HUMA103: Philosophy of

Man w/ Logic and

Critical Thinking
Definition of basic
Terms in Logic
Instructor: Keith Feliz D. Banania
E-mail: keithfeliz.banania@ama.edu.ph
 Etymological Definition of Logic
▪ Zeno the Stoic first coined the word “logic.”
▪ Logic came from the Greek term:
▪ λογικε
▪ ( logike ) which means a “thought”
▪ Etymologically, logic means a “treatise pertaining to thought.”
▪ Aristotle considered Logic as the “organon” or the tool or
instrument of the sciences.
▪ Logic is the instrument for gaining knowledge or the tool for
correct thinking
▪ Logic is the instrument for gaining knowledge or the tool for
correct thinking.
Formal Definition:

▪ Logic is the study of science and art of

correct inferential reasoning.
– Logic deals with the laws, methods and
principles of correct thinking.
– Thereby, logic distinguishes correct from incorrect
reasoning.
Formal Definition:

– It is a science because it is a systematized body of

knowledge about the principles and laws of correct
inferential reasoning. It follows certain rules and
laws in arriving at valid conclusions.
– Logic is also considered art, the art of reasoning. As
an art it requires the mastery of the laws and
principles of correct inferential thinking.
Formal Logic

▪ Formal Logic discusses the conceptual patterns

or structures needed for a valid and correct
argument or inference. It deals with the correct
patterns of argumentation.
This argument is obviously valid:
▪ All men love hot dogs.
▪ Steve is a man.
▪ So Steve loves hot dogs.
This argument is obviously invalid:
▪ Some women love hot dogs.
▪ Joanne is a woman.
▪ So Joanne loves hotdogs.
Material Logic

▪ Material Logic deals with the nature of the terms and

propositions that are used in the different types of
inference. It discusses the types ad meanings of terms
or words and sentences or propositions used in the
arguments.
▪ Material Logic looks at the conte
I. Simple Apprehension: First
Intellectual Act

▪ The first act of the intellect, by which it knows the

essence or nature of the thing, without affirming or
denying anything about it.
▪ It is through simple apprehension that the intellect
forms a mental image of the thing, called idea.
▪ Apprehension is the beginning of knowledge. It is
when we have an understanding or an idea of things
that we can say we know.
Idea and Term: Product of Apprehension

▪ Idea is the mental product of the apprehension. It is the

mental or intellectual image or representation of the
object, because it represents the object of thing in the
intellect.
▪ An idea is formed through the process called abstraction.
– Abstraction is defined as the process by which the
intellect strips the object of its non-essential qualities,
retains the essential ones, and forms them into one
image, which is the idea.
Idea and Term: Product of
Apprehension

▪ Characteristics of Idea
▪ 1. Abstract
▪ 2. Universal
▪ 3. Immaterial
▪ 4. Spiritual
▪ 5. Constant
 Idea and Term: Product of
Apprehension
▪ Term is the external manifestation or sign of an idea. It is a
written or spoken word.
▪ Idea exists in the mind, but when it is expressed or
manifested verbally, it then becomes a term.
▪ The term is considered as a conventional sign, as a sign it
stands for something, like a thing, object, place, person,
event, etc.
▪ It is a conventional sign for the connection between the thing
of object it signifies and the term is established by
convention.
▪ The term or word is part of language and language is used to
express our thought about reality.
II. Comprehension and Extension:
Logical Properties of Idea or Term

▪ Comprehension is the sum total of the attributes or

thought elements which constitute the idea. It is the
meaning, the signification, the thought, content or
connotation of the idea.
▪ Extension is the sum-total of all the individuals,
things or beings or groups to which the idea can be
applied. It expresses denotation or the application
of the idea to different individuals or things.
 II. Comprehension and Extension:
Logical Properties of Idea or Term

Comprehension Extension
An institution of UST, UP, ADMU,
UNVERSITY higher DLSU, UE,
AdU, NU, UERM,
learning etc.
II. Comprehension and Extension:
Logical Properties of Idea or Term

▪ There is an inverse relation between the

comprehension and extension of idea. As the
comprehension of the idea increases, the
extension decreases and vice versa. This means
that, if the conceptual features of an idea
increase, the application of this idea will
decrease.
 II. Comprehension and Extension:
Logical Properties of Idea or Term

UNIVERSITY
Comprehension
An institution of learning
An institution of higher
learning
A Catholic Institution
of higher learning
A Pontifical and Catholic
Institution of higher learning in
the Philippines
Extension
AMA, STI, Samson Tech, All
Universities and Colleges, All
public and private primary and
secondary schools, etc.
All universities and colleges…
DLSU, ADMU, La
Consolacion, San Sebastian,
AdU, San Beda College, UST
UST
II. Comprehension and Extension:
Logical Properties of Idea or Term

▪ The term with greater comprehension will have

lesser extension and the term with greater
comprehension will have lesser extension and the
term with greater extension will have lesser
comprehension.
III. Classification of Terms
 A. According to Significance or
Meaning (Comprehension)

1. Univocal – A univocal term is a term that is used in an identical

sense. It expresses only one meaning or sense when applied to
several objects. A term maybe univocal if it falls under the
following conditions:
–A term has no other possible meanings other than itself.
–The term used is defined.
–The terms used are taken to signify one meaning in two
instances
 Examples of Univocal
A term has no other possible meanings other than itself.
e.g. Homo Sapiens, Homo Erectus, solar system, heliocentricism,
Rector Magnificus, Supreme Pontiff, etc.
The term used is defined.
e.g. Mercury is a planet in the solar system.
A notebook is a material used for writing made up of paper.
Examples of Univocal

The terms used are taken to signify one meaning in

two instances.
e.g. The reverend father blesses the mother and the
father of the child.
Water is heavier than air and the air outside is fresh.
 A. According to Significance or
Meaning (Comprehension)
2. Equivocal – An equivocal term is a term that expresses two
or more different or unrelated meanings. Equivocal terms
may be externally the same, (same spelling and/or
pronunciation) but different in sense. They may be equivocal
in:
– pronunciation as in, son-sun, sweet-suite, pain-pane;
– spelling, as in, bow-bow, live-leave, lead-lead; or
– both in spelling and pronunciation, as in club-club, watch-
watch, ball-ball
Examples of Equivocal

▪ The sentence of the judge was not clear.

▪ I love philosophy.
▪ My notebook is new.
▪ tree “bark” and a dog’s “bark.” We have same term
but two different meanings
 A. According to Significance or
Meaning (Comprehension)

3. Analogous – an analogous term is a term that expresses a

meaning that is partly different and partly the same, or
meanings that are related.
▪ Analogy by proportion – when a term is applied to unlike
objects because of some resemblance between them
▪ Analogy by attribution – when the term is used in an
absolute sense in one thing and then attributed in other
things because of some intrinsic relation with the first
Example of Analogous (by
proportion)

“FOOT”
-The foot of the mountain
-The foot of the stairs
“LEG”
-leg of chair
-leg of the table
B. According to Application or
Extension

1. Singular – A singular term is one that applies to

only one individual or object. It may be proper
noun or name, a term prefixed by a
demonstrative pronoun, or a term with
restrictive qualification.
▪ e.g.
▪ The 15th President of the Philippine Republic.
▪ The Dean of the College.
B. According to Application or
Extension

2. Universal – A universal term is one that is applied

distributively to all the individuals or objects in a
class or to the class itself. It always expresses a
universal idea. It is usually prefixed by terms like
all, every, no, each, and other similar terms serving
as universal quantifiers.
▪ e.g.
▪ Every Catholic is a Christian.
▪ A square is a polygon.
B. According to Application or
Extension

3. Particular – A particular term is one that applies

to only a part of the extension of the universal. It
is usually prefixed by terms like some, few
several, majority, many, a number of, and other
similar terms serving as particular quantifiers.
▪ e.g.
▪ Some students are lazy.
▪ Several policemen are dishonest.
 B. According to Application or
Extension

4. Collective – A collective term is one that applies

to a collective idea. It represents a group or class
but does not apply distributively to the individuals in
the class or group. It may appear singular in form, but
because it represents a class it is considered
collective.
▪ e.g.
▪ A flock of sheep is destroying the crops.
▪ The family celebrates the holiday.
IV. Predicaments and Predicables
▪ Predicaments are classifications of universal natures
and concepts.
▪ Predicables are classifications of universal predicates in
general.
– Predicaments and Predicables are useful to put
order in our universal concepts by ways of
classification and to assign the proper nature of
things when we try to understand and define them.
A. The Supreme Predicaments

▪ Aristotle called them Categories, which is the

Greek term for Predicaments.
▪ Substance is being that carries existential actuality
by itself (or a being that exists by itself).
▪ Accident is a modification of the substance, or
being , and does not carry existential actuality by
itself, but in the substance of which it is a
modification (a being that does not exist by itself,
but in the substance).
B. The Ten Predicaments
1. Substance
– A nature that carries existential actuality and reality
by itself, and not a inhering in something else as
subject. E.g., a tree, an animal.
– A nature that exists by itself
2. Quantity
– Modification of substance as regards the effect
of having extended and measurable parts.
– The extended and measurable parts, as regards
dimensions and weight.
 B. The Ten Predicaments
3. Quality
– A formal modifier of the substance. E.g. health, figure, beauty,
color.
a. Habit or Disposition:
o Habit is a quality modifying the substance well or ill, as to itself, or
as to its operation, in a permanent manner.
o Disposition is a quality analogous to the former but not
permanent in character.
b. Capability or Incapability
o Capability is power and strength for action;
o Incapability is shortcoming of strength for action.
 B. The Ten Predicaments
c. Passion and Passive modification
o Passion is a quality of a transient nature resulting from some alteration
in the substance.
▪ E.g. fatigue, rash or heat, anger.
o Passive modification is akin to the former, but it is of a lingering nature.
▪ E.g. redness or paleness of complexion
d. Form and Figure
o Both denote a quality that follows the dimensional termination of the
substance.
o Form is said of the shape of artificial things.
o Figure is said of the shape of natural things. E.g., the form of a house,
the figure of a woman.
 B. The Ten Predicaments
4. Relation
– Reference of one substance to another. E.g. fatherhood,
sonship, kingship.
5. Action
– Motion of the substance, commonly inducing a result in
another thing. E.g. running, sawing, baking.
6. Passion
– Modification of the substance as the result of the influence of
another agent. E.g. a wound, a confusion,
– This accident should not be confused with the species of
Quality that runs under the same name (passion).
B. The Ten Predicaments

7. When
– Circumstantial determination of the substance as to
time, that is, as to a point or portion, of a certain
duration. E.g., at noon; between two or three
o’clock.
8. Where
– Circumstantial determination of the substance as to
place, that is, as to a point in space, or on a surface, or
within a circumstantial body. E.g., in Baguio, on my
face, in the stomach, in the air.
B. The Ten Predicaments

9. Posture
– Determination of the substance as to the
disposition of its parts. E.g. upright, standing,
lying.
10.Habit
– Determination of the substance as to external
outfit. E.g. dressed, armed.
 C. Predicability, Kinds
▪ Predicability is the aptitude of a universal concept to be said
of many subject. It is a logical property of the universal
concept. There are two kinds:
a. Univocal
– When the universal concept is applicable to many subject in
exactly the same sense. This is the usual case with the
predicables.
b. Analogous
– When the universal concept is applicable to many
subjects in a sense that is neither altogether the same
nor altogether different, but kindred.
D. The Predicables

▪ The Predicables are the different kinds of Logical

Universals, that is, universal concepts that may be
applied to many subjects. Taken as
Classifications, they are universal concepts
bearing different kinds of logical relationship to the
subject.
 D. The Predicables
1. Genus
– A universal that expresses that part of the essence of
the subject, which the subject has in common with other
individuals of a different species.
▪ E.g. Man is an animal.
2. Specific Difference
– A universal that expresses that feature of the essence
of the subject, which distinguishers its essence from that
of other species.
▪ E.g. Man is rational.
 D. The Predicables
3. Species
– A universal that expresses the whole essence of the
subject. It comprises both the Genus and Specific
Difference.
▪ E.g. Man is a rational animal.
4. Property
– A universal that expresses an attribute that is not part
of the essence of the subject, but necessarily flows from
it.
▪ E.g. Man is being capable of progress, of making
tools, of religious sentiment, of artistic feeling, of
wonderment.
D. The Predicables

5. Accident
– A universal that expresses a feature that is not
part of the essence of the subject, nor
necessarily associated with it, but is associated
with the subject merely in a factual and
contingent manner.
▪ Mary is beautiful and healthy. (Such attributes
are not necessarily said of the subject.)
 V. Definition
A. Meaning of Definition
▪ Etymology
– The term definition came from the Latin term definere which
means to lay down.
– To define means to lay down the markers or limits.
– So when we define, we are putting or laying down the markers
or limits of the word or term. Outside of the markers, we can no
longer apply the term or the word.
▪ Real Definition
– The conceptual manifestation either of the meaning of the
term or of the formal features of the object.
 B. Kinds of Definition
a. Nominal1 – A nominal definition simply explains the
meaning of a term or word. It may provide the origin or
root word or an equivalent term.
▪ Synonym – an equivalent term or word. e.g. joy means
happiness; the President means the Chief.
▪ Etymology – the origin or root of the word.
▪ Biology – bio (=life) + logos (=study)
▪ Philosophy – philos (=love) + Sophia (=wisdom)
 B. Kinds of Definition

b. Real2 – A real definition explains what a thing or

subject is. It explains the nature of the object by
giving its properties, characteristics, qualities, or
features. It could be a complete explanation of the
object or thing or a simple description of the object.
▪ 1 [Nominal = nomen (=name)]
▪ 2 [Real = res (=thing)]
 Real2
▪ Essential – an essential definition explains the very nature of
the object by giving its proximate genus and specific
difference. The proximate genus consists of the essential elements
which makes the object or individual similar to others. The
specific difference is the distinctive element which distinguishes it
from others.
E.g.
▪ Mother – a woman having a child.
- genus - specific difference
▪ Triangle – a polygon with three sides and three angles
Real2

▪ Descriptive – A descriptive definition explains what a

thing or object is by giving the positive but non-
essential features of the object.
– Sometimes, it is difficult to give the essential
features of objects or things, this explains the
general acceptance of a simple description of its
characteristics.
 Descriptive
1. Distinctive – a distinctive definition explains an object or
thing by giving the set of distinctive characteristics of an
object or external features, those features that are
distinct to the object.
2. Genetic – a genetic definition explains an object by giving
its origin or process of production.
3. Causal – a causal definition explains a thing or object by
giving its efficient cause, i.e. that which produces a thing, or
the final cause, i.e. the end or purpose of an object or
its efficient cause.
 Certain types of definitions are
formulated by following certain formats:
▪ Distinctive
X – is [genus] characterized by certain [qualities, properties, traits]
X Z is [genus] having the following or manifesting certain [traits, qualities,
symptoms, etc.]
▪ Genetic
X – is [genus] derived from, or originated from [source, origin, etc.]
X – is [genus] produced through [processes, procedure, formulation, etc.]
▪ Causal
X – is [genus] produced or created or made by [makes, creator, writer,
producer]
X – is [genus] used for, or designed to, or intended for [use, purpose, goal, etc.]
 C. Other Classification
▪ Popular – A popular definition is based on the common knowledge
or idea of people about a thing or object.
▪ Scientific – Scientific definitions are usually technical definitions of
scientific terms. In the field of medicine and physical science,
terms and objects or instruments, body parts and diseases are
given scientific definitions.
▪ Medical – definition of medical terms of procedures, using medical
terms.
▪ Legal – definition of legal concepts, procedures, using legal terms.
▪ Lexical – definition given in the dictionary.
 D. Rules of Definition
1. The definition must be clearer than the term being defined. It
must not contain terms which will only make it less intelligible.
▪ Net is the reticulated fabric decussated at regular intervals with
interstices and intersections.
▪ Happiness is a way station between too little and too much.
2. The definition must not contain the term being defined. The
definition must use other terms in defining. It is supposed to
explain a particular term and is not supposed to use the
same term in the explanation.
▪ Teacher is the person who teaches.
▪ A cookbook is a book for cooking.
 D. Rules of Definition
3. The definition must be convertible with the term being defined. The
definition must not be too narrow nor too wide, it must be accurate
and precise.
▪ A dog is a four-legged animal.
▪ A wolf is a sheep-killing animal.
4. The definition must be an affirmative statement not negative
whenever possible.
The definition is supposed to explain what a term or object is, and
not, what it is not. Only when the term is negative should the
definition be negative.
▪ A child is an individual who is not yet an adult.
▪ An amateur is not a professional.
▪ Correct definition: Darkness is the absence of light.
HUMA103: Philosophy of
Man w/ Logic and
Critical Thinking
Definition of basic
Terms in Logic
Instructor: Keith Feliz D. Banania
E-mail: keithfeliz.banania@ama.edu.ph