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Chapter 12

The Cell Cycle

PowerPoint Lectures for


Biology, Seventh Edition
Neil Campbell and Jane Reece

Lectures by Chris Romero


Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
• Overview: The Key Roles of Cell Division
• The continuity of life
– Is based upon the reproduction of cells, or cell
division

Figure 12.1
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• Unicellular organisms
– Reproduce by cell division

100 µm

(a) Reproduction. An amoeba,


a single-celled eukaryote, is
dividing into two cells. Each
new cell will be an individual
Figure 12.2 A organism (LM).

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• Multicellular organisms depend on cell division
for
– Development from a fertilized cell
– Growth
– Repair
200 µm 20 µm

(b) Growth and development. (c) Tissue renewal. These dividing


This micrograph shows a bone marrow cells (arrow) will
sand dollar embryo shortly give rise to new blood cells (LM).
after the fertilized egg divided,
Figure 12.2 B, C forming two cells (LM).
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• The cell division process
– Is an integral part of the cell cycle

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• Concept 12.1: Cell division results in
genetically identical daughter cells
• Cells duplicate their genetic material
– Before they divide, ensuring that each
daughter cell receives an exact copy of the
genetic material, DNA

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Cellular Organization of the Genetic Material
• A cell’s endowment of DNA, its genetic
information
– Is called its genome

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• The DNA molecules in a cell
– Are packaged into chromosomes

Figure 12.3
50 µm
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• Eukaryotic chromosomes
– Consist of chromatin, a complex of DNA and
protein that condenses during cell division

• In animals
– Somatic cells have two sets of chromosomes
– Gametes have one set of chromosomes

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings


Distribution of Chromosomes During Cell Division
• In preparation for cell division
– DNA is replicated and the chromosomes condense
• Each
duplicated
0.5 µm
chromosome A eukaryotic cell has multiple
chromosomes, one of which is
represented here. Before

– Has two duplication, each chromosome


has a single DNA molecule.
Chromosome
duplication
sister Once duplicated, a chromosome
(including DNA
synthesis)

chromatids consists of two sister chromatids


connected at the centromere. Each
Centromere

, which chromatid contains a copy of the


DNA molecule.
separate
Sister
during cell Separation chromatids
of sister
division Mechanical processes separate
the sister chromatids into two
chromatids

chromosomes and distribute


them to two daughter cells.

Figure 12.4 Centromeres Sister chromatids


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• Eukaryotic cell division consists of
– Mitosis, the division of the nucleus
– Cytokinesis, the division of the cytoplasm

• In meiosis
– Sex cells are produced after a reduction in
chromosome number

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Phases of the Cell Cycle
• The cell cycle consists of
– The mitotic phase
– Interphase
INTERPHASE

S
G1 (DNA synthesis)

G2

Figure 12.5

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• Interphase can be divided into subphases
– G1 phase
– S phase
– G2 phase

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• The mitotic phase
– Is made up of mitosis and cytokinesis

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• Mitosis consists of five distinct phases
– Prophase
– Prometaphase

G2 OF
PROPHASE PROMETAPHASE
INTERPHASE
Centrosomes Aster Fragments
(with centriole pairs) Chromatin Early mitotic Kinetochore
spindle Centromere of nuclear
(duplicated) envelope Nonkinetochore
microtubules

Nucleolus Nuclear Plasma Chromosome, consisting Kinetochore


Figure 12.6 envelope membrane of two sister chromatids microtubule

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– Metaphase
– Anaphase
– Telophase

METAPHASE ANAPHASE TELOPHASE AND CYTOKINESIS


Metaphase
plate Cleavage Nucleolus
furrow forming

Nuclear
envelope
Spindle Centrosome at Daughter forming
Figure 12.6 one spindle pole chromosomes

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The Mitotic Spindle: A Closer Look
• The mitotic spindle
– Is an apparatus of microtubules that controls
chromosome movement during mitosis
• The spindle arises from the centrosomes
– And includes spindle microtubules and asters

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• Some spindle microtubules
– Attach to the kinetochores of chromosomes and move the
chromosomes to the metaphase plate
Aster Centrosome

Sister
Metaphase
chromatids Plate
Kinetochores

Overlapping
nonkinetochore
microtubules
Kinetochores
microtubules 0.5 µm
Microtubules Chromosomes

Figure 12.7 Centrosome


1 µm
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• In anaphase, sister chromatids separate
– And move along the kinetochore microtubules
toward opposite ends of the cell
EXPERIMENT

1 The microtubules of a cell in early anaphase were labeled with a fluorescent dye
that glows in the microscope (yellow).

Kinetochore

Spindle
pole

Figure 12.8

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• Nonkinetechore microtubules from opposite
poles
– Overlap and push against each other,
elongating the cell

• In telophase
– Genetically identical daughter nuclei form at
opposite ends of the cell

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Cytokinesis: A Closer Look
• In animal cells
– Cytokinesis occurs by a process known as
cleavage, forming a cleavage furrow

Cleavage furrow 100 µm

Contractile ring of
Daughter cells
microfilaments

Figure 12.9 A (a) Cleavage of an animal cell (SEM)


Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
• In plant cells, during cytokinesis
– A cell plate forms

Vesicles Wall of 1 µm
forming patent cell Cell plate New cell wall
cell plate

Daughter cells
Figure 12.9 B (b) Cell plate formation in a plant cell (SEM)

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• Mitosis in a plant cell
Nucleus Chromatine Chromosome
Nucleolus condensing

Metaphase. The
1 Prophase. 2 Prometaphase. 3 Anaphase. The 5 Telophase. Daughter
The chromatin We now see discrete spindle is complete, 4 chromatids of each nuclei are forming.
is condensing. chromosomes; each and the chromosomes, chromosome have Meanwhile, cytokinesis
The nucleolus is consists of two attached to microtubules separated, and the has started: The cell
beginning to identical sister at their kinetochores, daughter chromosomes plate, which will
disappear. chromatids. Later are all at the metaphase are moving to the ends divided the cytoplasm
Although not in prometaphase, the plate. of cell as their in two, is growing
yet visible nuclear envelop will kinetochore toward the perimeter
in the micrograph, fragment. microtubles shorten. of the parent cell.
the mitotic spindle is
staring to from.
Figure 12.10
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Binary Fission
• Prokaryotes (bacteria)
– Reproduce by a type of cell division called
binary fission

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• In binary fission
– The bacterial chromosome replicates
– The two daughter chromosomes actively move apart
Origin of
Cell wall
replication
Plasma
Membrane
E. coli cell Bacterial
1 Chromosome replication begins. Two copies Chromosome
Soon thereafter, one copy of the of origin
origin moves rapidly toward the
other end of the cell.

2 Replication continues. One copy of Origin Origin


the origin is now at each end of
the cell.

3 Replication finishes. The plasma


membrane grows inward, and
new cell wall is deposited.

Figure 12.11 4 Two daughter cells result.


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The Evolution of Mitosis
• Since prokaryotes preceded eukaryotes by
billions of years
– It is likely that mitosis evolved from bacterial
cell division

• Certain protists
– Exhibit types of cell division that seem
intermediate between binary fission and
mitosis carried out by most eukaryotic cells

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• A hypothetical sequence for the evolution of mitosis
(a) Prokaryotes. During binary fission, the origins of the
Bacterial
daughter chromosomes move to opposite ends of the
chromosome
cell. The mechanism is not fully understood, but
proteins may anchor the daughter chromosomes to
specific sites on the plasma membrane. Chromosomes
(b) Dinoflagellates. In unicellular protists called
dinoflagellates, the nuclear envelope remains intact Microtubules
during cell division, and the chromosomes attach to the
nuclear envelope. Microtubules pass through the
nucleus inside cytoplasmic tunnels, reinforcing the Intact nuclear
spatial orientation of the nucleus, which then divides in a envelope
fission process reminiscent of bacterial division.
(c) Diatoms. In another group of unicellular protists, the
Kinetochore
diatoms, the nuclear envelope also remains intact
microtubules
during cell division. But in these organisms, the
microtubules form a spindle within the nucleus.
Microtubules separate the chromosomes, and the Intact nuclear
nucleus splits into two daughter nuclei. envelope

(d) Most eukaryotes. In most other eukaryotes, Kinetochore


including plants and animals, the spindle forms microtubules
outside the nucleus, and the nuclear envelope
breaks down during mitosis. Microtubules separate Centrosome
the chromosomes, and the nuclear envelope then
re-forms.
Fragments of
Figure 12.12 A-D nuclear envelope

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings


Chapter 13

Meiosis and Sexual


Life Cycles

PowerPoint Lectures for


Biology, Seventh Edition
Neil Campbell and Jane Reece

Lectures by Chris Romero


Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
• Concept 13.1: Offspring acquire genes from
parents by inheriting chromosomes

• Genes
– Are the units of heredity
– Are segments of DNA
• Each gene in an organism’s DNA
– Has a specific locus on a certain chromosome
• We inherit
– One set of chromosomes from our mother and one set
from our father
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Comparison of Asexual and Sexual Reproduction
• In asexual reproduction
– One parent produces genetically identical
offspring by mitosis

Parent
Bud

Figure 13.2 0.5 mm


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• In sexual reproduction
– Two parents give rise to offspring that have
unique combinations of genes inherited from
the two parents
• A life cycle
– Is the generation-to-generation sequence of
stages in the reproductive history of an
organism

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Sets of Chromosomes in Human Cells
• In humans
– Each somatic cell has 46 chromosomes,
made up of two sets
– One set of chromosomes comes from each
parent

• A karyotype
– Is an ordered, visual Pair of homologous
5 µm
representation of the chromosomes

chromosomes in a cell Centromere

Sister
chromatids

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• Homologous chromosomes
– Are the two chromosomes composing a pair
– Have the same characteristics
– May also be called autosomes

• Sex chromosomes
– Are distinct from each other in their
characteristics
– Are represented as X and Y
– Determine the sex of the individual, XX being
female, XY being male
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• A diploid cell
– Has two sets of each of its chromosomes
– In a human has 46 chromosomes (2n = 46)

• In a cell in which DNA synthesis has occurred


– All the chromosomes are duplicated and thus each consists of
two identical sister chromatids
Key

• Unlike somatic cells


Maternal set of
– Gametes, chromosomes (n = 3)
2n = 6
sperm and egg Paternal set of
chromosomes (n = 3)
cells are
haploid cells, Two sister chromatids
containing only of one replicated
chromosome
one set of Centromere

chromosomes

Two nonsister Pair of homologous


chromatids in chromosomes
a homologous pair (one from each set)
Figure 13.4

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Behavior of Chromosome Sets in the Human Life Cycle

• At sexual maturity
– The ovaries and testes produce haploid
gametes by meiosis
• During fertilization
– These gametes, sperm and ovum, fuse,
forming a diploid zygote

• The zygote
– Develops into an adult organism

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• The human life cycle
Key
Haploid gametes (n = 23)
Haploid (n)
Ovum (n)
Diploid (2n)

Sperm
Cell (n)

MEIOSIS FERTILIZATION

Ovary Testis Diploid


zygote
(2n = 46)

Mitosis and
development

Multicellular diploid
Figure 13.5 adults (2n = 46)
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The Stages of Meiosis
• An overview of meiosis Interphase
Homologous pair
of chromosomes
in diploid parent cell

Chromosomes
replicate

Homologous pair of replicated chromosomes

Sister
chromatids Diploid cell with
replicated
chromosomes

Meiosis I

1 Homologous
chromosomes
separate

Haploid cells with


replicated chromosomes

Meiosis II

2 Sister chromatids
separate

Haploid cells with unreplicated chromosomes


Figure 13.7
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• Meiosis I
– Reduces the number of chromosomes from
diploid to haploid

• Meiosis II
– Produces four haploid daughter cells

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• Interphase and meiosis I
INTERPHASE MEIOSIS I: Separates homologous chromosomes

PROPHASE I METAPHASE I ANAPHASE I

Centrosomes Centromere Sister chromatids


(with centriole pairs) (with kinetochore) remain attached
Chiasmata Metaphase
Sister
chromatids plate
Spindle

Nuclear
Microtubule Homologous
envelope
Tetrad attached to chromosomes
Chromatin
kinetochore separate
Chromosomes duplicate Tertads line up Pairs of homologous
Homologous chromosomes chromosomes split up
(red and blue) pair and exchange
Figure 13.8
segments; 2n = 6 in this example

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• Telophase I, cytokinesis, and meiosis II
MEIOSIS II: Separates sister chromatids
TELOPHASE I AND PROPHASE II METAPHASE II ANAPHASE II TELOPHASE II AND
CYTOKINESIS CYTOKINESIS

Cleavage Haploid daughter cells


furrow Sister chromatids forming
separate

Two haploid cells


form; chromosomes During another round of cell division, the sister chromatids finally separate;
Figure 13.8 are still double four haploid daughter cells result, containing single chromosomes

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A Comparison of Mitosis and Meiosis
• Meiosis and mitosis can be distinguished from
mitosis
– By three events in Meiosis l
• Synapsis and crossing over
– Homologous chromosomes physically connect
and exchange genetic information
• Tetrads on the metaphase plate
– At metaphase I of meiosis, paired homologous
chromosomes (tetrads) are positioned on the
metaphase plates
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• Separation of homologues
– At anaphase I of meiosis, homologous pairs
move toward opposite poles of the cell
– In anaphase II of meiosis, the sister
chromatids separate

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• A comparison of mitosis and meiosis
MITOSIS MEIOSIS
Parent cell Chiasma (site of
MEIOSIS I
(before chromosome replication) crossing over)

Prophase I
Prophase
Chromosome Chromosome
replication replication Tetrad formed by
Duplicated chromosome 2n = 6 synapsis of homologous
(two sister chromatids) chromosomes

Chromosomes Tetrads
positioned at the positioned at the Metaphase I
Metaphase
metaphase plate metaphase plate

Anaphase Sister chromatids Homologues


Telophase separate during Anaphase I
separate
anaphase Telophase I
during
anaphase I;
sister Haploid
chromatids n=3
Daughter
remain together
cells of
meiosis I
2n 2n
Daughter cells MEIOSIS II
of mitosis

n n n n

Daughter cells of meiosis II

Sister chromatids separate during anaphase II


Figure 13.9
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• Concept 13.4: Genetic variation produced in
sexual life cycles contributes to evolution
• Reshuffling of genetic material in meiosis
– Produces genetic variation
• In species that produce sexually
– The behavior of chromosomes during meiosis
and fertilization is responsible for most of the
variation that arises each generation
• Homologous pairs of chromosomes
– Orient randomly at metaphase I of meiosis
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• In independent assortment
– Each pair of chromosomes sorts its maternal and paternal
homologues into daughter cells independently of the other pairs
Key

Maternal set of
chromosomes
Possibility 1 Possibility 2
Paternal set of
chromosomes

Two equally probable


arrangements of
chromosomes at
metaphase I

Metaphase II

Daughter
cells

Figure 13.10 Combination 1 Combination 2 Combination 3 Combination 4

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Crossing Over
• Crossing over
– Produces recombinant chromosomes that carry genes derived
from two different parents
Prophase I Nonsister
of meiosis chromatids

Tetrad

Chiasma,
site of
crossing
over
Metaphase I

Metaphase II

Daughter
cells

Recombinant
Figure 13.11 chromosomes
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