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Subject: - Building Planning & Architecture (CE4004)
Unit: -1
Drawing of Building Elements- Drawing of various elements of buildings like various types of footing, open
foundation, raft, grillage, pile and well foundation, Drawing of frames of doors, window, various types of
door, window and ventilator, lintels and arches, stairs and staircase, trusses, flooring, roofs etc.
Drawing of Building Elements

Foundation: - The lowest load-bearing part of a building, typically below ground level is known as foundation.
TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS
1. Shallow Foundation 2. Deep Foundation
a. Isolated spread footings a. Pile Foundation
b. Wall footings b. Well Foundation
c. Combined footings
d. Cantilever or strap footings
e. Raft or Mat Raft or Mat
1. Shallow Foundation: - are usually located no more than 6 ft below the lowest finished floor. A shallow
foundation system generally used when (1) the soil close the ground surface has sufficient bearing
capacity, and (2) underlying weaker strata do not result in undue settlement. The shallow foundations
are commonly used most economical foundation systems.
m
o
a. Isolated spread footings: - under individual columns. These can be square, rectangular, or circular,
trapezoidal.
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a
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Figure 1: - Isolated spread footings
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b. Wall footings: - Wall footing is a continuous slab strip along the length of wall.
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Figure 2: - Wall footings
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c. Combined footings: - Combined footings support two or more columns. These can be rectangular or
trapezoidal plan.
Figure 3: - Combined footings
d. Cantilever or strap footings: - These are similar to combined footings, except that the footings under
columns are built independently, and are joined by strap beam.
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a
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d Figure 4: - Cantilever or strap footings
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e. Raft or Mat Raft or Mat: -This is a large continuous footing supporting all the columns of the structure.
This is used when soil conditions are poor but piles are not used.
Figure 5: - Raft or Mat Raft or Mat
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2. Deep Foundation: - The shallow foundations may not be economical or even possible when the soil
bearing capacity near the surface is too low. In those cases deep foundations are used to transfer loads
to a stronger layer, which may be located at a significant depth below the ground surface. The load is
transferred through skin friction and end bearing.
a. Pile Foundation: - A pile is a vertical structural element of a deep foundation, driven or drilled deep
into the ground at the building site.
Figure 6: - Pile Foundation
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b. Well Foundation: - Well foundation is a type of deep foundation which is generally provided below the
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water level for bridges. Cession or well have been in use for foundations of bridges and other
structures since Roman and Mughal periods.
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Open Foundation
As the name suggests, open foundations refer to those foundations constructed by carrying out excavations
up to founding level in the open conditions. When suitable founding strata are rock exposed in bed or hard
strata are available at shallow depths, the excavations may by done entirely in the dry condition especially if
the work is done is dry season in seasonal flowing streams. In most other cases, some part of excavation will
need to be carried out in wet conditions, i.e. below the surface water or the subsoil water level.
Grillage Foundation – Steel & Timber Grillage

Grillage foundation is used when heavy structural loads from columns, piers or stanchions are required to be
transferred to a soil of low bearing capacity. Grillage foundation is often found to be lighter and more
economical. This avoids deep excavation and provides necessary area at the base to reduce the intensity of
pressure within safe bearing capacity of soil. Depending upon the material used in construction of grillage
foundation can be broadly divided in the following two categories.
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(a) Steel grillage foundation

(b) Timber grillage foundation
Figure 8: - Grillage foundation
Doors and windows
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A door provides a connecting link between rooms, allowing easy free movement in the building. Window are
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opening provided in walls. Doors and windows provide lighting and ventilation. The provide resistance to
weather, sound and heat. They provide security and privacy
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Sizes of Doors
• For Residential Area

a
m
• Internal doors 0.9 x 2.0 m
• External doors 1.2 x 2 m

a
• Door for bath and w.c. 0.75 x 2.0 m n
• Industrial Buildings y
d
• Width 1.5, 2.0, 2.5 m
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• Depth or height 2.0 m, 2.5 m
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Drawing of frames of doors, window
Types of Doors
• Battened and ledge door
• Battened and braced door
• Battened and framed door
• Battened, ledge, and framed door
• Framed and paneled door
• Glazed door
P a g e 4 | 27
Page no: 4
• Flush door
• Louvered door
• Wire gauged door
• Revolving door
• Sliding door
• Swing door
• Collapsible steel door
• Rolling shutter door
• Mild steel sheet door
• Hollow metal door
• PVC door
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(a) Battened and ledge door:-Battened and ledged doors are the simplest form of doors and are in use since
ages. Such doors consist of vertical wooden battens of the height of the door with about 35 mm thicknesses
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which are usually tongue and groove jointed. Usually three ledges (horizontal members) are provided, one
each at the top and bottom and one in the middle.
a
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d
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S Figure-9: Battened and ledge door
(b) Battened, ledged and braced doors:
To make more rigid, braces are provided diagonally in additional to battens and ledges as shown in figure up.
Braces are having 100-150mm width and 25-30mm thickness preferable. Braces should place upwards from
handing side, then they acts as struts and take compression. These types of doors can be used for wider
openings.
(c) Battened, ledged and framed doors:

For the simple battened and ledged door, frame work is provided in the form of two verticals, known as stiles.
Stiles are generally 100mm wide and as far as thickness is concerned, the thickness of stile should be equal to
the combined thickness of ledge and batten Preferably 40 mm.
P a g e 5 | 27
Page no: 5
Figure-10: Battened, ledged and framed doors

(d) Framed and paneled door: - These are very strong and will give good appearance when compared to
battened doors. These are the widely used doors in almost all types of buildings. Stiles, vertical members and
rails, horizontal members are grooved along the inner edges of frame to receive the panels. The panels are
made up of timber or plywood or A.C sheets or glass.
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a
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Figure-11: - Framed and paneled door
(e) Glazed doors:
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Glazed doors are generally provided in interior wall openings or in hospitals, college etc. The interior of room
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is visible through glazed doors and light also passes through glazed portion of the door. These may be fully
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glazed or partly glazed and partly paneled. Glass panels are provided for glazed doors.
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Figure-12:- Glazed doors
Sizes of Windows: 0.6, 0.75, 0.9, 1.0, 1.2, 1.5, 1.8m
• Depth: 0.6 0.75, 0.9, 1.0, 1.2, 1.5, 1.8 m
P a g e 6 | 27
Page no: 6
• Size of Ventilator: Width= 0.3, 0.45, 0.6, 0.75, 0.9 m
Types of Windows
• Fixed
• Pivoted
• Double hung
• Sliding
• Casement
• Sash
• Louvered
• Metal
• Bay
• m
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Corner window
•
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Dormer window
• Gable window
• Lantern a
• Skylight m
Ventilation a
n
Ventilation moves outdoor air into a building or a room, and distributes the air within the building or room.
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The general purpose of ventilation in buildings is to provide healthy air for breathing by both diluting the
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pollutants originating in the building and removing the pollutants from it
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Building ventilation has three basic elements:

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ventilation rate — the amount of outdoor air that is provided into the space, and the quality of the
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outdoor air
 airflow direction — the overall airflow direction in a building, which should be from clean zones to dirty
zones; and
 air distribution or airflow pattern — the external air should be delivered to each part of the space in an
efficient manner and the airborne pollutants generated in each part of the space should also be
removed in an efficient manner.
There are three methods that may be used to ventilate a building: natural, mechanical and hybrid ventilation.
P a g e 7 | 27
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Types of ventilation
Natural ventilation
Mechanical ventilation
Hybrid or mixed-mode ventilation
1. Natural ventilation
Natural forces (e.g. winds and thermal buoyancy force due to indoor and outdoor air density differences) drive
outdoor air through purpose-built, building envelope openings. Purpose-built openings include windows,
doors, solar chimneys, wind towers and trickle ventilators. This natural ventilation of buildings depends on
climate, building design and human behavior.
2. Mechanical ventilation
Mechanical fans drive mechanical ventilation. Fans can either be installed directly in windows or walls, or
installed in air ducts for supplying air into, or exhausting air from, a room.
The type of mechanical ventilation used depends on climate. For example, in warm and humid climates,
infiltration may need to be minimized or prevented to reduce interstitial condensation (which occurs when
warm, moist air from inside a building penetrates a wall, roof or floor and meets a cold surface). In these
cases, a positive pressure mechanical ventilation system is often used. Conversely, in cold climates, exfiltration
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needs to be prevented to reduce interstitial condensation, and negative pressure ventilation is used. For a
room with locally generated pollutants, such as a bathroom, toilet or kitchen, the negative pressure system is
often used.
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3. Hybrid or mixed-mode ventilation
Hybrid (mixed-mode) ventilation relies on natural driving forces to provide the desired (design) flow rate. It
a
uses mechanical ventilation when the natural ventilation flow rate is too low.
Lintel
m
a
A lintel is a horizontal member which is placed across the openings like doors, windows etc. in buildings.
Lintels takes the load from the structure above it and provides support. Lintel is also a type beam, the width of
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which is equal to the width of wall, and the ends of which are built into the wall. These are very easy to
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construct as compared to arches.
Arches
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An arch is a curved structure that spans an elevated space and may or may not support the weight above it.
Types of Arches
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Arches are classified based on:
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1. Shape
2. Nu er of Ce tre’s
3. Workmanship
4. Materials of construction
Types of Arches based on shape:
Based on the shape of construction arches are classified into 10 types and they are discussed below.
Flat Arch
 For flat arch, the intrados is apparently flat and it acts as a base of equilateral triangle which was formed
by the horizontal angle of 600 by skewbacks.
 Even though the intrados is flat but it is given that a slight rise of camber of about 10 to 15 mm per meter
width of opening is allowed for small settlements.
P a g e 8 | 27
Page no: 8
 Extrados is also horizontal and flat. These flat arches are generally used for light loads, and for spans up
to 1.5m.
Figure 13: - Flat Arch

Segmental Arch
 This is the basic type of arch used for buildings in which Centre of arch lies below the springing line.
 In segmental arch, the thrust Transferred in inclined direction to the abutment.
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Figure-14:- Segmental Arch
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Semi-Circular Arch
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The shape of arch curve looks like semi-circle and the thrust transferred to the abutments is perfectly vertical
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direction since skewback is horizontal. In this type of arch, the Centre lies exactly on the springing line.
Figure-15:- Semi-Circular Arch
P a g e 9 | 27
Page no: 9
Pointed Arch
The other name of pointed arch is Gothic arch. In this type of arch two arcs of circles are met at the apex
hence triangle is formed. This may be either isosceles or equilateral.
Figure-16:- Pointed Arch

Semi-Elliptical Arch
This is a type of arch of semi-ellipse shape and having three or five Centers.
m
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Figure-17:- Semi-Elliptical Arch
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Types of Arches based on number of Centers
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Based on number of centers the arches are classified as:
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One-centered Arches
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Segmental, semi-circular, flat, horse-shoe arches and stilted arches are one centered arches. In some cases,
perfectly circular arch is pro ided for ir ular i do s hi h is alled as ull’s e e ar h is also o e u der
these category.
P a g e 10 | 27
Page no: 10
Figure-18:- One-centered Arches

Two Centered Arches
Pointed or gothic or lancet arches are generally come under this type.
Figure-19:- Two Centered Arches
Three Centered Arches

Semi elliptical and Florentine arches are generally having three number of centers
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Figure-20:- Three Centered Arches
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Four Centered Arches y
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Venetian arch is a typical example for four-centered arch. Tudor arch is also having four centers.
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Figure-21:- Four Centered Arches
P a g e 11 | 27
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Types of Arches based on Workmanship and Construction Materials

Based on material used for construction and workmanship, arches may be classified as:
1. Stone Arches
Based on workmanship, these are sub divided into two types. They are,
Rubble arches
Rubble arches are very weak and used only for inferior work. These are used up to spans of 1m. These are
made of rubble stones which are hammer dressed, roughly to shape and size and fixed in cement mortar.
Sometimes these are also used as relieving arches up to a depth of 37.5cm, but these are constructed in one
ring. If the depth is more, we can go for two rings in alternate course of headers and stretchers.
m
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a
Figure-22:- Rubble arches
m
Ashlar Arches
a
In this type, the stones are cut to proper shape of various (a wedge-shaped or tapered stone used to construct
an arch) and fully dressed, joined with cement mortar. Ashlar stones are also used to make flat arches.
n
y
d
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Figure-23:- Ashlar Arches
P a g e 12 | 27
Page no: 12
2. Brick Arches
Brick arches are also subdivided into:
Rough brick arches
These are constructed with ordinary bricks without cutting to the shape voussoirs. The arch curve is provided
by forming wedge shaped joints with greater thickness at extrados and smaller thickness at intrados. So, it
looks u attra ti e. That’s h it is ot re o e ded for e posed ri k orks.
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Figure-24:- Rough brick arches
a
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Axed brick arches
a
The bricks are cut into wedge shape with the help of brick axe. So, these are roughly dressed in shape and size.
Hence, Arch formed by these axed bricks is not very pleasant.
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Figure-25:- Axed brick arches
P a g e 13 | 27
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Gauged brick arches

In this type arch, bricks are cut to exact shape and size of required voussoir with the help of wire saw. The
bricks are finely dressed and these bricks are joined by lime putty. But, for gauged brick arches only soft bricks
are used.
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Figure-26:- Gauged brick arches
Purpose made brick arches

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The bricks are manufactured, matching with the exact shape and size of voussoirs, to get a very fine
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workmanship.
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Figure-27:- brick arches
P a g e 14 | 27
Page no: 14
3. Concrete Arches
Concrete arches are of two types:
Precast concrete block arches
In Precast concrete block arches the blocks are cast in molds to the exact shape and size of voussoirs. For key
stone and skewbacks special molds are prepared. These will give good appearance because of exact shape and
size. Cement concrete of 1:2:4 is used.
m
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a
Figure-28:- concrete block arches
Monolithic concrete block arches
m
a
Monolithic concrete block arches are suitable for larger span. These are constructed form cast-in-situ
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concrete. These may be either plain or reinforced, depending upon the span and magnitude of loading. Form
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work is used for casting the arch. The curing is done for 2 to 4 weeks.
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Figure-29:- Monolithic concrete block arches
P a g e 15 | 27
Page no: 15
Steps and Stairs

Steps and stairs are meant to provide access between different levels. Stairs should be properly located to
provide easy access and fast services to the building.
 In one flight maximum 8 steps should be provided for more than 8 steps it is recommended to
provide them with lending.
 Generally for residential building width of stair is 1.0 m and 1.2 m
 No of risers= Total height of floor/ Height of riser
 No of tread= Number of riser-1
Types of stairs and staircase – Classification of stairs:
Stairs can be broadly classified into three types:
1. Straight stairs
2. Turning stairs
3. Continuous stairs
1. Straight stairs:
Generally for small houses, available width is very retractable. So, this type of straight stairs are used in such
m
conditions which runs straight between two floors. This stair may consists of either one single flight or more
than one flight with a landing.
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a
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Figure-30:-
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Straight stairs
2. Turning stairs:
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Turning stairs are sub classified as:
a) Quarter turn stairs
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b) Half turn stairs (dog legged stairs)
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c) Three – quarter turn stairs
d) Bifurcated stairs
a) Quarter turn stairs:
A quarter turn stair is the one which changes its direction either to the right or to the left but where the turn
being affected either by introducing a quarter space landing or by providing winders. In these type of stairs the
flight of stair turns 90 degrees art landing as it rises to connect two different levels. So it is also called as
L-stair. Again these quarter turn stairs are two types.
i. Newel quarter turn stairs:
These type of stairs have clearly visible newel posts at the beginning of flight as well as at the end. At the
quarter turn, there may either be quarter space landing or there may be winders.
P a g e 16 | 27
Page no: 16
Figure-31:- Newel quarter turn stairs
ii. Geometrical quarter turn stairs:

In geometrical stairs, the stringer as well as the hand rail is continuous without any newel post at the landing
area.
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a
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a
Figure-32:- Geometrical quarter turn stairs
b) Half turn stairs:
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In case of half turn stairs its direction reversed, or changed for 180 o. Such stairs are quite common. Again
d
these are three types.
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i. Dog-legged stairs
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Because of its appearance in sectional elevation this name is given. It comes under the category of newel stairs
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in which newel posts are provided at the beginning and end of each flight.
Figure-33:- Dog-legged stairs
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ii. Open newel half turn stair

In this type of open newel half turn stairs, stair has a space or well between the outer strings. This is the only
aspect in which it differs from the doglegged stair.
Figure-34:- Open newel half turn stair

iii. Geometrical half turn stairs
In case of geometrical half turn stairs the stringers and the hand rails are continuous, without any intervening
newel post. These stairs may contains either with half space landing or without landing.
m
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a
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Figure-35:- Geometrical half turn stairs
c) Three quarter Turn stairs:

a
n
The direction of stairs changed three times with its upper flight crossing the bottom one in the case of three
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quarter turn stairs. These stairs are may either be newel or open newel type. This type stairs are generally
d
used when the vertical distance between two floors is more and as well as length of the stair room is limited.
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Figure-36:- Three quarter Turn stairs
d) Bifurcated stairs:
Bifurcated stairs are commonly used in public building at their entrance hall. This has a wider flight at the
bottom, which bifurcates into two narrower flights, one turning to the left and other to the right, at landing.it
may be either of newel type with a newel post or of geometrical type with continuous stringer and hand rails.
P a g e 18 | 27
Page no: 18
Figure-37:- Bifurcated stairs

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3. Continuous stairs:
o
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This type of stairs neither have any landing nor any intermediate newel post. They are geometric in shape.
These are may be of following types.
 Circular stairs a
 Spiral stairs m
 Helical stairs a
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Circular stairs or spiral stairs are usually made either of R.C.C or metal, and is placed at a location where there
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are space limitations. Sometimes these are also used as emergency stairs, and are provided at the back side of
d
a building. These are not comfortable because of all the steps are winders and provides discomfort. A helical
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stair looks very fine but its structural design and construction is very complicated. It is made of R.C.C in which
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a large portion of steel is required to resist bending, shear and torsion.
Figure-38:- Continuous stairs
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Trusses
In engineering, a truss is a structure that "consists of two-force members only, where the members are
organized so that the assemblage as a whole behaves as a single object". [1] A "two-force member" is a
structural component where force is applied to only two points. Although this rigorous definition allows
the members to have any shape connected in any stable configuration, trusses typically comprise five
or more triangular units constructed with straight members whose ends are connected at joints
referred to as nodes.
Flooring
Flooring is the general term for a permanent covering of a floor, or for the work of installing such a
floor covering. Floor covering is a term to generically describe any finish material applied over a floor
structure to provide a walking surface. Both terms are used interchangeably but floor covering refers
more to lose-laid materials.
MUD FLOORING
Mud has been the easiest form of material available for building construction. It has been adopted for various
elements in the house in different forms. Floorings in mud have mostly been adopted in village housing as
besides being economical, mud is readily available and the flooring is easy to construct and maintain.
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Figure-39:- MUD FLOORING
BRICK FLOORING
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Bricks have been the mainstay of building construction in India since time of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa. It
has been successfully used for foundations, walls, roof, floors etc. Brick flooring is advantageous in areas
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where bricks are available locally. Such floorings are easy to construct with the help of local mason and are
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also economical.
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Figure-40:- BRICK FLOORING
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STONE FLOORING
Stone are available in plenty across the entire stretch of the country. Many of these are suitable for providing
floors in residential construction. Stones suited for the purpose should be strong and able to resist abrasion
and impact besides giving a pleasing appearance. Some of the stones which is used for floor construction are
given below.
 Kota stone
 Granite
 Sand stone
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Figure-41:- STONE FLOORING
a
CEMENT CONCRETE FLOORING n
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Cement concrete flooring is one of the most common types of flooring provided in houses. This type of
d
flooring is quite durable, easy to construct and maintain besides being economical as compared to tile, marble
and other such type of floorings.
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Figure-42:- CEMENT CONCRETE FLOORING
TERRAZZO FLOORING OR MOSAIC FLOORING

Terrazzo flooring is yet another type of flooring that has been commonly used in India. As this type of flooring
gives a pleasing look, it has been extensively provided in living rooms, bed rooms etc.
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29,982 Indian Law students are members of this community and share FREE study material,
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Figure-43:- TERRAZZO FLOORING OR MOSAIC FLOORING

MARBLE FLOORING
Marble flooring has traditionally been provided in religious places, palaces, havelis etc, as it enhances the look
of the structure. Lately such flooring has been used extensively in residential buildings also. Marble floorings
are costly and can be used preferable for living rooms and bed rooms.
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Figure-45:- MARBLE FLOORING
TILE FLOORING
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Flooring tiles in India have over the years gained popularity over the cement and concrete flooring. Tiles are
available in different patterns, designs and utility options. Usually they are costlier than the cement concrete
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flooring and its cost depends upon the type of tile being used. Various types of flooring tiles are as follows.

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Chequered tile
 Glazed tile
 Vitrified tile
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 PVC tiles
Figure-46:- TILE FLOORING
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WOODEN FLOORING
Wooden flooring is most commonly used in hilly regions of the country where the temperature are quite low.
At present they are also being provided in floors of high end housing to give a good appearance.
Figure-47:- WOODEN FLOORING
BAMBOO FLOORING
Bamboo flooring is very commonly used in areas where bamboo is available locally. However such floorings
have recently become quite popular due to its aesthetics, being uniquely attractive, strong and resilient,
dimensionally stable, moisture and stain resistant and being environmentally friendly. It is also said to have
better properties than hard wood.
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Figure-48:- BAMBOO FLOORING
LINOLEUM FLOORING m
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Linoleum flooring is usually provided on a floor base which is already smooth and plain. It is suitable for
interior locations in a building. Linoleum is a combustible material and should not be used in areas prone to
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fire etc. It should also not be used in areas which are likely to become damp over a period of time.
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Figure-49:- LINOLEUM FLOORING
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Roof
A roof is part of a building envelope. It is the covering on the uppermost part of a building or shelter which
provides protection from animals and weather, notably rain or snow, but also heat, wind and sunlight. The
word also denotes the framing or structure which supports that covering.
Types of roof
Gable Roof:
Gable roof designs are one of the more simple styles when it comes to roofs. The gable roof style looks like an
inverted/upside down V. Gable roofs are not ideal for areas with high wind because they easily can catch the
wind much like a sail would.
Flat Roof:
Flat roofs are common especially with commercial buildings. Flat roofs are definitely the simplest roof to build
because they have little to no pitch. The most common types of roofing systems used with flat roofs are
rubber roofing systems.
Hip Roof:
Hip roofs are a common residential style roof. This type of roof is more difficult to construct when compared
to flat roofs and gable roofs because they have a more complicated truss and rafter structure. A hip roof style
roof has four sloping sides with zero vertical roof lines/walls. Hip roofs can be both square and rectangular.
Gambrel Roof:
m
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The best way to describe a gambrel roof is by saying barn roof. The gambrel style roof is most commonly used
on barns. However, it is also used in residential construction. This type of roof has the benefit of providing a
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good amount of space in the attic. In fact, it provides so much extra space that it is often turned into
bedrooms or other living areas.
Dutch Hip Roof:
a
The Dutch hip roof is basically a hip roof with a small gable at either end. The gables can be used as
ventilation.
m
a
Shed Roof:
A shed roof is basically a flat roof but has more pitch. It is frequently used for additions on homes or other roof
styles.
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Mansard Roof:
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The mansard roof is a French design and is more difficult to construct than the hip or gable roof.
Butterfly Roof:
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The butterfly roof is not a roof style that is widely used. The style provides plenty of light and ventilation but is
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not the effective when it comes to water drainage.
Winged Gable Roof:
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The winged gable roof varies slightly from the tradition gable roof. It varies by extended outwards from the
peak of the roof.
A-Frame Roof:
This type of roof is very popular for churches, cottages, homes, and other structures. The roof acts as both the
roof and the walls for a structure.
Folded Plate Roof:
The folded plate roof has limited use in single family homes. It looks like a series of small gable roofs placed
side by side of each other.
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Management students are members of this community and share FREE study material, notes, eBooks, projects, case
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Drawing of building element
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Unit: -2
Building Planning- Classification of buildings, Provisions of National Building Codes and Rules, Building
bye-laws, open area, Setbacks, FAR terminology, Design and drawing of Building, Design concepts and
philosophies, Preparing sketch plans and working drawings of various types of buildings like residential
building, institutional buildings and commercial buildings, site plans, presentation techniques, pictorial
drawings, perspective and rendering, model making, introduction to computer aided design and drafting,
Applying of principle of architectural composition (i.e. unity, contrast, etc.), Principles of planning,
orientation in detailed drawings.
Classification of buildings
Types of building as per National Building Code of India
According to National building code of India (SP: 7 – 1983), buildings are classified based on occupancy as per
following
Group A: Residential Buildings
These shall include any building in which sleeping accommodation is provided for normal residential purposes,
with or without cooking or dining or both facilities, except any building classified under Group C.
Residential types of building are further sub divided as per following
1. A-1 Lodging or rooming houses
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2. A-2 One-or two-family private dwellings
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3. A-3 Dormitories
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4. A-4 Apartment houses (flats)
5. A-5 Hotels
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a
Group B: Educational Buildings
These shall include any building used for school, college or day-care purposes involving assembly for
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instruction, education or recreation and which is not covered by Group D.
Group C: Institutional Buildings y

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These shall include any building or part thereof, which is used for purposes, such as medical or other
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treatment or care of persons suffering from physical or mental illness, disease or infirmity; care of infants,
convalescents or aged persons and for penal or correctional detention in which the liberty of the inmates is
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restricted. Institutional buildings ordinarily provide sleeping accommodation for the occupants.
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Institutional types of building are further sub divided as per following
1. C-1 Hospitals and sanatoria
2. C-2 Custodial institutions
3. C-3 Penal and mental institutions
Group D: Assembly Buildings

These shall include any building or part of a building, where groups of people congregate or gather for
amusement, recreation, social, religious, patriotic, civil, travel and similar purposes, for example, theaters,
motion picture houses, assembly halls, auditoria, exhibition halls, museums, skating rinks, gymnasiums,
restaurants, places of worship, dance halls, club rooms, passenger stations and terminals of air, surface and
marine public transportation services, recreation piers and stadia, etc.
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Assembly types of building are further sub divided as per following
1. D-1 Buildings having a theatrical stage and fixed seats for over 1000 persons
2. D-2 Buildings having a theatrical stage and fixed seats for less than 1000 persons
3. D-3 Buildings without a stage having accommodation for 300 or more persons but no permanent seating
arrangement
4. D-4 Buildings without a stage having accommodation for less than 300 persons
5. D-5 All other structures designed for assembly of people not covered by subdivisions D-1 -to D-4
Group E: Business Buildings

These shall include any building or part of a building which is used for transaction of business (other than that
covered by Group F and parts of buildings covered by 3.1.1); for keeping of accounts and records and similar
purposes, professional establishments, service facilities, etc. City halls, town halls, court houses and libraries
shall be classified in this group so far as the principal function of these is transaction of public business and
keeping of books and records
Business types of building are further sub divided as per following m

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1. E-1 Offices, banks, professional establishments, like offices of architects, engineers, doctors, lawyers, etc.
2. E-2 Laboratories, research establishments and test houses.
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3. E-3 Computer installations.
Group F: Mercantile Buildings

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a
These shall include any building or part of a building, which is used as shops, stores, market, for display and
sale of merchandise, either hole sale or retail.
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Mercantile types of building are further sub divided as per following
1. F- Shops, sto es,
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a kets ith a ea up to 5 .
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2. F-2 Underground shopping centers, departmental stores with area more than 500 m2 Storage and
service facilities incidental to the
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sale of merchandise and located in the same building shall be included under this group.
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Group G : Industrial Buildings
These shall include any building or part of a building or structure, in which products or materials of all kinds
and properties are fabricated, assembled, manufactured or processed, for example, assembly plants,
laboratories, dry cleaning plants, power plants, pumping stations, smoke houses, laundries, gas plants,
refineries: dairies and saw-mills.
Industrial types of building are further sub divided as per following
1. G-1 Buildings used for low hazard industries
2. G-2 Buildings used for moderate hazard industries
3. G-3 Buildings used for high hazard industries.
Group H: Storage Building
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These shall include any building or part of a building, used primarily for the storage or sheltering (including
servicing, processing or repairs incidental to storage) of goods, wares or merchandise (except those that
involve highly combustible or explosi e p odu ts o ate ials), ehi les o a i als, fo e a ple, a ehouses,
cold storage, freight depots, transit sheds, storehouses, truck and marine terminals, garages, hangars (other
than aircraft repair hangars), grain elevators, barns and stables.
Storage properties are characterized by the presence of relatively small number of persons in proportion to
the area, Any new use which increases the number of occupants to a figure comparable with other classes of
occupancy shall change the classification of the building to that of the new use, for example, hangars used for
assembly purposes, warehouses used for office purposes, garage buildings used for manufacturing.
Group J: Hazardous Buildings

These shall include any building or part of a building which is used for the storage, handling, manufacture or
processing of highly combustible or explosive materials or products which are liable to burn with extreme
rapidity and/or which may produce poisonous fumes or explosions; for storage, handling, manufacturi ng or
processing which involve highly corrosive, toxic or noxious alkalis, acids or other liquids or chemicals producing
flame, fumes and explosive, poisonous, irritant or corrosive gases; and for the storage, handling or processing.
Of any material producing explosive mixtures of dust which result in the division of matter into tiny particles
subject to spontaneous ignition.
Provisions of National Building Codes and Rules
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This part sets out the standard space requirements of various parts of a building and those of light and
ventilation. Some of these items depend on the number of persons who would normally occupy the
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building, for which the occupant load should be worked out from table hereunder:
Occupant Load
a
Sl.
No.
Type of Occupancy
m Occupant Load per 100 sq
m. of Plinth or
a Covered Area
n
1 Residential 8.0
2 Educational 25.0
3 Institutional
y 6.60
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4 Assembly
(a) with fixed or loose seats and dance floor 166.6
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(b) without seating facilities including 66.6
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dining rooms
5 Mercantile
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(a) street floor and sales basement
(b) upper sale floor
33.3
16.6
6 Business and industrial 10.0
7 Storage 3.3
8 Hazardous 10.0
SPACE REQUIREMENT FOR DIFFERENT PARTS OF BUILDING
Main Building
The plinth or any part of a building or outhouse shall be so located with respect to average road level
from site so that adequate drainage of the site is assured but at a not height less than 45 cm.
Interior Courtyards, Covered Parking Spaces and Garages
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These s ha l l be r ais ed at l eas t 15 cm. Above the s ur r oundi ng gr ound l ev el a nd s ha ll satisfactorily

drained.
Habitable Rooms Size and Width

The minimum size and width shall be as below given in Table
Minimum Size and Width of Different Components of Residential Premises
Sl. Component of Min. requirement for Min. requirement for

No. Building plots upto 50 sq m. plots above 50 sq m.
1 Habitable Room Area 7.50 sq m. Area 9.50 sq m.
Width 2.10 m. Width 2.40 m.
Height 2.75 m. Height 2.75 m.
2 Kitchen Area 3.30 sq m. Area 4.50 sq m.
3 Pantry Area Not applicable Area 3.00 sq m.
Width Not applicable Width 1.40 m.
Height Not applicable Height
m
2.75 m.
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4 Bathroom Area 1.20 sq m. Area 1.80 sq m.
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5 W.C. Area 1.00 sq m. Area 1.10 sq m.
Width
Height
0.90 m.
2.20 m. a Height
Height
0.90 m.
2.20 m.
6 Combined Bath & W.C.
(Toilet)
Area
Width
1.80 sq m.
1.00 m. m Area
Width
2.80 sq m.
1.20 m.
Height
a 2.20 m. Height 2.20 m.
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7 Store Area No restriction Area No restriction
Width No restriction Width No restriction
Height
y 2.20 m. Height 2.2 m.
d
8 Projections Permitted within the Permitted within
setbacks upto 0.75 m. width the setbacks
9 Canopy
u See clause 4.9.6 See clause 4.9.6
t
Sl. Component of
S Min. requirement for Min. requirement for
No. Building plots upto 50 sq m. plots above 50 sq m.
10 Garage -- Area 14.85 sq m.

Width 2.75 m.
Length 5.40 m.
Height 2.40 m.
11 Passage -- Width 1.00 m.
12 Doorways Habitable Width 0.80 m. Width 0.90 m
rooms Height 2.00 m. Height 2.20 m.
For kitchen bath, W.C. Width 0.75 m. Width 0.75 m.

etc. Height 2.00 m. Height 2.00 m
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14 Staircase Width 0.75 Width 0.90 m.

m. No internal
restriction for
Building bye-laws
A by-law (or bye-law) is a rule or law established by an organization or community to regulate itself, as
allowed or provided for by some higher authority. The higher authority, generally a legislature or some other
government body, establishes the degree of control that the by-laws may exercise. By-laws may be
established by entities such as a business corporation, a neighborhood association, or depending on the
jurisdiction, a municipality.
Municipal by-laws are public regulatory laws which apply in a certain area. The main difference between a
by-law and a law passed by a national/federal or regional/state body is that a bylaw is made by a
non-sovereign body, which derives its authority from another governing body, and can only be made on a
limited range of matters. A local council or municipal government gets its power to pass laws through a law of
the national or regional government which specifies what things the town or city may regulate through
bylaws. It is therefore a form of delegated legislation.
Within its jurisdiction and specific to those areas mandated by the higher body, a municipal by -law is no
m
different than any other law of the land, and can be enforced with penalties, challenged in court and must
comply with other laws of the land, such as the country's constitution. Municipal bylaws are often enforcable
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through the public justice system, and offenders can be charged with a criminal offence for breach of a bylaw.
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Common bylaws include vehicle parking and stopping regulations, animal control, building and construction,
licensing, noise, zoning and business regulation, and management of public recreation areas.
Open area Related words a

Alley
m
a
A narrow street or passage between or behind buildings
Alleyway
An alley n
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Arcade
d
A covered passage at the side of a building
Back
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An outside area behind a house or other building
Backyard S
An area behind a house covered with a hard brick or stone surface
Backyard
The area behind a house, often used to construct a smallsimple building for people to live in
Blind alley
A narrow path between or behind buildings, that is closed at one end
Boma
An area surrounded by a fence and sometimes covered with
a dry grass roof, used for outdoor meals and parties
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Campus
An area of land containing all the main buildings of a large company or organization
Car park
An area or a building where people can leave their cars for a short time
Cloister
A covered path around an open area in the center of a large building such as a cathedral or monastery
Close
The area around a cathedral including the buildings belonging to it
Court
A courtyard
Courtyard
A square area that is surrounded by buildings or walls
Deck
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A wooden floor that is built onto the outside of the back of a house. The usual British word is decking.
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Decking
A wooden floor that is built outside a house or in a garden
Driveway a
A drive i f o t of so eo e s house
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Estate
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A very large area of land that belongs to one person, usually with a very big house on it
Forecourt
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An open area in front of a large building or petrol station
Front
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The area outside the part of a building that faces forwards
Frontage S
The area in front of something such as a building or street
Garden
An area of land next to a house that belongs to the house, usually with grass and plants growing in it. The
American word is yard
Garden
A section of an area of land next to or near a house that is used for growing flowers or vegetables
Land
A a ea that so eo e o s, ofte i ludi g the uildi gs o it. You a also efe to so eo e s la ds, a d
this has the same meaning
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Manor
An area of land containing a manor
Park
An enclosed area of grass and trees surrounding a large country house
Patio
A flat area covered with stone, brick etc. at the back of a house, where people can sit outside
Peristyle
In architecture, a line of columns that surrounds an outdoor space such as a garden inside a building, or the
space surrounded by these columns
Porch
A veranda
Precincts
The area around an important building, especially a college or cathedral
m
Quadrangle o
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A square area in a school or university surrounded on all sides by buildings
Situation
a
The kind of area that surrounds a place, used especially by people who sell houses or property. A more usual
word is location
m
Square
a
n
An open area of land in the shape of a square, usually with buildi gs a ou d it. S ua e is ofte used i the
names of roads and can be written Sq.
y
Setbacks d
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In land use, a setback is the distance which a building or other structure is set back from a street or road, a
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river or other stream, a shore or flood plain, or any other place which is deemed to need protection.
FAR terminology S
Floor area ratio (FAR) is the ratio of a building's total floor area (zoning floor area) to the size of the piece of
land upon which it is built. The terms can also refer to limits imposed on such a ratio.
As a formula: Floor area ratio = (total amount of usable floor area that a building has, zoning floor area) / (area
of the plot)
Design and drawing of Building

The information shown on a locating drawing will be overall sizes, levels and references to assembly drawings.
They are intended to show the location of the works, not detail (a common mistake). The location drawings,
which can be plans, elevation or sections, are numbered consecutively with the prefix L.
Typically, location drawings will include:
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 Block plans.
 Site plans.
 Floor plans.
 Foundations plans.
 Roof plans.
 Section through the entire building.
 Elevations.
Site plans
Site plans usually show the extent of the site but no surrounding detail. Recommended scales are:
 1 : 500
 1 : 200
The function of the site plan is to show:
 The location of the building or buildings in relation to their surroundings.
 The topography of the site, with both existing and finished levels.
 Buildings to be demolished or removed.
 The extent of earthworks, included, cutting and filling, and the provision of bank and retaining walls.
 Roads, footpaths, hard standings and paved areas.
 Planting. m
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 The layout of external service runs, including drainage, water, gas, electricity, telephone, etc.
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 The layout of external lighting.
 Fencing, walls and gates.
a
 The location of miscellaneous external components – bollards, litter bins, etc.
m
Floor plans
Floor plans usually show the layout of rooms, key dimensions and levels, and may also use conventions and
a
symbols to show materials and locations of fittings and appliances. Recommended scales are:
 1 : 200
 1 : 100 n
 1 : 50
y
d
Design concepts and philosophies
Philosophy of design is the study of assumptions, foundations, and implications of design. The field is defined
u
by an interest in a set of problems, or an interest in central or foundational concerns in design. In addition to
t
these central problems for design as a whole, many philosophers of design consider these problems as they
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apply to particular disciplines (e.g. philosophy of art). Although most practitioners are philosophers, several
prominent designers and artists have contributed to the field. For an introduction to the philosophy of design
see the article by Per Galle at the Royal Danish Academy.
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Preparing sketch plans and working drawings of various types of buildings like residential building
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Presentation techniques
We have condensed all of the presentation techniques down to the most effective.
1. Use visual aids
Using pictures in your presentations instead of words can double the chances of meeting your objectives.
2. Keep it short and sweet
There is an old adage that said – No o e e e o plai ed of a p ese tatio ei g too sho t. Nothi g kills a
presentation more than going on too long.
There are some college professors who will penalize a short presentation (most lecturers see no problem in
droning on) , but for most people a shorter presentation is better. Keep your presentation to under 22
minutes if you can.
3. Use the rule of three
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A simple technique is that people tend to only remember three things. Work out what the three messages
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that you want your audience to take away and structure your presentation around them. Use a maximum of
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three points on a slide.
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4. Rehearse
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Practice makes for perfect performance. Many experts say that rehearsal is the biggest single thing that you
can do to improve your performance. Perform your presentation out loud at least four times. One of these
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should be in front of a real scary audience. Family, friends or colleagues. Even the dog is better than nothing.
5. Tell stories
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All presentations are a type of theatre. Tell stories and anecdotes to help illustrate points. It all helps to make
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your presentation more effective and memorable.
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6. Lose the bullet points – don’t put your speaker notes up on the screen
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Bullet points are the kiss of death for most presentations. Most people use bullet points as a form of speaker
notes. To make your presentation more effective put your speaker notes in your notes and not up on the
screen.
7. Video yourself
Set up a video camera and video yourself presenting. You will see all sorts of mistakes that you are making,
from how you are standing, if you are jangling keys, to how well your presentation is structured.
8. Know what slide is coming next
You should always know when presenting which slide is coming up next. It sounds very powerful when you say
O the e t slide [Cli k] ou ill see… , athe tha tha a pe iod of o fusio he the e t slide appea s.
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9. Have a back-up plan
Mu ph s La normally applies during a presentation. Technology not working, power cuts, projector blowing
a bulb, spilling coffee on your front, not enough power leads, no loudspeakers, presentation displays strangely
on the laptop – all of these are things that have happened in presentations that I have given.
Have a back-up plan. Take with you the following items – a printed out set of slides – (you can hold these up to
the audience if you need to), a CD or data stick of your presentation, a laptop with your slides on it. Just in
case it goes wrong.
Guess what? When you have back-ups – you seldom need to use them.
10. Check out the presentation room
Arrive early and check out the presentation room. If you can make sure that you see your slides loaded onto
the PC and working on the screen. Work out where you will need to stand.
Do you agree or disagree with any of these effective presentation techniques? Have you have any experiences
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like this? Add it in to the comments box below.
Pictorial drawings
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A view of an object (actual or imagined) as it would be seen by an observer who looks at the object either in a
chosendirection or from a selected point of view. Pictorial sketches often are more readily made and more cle
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arly understood thanare front, top, and side views of an object. Pictorial drawings, either sketched freehand or
made with drawing instruments,are frequently used by engineers and architects to convey ideas to their assist
ants and clients. See Engineering drawing
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In making a pictorial drawing, the viewing direction that shows the object and its details to the best advantage
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is chosen. Theresultant drawing is orthographic if the viewing rays are considered as parallel, or perspective if
the rays are considered asmeeting at the eye of the observer. Perspective drawings provide the most realistic,
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and usually the most pleasing, likenesswhen compared with other types of pictorial views.
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Perspective: -The art of representing three-dimensional objects on a two-dimensional surface so as to give the
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right impression of their height, width, depth, and position in relation to each other.
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Software rendering is the process of generating an image from a model by means of computer software. In the
context of computer graphics rendering, software rendering refers to a rendering process that is not
dependent upon graphics hardware ASICs, such as a graphics card. The rendering takes place entirely in the
CPU.
Model Making
1. Use the Right Tools
Having the right tools for building your model may not be everything when it comes to model making, but it
su e ill sepa ate a good odel f o a g eat o e. You do t a t to aste ti e t i g to fi d a
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less-than-suitable substitute for a missing tool. However, listing all the essential tools calls for a post in itself;
take a look at this one to get started.
Figure-50:- Model Making
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2. Use High Quality Cutting Tools
When building a model you will always need to cut up some material or another in order to suit your needs,
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making this specific tool somewhat more important than many of the others (with the exception of glue
perhaps – more on that later). Getting that clean edge adds another level of neatness; it may not be fully
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appreciated, but trust us, its absence is always noted. Get your hands on a good utility knife with a set of
exchangeable blades; a blunt knife is often more dangerous than a sharp one. A good pair of sharp scissors
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o es i ha d too, espe iall he ou do t a t to spe d hou s aki g delicate cuts using a knife for a
simple sketch model.
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Figure-51:- Use High Quality Cutting Tools
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3. Carefully Choose Your Materials

Although your model may not always be an exact miniature of a full-scale building, the materials you select to
represent it are important. Firstly, you want your model to narrate something about your project; having
carefully chosen materials, as opposed to a model entirely made of card, will help to immerse others in that
narrative far more effectively. Secondly, you want to make sure that the materials you use are easy enough for
you to work with; a model should supplement your project, not hijack all of your time.
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Figure-52:- Carefully Choose Your Materials
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4. Use a Laser Cutter if Necessary
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It s ot u o o to al ead ha e a CAD model on your computer, but it is uncommon, in such a situation, to
have the motivation to recreate the entire thing by hand. In this case, laser cutting may be a favorable
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alternative. The trick with laser cutting is to set up your virtual model correctly, in order to make it possible to
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ut a d pie e togethe . It s likel that ou ll e o e est i ted egarding your geometry, and tip 3 comes into
play here too: unless you want to start a fire, the thickness of the material you use may be limited, and if
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you're planning to use wood then you should have a plan to remove or cover up those freshly-burned edges. If
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ou e t i g to get so ethi g e o ga i p odu ed f o a 3D odel, 3D printingis probably the way to go.
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Figure-53:- Carefully Choose Your Materials
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5. Use Sketch Models

Thinking spatially is a tricky thing, even for architects. Sketch models, especiall fle i le o es that a e t
permanently glued together, can be excellent tools in themselves when trying to figure out how to compose
the finished model or overall architectural design. These models have the appeal of not needing to look so
polished, nor do they take too much time to make.
Figure-54:- Use Sketch Models

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6. Think about Your Lighting o
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Ensuring that your working environment is properly lit is essential in preventing your eyes from straining
themselves, as well as enabling you to see the details in your model and avoid mistakes. Models can also
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result in beautiful photographs, but only if you have proper lighting set up.
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Figure-55:- Think about Your Lighting
7. Make Sure You Have Enough Space

Making enough space for yourself before beginning on a model is something your future self will thank you
for. Model making can get messy and confusing very quickl if o e does t ha e a ig e ough o o ga ized
space. Setting up a trashcan, for example, for left over scraps, or having a cutting area separated from an
assembly area, can make the experience much more pleasant and prevent you from losing your gumption.
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8. Select the Right Adhesives

As mentioned earlier, alongside cutting tools, getting your adhesives right is one of the most essential parts of
model making. Nothing, nothing is worse than showing up with a model that is ready to fall apart at the
slightest touch—except, perhaps, showing up with a model covered in drips and strings of glue. Hereis an
extensive list summarizing the best types of glue and tape for different types of models and materials.
Bookmark it and use it wisely.
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Figure-32:- Select the Right Adhesives
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One source suggests washing your hands every 30 minutes, and while this may be a tad excessive for some,
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washing your hands more often than usual is probably a good thing, especially when working with a white
material. The oil and dirt that begins to accumulate on your fingers may not be obvious to you until you see it
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on your completed odel. B that poi t, it ll e too late.
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Figure-56:- Wash Your Hands
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10. Anchor the Model

A model always represents a real buildi g p oje t, hi h al a s has a site o o te t; do t fo get the o te t!
Having a solid base is so much better than having a model floating in thin air. Models require something to
anchor them down and give them that final touch, or as one source calls it, the equivalent of a "picture
frame."
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Figure-57:- Anchor the Model
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11. Decide on a Scale
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Scale can be a game changer. Not only will it determine the level of detail and space that can be seen, but also
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the amount of time you spend on your model—a d o t a to popula elief, s alle is t al a s faste .
Spending hours cutting meticulous, small elements using your X-A to k ife is so ethi g ou ll eg et he
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you could just as well have chosen a larger scale and used scissors.
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Figure-58:- Decide on a Scale
12. Be Selective in What You Show

There will never be enough time or money to include everything in a model, so make sure you know what your
model is aiming to communicate. Is it illustrating the essence of your project or concept, or is it showing a
te h i al se tio of a all? This ill help ou to ut out ate ials a d ti e, i ludi g o l hat s esse tial.
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Figure-59:- Be Selective in What You Show
13. Show Something New
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In certain cases, models are near- epli as of d a i gs, ho e e i a ideal o ld the should t e. A odel
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should enhance a set of drawings, showing another level of depth that drawings may not be able to
communicate. Develop your project a step further in your model, in order to get the most out of your time
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and resources.
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14. Make a Time Plan
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Before getting started on your model, write up a time plan to keep you on track for your deadline. This is to
ensure that you show up with a model that can stand on its own and withstand the examination of others (in
other wo ds, a o pleted odel) ut also so that ou do t e d up sa ifi i g too u h of ou ti e that
should be allocated to other work. Be realistic with your time plan; as stated earlier, nothing is worse than a
model ready to fall apart.
Figure-61:- Make a Time Plan
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Introduction to computer aided design and drafting

Computer Aided Drafting (CAD) means using the computer, instead of the classical tools (pencil, ink, rulers,
and paper) to create drawings. There are several advantages to this, for example the drawing can be
subdivided in smaller parts, that can be reused or be worked on by several architects, updating the drawing is
much faster than with hand-made drawings (where you often needed to redraw the whole drawing), and
several tools can help you to check your drawing for errors. Besides this, computer generally allows you to
work in real-world units, and does the scaling automatically, so your drawing fits on the printer sheet.
CAD Applications are nowadays complex and very carefully conceived. Therefore most of them are highly
expensive software. Among the most used worldwide,
are Autocad, Archicad, Inventor, Microstation, Vectorworks or Allplan. Almost all engineering and architecture
offices on the planet use one of them, so knowing at least some of them is very important in the professional
world, and usually the most important requirement on architecture job offerings.
Those applications are generally used to design whole architecture or engineering projects, often from
scratch, and to produce the printed drawings that will be used to discuss the project with involved people such
as project partners, authorities and clients, and the execution documents that will be used by the building
team to actually build the project. Nowadays, all of them can be used to make 2-dimensional drawings directly
(similarly to drawing on a sheet of paper), or to build a 3-dimensional model of your project, from which the
software will extract 2D drawings that will be printed on paper.
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Unity: -
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The principle of Unity deals with visual composition in design. Composition means the relationship between
the visual elements. The brick work, timber and concrete which we use as building materials for protection
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from weather or for structural support from the visual composition of architectural composition. To get a
good composition, the elements of unity should be chosen carefully.
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Unity therefore deals with the arrangement of building materials and building parts (floor, wall, roof, column,
beam, etc.) to create a good composition.
7 key Elements of Unity

1. Texture
2. Color
3. Tone
4. Direction
5. Proportion
6. Solid and Void
7. Form and Shape
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Consider materials such as stone, glass and steel. They are available in a variety of colors, tones, textures,
shapes, proportions, etc. Various compositions of these material properties are possible-the challenge lies in
arising at the most pleasing composition. The texture or color of a single brick or wood panel will differ in
effect when it forms a part of the larger composition such as brick wall or a door frame set in a wall.
Texture
The word texture generally refers to the appearance and feel of a surface. However, it could also mean the
physical composition or structure of something, especially with respect to its size, shape and arrangement of
its parts.
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Figure-63:- Texture
In this figure, a variety of textures can be seen in the roofs, walls and paving. Strongly identifiable shapes in
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roofs and battered walls are seen as repeated units, presenting a definite and distinguishable feel of the
surface. Individual dwellings within a group, as well as decorations and carvings in buildings can create an
effect of texture.
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Here color refers to hue. Color is one of the pronounced elements of aesthetics and its selection is very crucial
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to the overall effect it has on aesthetics. A variety of effects can be produced by varying luminance, fullness
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and its transparency.
Tone
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Tone is related to the color theory and varies from the neutral scale of white to black through a range of greys.
This plays an important role in drawings used to represent buildings.
Direction
Every building has elements which suggest direction. In most buildings, these are strong elements that suggest
vertical and horizontal direction. The total shape of the building, or parts of the building or its structural
components (beam, column, wall, ceiling etc.) its windows and other openings all suggest the direction.
Example: City Theatre, Helsinki, Finland
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Figure-64:- Direction
This building shows a strong dominance of horizontality given by the roof line and overhang in contrast from
the columns. The directional emphasis is reinforced by the use of a strongly ribbed cladding tile, which can be
seen running horizontally on the eaves soffit and the beams linking the column heads and the solid parts of
the wall behind them.
Here a dominantly vertical composition is shown where the verticality is reinforced by the faceting of the
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envelope. Contrast is given by the generally horizontal emphasis of the fenestration. The curving round of the
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plan affords more window space for the living accommodation of the southerly side relative to the service and
circulation space on the north i.e., stairs, lifts, passage access to flats.
Proportion
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In this context, proportion is the geometric relationship of the sides of volumes (e.g., rectangles). It is also the
ratio and comparative size of individual parts of the composition.
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Ducal Palace, Urbina, Paris illustrates the concept of unity through proportions.
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We cannot measure these relationships accurately by eye, but we can compare them and try to judge the
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relationship of one to another on proportional basis. Buildings belonging to Classical and Gothic Architecture
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have better proportional relationships than most buildings today.
Solid and Void

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The relationship between solid (walls, roofs, etc.) and void (windows and other openings) structural units is
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very important to form a good composition.
Figure-65:- Solid and Void
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Cemetery Chapel, Turku, Finland shows the relationship between solid and void structural units. In this
structure, the dominance of solid material contributes to the sense of enduring unity.
Form and Shape
Form and shape can be clearly observed in the overall arrangement of a building or in parts of a building
(windows, doors etc.) which have geometric shapes. Repetition or variation of a particular form can provide
strong elements of composition. Parts of a building, for example, windows depicting form represent geometric
shapes such as a square or a rectangle. Repetition of a window unit form a good element of composition.
Shape helps to identify different forms, for example, the pitch of a roof will provide a certain form which is
easy to identify and also easy to relate to other roofs which have a similar pitch. When a roof is of a distinctly
different shape, it will look strongly dissimilar.
Principles of planning, orientation in detailed drawings.

The term planning of a building refers to mean the arrangement of all the units of a building on all the
floors and at all the levels.
There are certain general principles which as a engineer should bear in mind while planning a building.
The general principles are
 Aspect
 Prospect m
 Privacy o
 Grouping
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 Roominess
 Flexibility
 Furniture requirements
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 Circulation
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 Elegance
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 Economy
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Sanitation
Aspect
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Aspect: different rooms of the buildings are placed and located accordingly to the functional utility in
such a way that maximum advantage of natural elements like sun, wind, can be obtained. To obtain
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sufficient sunlight inside the room windows are placed in external walls
Kitchen aspect: Kitchen should have window in east, because morning sun kills the germs. So kitchen
should have eastern aspect.
Bed room aspect: Bed room is a unit of residential building generally used in night time, for sleeping so
evening sun rays, which are cool in nature should enter the bed room to create cheerful atmosphere. So
bed room should have western aspect, south-western or north-western aspect.
Drawing room aspect: It is a room which is used by the occupants for maximum hours of the day. To
achieve good sunlight it should be placed in south or southeast or north-east. Windows should be
provided in external walls
Study room aspect: Windows in this room should be in northern side to obtain sufficient light
throughout the day. So aspect of this room is north.
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Verandah: there should be sufficient light in the above unit throughout the day so they should be
placed with opening in north-direction.
Prospect
It is related with the views as seen of the outside from doors and windows in the external wall. For
pleasant atmosphere view of a garden, hill and a river, etc. is a good prospect. Towards these objective
doors and windows should be provided in the external wall of the building. Undesirable views like a
small nallah, slum area, drainage disposal unit, garbage collection centers should be concealed by not
providing windows in that direction
Prospect of living room should be toward the main road to keep control on the plot. Prospects of bed
should be on the rear side of the building so that to avoid disturbance due to noise.
Privacy
This is very important factor to be considered while planning both residential as well as public building
Privacy of one room from another in a building as well as privacy of the whole building with other
building should be achieved.
The privacy of residential building as a whole can be achieved by planting trees, and by providing
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entrance. Even the compound wall of required height can be constructed to provide privacy of
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trespassers.
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Privacy in different rooms can be achieved by providing doors in such a way that minimum view of
room is seen when shutter is opened. Privacy is very important in bed rooms and wick. and the view of
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bed room should not be visible from any other room.
Grouping
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It is the arrangement of various rooms with respect to their functions, In case of residential building to
achieve maximum efficiency of the plan the grouping should be done as follows
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Verandah should be the first unit after the entrance of the house Living room and dining room should
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be close next to verandah Kitchen and dining should be close to each other Sanitary arrangements
should be close to bed rooms. Staircase should be approachable from each room Passages connecting
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various rooms should be well lighted and ventilated
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Roominess
This principle of planning is directly related to dimensions of the room. A rectangular room is found
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more convenient as compared to a square room of the same size. Hence length to width ratio should be
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1.2 to 1 or 1.5 to 1 if the ratio is greater it will give a tunnel effect to the room. Height of doors and
windows, ceilings, floorings, color treatment also affect the roominess of the building unit. Light color
give effect of more space whereas dark color makes the room look smaller. Height of ceiling should be
low as more height gives a feeling of a cave.
Flexibility
Flexibility means a room which was planned for one function can be used for other, if so required. If
rooms are big enough and are having a minimum width of 3m are more flexible and even the activities
of various rooms can be exchanged.
Furniture requirement
One of the most important requirement of a building planner, is to know how much space is needed by
each function in a particular building. The room sizes for a particular function can be completed on the
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basis of permanent furniture's to be used in the room. Hence while planning a building furniture
arrangement must be shown.
Circulation
Circulation is the access into or out of a room. It is the internal movement inside the building and the
area earmarked for it.
Circulation area should be straight, short, bright, lighted.
Circulation should not affect the privacy of a room nor interfere with the utility space
Circulation in a building is of two types
Horizontal circulation and vertical circulation
Circulation within a floor is called horizontal circulation
And circulation between different floors is called vertical communication.
Lighting
It can be natural light as that obtained from the sun during the day or artificial light. Adequate
illumination is essential in day to day activities to execute the safety and comfort and efficiency
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Good visibility is a must for accident prevention, comfortable watching and reading to reduce fatigue,
avert confusion, and efficient security.
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Elegance
Elegance refers to the planning of elevation and layout of the plan to give an impressive appearance to
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the building. The proper width, height, location of doors and windows, materials employed in
construction of exterior walls etc create elegance. The result of elegance is aesthetics of building
Economy
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Building planning should be carried out in the financial limit of the client. An engineer should
know in advance, the client intends to spend for the building and accordingly material of
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construction, finishing items, stage of construction should be suggested. By estimation
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proposed amount should be derived and as per that progress should be followed to avoid delay
in work progress
Sanitation
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• Provision for cleanliness, lighting and ventilation in sanitary units avoid growing of bacteria's, and spread of
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diseases and give hygienic condition. In bath and w.c. glazed tiles and dado should be provided on wall to
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maintain clean condition. The ventilator in bath, w.c. permit sunlight and air collation to maintain
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hygienic condition. The flooring material s should be easy to clean, skirting's should be provided in
rooms. Bath tubs, w.c. , kitchen sink should be made of ceramic material to maintain clean easily.
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Drawing of Building Elements

Figure 2: - Wall footings

Figure 3: - Combined footings

Figure 5: - Raft or Mat Raft or Mat

CLASSES 6-10 CLASSES 11-12

ENGINEERING – BE / BTECH. STUDY MATERIAL

BBA / BBM MBA / PGDM

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Figure 6: - Pile Foundation

Grillage Foundation – Steel & Timber Grillage

LLB / LAW MEDICAL

B.COM ENGINEERING / GATE ENTRANCE

BCA / MCA / B.SC. MEDICAL ENTRANCE

GATE – ENTRANCE FOR MTECH & PSU

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(a) Steel grillage foundation

Figure 8: - Grillage foundation

Doors and windows

• For Residential Area

• External doors 1.2 x 2 m

• Battened and braced door

• Battened and framed door

• Battened, ledge, and framed door

• Framed and paneled door

• Wire gauged door

• Collapsible steel door

• Rolling shutter door

• Mild steel sheet door

• Hollow metal door

(c) Battened, ledged and framed doors:

Figure-10: Battened, ledged and framed doors

Figure-12:- Glazed doors

Sizes of Windows: 0.6, 0.75, 0.9, 1.0, 1.2, 1.5, 1.8m

• Depth: 0.6 0.75, 0.9, 1.0, 1.2, 1.5, 1.8 m

• Size of Ventilator: Width= 0.3, 0.45, 0.6, 0.75, 0.9 m

Figure 13: - Flat Arch

Figure-15:- Semi-Circular Arch

Figure-16:- Pointed Arch

Figure-18:- One-centered Arches

Figure-19:- Two Centered Arches

Three Centered Arches

Figure-21:- Four Centered Arches

Types of Arches based on Workmanship and Construction Materials

Figure-23:- Ashlar Arches

Figure-25:- Axed brick arches

Gauged brick arches

Purpose made brick arches

Figure-27:- brick arches

Figure-29:- Monolithic concrete block arches

Steps and Stairs

Figure-31:- Newel quarter turn stairs

ii. Geometrical quarter turn stairs:

Figure-33:- Dog-legged stairs

Links to Popular Study Material for BDS (Dental) students:

ii. Open newel half turn stair

Figure-34:- Open newel half turn stair

c) Three quarter Turn stairs:

Figure-37:- Bifurcated stairs

Figure-38:- Continuous stairs

Links to Popular Study Material for Engineering (BE/BTech) students: