total fracture of the weld and the joint to not exist anymore
The width of the welding bead should approximately be 0,5 x the height. The height of the
bead should be 0,7-0,8 x thickness of the wall. Differences between the beads can be caused
by the difference in HDPE material used in the welded components. Despite the differences in
welding bead the butt-weld can be of sufficient strength. In figure 9.8 a good weld is shown
with a uniform welding bead. At avisual inspection this would be classified as an "acceptable"
weld.
112
Figure 8-8 : Acceptable weld
o
Max 30
114
9 Basics of electrofusion welding (1
hr)
9.1 Generals
Electrofusion fittings employ the same basic welding principle. The socket of the fitting
incorporates an electrical heating coil. An electrofusion control unit (ECU) supplies the
electrical energy necessary to heat the coil. When the coil is energized the material adjacent to
it melts and forms an expanding pool which comes into contact with the surface of the pipe.
The continued introduction of heat energy causes the pipe surface to melt and a mixing of
pipe melt and fitting melt takes place; this is vital to produce a good weld.
Following the termination of the heat cycle, the fitting and pipe are left to cool and the melted
material solidifies to form a sound joint.
High integrity, consistently reproducible electrofusion joints will only be achieved if the
following criteria are met:
• Heating coils are as close to the joint surfaces as possible;
• Wire position is accurately controlled during manufacture and during the subsequent
fusion process;
• Heat distribution is uniform over the length of the hot zone;
• Melt pressure and temperature are both accurately controlled;
• Coils are protected from damage prior to, during and after fusion;
• Spigot ends are scraped.
The design and unique manufacturing technique of the electrofusion system ensures positive
compliance with all these criteria.
Fitting
Resistor Cables
Pipe
Weld
a.
b.
Hot and cold zones, sometimes called melt and freeze zones, are formed after energizing the
coil. The length of these zones is particularly important. Each zone ensures that fusion is
controlled to a precise length of the socket of the fitting and that the melt pressure is also
controlled throughout the entire jointing process.
116
The precisely controlled pitch and positioning of the coil in relation to the inner surface of the
socket ensures uniform heat distribution.
Electrofusion fittings are supplied for mainly 39.5 volt operation although some sizes and
materials are available for 80 volt operation.
9.2 Application
Electrofusion welding can be applied to any diameter, but is especially recommended for
lower diameters as more economical.
Technically, electrofusion welding can provide higher quality welds than the heated element
tool welding, as the mechanical resistance of the end-result is higher.
Economically, because of the higher cost of the electro-fitting, the electrofusion welding is
more expensive than the heated tool welding.
More, up to 63 mm diameter the welding can be performed without special device to clamp
the pipes and the fitting, but starting with 63 mm diameter all the welds should be done in
specific clamping devices.
Power source
Kit of cables
Digital display
Jack-sockets
Keyboard
ON/OFF switch
Master card reader
Infrared barcode reader
118
Other devices to be used in order to help prepare the process are shown in figures 4.15 and
4.16.
120
10 Basics of electrofusion socket and
saddle welding (1 hrs)
As principle, the electrofusion socket welding consists in the heating of the exterior surface of
the pipes and the interior surface of the electro-fitting, in the areas that will actually be
welded, up to the welding temperature that will put the material in the fluid-viscous state.
The heat is produced according to the Joule-Lenz when an electrical current is flowing
through an electrical conductor that is positioned into the socket (figure 5.1).
• Pipe cutting
• Prepare the end of the pipe
• Marking the end of the pipe that will enter inside the fitting
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Figure 10-4 : Marking the end of the pipe
• Scrapping the exterior of the end of the pipe. Wipe off loose swarf with clean, dry, lint
free cloth or paper towel. Do not touch the scraped pipe surface or allow surface to get
damp prior to continuing.
• Cleaning the exterior of the end of the pipe. Wipe loose dirt from pipe ends with clean,
dry, lint free cloth or paper towel.
• Cleaning the interior of the fitting. Wipe loose dirt from pipe ends with clean, dry, lint
free cloth or paper towel.
• Inserting the pipes into the fitting until the mark reaches to the fitting
• The not yet welded assembly is accomplished by following the steps above and the
attachment of the jack-sockets of the power source are the next step of the welding
process.
1 2 3 4 5 6
Legend: 1,6 – jack-socket, 2 – fitting, 3 – electrical resistor mounted inside the fitting, 4 – pipe, 5 – channels for welding markers
Figure 10-9 : Introducing the pipes into the fitting
124
Figure 10-10 : Reading the parameters from the barcode
• Put the welding power source ON and feed the electrical resistor
Power feeding
Voltage: 39.5V or 80V
Hot resistor
• According to Joule-Lenz law, the resistor’s temperature will increase and it will melt
the surrounding material (from the pipe and from the fitting)
• The expansion of the molten polymer creates a flowing through the markers channels
up to the surface.
The formation of the markers means the weld is done and the process could be stopped.
The power source automatically cut the feeding of the resistor and the weld is cooling down.
126
fitting if the 80 V voltage has been chosen and an insufficient heating of the 80 V
fitting if the 39.5 V voltage has been chosen.
• Heating time – the heating time is the time when the voltage is ON and the electrical
resistor is during feeding process. During heating, the pipe expands inside the fitting,
ensuring the contact between the two pieces. A too short heating time will result in an
insufficient heating of the pipe and of the fitting, so, a weld characterized by low
mechanical resistance or even the impossibility to finish the weld.
• Cooling time – the cooling time is the period that is necessary to the new done weld to
cool down. During the cooling, the fitting is contracted on the pipe and maintains the
force that was created during welding by the pipe expansion. Because of that force,
during cooling, the weld is forming in good conditions. During the cooling period the
weld should not be loaded, external or internal. A too short cooling time together with
a loading of the weld could produce the destroying of the weld.
As principle, the electrofusion saddle welding consists in the heating of the exterior surface of
the pipe, in the place where the saddle will be attached and the sitting surface of the electro-
saddle, up to the welding temperature that will put the material in the fluid-viscous state.
The heat is produced according to the Joule-Lenz when an electrical current is flowing
through a conductor that is positioned under the sitting surface of the electro-saddle.
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10.2.2 Dummy Welds
Periodically, dummy welds are recommended to be done to check parameters and machine
• Welding area is located to the upper side of the pipe and on the inferior surface of the
saddle. Before scraping, fusion zone must be marked with a marker on the pipe
• Scrapping of the welding area. The scrapping should be done just before the heating
process
• Cleaning the welding area by decreasing and removing all the impurities as fats, dust
or other foreign particles that are on the surface of the pipe (the saddle is still
maintained in its own plastic bag, so it’s clean)
• Mounting the saddle on the pipe by using it’s own system of clamping
• Read the welding parameters by using the barcode reader or the master card reader, or
other possible devices; if the parameters will be introduced by using the keyboard of
the control unit, then the parameters can be read on specific labels that are delivered in
the plastic bag of the saddle
130
Figure 10-18 : Reading the parameters from the barcode
• Connect the jack-sockets to the saddle and start the welding process by putting the
machine ON. The melting process is similar to the socket welding process (presented
above). The formation of the markers on the channels of the saddle means the weld is
done and the process could be stopped. The power source automatically cut the
feeding of the resistor and the weld is cooling down.
• Drilling the pipe to create the flowing circuit from the pipe to the distribution saddle.
Similarly to the socket electrofusion welding, in the saddle electrofusion welding the
parameters are:
• Resistor feeding voltage – the voltage that is used to feed the resistor, in order to heat
it, has standard values: 39.5 V or 80 V. On the label of the fitting the feeding voltage
is specified. Wrong choice of the feeding voltage means the burning of the 39.5 V
fitting if the 80 V voltages have been chosen and an insufficient heating of the 80 V
fitting if the 39.5 V voltage has been chosen.
• Heating time – the heating time is the time when the voltage is ON and the electrical
resistor is during feeding process. During heating, the inside fitting of the pipe
expands, resulting in the contact between the two pieces. A too short heating time will
132
11 Application of electrofusion welding
(1 hrs)
Thermoplastics are elastic and flexible above a glass transition temperature T g , specific for
each one—the midpoint of a temperature range in contrast to the sharp melting point of a pure
crystalline substance like water. Below a second, higher melting temperature, T m , also the
midpoint of a range, most thermoplastics have crystalline regions alternating with amorphous
regions in which the chains approximate random coils. The amorphous regions contribute
elasticity and the crystalline regions contribute strength and rigidity, as is also the case for
non-thermoplastic fibrous proteins such as silk. (Elasticity does not mean they are particularly
stretchy; e.g., nylon rope and fishing line.) Above T m all crystalline structure disappears and
the chains become randomly inter dispersed. As the temperature increases above T m , viscosity
gradually decreases without any distinct phase change.
During exploitation thermoplastics present the following advantages:
Main characteristics
- High temperature stability - Resistance to electrochemical corrosion
- Hygienic and environmental - Low thermal conductivity: λ=0,23W/mK
friendliness
- No siltation - Resistance to stray electric currents
- Easy and clean installation, easy - High heat insulating
welding
- High sound insulating - High impact rate
- Chemical resistance - Low loss of pressure
- Recyclable - Light weight
Because of that the application of the welded polymers are very large. As already presented in
figure 1.2 packaging has 35% of the welded polymers market, followed by the building and
construction domain with 23%, transportation, electrical and furniture each with about 8%,
agriculture, medical toy and sports each with up to 3% and else.
Agriculture and Agribusiness
Medicine
• Many biomaterials, especially heart valve replacements and blood vessels, are made of
polymers like Dacron, Teflon and polyurethane.
Consumer Science
• Plastic containers of all shapes and sizes are light weight and economically less expensive
than the more traditional containers. Clothing, floor coverings, garbage disposal bags, and
packaging are other polymer applications.
Industry
• Automobile parts, windshields for fighter planes, pipes, tanks, packing materials,
insulation, wood substitutes, adhesives, matrix for composites, and elastomers are all
polymer applications used in the industrial market.
A report published today shows a steady increase in the use of plastics by Europe’s car
manufacturing industry since the 1970s, rising to nearly two million tonnes today.
By volume, plastics are now the most widely specified material. However, plastics’ low
weight means they account for about 10 per cent of the total weight of a modern car.
The study, carried out by Mavel on behalf of the Association of Plastics Manufacturers in
Europe (APME), examines the use of plastics in cars over the last three decades in Europe
with specific reference to France, Germany and Italy.
The report shows that this increase in the use of plastics is particularly dramatic in certain
types of cars. For example, some of the cars surveyed registered a four-fold increase in their
use of plastics between the 1970s and 1990s.
It is estimated that, on average, 100 kilograms of plastics replaces 200-300 kilograms of
conventional material, reducing fuel consumption by 750 litres over a life span of 150 000
kilometres.
Sports
• Playground equipment, various balls, golf clubs, swimming pools, and protective helmets
are often produced from polymers.
Piping is probably the most interesting application. Welded thermoplastics are used in:
134
• Cold and hot water supply systems
• Potable water supply systems
• Waste water transportation
• Heating systems
• Central air conditioning systems
• Water circulating and water supply systems in swimming pools
• Natural gas transportation
for both transportation and distribution.
a.
b.
Specific polymers, like PE, PP and PVC are mostly used for pipes, fittings and accessories of
the piping systems, in following sizes and with following parameters (but not exclusive):
• PN10 pipes with diameter range Ø16-160mm for cold water transportation and floor
heating
• PN16 pipes with diameter range Ø16-160mm for cold and hot water transportation and
floor heating
• PN20 pipes with diameter range Ø16-160mm for hot water transportation and central
heating
• PN25 Outer layer thermo-fusion PPR/Al/PPR multilayer composite pipes with
diameter range Ø20-75mm for cold and hot water transportation and central heating
• PN25 Outer layer thermo-fusion PPR/Al/PE-RT multilayer composite pipes with
diameter range Ø20-75mm for cold and hot water transportation and central heating
• PN20 polymer composite pipes with diameter range Ø20-63mm for cold and hot water
transportation and central heating
• PN25 polymer composite pipes with diameter range Ø20-63mm for cold and hot water
transportation and central heating
• PN20 fittings and fittings with nickel-plated brass threaded inserts and cap nuts with
diameter range Ø16-160mm
• PN20 ball valves and stop valves
136
Estimated service life of the polymers piping systems is over 50 years and subject to proper
installation and maintaining of material’s characteristics. Short time peak temperatures up to
100 ºС are possible.
Long time usage of piping system at temperatures ranging from 70ºС to 90ºС reduces its
service life.
138
• can be used with all HDPE pressure pipes
• installation in the tightest space available
• only a few tools are required, no jigs to hold pipe sections
• direct heat transfer to the pipe through exposed heat coil
• cold zones on the face and the center of the couplings
Electrofusion socket welding is recommended in any piping application, but over the 110 mm
diameter the fitting becomes expensive. If difficult exploitation conditions are met, it is
recommended to use electrofusion socket welding for all the diameters.
Electrofusion saddle welding is definitely recommended to any application that involves
distribution system from a main pipeline.
• During manual handling (the largest cause of all injuries in the industry 34%)
• Slipping or tripping (25% of major injuries)
• Machinery related (17% of major injuries)
• Struck by something including knife-cuts (14% of all injuries)
A range of safety hazards is associated with polymer materials and the processes involved in
their use. The hazards are common to all the materials and care should be taken at all times in
dealing with them. When using a material with which you are unfamiliar, check the
appropriate health and safety documentation before starting work.
As there are a number of features common to the different polymers, a few general guidelines
are suggested:
Uncured resins
Once fully cured or polymerised, polymeric materials present no health hazard, but care needs
to be taken with all uncured resin systems. For example, for volume uses such as floor
material, paints, or sealants, epoxy products are usually supplied in ‘two-component’ form,
with separate resin and hardener which are mixed just before application.
140
The epoxy resin base is an irritant and may give rise to allergies through contact. If product
contains solvents which are also epoxy substances (so-called ‘reactive solvents’), these may
cause an allergic reaction through inhalation.
The amine hardeners are most often corrosive, but products vary from irritant to poisonous.
Many amines are sensitising by skin contact, and volatile amines may give off sensitising
vapours.
Note that, once an allergic reaction has been suffered, the operator will remain sensitive
(potentially for life) and be unable to work with epoxy.
The ‘single-component’ epoxies used in electronic assembly operations, where the materials
are pre-mixed, are less of a hazard. This is because the materials are designed for long pot life
and extended cure, so are generally less reactive. However, care should be taken to avoid skin
contact, and a sensible level of hygiene is needed in order not to spread the substances and
contain any uncured waste.
Solvents
Many polymers contain solvent additives to vary the viscosity and prevent premature curing.
Solvents evaporate during dispensing as well as during the curing process. Solvents are
generally classed as irritants and care should be taken not to touch the materials with bare skin
and to provide sufficient ventilation (or preferably extraction) to remove the fumes. The
solvent remains an irritant in vapour form and can affect people who suffer from asthma.
Dispensing
Dispensing can use relatively high pressure air lines and care should be taken to ensure
appropriate screens or protective clothing in case of malfunction. Care should be taken to
protect eyes, by the use of safety glasses or goggles where appropriate. The high volume
dispensing machine is also mechanically dangerous as it travels at high speeds. Care should
be taken to ensure that the appropriate safety procedures are followed when working with this
type of equipment.
Moulding
The moulding process is not normally carried out as part of printed circuit assembly, but is
common in the assembly of components. Moulding machines are sophisticated machines and
UV light sources used in curing polymer adhesives are applied by controlled exposure units
which are made to the required safety standards. These units should not be operated outside
their controlled environment as exposure to high intensity UV light can be dangerous.
Read the operating instructions!
In the case of materials which require heating as part of the curing process, care should be
taken to protect the operator with the appropriate protective clothing (e.g. safety glasses and
gloves) to prevent splash damage, or burning by contact with hot surfaces.
In general the workplace is a safe environment if the appropriate precautions are taken and
instructions are followed. Machinery with moving parts is fitted with many safety features:
they are for your safety, so do not disable them.
Good workplace controls are essential in controlling exposure to process materials. Many of
the materials, particularly the resins, curing agents, and fibers, present a potential dermal-
exposure hazard. Many of the solvents and some of the curing agents present a potential
inhalation hazard. Some materials present both a dermal and inhalation hazard. Ingestion may
be a potential exposure hazard, but usually involves poor personal hygiene or contamination
of eating facilities. The various types of workplace controls described below may typically be
found in the advanced composite workplace.
Engineering controls
Isolation (e.g., isolated storage, separate process areas, enclosures, closed systems) and local
exhaust ventilation are the primary engineering controls found in advanced composites
processes. These controls can be found in:
Resin mixing areas;
Heated curing areas including autoclaves;
142
Finishing and repair areas; and
Controlling off-gases from exotherms
Work practices, as distinguished from engineering controls, involve the way a task is
performed. Some fundamental and easily implemented work practices that can be used to
minimize exposures when working with advanced composites are:
good employee training and education;
following the proper procedures for production, process and control equipment;
proper use, maintenance, and cleaning of personal protective equipment;
good personal hygiene program;
housekeeping;
periodic inspection and maintenance of production, process and control equipment;
good supervision.
Gloves, protective clothing, and eye protection may frequently be required, especially
when working with resins, curing agents, and solvents. Selection of the proper
protective materials should be based on permeation data, if available. This type of data
are often available for the solvents used, but very little data are available for the resins
and curing agents.
Generally, the resins are of a larger molecular size and so are less likely to permeate
protective materials than the curing agents and solvents. The aromatic amine curing
agents are particularly difficult to protect against. In some advanced composites
processes, close hand work and contact is required, and a glove must provide good
Eye protection can be provided by standard safety glasses with side shields, goggles,
or a face shield, as needed.
Respiratory protection is not required in many advanced composites processes, due to
the low vapor pressure of the materials involved. However, respirators may be
required where:
• Airborne solvent levels are high;
• Dust levels are high (resin mixing, finishing, repair);
• Large surface areas and significant hand work are involved;
• Exotherms are experienced.
Employee exposures also can be controlled by scheduling operations with the highest
exposures at a time when the fewest employees are present.
144
A quick guide to use extinguishers is as follows:
Class A fires (wood, paper, material, cloth, etc)
Recommended extinguishers include water (all red), water with additive (all red), AFFF foam
spray (red with cream area above label), ABC powder (red with blue area above label)
Class B (flammable liquids such as petrol, spirits and diesel)
Recommended extinguishers include AFFF foam, ABC powder, CO2 or carbon dioxide (red
with black area above label), Monnex powder (red with blue area above label)
Class C (flammable gas)
Recommended extinguishers include powder but only when the gas can be turned off
Class D (flammable metals)
Recommended extinguishers include M28 powder, L2 powder and other specialised powders
Class F (deep fat cooking oil)
Recommended extinguisher is only the wet chemical (red with yellow area above label) and
no other
146
12.4 Safe lifting/handling
The main recommendations regarding the handling of the thermoplastics pipe are:
Due to mechanical characteristics of plastics, the handling, transportation and storage of
the pipes must be made carefully to avoid cracking the material.
Polyethylene pipe will handle carefully, rolling and throwing; if the pipe is to be handled
at temperatures around 0oC hitting the pipes during handling and transport must be
avoided, and below -50oC will be prohibited from handling polyethylene pipes;
Due to high elasticity of PE pipes, they can be rolled on drums for diameters up to 125;
their lengths is about 300 to 400m. Rolling can be hard, so it should be performed
carefully.Winding diameter must not be less than 20 times of the outside diameter;
If the rolling of the pipes is on drums, the drums must meet the followingconditions:
-Be sufficiently rigid to permit movement by bending the pipe side walls;
-Pipe ends are fixed to the drum plate;
-Turns are linked in layers to avoid carrying pipe;
-Drum surfaces in contact with the pipe must not damage the pipe;
-Between the pipe and the ground must be a sufficient distance so as not to damage the
pipe;
Packaging must protect the pipe coils during storage and transport as well as against
ultraviolet rays;
Transportation of the drums on specific vehicles will consider them to be fixed on the
vehicle, and their height to not exceed the head room under the bridges, tunnels etc.
Pipes with diameters larger than 125 mm is executed only in bars. Depending on the
possibilities of transportation,length of bars is limited to 6 to 12m, and for water
transportation is up to18m;
PE pipes transported as bar will be put on smooth floor vehicles that have adequate
support and allow the entire pipe length (unsupported length is allowed a maximum of
1m). Transport vehicles will be equipped with side guards about 2m tall, without bumps,
and the pipes will be fixed during transportation;
Pipes are recommended to be placed on the vehicle as a pyramid with the stack height less
than 1 m, except the diameter over 630mm which sits on two layers;
148
d. Handling coils of pipes
Lighting.Ventilation
Lighting in the workplace shall be in accordance with H1091/2006 and if necessary will
be ventilated to eliminate the risk of injury or illness due to harmful gases or explosives;
Traffic surfaces and areas where there are various parameters of the recording equipment
will be illuminated to be always possible to distinguish clearly the inscriptions on the dials
of measuring and control equipment, pipes and cables with conventional colors, covers
and manhole covers, stairs access, alarm, etc.
Portable electric lamps used for lighting will be powered jobs at very low voltage
exceeding 24V.
B = (0,7...0,8) x t
t
150
12.6.2 Unequal burrs
Acceptance criteria: difference between the equivalent dimensions of the two burrs should be lower
than 10%
Max 10o
13.1 Generals
Documentation associated with welded construction fit into three broad categories, as follows:
• materials
• welding procedures
• qualifications of personnel
The topic of welding documentation must also include discussion of inspections and
associated reporting.
Documented Document
Inspection Reports
152
4. Welding parameters
5. Preparations before welding
6. Signatures of he welding coordinator and of the welding inspector
Identification
Place Date
Welding process
Type of weld
Type: Type:
Standard: Standard:
BM 1 BM 2
Diameter [mm]: Diameter [mm]:
Welding parameters
pheating2
t [s]
theating1 theating2 t t
tincrease1 tremovalincrease2 welding-cooling
Pressure for heating under pressure Time for increasing pressure for
154
(adapting), p heating 1 [bar] heating under pressure t increase1 [s]
Pressure for heating with low Time for heating under pressure,
pressure (maintaining), p heating 2 [bar] t heating1 [s]
Temperature for heating during Time for removal the heated tool
welding process, T [oC] t removal [s]