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Condensation Process
1. Introduction
Often the best way to recover an organic gaseous pollutant, where the substance is of
value, is by the use of condensation. Usually, condensation alone will not remove enough of
the pollutant to constitute an effective pollution control measure unless a refrigerated fluid is
used in the condenser. Even so, a condenser using room-temperature water as the cooling
fluid can be a valuable preliminary device before employing an adsorbing unit or an after
burner, for example.
2. Type of Condensers
Vapors can be condensed either by increasing pressure or extracting heat. In practice,
air pollution control condensers operate through removal of heat from the vapor. Condensers
differ principally in the means of cooling.
1) Surface condensers
Coolant does not contact the vapors or condensate.
Most surface condensers are of the tube and shell type shown in Fig. 5-1
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Condensation Process 52
2) Contact condensers
#2
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Air Pollution Control (I) 53
temperature gradient.
ⅲ) In gases, conduction occurs by the random motion of molecules, so that heat is
diffused from hotter regions to colder one.
2) Convection
ⅰ) Natural convection - if the currents are the result of buoyancy forces generated by
differences in density and the differences in density are in turn caused
by temperature gradients in the fluid mass, the action is called natural
convection. The flow of air across a heated radiator is an example of
natural convection.
ⅱ) Forced convection - motion by the action of a mechanical device.
1) Fourier's law
The basic relation of heat flow by conduction is the proportionality between the rate of
heat flow across an isothermal surface and the temperature gradient at the surface.
dq = -k ∂T
dA ∂n (5-1)
where A : area of isothermal surface
n : distance measured normally to surface
q : rate of heat flow across surface in direction normal to surface
T : temperature
k : proportionality constant thermal conductivity
Note
· ∂T
∂n (partial derivative)
: temperature may vary with both location and time.
· Negative sign - physical significance
: heat flow occurs from hot to cold and the sign of the gradient is
opposite that of the heat flow.
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Condensation Process 54
2) One-dimensional heat flow
Ⅲ : at steady state
T is a function of position only, and the rate of heat flow at any one point is a
constant.
q = -k dT
A dn (5-2)
3) Thermal conductivity, k
q = -k dT
A dn
q
where, A : rate of heat flow per unit area, or heat flux.
dT
dn : temperature gradient
k : proportionality factor, or thermal conductivity
k = - q ⋅ dn
A dT
[=] H/T
L2
⋅L
θ
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Air Pollution Control (I) 55
[=] H/L⋅T⋅θ ( Dimension )
[=] Btu/ft·hr·℉ (Engineering units)
[=] W/m·℃ (SI unit)
ⅱ) k = f(temp.)
= a + bT (a, b are empirical const.) (5-3)
Since the only variables in Eq.(5-4) are x and T, direct integration gives
q = k T 1 - T 2 = k ΔT
A x2 - x1 B (5-5)
When the thermal conductivity k varies linearly with temperature, in accordance with
Eq.(5-3), Eq.(5-5) still can be used rigorously by taking an average value k for k,
which may be found either by using the arithmetic average of the individual values of
k for the two surface temperature, T 1 and T 2 ,
q = ΔT = driving force
(5-6)
R resistance
B
R =
kA
: thermal resistance
1 = kA
R B : conductance
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Condensation Process 58
[Ex. 5-1] A layer of pulverized cork 6 in.(152mm) thick is used as a layer of thermal
insulation in a flat wall. The temperature of the cold side of the cork is 40℉(4.4℃),
and that of the warm side is 180℉(82.2℃). The thermal conductivity of the cork at
32℉(0℃) is 0.021 Btu/ft·hr·℉(0.036 W/m℃), and that at 200℉(93.3℃) is 0.032(0.055).
The area of the wall is 25ft2 (2.32m2). What is the rate of heat flow through the
wall, in Btu per hour(Watts)?
Solution>
The arithmetic average temperature of the cork layer is (40+180)/2=110℉. By lineal
interpolation the thermal conductivity at 110℉ is
140×0.026×25
q =
0.5
= 182 Btu/hr (53.3 W)
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Air Pollution Control (I) 59
Total temp. drop
ΔT = ΔTA + ΔTB + ΔTC
Assume : the layers are in excellent thermal contact, so that no temperature difference
exists across the interfaces between the layers.
ΔT = ΔT A + ΔT B + ΔT C
q ABA q BB B q CB C
=
A kA
+
A kB
+
A kC
(5-8)
Since, in steady state, all the heat that passes through the first resistance must pass
through the second and in turn pass through the third, qA, qB, and qC are equal and all
can be denoted by q
qA = qB = qC = q
Therefore
ΔT ΔT
q = = = ΔT (5-9)
B A/ k A A + B B / k B A + B C / k C A RA + RB + RC R
[Ex. 5-2] A flat furnace wall is constructed of a 4.5 in.(114mm) layer of Sil-o-cel brick,
with a thermal conductivity of 0.08Btu/ft.hr.℉(0.138W/m℃) backed by a 9in.(299㎜) layer
of commonbrick, of conductivity 0.8(1.38). The temperature of the inner face of the wall
is 1400℉(760℃), and that of the outer face is 170℉(76.6℃).
(a) What is the heat loss through the wall?
(b) What is the temperature of the interface between the refractory brick and
the common brick?
(c) Supposing that the contact between the two brick layers is poor and that
a "contact resistance" of 0.50℉.hr/Btu(0.948℃/W) is present, what would
be the heat loss?
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Condensation Process 60
Solution>
(a) Consider 1 ft 2 of wall (A=1 ft 2 ). The thermal resistance of the Sil-o-cel layer is
RA = 4.5/12 = 4.687
0.08×1
ΔT a 1230
=
4.687 5.625
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Air Pollution Control (I) 61
6) Heat flow through a cylinder
q = -k dT (2πrL)
dr
Integrating
⌠
⌡
ro
dr = 2πLk ⌠
⌡
Ti
dT
ri r q To
ln r o - ln r i = 2 πL k ( T - T )
q i o
k( 2πL)( T i - T O )
q =
ln (r o /r i )
(5-10)
Eq.(5-10) can be used to calculate the flow of heat through a thick-walled cylinder. It
can be put in a more convenient form by expressing the rate of flow of heat as
k A L (T i - T o )
q =
ro - ri (5-11)
This is the same general form as Eq.(5-5) for heat flow through a flat wall with the
exception of A L .
2πL( r o - r i )
AL =
ln (r o / r i ) : logarithmic mean area (5-12)
A L = 2π r L L (5-12a)
ro - ri
rL =
ln(r o/r i ) : logarithmic mean radius (5-12b)
The logarithmic mean is less convenient than the arithmetic mean, and the latter can be
used without appreciable error for thin-walled tubes, where r o/ r i is nearly 1.
When r o/r i = 2 , the logarithmic mean is 0.96 r a and the error in the use of the
arithmetic mean is 4%. The error is 1 percent where r o/r i = 1.4 (see Fig. 5-6)
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Condensation Process 62
Fig. 5-6 Relation between logarithmic and arithmetic means.
Solution>
These layers are too thick to use the arithmetic mean radius, and the logarithmic
mean radius should be used. For the asbestos layer
rL = 80 - 30 = 50.97 mm
ln (80/30)
rL = 120 - 80 = 98.64 mm
ln (120/80)
If asbestos is called substance A and cork substance B, the individual resistances are
xA 0.050 0.743
RA = = =
kA AA 0.21×2π ( 0.05097)L L
xB 0.040 1.291
RB = = =
kB AB 0.05×2π ( 0.09864)L L
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Air Pollution Control (I) 63
The heat loss is
q 150 - 30 = 55.0 W/m
L
=
0.892 + 1.291 (57.2Btu/ft-h)
Fig. 5-7 Single-pass tubuler condenser: A,tubes; B 1,B 2 , tube sheets; C , shell; D 1,D 2 ,
channels; E 1,E 2 , chennel covers; F , vapor inlet; G , condensate outlet; H,
cold-liquid inlet; J , warm-liquid outlet; K, noncondensed-gas vent
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Condensation Process 64
ⅱ) Double-pipe exchanger
One fluid flows through the inside pipe and the second fluid through the annular
space between the outside and inside pipe.
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ⅱ) Comparison
Heat transfer efficiency : Countercurrent is good.
Change the temp. of one fluid rapidly : Parallel current is good.
3) Energy Balances
ⅰ) Enthalpy balances in heat exchanger
In Heat Exchanger
(a) There is no shaft work
(b) Mechanical, potential, and kinetic energies are small in comparison with the
other terms in the energy balance equation.
ṁ (H b - H a ) = q [ Btu/hr] (5-13)
where ṁ : mass flow rate of stream
q = Q / t : rate of heat transfer into stream
H a , H b : enthalpies per unit mass of stream at entrance
and exit, respectively
Q : quantity of heat , Btu or J
그림
The heat lost by the warm fluid is gained by the cold fluid
qc = -qh
m ḣ ( H ha - h hb ) = m ċ ( H cb - H ca ) = q (5-16)
"Overall enthalpy balance"
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Condensation Process 66
If constant specific heats are assumed, the overall enthalpy balance for a heat
exchanger becomes
m ḣ C ph ( T ha - T hb ) = m ċ C pc ( T cb - T ca ) = q (5-17)
where C ph : specific heat of warm fluid
C pc : specific heat of cold fluid
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Air Pollution Control (I) 67
the hot fluid and T c is that of the cold fluid. The quantity T h - T c is overall local
Temperature difference ΔT . It is clear from Fig. 5-10 that ΔT can vary considerable
from point to point along the tube, and, therefore, since the heat flux is proportional to
ΔT , the flux also varies with tube length.
If A is taken as the outside tube area A o , U becomes a coefficient based on that area
and is written U o .
Likewise, if the inside area A i is chosen, the coefficient is also based on that area and is
denoted by Ui. Since ΔT and dq are independent of the choice of area, it follows that
Uo dA i Di
Ui
=
dA o
=
Do (5-21)
where D i and D o are the inside and outside tube diameters, respestively.
d( ΔT) ΔT 2 - ΔT 1
dq
=
qT (5-22)
at dq = UΔTdA
where ΔT 1 , ΔT 2 : approaches
qT : rate of heat transfer in entire exchanger
Elimination of dq from Eqs. (5-20) & (5-22) gives
d( ΔT) = ΔT 2 - ΔT 1
UΔTdA qT (5-23)
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Condensation Process 68
The variables ΔT & A can be separated, and if U is constant, the equation can
be integrated over the limits A T and 0 for A and ΔT 2 and ΔT 1 for ΔT , where A T
is the total area of the heat-transfer surface.
⌠
⌡
ΔT 2
d( ΔT) = U( ΔT 2 - ΔT 1 ) ⌠
AT
⌡ dA
ΔT 1 ΔT qT 0
or
ΔT 2 U( ΔT 2 - ΔT 1 )
ln
ΔT 1
=
qT
AT (5-24)
ΔT 2 - ΔT 1
q T = UA T
ln( ΔT 2 /ΔT 1 )
= UA TΔ T L (5-26)
ΔT 2 - ΔT 1
where Δ TL =
ln( ΔT 2 /ΔT 1)
"logarithmic mean temperature difference (LMTD)"
U 2ΔT 1 - U 1ΔT 2
qT = AT
ln(U 2 ΔT 1/U 1ΔT 2 ) (5-27)
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Air Pollution Control (I) 69
6) Individual Heat-Transfer Coefficients
Assume : (ⅰ) The warm fluid is flowing through the inside pipe and the cold fluid is
flowing through the annular space
(ⅱ) Reynolds numbers of the two fluids are sufficiently large to ensure turbulent
flow
(ⅲ) Both surfaces of the inside tube are clear of dirt or scale
The individual, or surface, heat transfer coefficient, h for the two fluid streams.
dq/dA
h =
T - Tw (5-28)
where dq/dA : local heat flux, based on the area in contact with fluid
T : local average temp. of fluid
Tw : temp. of wall in contact with fluid.
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Condensation Process 70
The mechanism of heat transfer at the wall
dq = -k dT
dA dy ( ) w
(5-29)
where N Nu ≡ hD
k : Nusselt Number
D : tube diameter
1
∑ R = UA = Rh + Rw + Rc
(5-32)
dq = h i (T h - T wh )dA i →R h = 1
dA i h i
dq = h o (T wc - T c )dA o →R c = 1
dA o h o
( T wh - T wc ) k d AL
dq = = (T wh - T wc )
R xw
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Air Pollution Control (I) 71
x
∑R = U 1dA = dA1 h + w
+
dA
1
(5-33)
o o i i k d AL oho
dA o Do dA o Do
Now dA i
=
Di
,
d AL
=
DL
1 Do x Do
Therefore = + w + 1 (5-35)
Uo D ih i k DL ho
If dA o = dA i
Overall heat transfer coeff.
1 1 1 + xw + 1
Uo
=
Ui
=
hi k ho (5-37)
8) Fouling factors
In actual service, heat-transfer surfaces do not remain clean. Scale, dirt, and other solid
deposits form on one or both sides of the tubes, provide additional resistance to heat
flow, and reduce the overall coefficient.
The effect of such deposits is taken into account by adding a term 1/dA h d .
1 1
Rf =
dA i h di
+
dA o h do (5-38)
where hd : fouling factor (오염 계수)
Therefore
1 Do Do x Do
= + + w + 1 + 1 (5-39)
Uo Di hi D i h di k DL h do ho
or
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Condensation Process 72
1 1 + 1 + xw Di + Di + Di
Ui
=
hi h di k DL Do ho D oh do (5-40)
The actual thicknesses of the deposits are neglected in Eqs.(5-39) and (5-40).
[Ex. 5-4] Methyl alcohol flowing in the inner pipe of a double-pipe exchanger is cooled
with water flowing in the jacket. The inner pipe is made from 1 in.(25㎜) Schedule
40 steel pipe. The thermal conductivity of steel is 26Btu/ft-h-℉(45W/m℃). The
individual coefficients and fouling factors are given in Table5-4. What is the overall
coefficient, based on the outside area of the inner pipe?
Solution>
The diameters and wall thickness of Schedule 40 1-in. pipe are
D i = 1.049 = 0.0874 ft D o = 1.315 = 0.1096 ft x w = 0.133 = 0.0111 ft
12 12 12
Uo = 1
0.1096 + 0.1096 + 0.0111×0.1096 + 1 + 1
0.0874×1000 0.0874×180 26×0.0983 300 500
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