Puzzling Out PISA
What Can International Comparisons Tell Us
about American Education?
By William H. Schmidt and
Nathan A. Burroughs
I
t is no secret that disadvantaged children are more likely to
struggle in school. For decades now, public policy has focused
on how to reduce the achievement gap between poorer stu-
dents and more-affluent students. Despite numerous reform
efforts, these gaps remain virtually unchanged—a fact that is deeply
frustrating and also a little confusing. It would be reasonable to
William H. Schmidt is a University Distinguished Professor, a codirector of
the Education Policy Center, and the lead principal investigator of the
Promoting Rigorous Outcomes in Mathematics and Science Education
project at Michigan State University. He is a member of the National Acad-
emy of Education and a fellow of the American Educational Research
ILLUSTRATIONS BY SALLY VITSKY
Association. Nathan A. Burroughs is a research associate with the Center
for the Study of Curriculum at Michigan State University. Parts of this
article appeared in two posts on the Albert Shanker Institute’s blog: “PISA
and TIMSS: A Distinction without a Difference?” on December 4, 2014, at
http://shankerblog.org/?p=10989; and “The Global Relationship between
Classroom Content and Unequal Educational Outcomes” on July 29, 2014,
at http://shankerblog.org/?p=10262.
24 AMERICAN EDUCATOR | SPRING 2015
assume that background inequalities would shrink over the years
of schooling, but that is not what we find. At age 18, rather, we find
differences that are roughly the same size as we see at age 6.
Does this mean that schools can’t effectively address inequal-
ity? Certainly not. One of the key factors driving inequality in
schools is unequal opportunity to learn (OTL) mathematics. In
previous articles for American Educator and elsewhere, we
define OTL as the important yet often overlooked relationship
between mathematics performance and exposure to mathe-
matics content.*
As we will explain, it is very unlikely that students will learn
material they are not exposed to, and there is considerable evi-
dence that disadvantaged students are systematically tracked
into classrooms with weaker mathematics content (e.g., basic
arithmetic taught in a so-called algebra class). Rather than miti-
gating the effects of poverty, many American schools are exacer-
bating them.
*See “Equality of Educational Opportunity” in the Winter 2010–2011 issue of
American Educator and “Springing to Life” in the Spring 2013 issue, both available at
www.aft.org/ae.