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The Handbook
Contents: 1. Handbook
2. Calculating flapping wings under the
precondition of quasistationary conditions
3. Result of the latest research
4. The tip vortex of the flapping wing
5. Formation flight of birds
6. External links to the theory of flapping wings
1. Handbook
(handbook „How Ornithopters Fly“ only in German)
How does an ornithopter create thrust and lift despite of alternating flapping directions? The answer
can be found in the handbook based on wellknown results of research. Apart from the aerodynamics of
up and downstroke, the dynamics of the flapping wing is also taken into consideration. The correlations
are described with equations and diagrams. Your own calculations are made possible, which may be
helpful for developing specific ornithopter models. Furthermore, you will find useful tips for ornithopter
models in practice.
The relatively simple equations for changing circulation distributions make it possible to vary the lift
distribution and to determine the appropriate wing twisting.
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Vortex system behind an ornithopter
The ornithopter subject also extends to the field of bionics. It is an attempt to develop better ornithopters
by understanding the biological design principles of birds.
You can download the handbook (in German) and photos.
handbook without photos PDF 3.3 MB
photos PDF 5.9 MB
handbook with photos PDF 9.2 MB
The handbook was translated in French by JeanLouis Solignac. With his knowledge as an aerodynamics
expert and with his experience he has contributed a lot to the improvement of the handbook.
JeanLouis Solignac, Maître de Recherche, acted as deputy head of the department „Principles of
Aerodynamics“ in the directorate of aerodynamics of the national French research institute O.N.E.R.A.
(Office National d'Études et de Recherches Aérospatiales). You can find his translation of the handbook
here on the French site.
The photos of the handbook
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2. Calculating flapping wings
under the precondition of quasistationary conditions
The equations presented in the handbook are used in several calculating tools. Thereby underlies the
following method of calculation.
First, the flapping wing is theoretically devided into stripes with a very small span. Then, for each of
these wing sections the aerodynamic forces are calculated under stationary or constant oncoming airflow
conditions. Their sum results from a numerical integration over the whole wing span.
This way, you get the total forces of lift and propulsion of the flapping
wing at a fixed moment of time of the flapping cycle. The corresponding
wing twisting, the profile and induced drag can be determined in the
course of this calculating scheme, too.
This process is repeated in equal time
segments of the wing stroke motion.
Thereby, the changed factors as for
instance the distribution of circulation,
conditions of oncoming airflow or the
dihedral of the wing form the basis. At the
same time, stationary conditions are Locations for calculation
postulated. It is therefore presumed that the
airflow does not change during the time span of calculating. Furthermore,
Configuration of the forces unsteady airflow behaviour is not considered.
That way thus by stringing together different steady conditions time force progression under quasi
steady conditions results.
The force of a whole stroke motion can be obtained by numeric integration of the force progression over
the considered time span. Thereby, up and downstroke of the wing are advisably considered separately.
Finally, the summary of up and downstroke forces leads to the total forces of a whole flapping cycle.
But according to Erich von Holst this quasisteady method> only leads
to useful results during a fast forward flight with relatively low flapping
frequencies (large birds). Otherwise, the influences of unsteady airstream
behavious become too strong. Later publications verify these constraints.
As an example also the following analysis by M. Neef.
Frequency of wing beats
and the weight of birds
by Heinrich Hertel
3. Result of the latest research
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Dr.Ing. Matthias F. Neef has examined in his dissertation „Analysis of the flapping flight by numeric
flow design engineering“ the unsteady flow at a moved wing. Thereby, he reached a similar vorticity
system as aforesaid. However, his picture with a sinusoidal flapping motionsequence is more specified
and more detailed.
Isolines of the circulation along the flight path
The dissertation includes a general view about flapping flight and more exciting pictures (Please look at
external link 1. and 2.).
4. The tip vortex of the flapping wing
The „isolines of circulation“ of a flapping wing shown above also can be visualized as single vortex
filaments.
Vortex filaments runing parallel and with a similar direction of circulation, twist themselves to a single
vortex in their shared center at the wake of the wing.
This way, the majority of the vortex filaments combined build up the
wing tip vortex. During the flapping cycle its starting point is moving
back and forth along the trailing edge of the wing especially in the
upstroke. Therefore, the vortex trail behind the flapping wing in plan
view shows lateral contractions in regular intervals.
Also at birds, which are flying in cruise flight (Flying with lift) the
Wingtip vortices of the flapping
wing lateral movement of the starting point of the vortex along the trailing
edge of the wing has already been observed (Please look at exter nal link 3,
Fig. 1). This continuousvortex gait is contrary to the vortexring gait when birds Flying with thrust.
When we imagine the wing tip vortex in the adjacent picture in three
dimensions be aware a surprising view.
The starting point of the vortex of one wing side not only moves back
and forth along the trailing edge of the wing. It also follows the flapping
motion. Seen in flight direction these both movements together resulted
in an approximately circular path line. If now also include the forward
motion of the flapping wing one sees the helical shape of the wing tip
Helical wingtip vortices or vortex spreading backwards.
„slipstreams“ (blast of air) of a
Also the tip vortices of a propeller are arranged in a helical shape
bird in continuousvortex gait
during cruise flight (Please look at external link 4). They wrapped the propeller slip stream
and are an essential part of it. In opposite to the propeller at the flapping
wing simply the windings of the tip vortices are pulled more apart. Hence, in the threedimensional view
of this vortex picture will be visible a „slipstream“ at each side of the flapping wing.
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An according vortex structure is desirable also at ornithopters in cruise flight. Therefore also in the
upstroke, a large lift must exist maybe larger than indicated here and the transition between the lift
distributions of up and downstroke must be smooth. In the movie recording of a flying swan for example,
you see that the increase and decrease of the angle of incidence moves like a wave from the wing root to
wing tip.
In order to generate large thrust at an ornithopter, the crosssection of the slipstream is to make as large
as possible. Shifting of the spanwise distribution of lift is a dominant factor here. At downstroke the lift
should be shifted as far as possible towards to the wing tip and at upstroke towards to the wing root.
Furthermore the stroke angle of the wing should be chosen relatively large without, however, losing sight
of thereby decreasing lift.
In case of very great demand of thrust, the shifting of the spanwise distribution of lift in upstroke can be
supported by a strong downward bending and/or backward bending of the hand wing. At the same time
birds are using the shortening of the arm wing. For more information, please see the article
„Arrangements of wing tip vortices on flapping wings“ (version 4.0, PDF 0.5 MB).
5. Formation flight of birds
Vshaped staggered flight formations result in a measurable energy
conservation for each single individual. This is particularly the result of
aerodynamic influences. With the aid of the ornithopter theory
conclusions can be drawn about the mode of functioning concerning the
energy savings.
In connection with its lift the leading bird necessarily generates a wing
tip vortex at both wing tips. For it this implies a loss of energy. It is
relatively big for birds with high wing loadings and short, tapered wing Downwash distributions
shapes. But the following bird can try to tap the energy content of one of on the wing of an ornithopter
both wing tip vortices to make its own flight work easier. in cruising flight
Well known is the hypothesis (Please look at external link 5) that the
following bird uses a field of uplift of its leading bird. It is generated
by the tip vortex spreading backwards at the outer edge of the flight
formation. This up wind enables the following bird to increase its own
thrust without performing additional flight energy. But it is more
effective to use the angular momentum of the incoming vortex to
reduce the wing tip vortex of its own wing (adjacent picture and external
link 6).
The problem for the following bird is
Drag reduction at the
the optimal adjustment of all distances formation flight of birds
in the threedimensional space behind
the leading bird. It must try to adjust
the distances to the flapping wings of its leading bird in a way that the
proper part of the leading bird's vortex passes it in a suitable moment
and at the optimal position. It can surely feel the best flight position, but
thereby it must also make compromises. Anyway, in the theory of
formation flight of birds many questions remain open. For more
Flock of birds in flight information, please see the handbook, annexe E, (lock above) and the
Photografer Titus Tscharntke / article „Arrangements of wing tip vortices on flapping wings“ (version
www.publicdomainimage.com/
4.0, PDF 0.5 MB).
6. External links
to the theory of flapping wings
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1. Matthias Neef, abstract (in English) and download of his dissertation (2002),
„Analyse des Schlagfluges durch numerische Strömungsberechnung“
(Euler solutions for a finitespan flapping wing)
http://www.biblio.tubs.de/ediss/data/20021021a/20021021a.html
Summary of his dissertation (in German)
https://www.tubraunschweig.de/ism/forschung/agflzg/projektealt/schlagflug
2. Tatjana Hubel, „Untersuchungen zur instationären Aerodynamik
an einem vogelähnlichen Flügelschlagmodell“ (2006)
http://tuprints.ulb.tudarmstadt.de/800/
3. Tyson L. Hedrick, Bret W. Tobalske and Andrew A. Biewener,
„Estimates of circulation and gait change based on a threedimensional kinematic analysis of
flight in cockatiels (Nymphicus hollandicus) and ringed turtledoves (Streptopelia risoria)“
Please look at Fig. 1. A „Continuousvortex gait“
http://jeb.biologists.org/content/205/10/1389.full
4. Prof. Dr.Ing. Ingo Rechenberg provides material for his bionic lectures,
for example PowerPointScript 4:
„Vom Vogelflügel zur Windturbine BERWIAN, Verstehen und Kopieren eines biologischen
Prinzips“ (for propeller tip vortices, please look at slide 23)
http://www.bionik.tuberlin.de/institut/skript/Fo10B1.htm
5. Malte Andersson and Johan Wallander,
„Kin selection and reciprocity in flight formation?“
http://beheco.oxfordjournals.org/content/15/1/158.full
6. NASA Dryden Flight Research Center,
„Autonomous Formation Flight“ (2001):
http://www.nasa.gov/centers/dryden/history/pastprojects/AFF/index.html
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