I. INTRODUCTION.
ACTIVE PHASED ANTENNA
Active Transmitting Phased
Antenna Arrays
IGOR IMMOREEV, Senior Member, IEEE
Moscow Aviation Institute
Russia
The benefits of using transmitting phased array antennas for
radar systems are examined. Accurate performance prediction
for the transmitting phased array antennas requires theories
describing both the antenna system and the power generation
devices. These theories were created and applied to the design
and performance evaluation of the Russian 3-D mobile solid-state
surveillance radar 67N6E (GAMMA-DE), a PAA designed for
long-range air defense.
Manuscript received March 8, 2002; revised April 30, 2004;
released for publication December 20, 2004.
IEEE Log No. T-AES/41/2/849006.
Refereeing of this contribution was handled by P. Lombardo.
Author’s address: Gospitalny val, Home 5, Block 18, Apt. 314,
105094, Moscow, Russia.
0018-9251/05/$17.00 °
c 2005 IEEE
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON AEROSPACE AND ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS VOL. 41, NO. 2
ARRAY HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
Mid-twentieth century aircraft and rocket
improvements led to substantially increased speeds
and decreased radar scattering cross sections, which
in turn drove requirements for improved radar
performance. At the same time, advanced radar
designs started using phased antenna arrays. Radar
development work showed that passive phased
antenna array (PPAA) antennas increased the energy
losses by 2—4 times in the microwave parts of the
radar compared with conventional reflector antennas.
Keeping the radar detection range characteristics
meant increasing the transmitter output power.
Greater power increased the transmitter volume.
As a result, the overall systems weight and primary
power requirements grew and heat dissipation became
a major problem in radar design. Increased system
complexity and weight worked against the advantages
gained by using phased array antennas.
Airborne and space-based radars could not tolerate
the greater volume, weight, and power consumption of
passive phased arrays. Mobile ground based radars
with long detection ranges also found the weight
gains unacceptable for systems requiring quick
movement for escape from antiradar missiles. Mobility
and augmented power are a mutually exclusive
condition. Solving the weight and performance
problem suggested using active phased array antennas.
The Soviet Union Science-Research Institute of
Radio Engineering in Moscow, which became the
All-Russian Research Institute of Radio Engineering
(ARRIRE), is the oldest Russian radar scientific
research institute. In 1965, the Institute created the
first small model active phased antenna array (APAA),
which had 84 elements using the standard TWT, and
operated continuously with a 15 kW total radiated
power. In 1968, the Institute demonstrated and tested a
larger, 512 element APAA using metal-ceramic tubes
amplifiers producing 5 kW of radiated power.
Institute researchers used these systems to verify
active phased array antenna theory and mathematical
models including how to determine and identify
the array element parameters, finding adjustment
techniques, and developing test units for tuning these
antenna modules.
Experience gained from the experimental APAA
systems made it possible to create APAA for other
radars. For example, the Institute developed the 5N88
(Mashuk) long-range radar in 1977 (Fig. 1). The
Mashuk used an active linear phased antenna array
excited by 64 high-power klystrons giving 64 kW
radiated power.
In 1980 the Institute designed and built the 5N59
(ST-68) radar for detecting low-flying targets with an
APAA shown in Fig. 2. This 72 element linear array
used metal-ceramic tubes to produce 1 kW radiated
power.
APRIL 2005 407

Fig. 1. Radar 5N88 (Mashuk).
Fig. 2. Radar 5N59 (ST-68).
Later, the ARIRE developed a solid-state planar
APAA for the modern ground-based radar 67N6E,
described in the last section.
Institute engineers determined that it was
impossible to separately build the antenna, transmitter,
and RF section and hook these together to form
the transmitting part of the radar. For APAAs, the
component parameters are interrelated and actively
affect the directional pattern (DP). Because of this, the
408 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON AEROSPACE AND ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS VOL. 41, NO. 2 APRIL 2005
Fig. 3. Block diagram of transmitting APAA.
APAA should be considered as a united and integrated
design problem.
When we introduce the APAA to the radar, other
radar subsystems (such as signal processing system or
system power sources) require a different designed
approach. The resulting comprehensive approach
permits the radar designer to answer the following two
questions arising from the design.
1) Should the future radar use an APAA?
2) If the first question is answered positively, then
how to choose the best elements to design an optimal
APAA?
This paper presents the foundations of the systems
approach to APAA design. The ARRIRE created
and applied this theory to design and build the
67N6E (GAMMA-DE), the first mobile Russian 3-D
solid-state active phased array antenna surveillance
radar.
II. GENERAL PRINCIPLES
An APAA has a multi-channel array, in which
the transmitter or receiver is connected with every
radiator. As shown in the APAA block diagram of
Fig. 3, the power amplifier is connected to every
radiating element. A synchronous self-excited
oscillator or frequency converter is sometimes used
instead of the power amplifier.
The APAA consists of three parts, having
specialized functions, as follows.
1) The radiator array forms the antenna
aperture and consists of similar weakly directive
radiating elements such as dipoles, slots, horns, and
waveguides. The radiators are usually placed in the
nodes of the rectangular or some oblique-angled grid
(for instance, triangular or hexagonal).
2) DP forming system determines the signal’s
amplitude and phase distributions in the individual
array elements. This system contains the sets of power
amplifiers, phase shifters, and matching circuits. Every
radiator is series-connected to the matching circuit,
power amplifier, and phase shifter and forms the
single APAA channel. Usually, all channel elements
are physically integrated and called a module. To
 Fig. 4. Key diagram of single-channel transmitter.
reduce the loss during the power transmission, the
power amplifier is placed as close to the radiator as
possible.
The module circuit design depends on the
frequency band of the radar and radiating power.
The identity and stability of the amplitude and phase
characteristics of the modules are provided by the
use of the elements with highly stable parameters
and specific circuit design. Before installation into
an APAA, each module is adjusted for transmission
coefficient including the gain factor and phase-electric
length.
3) The power divider provides for the signal
transmission from the single source (common exciter)
to all APAA channels.
The signal phase control in APAA channels
has some special features. Usually, the ferrite or
semi-conductive phase shifters provide phase control
in each channel and can vary the signal phase from
0 to 2¼ rad. Such phase shift restricts the antenna
frequency band due to the shift of the DP maximum
with the change in the signal frequency (narrow-band
APAA). This phenomenon may be avoided by the
retuning of the phase shifters in the channels with
the change in the signal frequency (wide-band
APAA).
This retuning may be avoided by replacement
of the phase shifters by switched delay lines
(wide-band APAA). If the antenna array size is
large, the controllable delay lines prove to be the
complicated devices. They bring about significant
loss in the antenna channels. However, this is of little
consequence, because the power amplifiers, being in
every channel, reduce this loss effect upon the radar
potential.
Apart from the above general systems, the
subsystems for beam control, power supply, operating
control, and cooling exist in any APAA.
III. FEATURES OF APAA POWER BALANCE
Any radar with limited power sources, as found
in land vehicles, airborne, and space-based platforms,
must transfer maximum energy from the power source
to the target to insure detection. This requires that
the transmitter generate the required power with
maximum efficiency, and the transmitting antenna
should form the required DP with maximum directive
gain.
IMMOREEV: ACTIVE TRANSMITTING PHASED ANTENNA ARRAYS
However, usually the quantity of this energy is
limited by the transmitter efficiency and antenna
directive gain losses. In the traditional radar
these parameters are mutually independent and
may be independently improved. But the APAA
is simultaneously the transmitter and antenna.
Therefore functions of the antenna and transmitter
are interconnected and interdependent. In this case,
the directive gain calculation differs from that for the
traditional antennas. This is design feature, which
distinguishes APAA from other antennas, and is
explained in this section.
The transmitting system of the traditional radar
with reflector antenna (or PPAA), as a rule, is a single
channel comprising a signal generator and antenna, as
shown in Fig. 4. If the gain factor of the output stage
exceeds 10—15 dB (usually this is true), the power
loss in all previous stages may be ignored and the
flow chart of Fig. 4 may be used, even though the
transmitter is multi-stage.
The efficiency of the system “transmitter-antenna,”
presented in Fig. 4, depends on the efficiency of
every unit and is equal to the product of these units’
efficiency:
Ym
P
´= ´i = r (1)
P0
i=1
where
Pr is the power radiated by the antenna,
P0 is the power consumption from the power
source,
´i is the efficiency of the system’s unit number i.
The directive gain of the antenna of this system
depends on the signal’s amplitude and phase
deviations from the law, assigned along the antenna
aperture. Hereinafter we name these deviations the
amplitude-phase distribution errors, or for brevity,
simply the distribution errors. These errors are usually
due to the antenna manufacturing imperfection. They
have a random character and reduce the directive gain
in conformity with the expression:
D̄max
g= (2)
Dmax
where
D̄max is the mean directive gain value in the DP
maximum in the presence of the distribution errors,
Dmax is the directive gain in the DP maximum,
when the distribution errors are absent.
409

Fig. 5. Key diagram of multi-channel transmitter (APAA).
The product ´g we name as the total efficiency
of the system combined transmitter and antenna
subsystem:
 = ´g: (3)
Fig. 5 shows an APAA multi-channel combined
transmitter and antenna subsystem. The exciter
signal passes n parallel APAA channels through
m multi-channel sections: power dividers, power
amplifiers, phase shifters, and matching circuits. The
elements, which form every section, are not absolutely
identical. Their parameters deviate from the nominal
due to the manufacturing errors. As a result, the
signal amplitudes and phases in the outputs of the
multi-element system elements are different. Thus,
not only the manufacturing errors of the radiating
structure, but those of every multi-channel section set
up the distribution errors and reduce the directive gain
of the antenna of the radar with APAA. The additional
distribution errors, due to the elements’ nonidentity,
may be large, because all APAA sections, presented
in Fig. 5 (up to the power sources), contribute these
errors.
Similarly, the total efficiency ´ in (1) is the
product of the system separate units’ efficiencies ´i ,
the value g in the multi-channel APAA is the
product of the values gi , showing every section’s
contribution to the total directive gain’s reduction
of the system:
Ym
g= gi : (4)
i=1
The total efficiency of the multi-channel APAA
takes the form:
Y m
Â= ´i g i : (5)
i=1
From (5) it is evident that every APAA multi-channel
unit, setting up the distribution errors, contributes the
double power loss to the system due to the direct loss
(the efficiency decrease) and reduction of the directive
gain.
The total efficiency of the APAA section number i
is
Âi = ´i gi : (6)
410 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON AEROSPACE AND ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS VOL. 41, NO. 2 APRIL 2005
The expression (6) permits us to formulate the
requirements to the parameters of the elements, being
contained in the system’s multi-channel section,
and to these parameters’ identity. This expression
also permits us to determine the minimum of the
loss, caused by the given section. The calculation
method for ´i is presented in Section IV, and for gi
in Section V.
IV. DIRECT APAA POWER LOSS CALCULATION
AND COMPARISON OF PASSIVE AND ACTIVE
TRANSMITTING PHASED ANTENNA ARRAY
POWER CHARACTERISTICS
The statistical characteristics of APAA elements
are usually unknown at the initial radar design stages.
Because of this, it is impossible to determine the
loss in directive gain due to the distribution errors.
Therefore only direct losses in the transmitter system
are considered at this stage. They are examined in
this section. Such calculation permits us to acquire
the previous estimation of the power balance of
the different system modifications. The sectional
efficiencies ´i and the total system efficiency ´ are
determined during the calculations.
Let us determine, for example, the direct
power loss for two variants of the system
“transmitter-antenna” design: APAA and PPAA.
Let us introduce the following definitions.
´t is the efficiency of the PPAA transmitter or the
efficiency of the APAA module.
´p is the efficiency of the power divider and phase
shifter system of APAA or PPAA.
´b is the efficiency of the APAA exciter.
K is the gain factor of the APAA module.
P0 is the power consumption from the power
sources.
Pr is the radiating power.
The upper index (a or p), accordingly, designates
the parameter’s belonging to the active or passive
array.
The efficiency of any phased antenna array ´ is
determined by formula (1).
For the APAA power consumption from the power
sources by the modules P0ta and the exciter P0ba is
Pr Pr
P0ta = , P0ba = :
´ta K´pa ´b
Summing up all the power consumption, we derive the
expression for the APAA efficiency:
K´p ´b ´t
Pr
´a = = : (7)
P0t + P0b K´p ´b + ´t
The efficiency of PPAA is
´ p = ´tp ´pp : (8)

Fig. 6. Dependence of gain in efficiency M on loss in power
divider system and phase shifters.
The ratio of the APAA and PPAA efficiencies is
´a K´pa ´b ´ta
M= p= p p : (9)
´ ´t ´p (K´pa ´b + ´ta )
From (9) it is evident that at M > 1 APAA
becomes more efficient than PPAA. However, it is
necessary to consider all systems’ parameters for more
accurate calculations. Thus, in the case
´pa = ´pp = ´p and ´tp = ´ta = ´b (10)
the expression (9) takes the form:
K
M= : (11)
1 + K´p
The dependencies of M on ´p , plotted in
conformity with (11), are presented in Fig. 6. To
determine the value of M from the diagrams in Fig. 6
for ´ta 6= ´tp , it is necessary to change the scale of the
ordinate axis ´ta =´tp times.
As is evident from the diagrams, it is advisable
to use the APAA in the radar, if M > 3 under the
condition (10). For example, when ´p = 0:2 and
K = 10 then M = 3:3.
The advantage of APAA over PPAA also
increases, when the gain of the module K increases.
Fig. 7 shows that this advantage increases as K
increases up to 20. The further increase in the module
gain does not provide for the substantial increase in
the efficiency, if the efficiency of the power divider
system ´p > 0:2. Thus when the gain is high then
most of the power loss in the APAA will depend on
the module’s efficiency because losses in the earlier
power divider, phase shifter, and exciter stages will
become insignificant relative to the overall power loss
for APAA.
The expression (9) permits us to determine the
APAA elements parameters requirements, and provide
more efficient radar as compared with PPAA. Thus,
for the efficiency of the APAA module, such a
condition is
MK´tp ´pp
´ta > :
K ¡ M(´tp ´pp =´b ´pa )
At K À 1 this condition may be simplified:
´ta > M´tp ´pp . For example, under the choice M = 3
IMMOREEV: ACTIVE TRANSMITTING PHASED ANTENNA ARRAYS
Fig. 7. Dependence of gain in efficiency M on APAA module’s
gain K.
if ´pp »
= 0:2 and ´t »
p
= 0:3 in the PPAA, the change over
to an active array is advisable at such array’s module
efficiency ´ta > 0:18.
Recall that the calculations presented above give
the previous estimate only due to the fact that the
loss in the directive gain, caused by the amplitude and
phase distortions of the signal in the antenna channels,
is not considered. The calculation method for these
losses is presented in the next section.
V. CALCULATION OF APAA POWER LOSS DUE TO
THE DIRECTIVE GAIN DECREASE
As mentioned above, the decrease in the antenna
directive gain is determined by the value of g (see
(2)). The relationship between this value and the
distribution errors is well known, as shown in [2]
and [3]. If the element parameters deviations of
the multi-channel section from the rating values
(and, accordingly, the amplitude and phase errors of
the signal in the APAA channels) are independent,
steady-state along the antenna aperture, and Normally
distributed, then
exp(¡¾'2 )
g= (12)
1 + ¾A2
where
¾A2 is the relative amplitude error variance over the
antenna aperture,
¾'2 is the phase error variance over the antenna
aperture.
Accurate up to the terms of the second-order
infinitesimal, g may be determined as
1
g= : (13)
1 + ¾A2 + ¾Á2
The expressions (12) and (13) may be used
for the linear and plane antennas, if the number of
the radiators N À 1 and the distance between the
radiators d ¼ ¸=2. The quantity g is the product of
the quantities gi (6). In conformity with (13), every
quantity gi is determined by the distribution error
variances, caused by APAA section number i in the
antenna aperture (Fig. 5). However, the distribution
error variances in the output of this section are
usually immediately known (for example, by the
411
Fig. 8. Diagrams of parameters’ errors passing over sections of multi-channel system. (a) Scheme of influences. (b) Channel of errors.
(c) Example of channels’ joining of identical errors.
measurements of the parameters of a lot of the given
section’s elements), as opposed to those in the antenna
aperture.
To determine gi it is necessary to transfer the
distribution errors from the output of the section number
i to the antenna aperture. It is apparent that, during
this transfer, the next APAA sections, traversing by
the signal up to the antenna aperture, will change
the character of the distribution errors of the section
number i.
If the system has a single channel, the signal in
the system’s output is the product of the input signal
and the system transmission coefficient. The change
in any signal parameter, passing through the system,
is determined similarly. In this case, the system’s
transmission coefficient of the determined parameter
should be used.
In the multi-channel system the output signal’s
parameters are similarly determined. However, the
input signal’s parameters and sections’ transmission
coefficients are usually expressed in statistical terms.
Note that several independent causes of the
distribution errors may be in the same section. For
example, the phase variance at the output of the
multi-channel phase shifter section may be due
to instability of the control voltage, as well as the
temperature changes.
The calculation of the APAA power loss due to
the directive gain reduction is done in the following
manner.
First, the “scheme of influences” is performed
based on the block diagram of the specific APAA.
All distribution error causes in the output of every
multi-channel section Xk,n are pointed out (Fig. 8(a)).
The first subscript shows the number of the cause;
412 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON AEROSPACE AND ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS VOL. 41, NO. 2 APRIL 2005
the second shows the number of the section. Such
causes may be the variation of the supply voltage,
input power, standing-wave ratio (SWR) of the load,
temperature, and other factors.
Then, the engineering analysis is carried out,
which permits us to exclude the causes of insignificant
distribution errors in the output of this multi-channel
section.
Further, the circuit in Fig. 8(b) called “error
channel” is designated for every remaining cause.
The channel of error includes the section, in which
the error of the parameter’s (the amplitude or phase)
distribution is formed. This channel shows this error’s
path from the section’s output through the rest of the
APAA sections to the antenna aperture. This circuit
permits us to transform the distribution errors of the
section’s output into the distribution errors of the
antenna aperture.
For convenience and clarity, all channels of the
single-type errors (for example, phase errors) may be
combined as shown in Fig. 8(c). The total variance
is equal to the sum of all channels’ variances (for the
independent causes of the errors).
Let us consider the example of the error channel
design for some conditional parameter Q (for
example, it may be the phase or amplitude of the
signal). In so doing, let us take two assumptions in
order to simplify and clear the example.
First, we assume that in any channel of any
multi-channel section the linear law describes the
transmission coefficient of any parameter. This
assumption seems to be natural because the parameter
deviations from the ratings are usually small.
Then, the parameter Q at the output of single
channel of the multi-channel section relates to the

Fig. 9. Transmission coefficient of multi-channel section.
parameter in this channel’s input R (this parameter
may be the amplitude or phase of the signal in the
output of the foregoing section or the supply voltage,
external temperature, etc.) as (Fig. 9(a)):
Q = R ¢ S + Q0
where
S = tg± is the slope of the channel transmission
coefficient at the nominal (rated) value of the input
parameter Rnom ,
Q0 is an intercept of this channel’s transmission
coefficient extension by a straight line on the Q axis.
To determine the transmission coefficient of
the multi-channel APAA section, let us use the
expression (14). Inasmuch as the considered section
is multi-channel, the slope of every channel (number
n) of this section deviates from its mean value S̄ by
the value of §¢Sn . The quantity Q0 in this channel
deviates from its mean value Q0 by §¢Q0n . If the
foregoing section is multi-channel, the input parameter
R should deviate from Rnom (or its mean value R̄) at
the input every channel (number n) by the value of
§¢Rn .
Let’s determine a deviation of output parameter
Q from its average value through deviations from
average values of input parameter R and the slope of
the channel transmission coefficient S. It will allow
finding a variance of output parameter Q necessary for
definition of value g.
Output parameter Q of the channel number n in
the general case is equal:
Qn § ¢Qn = (Rn § ¢Rn )(Sn § ¢Sn )
= Rn Sn § Rn ¢Sn § Sn ¢Rn § ¢Rn ¢Sn § ¢Q0n :
The total deviation of the output parameter §¢Qn
is
§ ¢Qn = §Rn ¢Sn § Sn ¢Rn § ¢Rn ¢Sn § ¢Q0n :
This equation is right if the foregoing section is
multi-channel. If the foregoing section is for a single
channel, the input parameter R should be the same for
every element of the considered multi-channel section.
IMMOREEV: ACTIVE TRANSMITTING PHASED ANTENNA ARRAYS
Its nominal value is Rnom . In this case, the following
expression is valid for the channel number n:
§¢Qn = Rnom (§¢Sn ) § ¢Q0n :
Thus, the transmission coefficients of the different
channels of the multi-channel section are also
different. The total transmission coefficient of the
multi-channel section (of the chosen parameter)
depends on the nature of the deviations ¢R, ¢S, and
¢Q0 concerning mean values R̄, S̄, and Q0 . Regular
deviations of these quantities from the mean values
may be eliminated by the equipment tuning and,
because of this, are of no interest. Random deviations
of the parameter, decreasing the APAA directive
transmission coefficient, are of specific interest.
Because of this, the second simplifying assumption
for the considered example is that the deviations of
the values, entering the expression (15), are random
(14)
and independent. Therefore, these deviations are
uncorrelated random values, for which is accepted a
normal distribution.
For the purposes of illustration, the family of the
transmission coefficients of the power amplifiers’
unit is presented in Fig. 9(b). The signal phase at
the output ' depends on the feeding voltage U. The
expression (15) for the deviation of the signal phase
in the channel (number n) of such section takes the
following form:
§ ¢'n = §Un ¢Sn § Sn ¢Un § ¢Un ¢Sn § ¢'0n :
(15a)
All deviations of the values may be random in
this expression. ¢U is the random value, if the power
source section is multi-channel (i.e., every amplifier
is supplied from the separate source). ¢U = const, if
this section is single-channel (all APAA amplifiers
are supplied by common source). ¢S(', U) and ¢'0
are random values, because the section of the power
amplifiers in APAA is always multi-channel.
Since the output signal of the preceding section
number (i + 1) in the error channel is the input signal
for the following section number i, let us later on
designate ¢Ri = ¢Qi+1 , R̄i = Qi+1 .
To determine the variance of the parameter Q
in the error channel, the mean values Q̄, S̄, Q0 and
variances of the normally distributed random values
¾2 (Q), ¾2 (S), and ¾ 2 (Q0 ), entering the expression
(15), should be known [or ¾2 (U), ¾ 2 (S), and ¾2 ('0 )
for the example, presented in (15a) and shown in
Fig. 9(b).] The mean values and variances of these
random values may be experimentally acquired
(15) by the measurements of a lot of similar elements,
being included in the multi-channel section. If these
elements are not yet manufactured for a moment of
APAA design, these elements’ analogs may be used.
If the analogs are absent too, the calculation may be
413
done based on the manufacturing tolerances of these
elements. The design experience shows that the last
method gives rise to large errors.
After the determination of the mean values
and variances of the random values, entering
the expressing (15), we find the variances of the
parameter Q in the outputs of the sections number
1, 2, : : : , m ¡ 1, m of the multi-channel system in the
considered error channel (Fig. 5), based on the rules
for the determination of the variance of the product
and sum of the random uncorrelated quantities:
¾ 2 (Q)1 = ¾ 2 (Q)2 ¾2 (S)1 + Q22 ¾ 2 (S)1
+ S(Q)21 ¾ 2 (Q)2 + ¾2 (Q0 )1
¾ 2 (Q)2 = ¾ 2 (Q)3 ¾2 (S)2 + Q32 ¾ 2 (S)2
+ S(Q)22 ¾ 2 (Q)3 + ¾2 (Q0 )2
¾2 (Q)m¡1 = ¾ 2 (Q)m ¾ 2 (S)m¡1 + Qm
2 ¾ 2 (S)
m¡1
+ S(Q)2m¡1 ¾2 (Q)m + ¾ 2 (Q0 )m¡1
¾ 2 (Q)m
where
¾2 (Q)i is the variance of the parameter Q in the
output of the section number i,
¾2 (S)i is the variance of the slope of the section
number i,
Qi is the mean of the parameter Q in the output of
the section number i,
S(Q)i is the mean of the slope of the section
number i transmission coefficient of the parameter Q,
¾2 (Q0 )i is the variance of the parameter Q0
deviation in the output of the section number i from
its rating, when the output parameter takes the rating
value.
Let us introduce the variance of every preceding
section into the expression for the variance of the
following one in (16). In so doing, we obtain the
2
value of the parameter Q variance ¾ant (Q), produced
by this error channel in the antenna aperture:
m¡1 h
Y i
2
¾ant (Q)1 = ¾2 (Q)m ¾ 2 (S)i + S(Q)2i
i=1
( )
X h
m¡1 iY
k¡1 h
+ 2
¢Qk+1 2
¾ (S)k + ¾(Q0 )k
k=1 i¡1
Using (17), it is possible to determine the variance
of the conditional parameter Q, produced by every
section of this error channel in the antenna aperture.
Thus, for the last section (Fig. 5):
Yh
m¡1
2
¾ant (Q)m = ¾ 2 (Q)m ¾2 (S)i + S(Q)2i :
i=1
414 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON AEROSPACE AND ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS VOL. 41, NO. 2 APRIL 2005
For any other section number i:
( i¡1 h
)
Y i
2 2 2 2
¾ant (Q)i = ¢Qi+1 ¾ (Q)m ¾ (S)k + S(Q)2k
k=1
( i¡1 )
Yh i
2 2 2
+ ¾ (Q0 )i ¾ (S)k + S(Q)k : (19)
k=1
To determine the true distribution error, produced
by the given error channel in the antenna aperture, it
is necessary to introduce the statistical parameters (¾
and S) of the amplitude and phase of real elements
of APAA multi-channel sections into the formulae
(16)—(19).
Similar expressions may be derived for the rest
error channels of the system (see Fig. 8(c)). The total
(16) variance of the amplitude or phase variance error
in the antenna aperture is the sum of the variances
(17) of all error channels. To determine the APAA
directive gain reduction g, the summarized variances
are introduced into the formulae (12) or (13). The
total APAA efficiency is determined by the expression
(6) with regard to the quantity g.
To estimate the total efficiency of the single
section by (8), the variance of the amplitude or phase,
produced by this section, should be known. This
variance is also equal to the sum of the variances
(18) or (19) in all error channels within the dotted
rectangular, presented in Fig. 8(c). To determine the
values of gi , the acquired variances’ values should be
substituted in (12) or (13).
If the multi-channel system has single-channel
sections, the parameters’ mean values are replaced
by their determinate values and the variances vanish in
(18) and (19) for these sections.
The variance of the amplitude and phase in the
system’s output may be partially reduced by tuning
the parameters of every section’s elements. To do this,
the same value (rating) of the output parameter (for
example, amplitude or phase–electric length) is set
by the adjustments in every element under similar
value (rating) of the input signal. In so doing, the
family of the performances presented in Fig. 9(b)
takes the form shown in Fig. 9(c), and the second
component vanishes in (19). Further reduction of
the variances is possible by the selection of the
i
2
¾ (S)i + S(Q)2i : elements with lesser transmission coefficient slope
and minimum spread in the transmission coefficients’
slopes.
(17)
The example calculation method for the
multi-channel APAA power balance is presented in
Fig. 10. Here, solely the phase errors are considered,
because these errors are principally responsible for the
reduced APAA directive gain. A simplified “influence
i scheme” of the considered system is presented in
(18) Fig. 10(a), and the channels of the phase errors in
Fig. 10(b).
 Fig. 10. Scheme of an influence (a) and channels of phase errors (b) for the considered example.

TABLE I

Parameter
¾A Section ¾' Section ¾' in Antenna gi Efficiency ´i Total Efficiency ´i gi

Section % Degrees Degrees % %

Radiator – 10 10 0.97 95 92
Microwave circuit – 20 20 0.88 95 84
Amplifier – 50 50 0.53 25 13
Modulator 1.5 – 45 0.52 80 41
Rectifier 0.5 – 15 0.9 90 81

APAA as a whole 15.1 3.3

The experimental statistical characteristics of the
APAA sections and the calculation results of the total
efficiency, based on these characteristics, are presented
in Table I.
For clarity in this example, the APAA amplifier
was modeled as a TWT with rapid change in the
output signal’s phase under small change in the
feeding voltage (i.e. large slope of the transmission
coefficient “voltage-phase”).
As evident from the Table, the amplifiers’
multi-channel section considerably reduces the total
efficiency of the next sections. Thus, the modulators’
section produces the standard deviation of the output
voltage phase from the rating no more than 1.5%
in its output. However, the total efficiency of this
section is almost halved (from 80% to 41%) due to
the increase in the amplifier section phase deviations.
The internal efficiency of the considered APAA
is equal to 15.1%. It lessens up to 3.3%, due to
the phase errors of the multi-channel sections.
Thus, utilization of the TWT amplifiers with large
parameter variations in the multi-channel sections
causes a considerable decrease in the absolute APAA
efficiency. For this reason TWT amplifiers are not
used in APAA ground radars. The transistor power
amplifiers with considerably lesser slope of the
voltage-phase transmission coefficient are used
in the modern APAA. A similar calculation for
multi-channel section APAA with transistor amplifiers
shows that the absolute APAA efficiency increases
from 3.3 to 9.2%.
However, the phase distribution errors contribute
almost 6% of the reduction of the total efficiency
in this case too. This is due to the low gain of the
transistor amplifier. To provide the high gain (as
TWT does), the transistor amplifier should have
6—7 stages. As a result, the total efficiency of the
amplifier decreases and the slope of the voltage-phase
transmission coefficient (as compared with the
single stage) increases. However, using multiple
stage amplifiers decreases the reliability. Because of
this, in some cases (for example, in the space-borne
platforms), it is more advisable to build the APAA
using cheap TWT (based on the printed-circuit
method) coupled with a stable power source instead
of transistors.
The equations derived above permit us to
determine the statistical characteristics of the
amplitude and phase distributions over the aperture,
which solves the interior problem of the APAA

IMMOREEV: ACTIVE TRANSMITTING PHASED ANTENNA ARRAYS 415

antenna theory. This permits us to determine the
directive gain, as well as the beamwidth, sidelobe
levels, and other characteristics of such antenna
radiation in the following stage. Sometimes very small
errors are sought to achieve low level of a sidelobe. In
this regime the loss in directivity is negligible.
The earlier section presented the APAA general
power characteristics calculations. However, there are
other performances, which should be calculated during
the APAA design. For example, the mismatching
factor of the amplifier and radiator, the correlation
of the amplitude and phase errors over the antenna
aperture, etc.
The Institute created the APAA mathematical
model to help estimate radar performance by forming
the system’s design and selecting its main elements.
The simulation helps optimize the structure by
evaluating the different possible modifications by
chosen criterion and helping to select a configuration
which best fits this condition. These computer
programs permit us to highlight the optimization
parameters, determine the efficiency function (quality
factor), and optimize the APAA configuration with
regard to the chosen criterion. If several quality
factors characterized the APAA, then the optimization
problem becomes multi-criterion, requiring a special
procedure to determine the single efficiency function’s
formation. Depending on its radar application,
the following parameters are often used during
APAA optimization criteria: power potential, power
consumption, overall mass, and cost. The limited
size of this paper does not permit describing the
APAA model and considering the whole optimization
process, therefore we have limited our paper to
presenting some simplified cases.
VI. THE 67N6E SOLID-STATE RADAR APAA
67N6E (Gamma-DE) solid-state radar development
began in the USSR during the 1980s. The works
were encouraged by the information on the American
creation of the first solid-state radar with PPAA, the
AN/TPS-59. However, the Soviet designers used a
different design method. To reduce the equipment
weight and volume, they decided to design its antenna
system in the form of APAA, and to sum up the
powers of the many generators in space, instead of
in the antenna (as in the radar AN/TPS-59).
Changing to a transistor-based transmitter meant
some traditional radar subsystems were changed
including the receiver, data processing, power source
of the transmitter, and transmitter cooling system.
Unlike tubes, transistors cannot provide high pulse
power. Because of this, the required mean power
may only be obtained by considerably increasing
the radiated signal duration to tens and hundreds of
microseconds. This means decreasing their on-off time
ratio accordingly.
416 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON AEROSPACE AND ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS VOL. 41, NO. 2 APRIL 2005
To keep the 67N6E radar range resolution short
and still use a relatively long duration signal, the
Institute applied complex modulation schemes and
used matched filters giving compression factors more
than 100.
The transmitter power sources and the high-voltage
modulators (tens of kilovolts) were changed over
to the low-voltage rectifiers (tens of volts), with a
summed current of tens of kilo-amperes.
The radar 67N6E has a detection range near
350—400 km. Building the APAA radar required a
microwave transistor with the mean power greater
than 10 W. The initial APAA design employed a
microwave transistor developed by the “Pulsar” Soviet
Science-Research Institute. The Institute had begun
production of such transistors with higher mean power
in the 1980s, which permitted building different types
of solid-state radar APAA.
The microwave transistors gave the maximum
power in L band, so the 67N6E operated there.
Fig. 11 shows the APAA block diagram where each of
1024 radiators is excited from the separate amplifier
module. Fig. 12 shows the amplifier schematic
diagram with two transistors of the output stage
connected in parallel so either transistor has 50 W
pulse output power. Fig. 13 shows an inside view
of the amplifier. Every module includes amplifier,
matching circuit, and radiator. The top and bottom
views of the module are shown in Fig. 14. The losses
in the amplifier matching circuit and antenna reduce
the pulse power of single APAA channel up to 55 W
and the mean power up to 10 W. The mean radiated
power of the whole APAA (when all amplifiers are in
good working order) is approximately equal to 10 kW.
The required radar performances are provided by the
mean radiation power no less than 8 kW; therefore
this APAA design tolerates the breakdown of 20% of
the amplifiers without degrading the performance.
Subsequently, the 2T9140 higher power transistor
was used in the APAA amplifier of the radar 67N6E.
This permits us to alleviate the transmitter temperature
conditions and increase the mean time between
failures (MTBF). In so doing, the average power
of the transmitter increases by approximately 40%,
without increased power consumption. This results in
upgraded radar performances.
The 67N6E radar APAA is mounted on the
mobile turntable, as shown in the Figs. 15—18.
Fig. 15 shows the APAA on the turntable in the
transportation position. Fig. 16 shows the APAA set
up for operation. Fig. 17 shows the antenna protective
cover raised for testing and maintenance. Fig. 18
shows all the 67N6E radar transport units ready for
movement.
The rotating APAA turntable contains the amplifier
power sources, cooling systems, amplifier power
dividers, power amplifiers, phase shifters and
radiators. Internal systems can open and close the
 Fig. 11. APAA circuit of 67N6E radar.

Fig. 12. Circuit of APAA amplifier of 67N6E radar.

APAA in 5 min. The tractor trailer transports APAA

of the radar 67N6E. This radar may operate under any
environmental conditions.
Let us note some features of such APAA as
revealed during the design of the 67N6E radar.
1) All APAA modules were tuned and adjusted,
using the specific stand for the reduction of the phase
variance in the multi-channel APAA sections and
loss in the directive gain. The electric lengths of all
modules are equal to that of the reference module.
The directive gain slightly changes during the use,
due to a small sensitivity of the electric lengths of the
transistor amplifiers to the change in supply voltage,
input power, and other parameters. A change of 1% Fig. 13. Inside view of APAA amplifier of radar 67N6E.
in the supply voltage causes the electric length of
three-stage APAA amplifier to change no more than

IMMOREEV: ACTIVE TRANSMITTING PHASED ANTENNA ARRAYS 417


Fig. 14. Top and bottom views of APAA module of radar
67N6E.
Fig. 15. APAA of radar 67N6E in position for transportation.
1 deg, which permits us to use simple and cheap
unstabilized power source of APAA.
It was shown above that the total APAA efficiency
depends on standard deviation of the spread in the
phases of the modules from the mean. This permits
us to specify the mean value of the electric length
of the set of modules, instead of every module, and
418 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON AEROSPACE AND ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS VOL. 41, NO. 2 APRIL 2005
Fig. 16. APAA of radar 67N6E during operation.
Fig. 17. APAA of radar 67N6E in position for examination.
Fig. 18. All transport units of radar 67N6E in motion.
introduces the tolerance for the deviation of every
module’s electric length from this mean value. Such
an approach considerably reduces the sorting out of
the modules with varying electric length produced by
large manufacturing deviations.
2) The output resistance of the high-power
transistor is equal to a few ohms. Therefore matching
the transistor with elements of the microwave circuit
with impedance 50 ohm in the frequency band
10—15% leads to large difficulties. The large spread
 Fig. 19. Circuit of new APAA amplifier of 67N6E radar.
in the transistor parameters complicates the problem.
Because of this, the ferrite circulators are installed in
the module’s output, providing the operation of the
amplifier into the load with SWR not worse than 1.5
in the service band.
3) High-power microwave transistor amplifiers
are highly sensitive to exceeding the semiconductor
operating temperature threshold, which is +175± C
for most transistors. This temperature should not
be exceeded for any change in operation mode of
the amplifier and SWR of the load, even for a short
time. Exceeding the threshold dramatically reduces
the operating time of the amplifier stage. The APAA
forced air-cooling system meets this requirement for
an atmospheric temperature up to +55± C.
4) Every stage of the transistor amplifier has small
gain, from 6 to 10 times, depending on output power,
so all APAA modules are multi-stage. When the pulse
traverses through the amplifier’s stages, its leading
and trailing edges are considerably shortened. As a
result, the level of the side and out of band radiation
increases. This hampers the fulfillment of the regular
requirements to electromagnetic compatibility with
radio aids operating near the same spectral region.
Inserting additional pulse modulators with known
pulse leading and trailing edges in the APAA helps
to eliminate this phenomenon.
5) The decrease in loss in the power dividers is
essential for the APAA design. The strip air decoupled
dividers produce the minimum loss. However, the
complicated design and production process are
responsible for the relative expensiveness of such
dividers. Because of this, the APAA used simpler
dividers based on film foil dielectrics in the form
of the large printed circuit board length, which may
approach 6 m. The amplitude and phase spreads
between these dividers’ outputs do not exceed
§0:5 dB and §15± correspondingly.
IMMOREEV: ACTIVE TRANSMITTING PHASED ANTENNA ARRAYS
VII. CONCLUSION
The experience in designing APAA as well as
equipment and engineering solutions, which we
now have in 67H6E radar development and testing,
has been used in subsequent radar projects. The
modernization of APAA for 67H6E radar has been
also performed. The modernization is first concerned
with an amplifier, which is incorporated into the
APAA module. Instead of 2T9140 transistors, in
output amplification cascade we use more power
transistors A885A developed in the “Pulsar”
Science-Research Institute. This has resulted in an
increase in amplifier output power up to 200 W
and corresponding increase in radar power and
performance improvement. New transistor has
a higher efficiency coefficient. This provides an
improvement in thermal regime of APAA module
operation and reliability rise. The scheme of a
new amplifier is illustrated in Fig. 19. It is simpler
compared with the previous amplifier scheme shown
in Fig. 12.
The application of new components for analog
and digital data processing made possible a decrease
by several times in equipment volume. As a result,
we could remove the device from a separate unit and
install it on a rotating APAA turntable, from where
the information on target routes enters the control
station’s indicators. Now, all modernized 67H6E radar
equipment, except the electric power supply block, is
located on the same rotating turntable.
No doubt the progress of high-power and
high-frequency transistors will encourage solid-state
APAA development for different frequency bands.
At the same time, radar APAA is worthwhile
only if the system must provide high-speed beam
control while retaining long-range performance and
mobility.
419
ACKNOWLEDGMENT [4] Active Elements of Active Arrays Modules
In Antennas and Microwave Devices (Phased Antenna
The author thanks James D. Taylor for his work Array Design).
Moscow: Publishing House Radio and Communication,
editing this paper and harmonizing Russian and
1981 (in Russian).
American radar terminology and Stephen L. Johnston [5] Gostuhin, V., Trusov, V., Klimachev, K., and Danich, Y.
for support and recommending the publication of this Active Phased Antenna Arrays.
paper. Moscow: Publishing House Radio and Communication,
1993 (in Russian).
[6] Immoreev, I.
REFERENCES
Active transmitting phased array antennae in radar
[1] Immoreev, I. systems.
To power balance of radar antennas. In Designing Phased Array Antennae, Moscow: Publishing
Problems of Electronics. Series Basic Technology, 13 House Radiotechnika, 2003 (in Russian).
(1969) (in Russian). [7] Immoreev, I.
[2] Shifrin, Y. Active transmitting PAA of modern solid-state radar.
Problems of Statistical Antenna Theory. In Active Phased Antenna Arrays, Moscow: Publishing
Moscow: Publishing House Soviet Radio, 1970 (in House Radiotechnika, 2004 (in Russian).
Russian).
[3] Brookner, E.
Practical Phased Array Antenna Systems.
Norwood, MA: Artech House, 1991.

Igor Immoreev (M’98–SM’99) was born on May 14, 1930 in Moscow,

Russia. He graduated Leningrad Higher Marine School in 1954 with the honors
diploma in radio engineering. He received his Candidate of Technical Sciences
(Ph.D.) degree in 1961 in radar and radio-navigation from All-Russian Research
Institute of Radio Engineering, Moscow, Russia. He received the Doctor of
Technical Sciences degree in 1986 and academic rank of professor in theory
and engineering of radars with electronic beam steering in 1989 from Moscow
Aviation Institute, Moscow, Russia
From 1958 (as a post-graduate student) to 1991 (as the Deputy Director
on Science) Prof. Immoreev was with All-Russian Research Institute of Radio
Engineering, Moscow, Russia. He provided leadership of many projects in
military surveillance radars for ground and naval applications. The State Prize
of the USSR was awarded to him in 1984 for these projects. Since 1992 he has
been with Moscow Aviation Institute, Moscow, Russia, where he is currently
head of the chair “Analog and Digital Radio Electronic Systems.” His research
interests lie in the field of applied electrodynamics and informatics, radar systems,
especially ultra-wideband radar systems.
Professor Immoreev is the author and coauthor of more than 100 publications,
as well as of chapters 1 and 2 in the book, Ultra-wideband Radar Technology,
edited by Dr. J. Taylor (CRC Press, 2000). He is an Academician of the
Engineering Academy of Russian Federation, the International Informatization
Academy, and the International Academy of Sciences on Information and
Information Processes and Technologies. Since 1993 he is a member of Expert
Council at the Russian Federation Government. He was awarded the title
“Honored Scientist of Russian Federation” by the President of the Russian
Federation in 2000.

420 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON AEROSPACE AND ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS VOL. 41, NO. 2 APRIL 2005