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“Politehnica” University of Timişoara, Faculty of Electronics and Telecommunication , Applied Electronics Department
Electronic Circuits
Course
Lecture 1
General info
For Electronic Circuits,
knowledge from Electronic Devices is mandatory !!!
 Schedule:
Courses: 14 weeks x 2h – Tuesdays, 1800h, A108
Labs & Seminaries: 14 weeks x 2h, B113
 Evaluation:
 Final Exam = 2/3 (Written, Theory + Applications, 2h),
 Semester Activity = 1/3
 Contact:
Office: B126 room, first floor, Applied Electronics Department, ETC faculty,
V. Pârvan no 2, phone: (+4) 0256.40.33.49
Email: valentin.maranescu@etc.upt.ro
Mobile: 0722.205.874
2013 Electronic Circuits Lecture 1: Introduction to amplifiers Slide 2

Recall diodes

Recall diodes 
Current direction (reverse of e- flow)

Recall transistors

EC Course topics
 Introduction to amplifiers
 Power amplifiers
 Amplifier frequency and time response
 Feedback in amplifiers
 Noise sources in amplifiers
 Stability issues
 Oscillators
 Slides and other e-materials are available online at:

 https://intranet.etc.upt.ro

Introduction to amplifiers
Amplifier – the most common circuit in electronics !!!
Topics:
 The three fundamental AC properties of amplifiers.
 The concept of gain.
 General model of a voltage amplifier.
 The effects that amplifier input and output impedance have on the
effective voltage gain of the circuit.
 Ideal voltage amplifier.
 List, compare, and contrast the three BJT amplifier configurations.
 Tips to determine the configuration of any BJT amplifier.
 The concept of amplifier efficiency.
 List, compare, and contrast the various classes of amplifier
operation.
 How to convert power or voltage gain value to and from dB form.

Amplifiers fundamental properties
 Gain Zout
 Input impedance
 Output impedance
Input Zin A Output
General amplifier model

 There are three types of gain (all exist all the same time but one is used):
voltage gain (AV), VOUT I OUT POUT
current gain (AI), AV  AI  AP 
VIN I IN PIN
power gain (AP).
 The gain of a circuit is determined by its component values/parameters!

 When the gain of a circuit has been calculated, it can be used to
determine the output of the circuit for a specified input

Ex: Voltage amplifier circuit
Zout Rs Zout
Input Output VL
Vs Vin
Zin A Av Vin
Zin RL
Amplifier model Amplifier circuit

 At the circuit input and output there are 2 voltage dividers:
Z IN RL
vIN  vS vL  vOUT where vOUT  AV vIN
RS  Z IN Z OUT  RL
 Since vIN  vS and vL  vOUT

=> The effective voltage gain of a circuit is lower than the calculated
voltage gain of the amplifier itself.
To neglect the input and output voltage drop we must have :
[Infinite gain], Infinite input impedance, Zero output impedance !!!
Ex: Current amplifier circuit
Iin Iout
Iin Iout IL
Zin Ai Iin Zout Is Rs
Ai Iin Zout
Zin RL
model circuit
 At the circuit input and output there are 2 current dividers:

Z in || Rs RL || Z out
iin  iS iL  iout
Z in RL
 For Zin = 0 and Zout = , we can neglect the current dividers
=> iin = iS and iL = iout.
 The ideal current amplifier, would have the following characteristics :
[Infinite gain] , Zin=0, Zout= 

BJT Amplifier Configurations

Amplifier Classes
 The efficiency of an amplifier is the percentage of the power drawn

from the DC power supply that is actually delivered to the load as
useful signal.
The decibels (dB)
 Ex: The dB power gain of an amplifier:

Ap(dB) = 10 log Ap
Adv.: positive and negative dB values represent reciprocal
gains and losses:
 In the case of multistage amplifiers:
The total gain[dB] =  of individual gain[db] values.
20db 6db
26db

dBm
 On some spec. sheets, power values are listed in dBm form.
 A dBm value is a power value, referenced to 1 mW:
 db Voltage gain :
Obs: When the dB voltage gain of a circuit changes, the dB power gain
changes by the same factor

Common Emitter Amplifiers
CE - The most common
transistor topology VCC
Input and output signal voltages Rc

Rb
have 180° phase shift!
Q
 The input voltage and current are

in phase. Vs
 The input and output currents are
in phase. Therefore, output
current is in phase with the input
voltage.
 An increase in output current
results in a decrease in output
voltage, and vice versa as given
by
Vout = VC = VCC – ICRC

BJT @ small signal
 act like a linear device => linear models can be used
=> simple circuit analysis

Small-Signal Equivalent Circuit Models
VT  Ic uce  U AF
r   gm   Rce 
IC r VT iC
Versions of the simplified hybrid-π model for the small-signal operation of the BJT:
Left: the equivalent circuit represents the BJT as a voltage-controlled current source
(a transconductance amplifier)
Right: the equivalent circuit represents the BJT as a current-controlled current
source (a current amplifier).

Ex: Common Emitter Amplifier Circuit
+VCC
Rc
Rb1
C2
Rs C1
Q
Vo RL
Vs
Rb2
Vin Re1
Ce
Re2

Small signal, midband freq. equivalent schematic
 We can analyze our amplifier looking at its small signal
equivalent circuit.
 We can find the voltage gain (Av), input impedance (Zin)
and output impedance (Zout) writing down the node
equations from small signal equivalent circuit.
Iin Ib Vo
B C
Rs Rb'e
Rc
Rb2 Rb3 RL1
Vs gm Vb 'e
Vin Vb 'e E
(B+1)Ib
Re1

Amplifier parameters
 In order to find the amplifier parameters:
 Av , the output voltage should be expressed as a function of input
voltage
 Avg - the divider at the input should be considerred
 Ri - calculated as the load seen by the signal source
 Ro – pasivize the signal source , and apply a test voltage at the
output

Ro
 To find the output impedance, the input source is
replaced by a short circuit (why?) and a test source is
applied at the output port.

Note
 The AC current gain of a transistor is different than its

DC current gain. This is because the two values are
measured differently.
The βAC depends on the bias point !!
 Note that transistor spec. sheets list βDC as hFE and βAC
as hfe.
 Also the temperature affect β

Coupling Capacitors
 Amplifiers are often cascaded (connected in series) to increase gain.
 Each amplifier within the cascade = a stage,
the overall circuit = a multistage amplifier.
 Coupling capacitors are used to provide a combination of AC coupling and

DC isolation between the stages of an amplifier. They are positioned in
series between amplifiers.
 The coupling capacitors shown ensure that the DC biasing of each stage is
not affected by the biasing of another stage (or the presence of the source
and load).
 Coupling capacitors are normally high-value components that provide little
reactance at the lowest anticipated operating frequency of the circuit.
Bypass capacitors
VCC
Rc
Rb1
Rb2
Re Ce
 The bypass capacitor is connected in parallel with the emitter

resistor. The capacitor provides an AC ground at the transistor
emitter terminal. This AC ground allows the circuit to provide the
highest voltage gain possible
Lecture 2
Lecture 1
Common Collector Amplifier (Emitter Follower)

Common Collector Amplifier (Emitter Follower)

Ex: Emitter Follower

Common Base Amplifier

Small-signal equivalent circuit for FETs
small-signal equivalent circuit that

accounts for the dependence of iD on vDS

Common Source Amplifier

Small-signal equivalent circuit for the common-source amplifier

Circuit used to find Ro.

Ex: Common Source Amplifier

vo(t) and vin(t) versus time

Common Gate Amplifier
Common-gate amplifier.

Common Gate Amplifier

Common Drain Amplifier (Source Follower)

Small-signal ac equivalent circuit for the source follower.

Equivalent circuit used to find the output resistance of the source follower.

Frequency amplifier analysis
 Typical Amplifier Magnitude Response:
log A  j 
log Amid
log 
log L log  H
FL Fmid FH

High cutoff frequency (fHI) :
 DC coupling amplifier case

 High cutoff frequency (fHI):
 Low cutoff frequencies (fLO):

Frequencies decades
1Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1KHz f

One decade Another decade
Log on f scale + dB for gain => Bóde plots

Low frequencies analysis
 fLO=?
R2 Va
C1 C2
J1
RL
Rg R1
~ vg

Low freq. equivalent schematic
(as in midband but keep coupling and bypass C):
C1 C2
Rg Ri Ro
RL
~ vg A0vi

 Each coupling C introduces a “pole” term:
where Rek is the resistance of the loop including Ck:

 Low cut off freq according to definition:

f1<f2:
f1 f2
f
2π
π+ π/2
π+ π/4
π

AMPLIFIER FREQUENCY RESPONSE
• The frequency response
• is an important characteristics for an electronic
circuit e.g. audio amplifier, filter, lines and
electronic parts.
• shows the behaviour of the test object over a

frequency change.
• contains two substantial characteristics,

amplitude and phase.
• There is a fundamental relationship between

signal frequency and gain such that a given gain
cannot be maintained over an arbitrarily large
frequency range.
• Physically it takes time for electric charge in a
device to redistribute itself in response to a
control signal, and so the response of a device to
a control signal inevitably becomes jumbled for
very fast signal changes.
• Degradation of the response may begin at lower

signal frequencies because of delays associated
with other circuit components.
• Circuit components can introduce degradation of

the frequency response of a circuit at low
frequencies as well as high, as will be seen.
A frequency-response curve is a graphical
representation of the relationship between
amplifier gain and operating frequency.
low high low high

|AP(jω)| freq. midband freq. |AU(jω)| freq. midband freq.
range range range range
AP0 AU0
A P0 A U0
2 2
BW BW
fC1 fC2 f (or ω) fC1 fC2 f (or ω)
Fig. 1. A generic frequency response curve for voltage and power gain.
• The circuit power gain remains relatively constant
across the midband range of frequencies.
• The frequency at which power gain equals 50% of its

midband value is called the lower cutoff frequency (fC1)
• The frequency at which power gain equals 50% of its

midband value is called the upper cutoff frequency (fC2 )
• The bandwidth of the circuit is found as the difference

between the cutoff frequencies:
BW = fC2 – fC1
• The geometric center frequency (f0) of an
amplifier is the geometric average of the cutoff
frequencies, found as:
• Power gain is maximum when an amplifier is

operated at its geometric center frequency. As
frequency varies above (or below) f0, the power
gain decreases slightly.
• By the time one (or the other) cutoff frequency is
reached, power gain has dropped to half its
midband value.
• At low frequencies:
• Circuit components (Ccoupling & Cbypass) associated with
low-frequency degradation have:
• very low influence on the response in mid-band
• no influence on the high-frequency response.
• components affecting the high frequency response

(Cparasistics , CMiller) have no influence at low frequencies
• In mid-band
• neither of these sets of components influences the
response significantly.
=> coupling and bypass capacitors are neglected
Bode Plots
• The Bode plot is the most commonly used graphing scheme
for visualizing frequency responses of linear analog systems.
• Consist of two separate charts:

• magnitude
• phase
of the transfer function using (usually) logarithmic scales
• The magnitude values are usually given in decibels (dB)
• The phase values in degrees.
• Bode Plots are easy to draw by hand if transfer function uses

elementary functions
Elementary transfer function and theirs associated Bode plots.
Bode
Plots
by
hand:
Magnitude
Phase or
Bode
Plots
by
hand:
Magnitude
“-” will make slope descending
Phase “-” will change phase sign

Bode Plots by hand:

Low-Frequency Response
• determined by
• Coupling capacitors (at input and output)
• (the ones in series with the signal – having no
terminal at GND)
• Bypass capacitors
• (one terminal at signal path and the other at GND
ex: in emitter)
• +equivalent resistor network between theirs
terminals
=> 3 x high-pass filter networks => low cut of freq flow

•Low frequency analysis of single stage BJT amplifier
•To simplify the low frequency analysis - the effect of the decoupling capacitor,
CE was ignored at first instance
CE, BJT amplifier operating in the rage of low frequencies

The low frequency equivalent circuit of the CE BJT amplifier
(considering only in/out coupling capacitors).
T1 = C1(Ri +Rg) , T2 = C2(Ro +RL)
2
  3

 j T
1
j T2
Aug  j   AUg  1

1  j T1 1  j T2
Midband gain C1 effect C2 effect
The following Bode representation is obtained neglecting the effect of C2 .

Bode representation, by neglecting the effect of C2 .
1
  LOW  1 
T1
Considering C1 + C2 effect:
If T1 >>T2
The low cutoff frequency is dictated by the lowest time

constant, ( in our case T2 ):
1
  LOW  2 
T2
If the time constants are almost equal:
fLOW is slightly larger than the frequency determined by the
lowest time constant.
Ex: T =T1 = T2 yelds:
 LOW T1  LOW T2 AUg

AUg   
1   LOW  T1  1   LOW T2 
2 2
2
 LOW T 2  1
 1   LOW T   2  LOW T 
2 2
1   LOW T 
2
2
  LOW T   2 1  1 
2
1 1 1.55
  LOW    LOW  
 
2
2 1 T 2 T 2 1 T
If the time constants are closer than one decade then fLOW could
be computed using next expression:
1 1 1 1
 2
 2  LOW 
Te T1 T2 Te
The effect of the decoupling capacitor
Use Thevenin
E'g
V o   g m R' S rb 'e
R' g  rbb'  rb 'e  Z E 1  g m rb 'e 
RE
ZE 
1  j R E C E
Vo g m R' S 1  jR E C E
 
E ' g R' g  rbb'  rb 'e  RE 1  g m rb 'e    R' g  rbb'  rb 'e  

1  jC E  RE   

  1  g m rb 'e  
1  jTE
Aug  A'ug , <1
1  jTE
Short-Circuit Time Constants (SCTC) Method
In a more general case if we can determine the zeros

and poles for a circuit then a good approximation to
Low is:
or even:
Low   p1
if it is dominant for low frequency
(i.e. p1 >>  p2, ...,  z1,  z2, ...).
Sometimes an easy evaluation of poles and zeros is not
possible, e.g. if there are interacting capacitors. The transfer
function based circuit analysis could be in these cases
impractical.
The Short-Circuit Time Constant (SCTC) method
represents easy approximate computation of the -3 dB
low/high frequency limit of a circuit frequency response.
For each capacitor with effect in the low frequency
range (e.g. bias capacitors) a time constant is associated:
τk = RSkCk
RSk is the resistance seen by capacitor Ck with the
circuit passivised and all the other capacitors short-circuited.
According to SCTC, ωL can be approximately
determined through the expression:
n
1
L   
k 1 k
n n n
1 1
fL     f k
k 1 2k k 1 2RSk Ck k 1
High-Frequency Response
Is determined by active devices intrinsic (parasitic) capacitances
(pF range)
These values are not controlled by the designer.
Examples of such caps are
Cb’e, Cb’c, Cce for BJTs and
Cgs, Cgd, Cds in FETs case.
On purpose, capacitors might be added to decrease/increase fHIGH
Large (μF range) caps (e.g coupling, decoupling) can be

considered short-circuits due to small values of the reactances.
Case 1.
The effect of Cb’e (Cgs) = Ci and Cce (Cds) = Co
(capacitors with one terminal connected to the ground.)
The equivalent schematics

of an amplifier working with high-frequency signals
1 1 1 1
AU g ( j )  AUg 0  AUg 0 2

2
 AUg 0
ff H 2  fH   fH  2
1    1   
 f1   f2 
f1  f 2  6  f1  f 2  ( f1  f 2 )
4 4 2 2 2 2
fH 
2
In a more general case, when all capacitors are independent,
the high-frequency response of an amplifier could be written
as:
n
1
AUg ( j )  AUg 0 
f
k 1 1 j 
fk
where:
- AU0 is the midband voltage gain;
- fk is the pole frequency introduced by Ck:
1
fk 
2    Ck  RPk
with RPk is the Thévenin resistance across the kth capacitor

terminals.
Case 2.
The effect of Cb’c (Cgd) = Cr (feedback capacitors)
Cr introduce a zero and a pole in the transfer function.
Usually, fz>>fp so fH is approximative fp.
Open-Circuit Time Constants (OCTC) Method
The OCTC method enables an easy approximate computation of

the -3 dB high frequency limit of an amplifier frequency
response, H when it is not possible to determine, by direct
inspection, the values of the zeros and poles of the frequency
response.
If we can determine the zeros and poles, a good approximation to
H is:
or even:
H   p1
if there is dominant pole (i.e. p1 << p2, ..., z1, z2, ...).
For each capacitor with effect in the high-frequency range (e.g.

device capacitors) a time constant is associated:
τk = RPkCk
RPk is the resistance seen by capacitor Ck with the circuit

passivised and all the other capacitors as open-circuits.
According to OCTC,
ωH can be approximately determine through the expression:
1 1 1 1
H  n
 fH  n
 n
 n
1

k 1
k  2
k 1
k  2R
k 1
Pk Ck 
k 1 fk
Miller Effect
An impedance Z12 connected from the input of an amplifier to
the output can be replaced by an impedance across the input
terminals (Z10) and impedance across the output terminals
(Z20).
 1
Z 10  Z 12  1  K
Miller theorem: 
 1
Z 20  Z 12  1
 1
 K
U 20
where: K  (voltage gain computed at midband frequency !)
U 10
C10  C12 (1  K )
For a capacitor: 
  1
C20  C12 1  K 
  
It could be used in high-frequency circuit analysis in order to
eliminate feedback capacitances, admitting that K is computed
at midband frequency, thus ignoring the zeros form the
complex transfer function.
Amplifier Time Response
2013 Electronic Circuits

Represents the output signal shape xo t  , for given
 Input xi t 
A j  
Xo
 transfer function , X o, X i are complex functions
Xi
 If we replace s=jω and

Then :
is the complex function written in operational domain

2013 Electronic Circuits Lecture 5: Amplifier Time Response Slide 2
 Laplace function existence conditions are satisfied

because A(s) define a physical circuit, then:
 Between this function and time domain we have the

following relationship:
for null initial conditions

Response to harmonic input signal
xi t   xiM sin t
For low frequency domain:
and A j  
Ao
then the output is also harmonic:
f
xo t   xoM sin t   
1 j
f LOW
for a stable system
xoM  xiM A j    arg A j 

at f of xi

Step Response
 0, t  0  0, t  0
 If x(t )     xi
xi , t  0  s , t  0
f 
j j
 LOW
A j   Ao
f LOW
 In case of  Ao
f 
1 j 1 j
f LOW  LOW
j LOW
A j   Ao
1
 If we note  LOW  
 LOW 1  j LOW
 LOW s
 As   Ao
1   LOW s
t
 LOW
x0 ( s)  xi ( s) A( s)  xi A0  x0  xi A0e LOW
1  s LOW
t  0  x0  xi A0
t    x0  0
 t 
t  t   LOW  x0 (t )  xi A0 1  
  LOW 
a=
Absolute output drop after t’ time
a t'
t '   LOW  
a  LOW
 If - square signal, time response is obtained by
superimposing step responses, shifted in time with
period of the square signal
1
 Example for : f   f LOW (above low frequency domain)
T
 Derivative circuit
1
 Example for : f   f LOW (below low frequency domain)
T

 For a circuit with the transfer function :
A j  
Ao AoAo
 
f  1  j HI
1 j 1 j
f HI  HI
As  
1 Ao
 If we note  HI  
 HI 1  s HI
xi
 A0
x0 ( s )  xi ( s) A( s )  s
1  s HI

-1  xi A0    
x0 (t )  L       HI 
 x A

1 e

 s 1  s HI 
i 0
 


-1  xi A0    
x0 (t )  L    
  xi A0 1  e
HI
 s 1  s HI  
 
t  0  x0  0
t    x0  xi A0
0.9
0.1
Rise Time
 => Integrator circuit

Amplifier Time Response - Parameters
 Raise time:
- can determine fHi from

rise time
Others params’:
 Settling time
 Overshoot (+/-)

 Integration circuit
2013 Electronic Circuits Lecture 5: Amplifier Freq. Response Slide 12

Power Amplifiers

Power amplifiers (large signal amps.)
Objective:
Deliver high power signal to a low resistance (impedance) load
Typically Pout >1W, RLoad <300Ω
Power
Supply
Signal Preamplifier Output Load

source (n stages) stage
Power amplifiers block schematic
Power amplification is done usually in more than 1 stage

First stages amplify voltage and adapt the input to the signal source
The output stage amplify the current and drive the load
The output power is delivered from a proper power supply
2013 Electronic Circuits Course Slide 14
Power amplifiers = large signal amps.
Transistor modeling as a linear quadripol is not correct

due to its strong nonlinear behavior (exp law)
Equivalent parameters are available, but not for a specific
Q point
The circuit will introduce distortions, limiting the output
signal by the finite power supply value => have to be
careful when designing

Overview on amplifier classes
Common use classes:

Class A – low efficiency / low distortion – used at small signals
Class B, AB – good efficiency / crossover distortion – used in output stages
Class C – high efficiency / high distortions – used in megaphones and RF
transmitters
Special classes:
Class D – efficient/ some distortions switching amps (PWM
Class E,F – high efficiency / some distortions amps)
Class G – similar with AB class with rail switching

Class H – G class with infinity of rails => tracking rails
Other Classes – Doherty (B+C), T(improved D), Z
Different stage types use different amplifier classes.

Output stage topics
Circuit topology
Biasing
Distortions
Power characteristics and efficiency of class A, B, AB
amplifiers
Maximum power ratings and component cooling
Final stage bootstrapping
Protections

Class A
Transistor conduct all the time for an harmonic
regime .
- Q point must have ic>iOM, uCE>uOM
- Load line should be under SOA (max
dissipated power)

Class A
(max.) Voltage swing and current swing:

Class A
Power dissipation and efficiency:
Assuming – no distortions
- including DC

Class A
Power dissipation and efficiency:
AC Load Power
(RMS power)
DC Load Power
Efficiency:

Class B - output stage circuit
Named also Complementary-symmetry amplifier

= 2 complementary BJT’s used as emitter followers, working in
“push pull” mode.
Advantage: good efficiency – up to 78.5% (in DC mode – no current

sink from supply)
Drawback: Crossover distortion

Class B – crossover distortion
Conduction angle – less than ½ T
=> crossover distortion between the “halves” of the signal

Class B biasing
Biasing must provide V(B1)- V(B2) to keep Q1 and Q2 off, but

close to conduction => lower crossover distortion
BJT ‘s can be biased using 2 diodes or a “VBE multiplier” circuit =>

constant voltage drop between Q1 and Q2 bases
Class B input sensitivity
Previous design, at high output power require high input power
We need to increase current gain to reduce driver stages power
requirements:
Cvasy-complementary Complementary-symmetry
Darlington transistors
transistors amplifier
equivalent Vbe increases ββ1ּβ2

Push pull stages power consideration
Active power (RMS): Dissipated power:

U o2 uom
2
uom  K  E; E2  K 2 
Po   PD  PA  PO   K  
RL 2 RL RL  4 
uom Sometimes we must use a heat-sink
Utilization factor : K 
E
What is P.M.P.O
Maximum RMS output power: = >Peak Music Power Output (PMPO)
- No standard correlation with RMS power
K 2  E2 E2
Po   Pom  , K  1 – useful just to $ell for those who like
2 RL 2 RL large figures!
Power supply consumption:

Efficiency:
K 2  E2
1 uom 1 uom 2 uom 2K E 2 Po 2 RL K
PA   E   E   E     
 RL  RL  RL  RL PA 2 K E 2 4

 RL

Class B Power Efficiency

Maximum efficiency  max   78.5% K 1
(theoretically) 4
much greater than the 25% of Class A ?
In practice uom never reach supply even if transistor saturate!
Efficiency is a function of output amplitude:

 uom 
  k
4 E 4
Can be lower than for class A, if output is far from maximum:
One good reason to listen music loud 
But …. amplifier will get HOT:
Guess what: Power dissipation is also a function of output amplitude!
Power Efficiency Class B
Power dissipation of the class B output stage versus
amplitude of the output sinusoid
Translation for DJ’s: if the volume is not low enough (inacceptable) ,

amplifier will dissipate even more than at maximum !
Final stage bootstraping
Bootstrapping objective: to increase output voltage swing
Simple but rarely used today – a capacitor – much expensive than silicon
The alternative:
individual driver stages for each final (compound) transistor

Class B amplifiers – increasing output voltage swing
 The alternative:
individual driver stages for each final (compound) transistor

Class AB (uses same topology as class B)
 Conduction more than half cycle,
 slight reduction in efficiency
Class AB main idea :

a small DC conduction keep transistors close to linear behavior &
reduces crossover distortion
Just biasing is Different than for class B
Class AB
Conduction angle and transfer function

Class AB using diodes or resistors
Diodes are always Forward Biased, an provide almost constant

voltage drop between Qn and Qp bases
- Same schematic as class B but different bias point – small
quiescent conduction
Class AB using VBE multiplier
Q1 can compensate temperature effects if placed on the
final stage radiator

Class AB with VBE multiplier and pot.
The potentiometer is adjusted to yield the desired value
of quiescent current in QN and QP.

Opamp Implementation
Op amp connected in a negative-feedback loop to reduce

crossover distortion
Where we pay?
Will solve crossover distortions with the price of reducing
the maximum amplitude with “missing” bias of 2xVbe !
Push pull stages safety
Protection from thermal runaway & short circuit/ overloads:
With resistors, nonlinear elements (thermistors, diodes) or transistors
(kept at same final stage temperature)

Power Amplifiers
(cont’)

Thermal Resistance
Pd – dissipated power should get out of junction area!!
Always there is a thermal path for this (worst or better)
As ambient temperature increases, maximum dissipated power

decreases with a slope given by the thermal resistance …

Thermal Dissipation
IR image
translated to visible spectrum
Ex: TO3 package for power transistors.

The seating plane has two holes for screws to bolt it to a heat sink.
The collector is electrically connected to the case.
An electrically insulating but thermally conducting spacer is used
between the transistor case and the “heat sink.”= interface
Thermal Circuit
Thermal path:
JC - Jonction to case ->
CS – case to heatsink ->
SA – heatsink to ambient
Electrical analog circuit of the thermal conduction

process when a heat sink is used.

Example

BJT Safe Operation
Always stay inside

SOA !
Safe Operating Area

Class AB using power MOSFETS
Typical iD-vGS characteristic for a power MOSFET.

Class AB using power MOSFETS
A class AB amplifier with MOS output transistors and BJT drivers. Resistor R3 is adjusted to provide
temperature compensation while R1 is adjusted to yield to the desired value of quiescent current in the output
transistors.
Class B, AB – How to get more power ?
Bridged amplifiers:
 Load connected with floating nodes at 2 amplifiers
outputs
 Amplifiers must deliver inverted signals
 => 4 times the power
 Drawback:
BJT/ MOSFET must drive twice the current and Vcemax

Class B, AB - Bridged Amplifiers

THD
Total Harmonic Distortion
When a signal passes through a non-linear device, additional content is added
at the harmonics of the original frequencies. THD is a measurement of the
extent of that distortion
For voltages :
Sometimes in audio is considered to be:

Class D
 named also switching power amplifier
 or PWM - Pulse Width Modulation amplifier.
 Similar design with a DC-DC power supply.
 Has started to gain market in last years (in PC, portable media..)
By IMS Research
Industry Trends
• Analog amplifier (“Class AB”) market
share $2-3B
in 2003 (Class D market share was only
2-3%)
• By 2006, digital amplifier (“Class D”)
market share
expected to rise to 15% (by 2008, to
30%)

Class D – (half bridge) simplified circuit
– operation is switching, hence the term switching power amplifier
– output devices are rapidly switched on and off at least twice for
each cycle
– the output devices are either completely on or completely off so
theoretically they do not dissipate any power
Note: Final stage looks like class B, but works in switching – not linear mode !!!
Class D - PWM signal generation
The
input signal is compared with a triangle signal resulting in a
PWM (Pulse width modulation) signal

Class D – PWM waveforms
Usually 150KHz to 250Khz switching freq. is used

The LC LPF provide at the output the mean value of the
PWM signal - same shape as the Input signal
Class D – full bridge
Can use one supply, - the load has both

ends “floating”
No “kick-back”energy to the Vdd bus
compared to half bridge config.
No. of parts is twice as for half bridge
Class D vs. Class AB losses
Note: Vbus =Vdd
Class D Class AB
Class AB vs. Class D
 Other issues :  class D - theoretically 100% efficient,
but this requires zero on-impedance
switches with infinitely fast switching
times
 In practical designs efficiency is 90%
Using Class D – must fight to solve lot of problems !!!

Class D
 Major causes of imperfection:
Class D – more complex than AB

Class D efficiency
 – class D operation is theoretically 100% efficient, but

this requires zero on-impedance switches with infinitely
fast switching times
 – practical designs do exist with true efficiencies
approaching 90%
“The Ice Age” of class D 
 Class D is at least as old as 1954 (U.S. Patent 2,821,639: solid-state

full-bridge servo amplifier
 Similar with Class “S”– first invented in 1932
Feedback

Feedback
◼ For an amplifier:
A=f(gm,Qpoint,temperature etc.)
Using feedback we can obtain precise and reproductible A
◼ Feedback amplifier topology:
Xe
Feedback
network
xe = xi − xr = xi − x0 x0 A
 Ar = =
xi 1 + A
x0 = Axe = A( xi − x0 )
Assuming Σ, A is β are ideal and uncorrelated
Negative Feedback
◼ Loop phase shift must be - k π, (k – integer)
Possible implementations:

Feedback
◼ For amplifiers with feedback we can assume that the
gain: ax
f ( x) =
1+ b x
◼ Then for
A
Ex: if = 10%
A
and F=100
 Ar
= 0,1%
Ar
For A=1000
A 1000
 Ar = = = 10
F 100
Feedback effect over gain
◼ For amplifiers with feedback we can assume that the
If nonfeedback amplifier has :

A
A
A
Ar =
1+   A
???
Ar A
Ar A
At small variations :
1 + A − A 1 A 1 A
Ar   A =  A =   
(1 + A) 2
(1 + A) 2
1 + A 1 + A A
Ar A 1 A 1
  = 
Ar A 1 + A A F F times improvement !!!
Influence of the feedback on freq. response
If and a real number,
Then:
only the poles are shifted

Influence of the feedback on freq. response(@high freq.)
where &
Then:
Note: only if circuit still behave linear !!!

Influence of the feedback on freq. response(@low freq.)
where
Then:
Note: only if circuit still behave linear !!!

GBW=ct.
F= βA = loop gain
Perturbation influence in Feedback Amps
Perturbations are reduced as

they are closer to output

Feedback
Two-Terminal Representation of a Single-Loop, Negative Feedback System

Feedback topologies

Feedback Topology Identification Procedure
1.) Identify the feedback loop by tracing around the feedforward and feedback
path. Also check to see if the feedback is positive or negative.
2.) Identify whether or not the mixing network is series or shunt. If the signal
source has one terminal on AC ground then:
a.) If the input active device has one of its input terminals on AC ground, then the
mixing network must be shunt
b.) If the signal and feedback sources are applied to different input terminals of the
input active device, then the mixing network is series (this includes differential
amplifiers where two devices form the input active device).
c.) If the signal source does not have one of its input terminals on AC ground or to
check the above steps, try to assign the variables xi, xfb, and xe on the
schematic in such a manner as to implement the equation,
xe = xi ± xfb
If this equation can be written using voltages (currents) then the mixing
circuit is series (shunt).

Feedback Topology Identification Procedure
3.) Next identify the sampling circuit as series or shunt.
If the load is grounded then:
a.) If one terminal of output active device is grounded, then the feedback is shunt.
b.) If the output active device has no terminals at ground and the output signal and
feedback signal are taken from different terminals, then the feedback is series.
c.) If the load is not grounded or to check the above test, identify the load resistor,
RL, and apply the following test:
i.) If xfb becomes zero when RL = 0, then the sampling network is shunt.
ii.) If xfb becomes zero when RL = ∞, then the sampling network is series.

Feedback variables for all topologies

Feedback
◼ A real case with A having an input resistance Ri and an output resistance
Ro, and the signal source is not ideal, and the feedback netw. contain R.
- Can be equivalent with an ideal case in which the feedback network has Rif
and Rof the extreme values , and the signal source is ideal.
◼ We obtain a “loaded amplifier” without feedback and with pasive
influences of the signal, load and feedback netw. included.

Feedback topologies


Shunt Shunt
Negative Feedback

Shunt Shunt Negative Feedback
ii Z0
- -
current A ui
+ voltage
Zi Zt·ii uo
+
iif ir
ui
uo Rif Rof voltage β current
βuo
At mean freq. , the feedback is negative if

the phase shift on the feedback loop is 180°

ui ii R0 uo
-
ig
Ri RL
Rg + Ztii
iif
Rif
Rof βuo
Rof - determined by short circuit the feedback input (amp out)
Rif - determined by short circuit the feedback output (amp in)

Rof and Rif - are included in non feedback amp’ structure
The amplifier without feedback , with

- influences (of the feedback) included
ZtA
+
RiA ROA
-Obtained by separating
feedback network
Transfer impedance of the amp. with influences included and no feedback

Small value,
because ig
split also to
the feedback
network.
The output resistance determination

The output resistance determination

- are defined for an ideal current signal source
If a voltage signal source is used in series with a resistor (large enough), it

will be equivalent with a current source:
ig=vg/Rg
We are interested in this case by the voltage gain:

Series Shunt
Negative Feedback

Feedback topologies


Series Shunt Negative Feedback

The (loaded) amplifier schematic

with (feedback) influences included

Loaded
amplifier gain

Shunt Series
Negative Feedback

Feedback topologies


Shunt Series Negative Feedback
ig ii i0
-
ui >"A"
+
Rg
ig RL
i0
<""
ui uir
Rof  i0  0 Rif  ui  0
ir i0
ir
  ui  0
io
The loaded amplifier without feedback , with influences (of the feedback) included
Current gain with feedback:
i0
Air 
ig
R0
i0  Ai  ii 
Ro  R L  Rif
R g Rof R0 Rg Rof
ii  ii A  AiA  Ai  
R g Rof  Ri R0  RL  Rif Rg Rof  Ri
i0  ii A  AiA
i0 AiA
iiA  i g  ir  i g  i0 Air  
i g 1  AiA
Input resistance:
ui
Rir  ig  ir  iiA    i0  iiA 
ig
  AiA  iiA  iiA  (1    AiA )iiA
Obs: when a voltage source is ui
used instead of a current source:  (1  AiA ) 
Rg Rof Ri
Rir*
-
R ui RiA
Rir  
+
vg
ir i g 1  AiA
Rir Rir'
-
R ir  R Rir '  Rir '
ig R +
 R  Rir '  R
*
Rir

Output resistance:
ig=0 iiA ii Rif
i
ir -
Rg Rof Ri Ro u
i
+ Ai*ii
u
Ror 
i
Ror  RoA (1   ( AiA ) RL 0 )
ig  0
RoA  Ro  Rif
Obs: when the output is considered a voltage source then Ror* = Ror || Ro .

Example:
R3 10k R4 10k -
C2 Ror*
id
Rir* C1 Rg J2 RL
Q1 u0
is 10k
1k
ir
vg
R2 10k
R5
mA
""
1k
g m1  40
V
mA
gm2  5
V
rb 'e  5k
R5  sense _ resistor


is
Ai  i s  g m2  u gs
ig
R3 ( g m1  ub 'e )  u gs  g m 2  u gs  R2 R5 
g m1  ub 'e  R3
u gs  
1  g m 2  R2 R5
ub 'e  ig ( Rg ( R2  R5 ) rb 'e )
Ai   g m 2 
g m1  R3
1  g m 2  R2 R5

 Rg ( R2  R5 ) rb 'e  291 
 
RiA  Rg ( R2  R5 ) rb 'e  0,777k

R2 is
ir
R5
ur=0
ir R5 1
 ur 0  
is R2  R5 11
Ai
Aigr   10,6
1  Ai
Rir  28,3  R ir  Rg  Rir '  1k
*
Ror  RoA (1    Aio )   ; Ror  Ror R4  R4

*

R2 is
u o is i g u 0 1
Augr      Air  ( R4 RL )  53 ir
v g i g v g is Rg R5
ur=0
uo Au
Augr '  
v g ' 1  Au
uo uo v g RG ur Rs
Augr     Augr '  
v g v g v g Rg  RG uo
i r 0
Rs  Rr
Rir  RiA 1  Au   

1
f1 
2C1 ( Rir  Rg )
*
Rir  Rir RG  RG
*
1
RoA f2 
Ror  2C 2 ( Ror  RL )
1    Au
Series Series
Negative Feedback

Feedback topologies

Series Series Negative Feedback
ii i0
+
ui >A
Vg -
ii RL
ur < uir
ur
 ii  0 
io
ur
uir Rof  io  0
Rif  ir  0 ir
io

Rir
ii
Rg
vg RL
Ro
Ri Yt*ui
Rif
Rof
ii
*i0 "" ideal

"0"
"0"

i vg
ytr  0 R ir 
vg ii
Ro
i0  y t  u i 
Ro  RL  Rif
Ri
u i  u iA 
Ri  R g  Rof
u iA  v g    u 0
u0
R or  vg  0
i0
i0 R0 Ri
 y tA   yt   ytr 
ytA

io
u iA R0  RL  Rif Ri  R g  Rof 1    ytA v g

vg
Rir 
ii
v g    u0 v g    y tA  u iA v g    y tA  ii ( Ri  R g  Rof )
ii   
R g  Ri  Rof R g  Ri  Rof R g  Ri  Rof
vg
 R ir   RiA (1    y tA )
ii

Obs:
Rir  R1 || Rir '  R1 || Rir

*
Rir  RiA (1    y tA )
i0 ytA '
i0 ytr '  
y tA  v g ' 1    ytA '
vg '
i0 i0 v g ' R
Rir '  Rir  Rg '  Rir ytr     ytr '
vg vg ' vg R  Rg '

R0 -u
1 - y t  ui u  y t  u i  R0
i  
R0  Rif R0  Rif
y t  u i  i  ( R0 )  i  0 1 1
i ( R0 )  R0  i  Rif  u  0 ui    i 
Ri
Ri  R g  Rof
i( R0 )  R0  i  Rif  u R0 Ri u
 i(1    y t   )
i( R0 )  i   yt  ui R0  Rif Ri  R g  Rof R0  Rif
u
 R or  vg 0  RoA (1    y tA ) RL 0
i
Obs: The output act as a current generator
Ex: +
Va
C1 R5 -
C2
+
A id
Rg - J1 RL
u0
R1 is
vg
R3
R2 R4
Obs: The output act as a current generator

Ex: RoA
RiA Rg' i0=id
+
A
- J1 RL'=RL||R5
R1 is=id
Vg'=Vg
R1+Rg uiA
R3 R3
R2 R4
R4 R2
i Rof Rif
ytA  0 , R 0A , R iA
uiA
Obs: we must include rds , (rCE) when compute ROA

Ex:
ii=0 i0 ur R2
 ii  0  R4 ( R2  R3 ) 
R3 i0 R2  R3
Rir  R1
*
ur R2 R4
Ror  R5 Ror  R5
*
u0 u0 v g '
Augr   
vg vg ' vg
u0 i0 u 0
Augr '     y tr ( RL ' )
v g ' v g ' i0

STABILITY

Stability
 In real circuits
a Negative Feedback can turn into a Positive feedback
 the amplifier will oscillate
A system is stable if and only if all bounded input

signals produce bounded output signals.
(A signal x(t) is bounded if |x(t)|≤ constant for all t.)

Methods to study Stability
Methods to study stability for an amplifier with NF:
1. Locus of the poles and zeroes of the transfer function

- used mostly in automatics (math approach)
2. Nyquist criterion (using freq. characteristics)
3. Bode Plots. (using freq. characteristics)
- last two are easier to use because it is easy to

experimentally determine freq char.

1. Pole location vs. transient response
Stable Unstable
all poles of the transfer
function must lie in the
open left half of the
complex-frequency plane
(the real part of the poles
must be negative).

1. Desired pole location
Often, amplifiers are required to
have nearly constant gain for a
given range of frequency and the
gain is required to roll off at
higher frequencie s. Considerin g
both trans ient response and
frequency response in terms of
pole locations, the desired pole
locations for most amplifiers are
with  45o of the negative real axis.
Poles in this region gives transient
response decaying faster and
frequency response showing no
excessive gain peaks.

Tests for Stability
The closed-loop gain of a feedback circuit is:
A( j )
A f ( j ) 
1   ( j ) A( j )
Lets denote the loop gain (return ration) as:
W(jω) = A(jω)β(jω)
This complex number could be represented by its magnitude

and phase. Consider the frequency at which the phase angle
becomes 180°, i.e.
ф(ω180°)= 180°.

2. The Nyquist Criterion
The stability condition could be formulated in many equivalent
ways.
Nyquist developed a graphical construction to analyze system

stability:
Nyquist diagram = which is a plot of loop gain
W(jω) = |W(jω)|e jΦ(ω) in polar coordinates (see fig. 1)
The Nyquist criterion states that if the open loop is

asymptotically stable, then the closed loop is only
asymptotically stable, if the frequency response locus of
the open loop does neither revolve around or pass
through the critical point (-1,j0) (see fig. 2).

Fig. 1. A Nyquist diagram. Here an unstable amplifier because the
(-1 +j0) point is encircled by the polar plot of W).
Fig. 2. Graphical representation (only for ω≥0) for the criterion.

Gain and phase margins for stable/unstable systems
Fig. 3. GM and PM definition.

a) GM, PM > 0 - the system is stable,
b) both PM and GM are negative - unstable system

As measures of system stability we define Gain Margin
and Phase Margin
Gain margin is the difference between unity and W(jω180°):
GM  20 lg W ( j180 ) [dB]
M    arg(W ( j0dB ))

Note that a target phase margin of 60° is highly desirable
in feedback amplifier design as a tradeoff between loop
stability and settling time in the transient response.
Typically, the minimum acceptable phase margin is 45°.
A system is stable if gain and phase margins

are positive.

3. Stability through Bode Diagrams
The information contained in

the Nyquist diagram is often
more conveniently displayed
in a Bode diagram due to
the easiness of pencil-and-
paper calculations.

4. Compensation
• Negative feedback is useful to reduce distortion, stabilize
gain and increase bandwidth. But to achieve these
benefits, the loop gain must be much larger than
unity.
• On one hand, we can design an amplifier with a large

open-loop gain. This calls for several stages of
amplification, and multi-stage amplifiers invariably
introduce multiple poles.
• On the other hand, a large value of feedback coefficient

may lead to instability in a multiple-pole amplifier.
• Thus, we must deliberately modify the pole locations

(or equivalently frequency and transient response) of the
amplifier before feedback can be used effectively. This is
called compensation.
• Instability occurs if the magnitude of loop gain is greater than 0db at
the frequency for which the phase is -180.
• Each pole potentially contributes a phase shift between 0 to -90 at

any given frequency.
• For a single pole amplifier, instability is not a problem, since the

extreme phase is -90.
• For a two pole amplifier, the extreme phase is -180, which occurs
until frequency approaches infinity. However, it is possible for the
phase to become very close to -180 at the frequency for which the
loop gain is 0db, resulting in very small phase margin, transient
ringing and frequency response peaking.
• For three or more poles amplifier, a phase shift of -180 is possible

before the loop gain magnitude has dropped below 0db. Thus, an
amplifier having three or more poles can become unstable.
• There are several approaches to compensate the pole location.

4.1 Dominant-pole compensation
It represents a very popular method, also called lag

compensation. It consists in adding another pole in the
open-loop transfer function - A(jω) - at a very low
frequency, such that the loop-gain drops to unity by the
time the phase reaches -180°:
1
AC ( j )  A( j )
f
1 j
fd
f d  min( f pk )
where fpk are the pole frequencies for A(j).

A serious disadvantage of this compensation method is the
resulting close-loop amplifier bandwidth, drastically reduced
(fig. 4).
Fig. 4. Dominant-pole compensation.

It could be shown that knowing f0dB is sufficient for computing
fd:
Af
f d  f 0 dB
A0
where A0 is the open-loop midband frequency gain.
Fig. 5. Dominant-pole implementation.

4.2 Pole and zero compensation
Also known as lead-lag compensation, it introduces a

pole and a zero in the open-loop transfer function:
f
1 j
fz
AC ( j )  A( j )
f
1 j
fp
f z  ( f pk ) min
f p  f pk which remains after the smallest pole of A(jω) has

been cancelled by fz.

or
1
fz  ,
2Rc Cc
1
fp 
2 ( Rc  Rx )Cc
Fig. 6. Possibile hardware implementation for pole and zero

compensation method.
4.3 Compensation using feedback circuit
Also known as lead compensation, it require the

modification of the feedback circuit, e.g. by introducing a
zero in its transfer function:
 f 
 C ( j )   0 1  j 
 fz 
Fig. 7. Compensation using feedback circuit .
1 1 fp R  Rr
fz  , fp     Af
2Rr Cc 2 ( Rr || R )Cc fz R
Electronic Circuits Course Slide 24
Noise sources
in amplifiers

Noise
◼ Definition:
- An undesired disturbance within the frequency band of interest
- A disturbance that affects a signal and that may distort the
information carried by the signal.
Electronic noise:
- A random voltage or a current source from electronic devices
(resistors, transistors… )
- Perturbations are not Noise !! (ex from supply line, imperfect

contacts, electromagnetic fields)

Main Noise types
◼ Shot noise
◼ Thermal noise
◼ Flicker noise
◼ Burst noise
◼ Avalanche noise

Measurement of noise
◼ Electronic noise is properly measured in watts of power.
◼ Because noise is a random process, it can be characterized
by stochastic properties such as its variance, distribution,
and spectral density.
◼ The spectral distribution of noise can vary by frequency,
=>power density =W/Hz.
◼ Since the real power in a resistive element is proportional to
the square of the voltage across the element,
=>noise voltage (density) = V/Hz.
◼ Integrated circuit devices, such as op-amps commonly
quote equivalent input noise level in these terms (at room
temperature).

Shot noise (zg.de alice)
◼ Shot noise in electronic devices
◼ Occurs only in forward biased pn jonction, when became
dominant (“visible”) over thermal noise
◼ Cause: Charge carrier “flow” is not like water flow, because of
random carriers (electrons) movement.
◼ Noise=variation from mean “movement”
where
- mean value
Power density is constant over
freq. => is a white noise

Thermal noise
◼ Johnson-Nyquist noise (sometimes thermal noise, Johnson
noise or Nyquist noise) is the noise generated by the
equilibrium fluctuations of the electric current inside an
electrical conductor, which happens regardless of any applied
voltage, due to the random thermal motion of the charge
carriers (the electrons).
Where k- Boltzmann constant
T- temperature in K
Nyquist formula R – resistor value
Δf – freq. range
Power density is constant over

freq. => is a white noise
notation for power spectral density: or voltage variance

(mean square) per hertz of bandwidth

Thermal noise in resistors
◼ Noise Model for a resistor
◼ Power noise in a resistor
◼ Noise current (root mean square value of the current source):

The noise source can also be modeled by a current source in parallel with the
resistor (Using Thevenin)

Thermal noise in capacitors
◼ Johnson noise in an RC circuit can be expressed more simply by using
the capacitance value, rather than the resistance and bandwidth values.
The RMS voltage noise on a capacitance C is
The noise is not caused by the capacitor itself, but by the thermodynamic
equilibrium of the amount of charge on the capacitor. Once the capacitor is
disconnected from a conducting circuit, the thermodynamic fluctuation is frozen
at a random value with standard deviation as given above.
◼ The reset noise of capacitive sensors is often a limiting noise source, for
example in image sensors.
◼ As an alternative to the voltage noise, the reset noise on the capacitor
can also be quantified as the charge standard deviation, as
◼ Since the charge variance is kTC, this noise is often called kTC noise

Flicker noise (1/f noise)
◼ Flicker noise, also known as 1/f noise, is a signal or process
with a frequency spectrum that falls off steadily into the higher
frequencies, with a pink spectrum. It occurs in almost all
electronic devices, and results from a variety of effects, though
always related to a direct current.
it is not a white noise,

it decreases with freq.
So it is also called 1/f noise

Colours of noise

Burst noise
◼ Burst noise consists of sudden step-like transitions between
two or more levels (non-Gaussian), as high as several hundred
millivolts, at random and unpredictable times. Each shift in
offset voltage or current lasts for several milliseconds, and the
intervals between pulses tend to be in the audio range (less
than 100 Hz), leading to the term popcorn noise for the
popping or crackling sounds it produces in audio circuits.
◼ Its sources are not currently known, but appear to be related to

trapping of charge carriers, imperfections in semiconductor
devices
◼ The worst case noise seems to be at low temperatures and with
high thermal noise from external resistors.

Avalanche noise
◼ It occurs especialy in reverse biased jonctions (like zener
diodes)
◼ Noise voltage can have high values that can overcome thermal
noise from the amplifier resistors
– If low noise in the circuit is required -it is not recommended to
use reversed biased diodes (close to/or in breakdown area)!

Noise model for a diode
Without noise
thermal
shut 1/f

Noise model for a BJT
thermal
1/f
shut shut

Noise model for a BJT
◼ model – using an ideal BJT and having and equivalent noise in

base.
Rg generate noise also

OP – determine the noise !!

Noise model for a FET

Noise model for a FET
◼ - using equivalent noise sources at the input (Gate)
- Vary with OP , decreases if Id

increases
Noise model for an Amplifier
If the noise sources are uncorrelated, noise
at output:
Total noise voltage

Noise figure (factor)
◼ Compare noise produced by the amp. with the noise produced
by the generator Rg
SNR – signal to noise ratio =>

Noise figure (factor)
◼ An optimum Rg exist for an given amplifier for which
F=optimum:
◼ For a CE BJT amplifier :
◼ For a FET amplifier
◼ If several stages are cascaded (Friis formula):

Noise
◼ Noise temperature:
◼ Is the temperature where the Rg generate a noise that
produces at the output the same noise as the amp. itself
◼ Noise exist !!! Can’t be avoided

◼ We can have only an optimum circuit
◼ Online Noise calculator:

http://www.sengpielaudio.com/calculator-noise.htm

OSCILLATORS
2013 Electronic Circuits Course

Introduction – Ex: Mechanical oscillators
 Spring mass system
 Vibration, standing waves

in a string.
 The fundamental and the
first 6 overtones form a
harmonic series.

Electric oscillators
RLC parallel circuit
 V- push the energy, if disconnected free

oscillations will occur @
 Issue: oscillations damping :
 Target : low loses => high quality factor

Electronic oscillators
 Circuits able to provide different type of repetitive waveforms:
 Categories:
A) Harmonic oscillator
= produces a sinusoidal output.
B) Relaxation oscillator
used to produce a non-sinusoidal output

A) Harmonic oscillator
 The basic form of a harmonic oscillator is using positive
feedback amplifier:
– OpAmp Out = Narrow band filter IN
– Filter Out = OpAmp IN

Harmonic Oscillator topologies
are based on various amplifiers and filters types =>
 Hartley oscillator
 Colpitts oscillator
 Clapp oscillator
 Pierce oscillator (crystal)
 Phase-shift oscillator
 RC oscillator
 cross-coupled LC oscillator

B) Relaxation oscillator
used to produce a non-sinusoidal output
Mechanical example:
a seesaw with a water

container at one end
Electronic relaxation oscillator will produce:

 square wave, sawtooth, etc
Implementation:
 A nonlinear component (ex: transistor) will periodically
discharges the energy (based on a threshold) stored in a
capacitor or inductor

Relaxation oscillator example:
 F=1/(2RC).
 How it works?
 Output signal shape =?
Imagine an relaxation oscillator, by using an “Trigger Schmidt” inverter

Relaxation oscillator app’s
Square-wave =>
 clock signal for sequential logic circuits (timers and
counters), (although crystal oscillators are often preferred
for their greater stability)
Triangle-wave or sawtooth =>

 In timebase circuits that generate the horizontal
deflection signals for cathode ray tubes in analogue
oscilloscopes and (CRT) television sets.

Basic principles of sinusoidal oscillators
A positive-feedback loop is formed by an amplifier A and a

frequency-selective network β.
Advantage: Energy is taken from amplifier supply

Q: There is no input so How it starts ?
A: at any noise as is marginally stable
(in simulations some Initial Conditions must be used)
 The positive feedback network must produces a feedback

voltage that is in phase with the input signal.
 The amplifier can introduce 0° or 180° voltage phase shift,

and the feedback network should do the same
 => a combined 0° voltage phase shift around the loop, which

is the same thing as a 360° phase shift.
 Positive feedback = regenerative feedback.

The gain is given by:
A( j )
Ar ( j ) 
1   ( j ) A( j )
 The active component in a feedback amplifier produces a
voltage gain (A)
 the feedback network introduces a loss or attenuation (β).
 In order to oscillate, the loop gain (return ration) Aβ must

be equal to unity:
1   ( j ) A( j )  0
In this case Ar ( j)  

and the circuit will have finite output for zero input signal
Barkhausen Criterion
 The condition for the feedback loop to provide

sinusoidal oscillation of frequency ω is:
A( j )  ( j )  1 
arg A( j )  arg  ( j )  2k 1) phase criterion


 A( j  )  ( j  )  1 2) amplitude criterion.

Barkhausen Criterion - Practical Considerations
Aβ =1 is completely unrealizable in practice.
• condition could not be permanently satisfied.

• circuit components and transistors change characteristics
(drift) with age, temperature, voltage, etc.,
• If Aβ <1 the oscillation will stop

• If Aβ>1 a nonlinearity is required in order to limit de
amplitude. (else saturation of amp. is reached)
• In every practical oscillator the loop gain is slightly larger

than unity, and the amplitude of the oscillations is
limited by the onset of nonlinearity.

RC phase-shift oscillator
 Feedback= 3 identical RC HP filters=>

 around loop: 180°(amp)+180°(filters)
ur ( jRC ) 3
 ( j )  
u0 1  5 jRC  6( jRC ) 2  ( jRC ) 3
 ( j 0 )    1  6( jRC ) 2  0;
arg ( j0 )  
1
6(RC )  1   0 
2
RC 6 
0  1
  ( j0 )  29
1
f0   ;
2 2RC 6
Null phase shift RC network
 Feedback= HP(C1, R1)+LP (R2,C2)

 around loop: 0°(amp)+0°(filters)

ur 1
 ( j )  
u0 C2 R1 C2  1 
1   j  C2 R2  
C1 R2 C1  C1 R1 
0 1
f0   ;
2 2 R1C1 R2 C 2
arg  ( j0 )  0
 1
  ( j0 ) 
 C2 R1 C 2
1 
 C1 R2 C1
 R1  R, R2  10 R 1 1
f0   ( j0 ) 
 C 2  0,1C 2RC
;
2,1
C1  C ,
 Typical app range:

f=xHz- x100Hz
 over a larger range must vary all three capacitors

simultaneously.
 Hard to match 3 capacitors =>

 outputs that are unstable in frequency and amplitude.

The Wien Bridge Oscillator
 a balanced bridge is used as the feedback network
a) A Wien bridge oscillator. b) The bridge network

Wien selective network+
series shunt negative feedback

Amplitude criterion. Aur   1
 0
Au 1
For negative feedback loop: Aur  
1    Au 
=>   
R4
 
R3  R4
1
  ( j ) 
R1 C2  1 
1   j C2 R1  
R2 C1  C1 R2 
In order to obtain oscillations, phase criterion has to be satisfied:
1
  ( j0 )     0 C 2 R1   C R  0;
0 1 2
1 0 1
 
2
 f0  
2 2 R1C1 R2C2
0
R1C1 R2 C 2
arg  ( j0 )  0
 1
   ( j 0 ) 
 R1 C2
1 
 R2 C1

Example of Amplitude stabilization
• Amplitude stabilization
below the amplifier
clipping level is needed
to reduce distortion in a
linear oscillator.
• The initial gain is 3.1 to

build up oscillation.
Then, when the
amplitude grows the
diode is on and the gain
drops to 2.9, when the
amplitude decays and an
equilibrium amplitude is
reached.

LC oscillators
 Typical app range:

f=nx100 KHz -nx100 MHz. => RF app’s
 Issues:
LC oscillators are difficult to tune over wide ranges.
 The operating or center frequency of the oscillator :
1
f0 
2 LC
 Main topologies:
- Armstrong oscillator;
- Hartley oscillator;
- Colpitts oscillator;
- Clapp oscillator.

LC oscillators – typical topology
LC Oscillator circuit using an ideal amplifier with non zero output

impedance Ro and its equivalent ideal circuit.
Note: the feedback network has to flip the signal phase by 180°.

Colpitts Oscillator: Z1 and Z2 capacitive reactances and Z3 an
inductive reactance (see fig. 6a)).
Hartley oscillator: Z1 and Z2 inductive reactances and Z3 a capacitive
reactance (see fig. 6b)).
1 C1C2 1
f0  ; Ce  f0  ; Le  L1  L2
2 LCe C1  C2 2 LeC
Fig. 6. a) Colpitts b) Hartley Oscillators
Fig. 7. A practical implementation of a
Colpitts oscillator. f0 in the middle of
the FM Band (87.5 - 108 MHz). See
http://www.mitedu.freeserve.co.uk/
Analysis/colfr.htm for more details.
Crystal Oscillators
Used when :
extremely stable operating frequencies and amplitudes are
required,
Typical oscillators have issues when :

• The transistor is replaced, (slightly different gain
characteristics)
• The inductor or capacitor is changed (the operating frequency
may change.)
• Circuit temperature changes, the resistive components will
change, (both frequency and amplitude will change).

Crystal Oscillators
• The key to the operation of a crystal-controlled oscillator is the piezoelectric
effect, which means that the crystal vibrates at a constant rate when it is
exposed to an electric field.
• The physical dimensions of the crystal determine the frequency of vibration.
- by cutting the crystal to specific dimensions, we can produce crystals that
have very exact frequency ratings.
• commonly used crystals that exhibit piezoelectric properties:
• Rochelle salt, best piezoelectric properties but is very fragile
• Tourmaline, is very tough, but its vibration rate is not as stable
• Quartz, fall between the two extremes and are the most commonly
used.
• Quartz crystals are made from silicon dioxide (SiO2). When used in
electronic components, a thin slice of crystal is placed between two
conductive plates, like those of a capacitor.

Piezoelectric crystal
a) Symbol, b) circuit model c) the reactance as a function of

frequency assuming R = 0.

Piezoelectric crystal
 The LCR series circuit accounts for the sharp mechanical resonance, the
analogs of mass, the compliance, and the viscous-damping factor of the
mechanical system.
 The capacitor Cp in parallel describes the capacitance of the crystal for
frequency far for the resonance.
Crystal oscillators design

• the reactance (the imaginary part of the impedance) can be inductive or
capacitive
• If inductive, and close to resonance – it can replace L inside LC oscillaltors

Pierce crystal oscillator
Pierce crystal oscillator utilizing a CMOS inverter as an amplifier.

(typically used for uC clock circuitry)

Colpitts oscillator -crystal-controlled oscillator (CCO)
 Crystal is in series with the
feedback path and is operating
in series-resonant mode (fs).
 At fs , the impedance of the

crystal is almost zero and
allows the feedback signal to
pass unhindered.
 As the crystal has an extremely

high Q, the circuit will only
oscillate over a very narrow
range of frequency.
 Obs: By placing a crystal in the

same relative position, Hartley
and Clapp oscillators can be
converted into CCOs

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“Politehnica” University of Timişoara, Faculty of Electronics and Telecommunication , Applied Electronics Department

2013 Electronic Circuits Lecture 1: Introduction to amplifiers Slide 2

2013 Electronic Circuits Lecture 1: Introduction to amplifiers Slide 3

Current direction (reverse of e- flow)

2013 Electronic Circuits Lecture 1: Introduction to amplifiers Slide 5

 Slides and other e-materials are available online at:

2013 Electronic Circuits Lecture 1: Introduction to amplifiers Slide 6

2013 Electronic Circuits Lecture 1: Introduction to amplifiers Slide 7

General amplifier model

 The gain of a circuit is determined by its component values/parameters!

2013 Electronic Circuits Lecture 1: Introduction to amplifiers Slide 8

Amplifier model Amplifier circuit

 Since vIN  vS and vL  vOUT

 At the circuit input and output there are 2 current dividers:

 The ideal current amplifier, would have the following characteristics :

[Infinite gain] , Zin=0, Zout= 

2013 Electronic Circuits Lecture 1: Introduction to amplifiers Slide 11

 The efficiency of an amplifier is the percentage of the power drawn

 Ex: The dB power gain of an amplifier:

 In the case of multistage amplifiers:

The total gain[dB] =  of individual gain[db] values.

2013 Electronic Circuits Lecture 1: Introduction to amplifiers Slide 13

2013 Electronic Circuits Lecture 1: Introduction to amplifiers Slide 14

Input and output signal voltages Rc

 The input voltage and current are

2013 Electronic Circuits Lecture 1: Introduction to amplifiers Slide 17

2013 Electronic Circuits Lecture 1: Introduction to amplifiers Slide 18

2013 Electronic Circuits Lecture 1: Introduction to amplifiers Slide 19

2013 Electronic Circuits Lecture 1: Introduction to amplifiers Slide 20

2013 Electronic Circuits Lecture 1: Introduction to amplifiers Slide 21

2013 Electronic Circuits Lecture 1: Introduction to amplifiers Slide 22

2013 Electronic Circuits Lecture 1: Introduction to amplifiers Slide 23

 The AC current gain of a transistor is different than its

The βAC depends on the bias point !!

2013 Electronic Circuits Lecture 1: Introduction to amplifiers Slide 24

 Coupling capacitors are used to provide a combination of AC coupling and

 The bypass capacitor is connected in parallel with the emitter

2013 Electronic Circuits Lecture 2: Introduction to amplifiers Slide 2

2013 Electronic Circuits Lecture 2: Introduction to amplifiers Slide 3

2013 Electronic Circuits Lecture 2: Introduction to amplifiers Slide 4

2013 Electronic Circuits Lecture 2: Introduction to amplifiers Slide 5

small-signal equivalent circuit that

2013 Electronic Circuits Lecture 2: Introduction to amplifiers Slide 6

2013 Electronic Circuits Lecture 2: Introduction to amplifiers Slide 7

Small-signal equivalent circuit for the common-source amplifier

2013 Electronic Circuits Lecture 2: Introduction to amplifiers Slide 8

Circuit used to find Ro.

2013 Electronic Circuits Lecture 2: Introduction to amplifiers Slide 9

2013 Electronic Circuits Lecture 2: Introduction to amplifiers Slide 10

vo(t) and vin(t) versus time

2013 Electronic Circuits Lecture 2: Introduction to amplifiers Slide 11

2013 Electronic Circuits Lecture 2: Introduction to amplifiers Slide 12

2013 Electronic Circuits Lecture 2: Introduction to amplifiers Slide 13

2013 Electronic Circuits Lecture 2: Introduction to amplifiers Slide 14

Small-signal ac equivalent circuit for the source follower.

2013 Electronic Circuits Lecture 2: Introduction to amplifiers Slide 15

2013 Electronic Circuits Lecture 2: Introduction to amplifiers Slide 16

2013 Electronic Circuits Lecture 2: Introduction to amplifiers Slide 17

2013 Electronic Circuits Lecture 2: Introduction to amplifiers Slide 18

 Low cutoff frequencies (fLO):

2013 Electronic Circuits Lecture 2: Introduction to amplifiers Slide 19

1Hz 10Hz 100Hz 1KHz f

Log on f scale + dB for gain => Bóde plots