Radar 2009 A - 7 Radar Cross Section 1 PDF

Radar Systems Engineering
Lecture 7 – Part 1
Radar Cross Section
Dr. Robert M. O’Donnell

IEEE New Hampshire Section
Guest Lecturer

Radar Systems Course 1
Radar Cross Section 1/1/2010 IEEE AES Society
Block Diagram of Radar System
This lecture
Transmitter
Propagation
Medium Power Waveform
Amplifier Generation
Target
T/R
Radar
Switch
Cross
Section
Antenna Signal Processor Computer
A/D Pulse Clutter Rejection

Receiver
Converter Compression (Doppler Filtering)
User Displays and Radar Control

General Purpose Computer
Parameter
Tracking Thresholding Detection
Estimation
Data
Recording
Photo Image
Courtesy of US Air Force
Used with permission.
Definition - Radar Cross Section (RCS or σ)
Figure by MIT OCW.
Radar Cross Section (RCS) is the hypothetical area, that would intercept the
incident power at the target, which if scattered isotropically, would produce
the same echo power at the radar, as the actual target.
Factors Determining RCS
Figure by MIT OCW.

Threat’s View of the Radar
Range Equation
Antenna Gain G
Transmitted Pulse
Transmit Power PT
Target Cross Section σ
Received Pulse
Figure by MIT OCW. R
Distance from Radar to Target
Radar Range Equation

Cannot Control
Can Control
S Pt G2 λ2 σ
=
N (4π)3 R4 k TS Bn L
Cannot Control

Outline
• Radar cross section (RCS) of typical targets

– Variation with frequency, type of target, etc.
• Physical scattering mechanisms and contributors to

the RCS of a target
• Prediction of a target’s radar cross section

– Measurement
– Theoretical Calculation

Radar Cross Section of Artillery Shell
RCS vs. Aspect Angle of an Artillery Shell

0
Typical Artillery Shell
-10
Radar Cross Section (dBsm)
-20
-30
-40
-50 Courtesy US Marine Corps
M107 Shell
-60 for
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
155mm Howitzer
Aspect Angle (degrees)

Radar Cross Section of Cessna 150L
Measured at RATSCAT (6585th Test Group) Holloman AFB for FAA
40
S Band
Radar Cross Section (dBsm)
VV
Polarization
20
-20
Courtesy of Federal Aviation Administration
0 90 180 270 360

Aspect Angle (degrees)
Cessna 150L (in takeoff) Cessna 150L (in flight)
Scott Studio Photography with permission Scott Studio Photography with permission

Aspect Angle Dependence of RCS
Cone Sphere Re-entry Vehicle (RV) Example
Figure by MIT OCW.

Examples of Radar Cross Sections
Square meters
Conventional winged missile 0.1
Small, single engine aircraft, or jet fighter 1
Four passenger jet 2
Large fighter 6
Medium jet airliner 40
Jumbo jet 100
Helicopter 3
Small open boat 0.02

Small pleasure boat (20-30 ft) 2
Cabin cruiser (40-50 ft) 10
Ship (5,000 tons displacement, L Band) 10,000
Automobile / Small truck 100 - 200

Bicycle 2
Man 1
Birds (large -> medium) 10-2 - 10-3
Insects (locust -> fly) 10-4 - 10-5
Adapted from Skolnik, Reference 2
Radar Cross Sections of Targets Span at least 50 dB

Outline


the RCS of a target

– Measurement

RCS Target Contributors
Inlet
Body Shape
Exhaust Seeker
Altimeter
Control Surfaces
• Types of RCS Contributors

– Structural (Body shape, Control surfaces, etc.)
– Avionics (Altimeter, Seeker, GPS, etc.)
– Propulsion (Engine inlets and exhausts, etc.)

Single and Multiple Frequency RCS
Calculations with the FD-FD Technique
• RCS Calculations for a Single Frequency

– Illuminate target with incident sinusoidal wave
– Sequentially in time, update the electric and magnetic fields, until
steady state conditions are met
– The scattered wave’s amplitude and phase can the be calculated
• RCS Calculations for a Multiple Frequencies

– Illuminate target with incident Gaussian pulse
– Calculate the transient response
– Calculate to Fourier transforms of both:
Incident Gaussian pulse, and
Transient response
– RCS at multiple frequencies is calculated from the ratios of these two
quantities

Scattering Mechanisms
for an Arbitrary Target
Diffraction at
Corner
Gap, Seam, or
Discontinuity
Echo
Specular
Multiple Surface
Curvature Reflection Reflection
Discontinuity
Return
Wave
g
v elin
Backscatter Tra
m
o f ro
from ch
E
Creeping Wave ve
Wa
Edge
Diffraction
Tip
Return Diffraction from
Tip From Fuel Tank
Diffraction at Engine Cavity
Aircraft Nose

Measured RCS of C-29 Aircraft Model
1/12 Scale
Model Full Scale C-29
Measurement BAE Hawker 125-800
Courtesy of Arpingstone
20
X-Band
Fuselage
10 Wing Leading HH Polarization
Specular
Edge Waterline Cut
RCS (dBsm)
-10
-20
-30
0 60 120 180 240 300 360

Aspect Angle (degrees) Adapted from Atkins, Reference 5
Courtesy of MIT Lincoln Laboratory
Outline


the RCS of a target

– Measurement

Techniques for RCS Analysis
Full Scale Measurements
Theoretical Prediction
Scaled Model Measurements
Used with Permission

Full Scale Measurements
Target on Support
• Foam column mounting

– Dielectric properties of Styrofoam close to those of free space
• Metal pylon mounting

– Metal pylon shaped to reduce radar reflections
– Background subtraction can be used
Derived from: http://www.af.mil/shared/media/photodb/photos/050805-F-0000S-003.jpg
Full Scale Measurement of
Johnson Generic Aircraft Model (JGAM)
RATSCAT Outdoor Measurement
Used with Permission Facility at Holloman AFB

Compact Range RCS Measurement
Radar Reflectivity Laboratory (Pt. Mugu) / AFRL Compact Range (WPAFB)
Courtesy of U. S. Navy.
Main
Reflector
Target
Plane
Wave
Low RCS
Pylon
Feed
Antenna Sub-Reflector

Scale Model Measurement
MQM-107 Drone in 0.29, 0.034, and 0.01 scaled sizes
Full Scale Scale Factor Subscale

Measure at frequency f S Measure at frequency S x F
Courtesy of MIT Lincoln Laboratory (Reduced Size)
Scaling of RCS of Targets
Scale Factor
S
Quantity Full Scale Subscale

Length L L´ = L / S
Wavelength λ λ´ = λ / S
Frequency f f´ = S f
Time t t´ = t / S
Permittivity ε ε´ = ε
Permeability μ μ´ = μ
Conductivity g g´ = S g
Radar Cross Section σ σ´ = σ / S2

Outline


the RCS of a target

– Measurement

Radar Cross Section Calculation Methods
• Introduction
– A look at the few simple problems
• RCS prediction
– Exact Techniques
Finite Difference- Time Domain Technique (FD-TD)
Method of Moments (MOM)
– Approximate Techniques
Geometrical Optics (GO)
Physical Optics (PO)
Geometrical Theory of Diffraction (GTD)
Physical Theory of Diffraction (PTD)
• Comparison of different methodologies

Radar Cross Section of Sphere
Higher Wavelengths Lower Wavelengths
10
Rayleigh Region
λ >> a
Optical σ = k / λ4
Radar Cross Section / πa2
Region
1 Mie or Resonance
λ << a Region
Oscillations
λ >> a Backscattered
Resonance or Mie
Rayleigh Region wave interferes
10-1 Region with creeping wave
Optical Region
a λ << a
10-2 σ = π a2
Surface and edge
scattering occur
10-3
0.1 0.2 0.4 0.7 1 2 4 7 10 20
Figure by MIT OCW. Circumference/ wavelength = 2πa / λ
Radar Cross Section Calculation Issues
• Three regions of wavelength
Rayleigh (λ >> a)
Mie / Resonance (λ ~ a)
Optical (λ << a)
• Other simple shapes

– Examples: Cylinders, Flat Plates, Rods, Cones, Ogives
– Some amenable to relatively straightforward solutions in some
wavelength regions
• Complex targets:
– Examples: Aircraft, Missiles, Ships)
– RCS changes significantly with very small changes in frequency
and / or viewing angle
See Ref. 6 (Levanon), problem 2-1 or Ref. 2 (Skolnik) page 57
• We will spend the rest of the lecture studying the different

basic methods of calculating radar cross sections

High Frequency RCS Approximations
(Simple Scattering Features)
Scattering Feature Orientation Approximate RCS
Corner Reflector Axis of symmetry along LOS 4 π A eff

2
/ λ2
Flat Plate Surface perpendicular to LOS 4 π A 2 / λ2
Singly Curved Surface Surface perpendicular to LOS 4 π A 2 / λ2

Doubly Curved Surface Surface perpendicular to LOS π a1 a 2
Straight Edge Edge perpendicular to LOS λ2 / π

Curved Edge Edge element perpendicular to LOS aλ/2
Cone Tip Axial incidence λ2 sin 4 (α / 2)
Where:
Adapted from Knott is Skolnik Reference 3

Radar Cross Section Calculation Issues
• Three regions of wavelength

Rayleigh (λ >> a)
Mie / Resonance (λ ~ a)
Optical (λ << a)
• Other simple shapes

– Examples: Cylinders, Flat Plates, Rods, Cones, Ogives
– Some amenable to relatively straightforward solutions in some
wavelength regions
• Complex targets:
– Examples: Aircraft, Missiles, Ships)
– RCS changes significantly with very small changes in frequency
and / or viewing angle
See Ref. 6 (Levanon), problem 2-1 or Ref. 2 (Skolnik) page 57
• We will spend the rest of the lecture studying the different

basic methods of calculating radar cross sections
RCS Calculation - Overview
• Electromagnetism Problem r
– A plane wave with electric field, E I , impinges on the target of
interest and some of the energy scatters back to the radar
antenna
r 2
ES
– Since, the radar cross section is given by: σ = lim 4 π r r 2
2
r→∞
EI
– All we need to do is user Maxwell’s Equations to calculate the

scattered electric field ES
– That’s easier said that done
– Before we examine in detail these different techniques, let’s

review briefly the necessary electromagnetism concepts and
formulae, in the next few viewgraphs

Maxwell’s Equations
• Source free region of space:

r r
→ r r ∂ B( r , t )
∇ × E(r , t ) = −
∂t
r r
→ r r ∂D(r , t )
∇ × H(r , t ) =
∂t
r r
∇ ⋅ D(r , t ) = 0
r r
∇ ⋅ B( r , t ) = 0
• Free space constitutive relations:

r r r r
D(r , t ) = ε o E(r , t ) ε o = Free space permittivity
r r r r
B( r , t ) = μ o H ( r , t ) μ o = Free space permeability

Maxwell’s Equations in Time-Harmonic Form
• Source free region:

→ r r r r
∇ × E (r ) = i ω B (r )
→ r r r r
∇ × H (r ) = − i ω D (r )
r r
∇ ⋅ D (r ) = 0
r r
∇ ⋅ B (r ) = 0
• Time dependence
r r
{
E (r , t ) = Re
r r − iω t
E (r ) e }
r r
{
H (r , t ) = Re
r r − iω t
H(r ) e }
Boundary Conditions
r r Surface
Medium 1 μ1 ε1 n̂ E1 H 1 Boundary
r r
Medium 2 μ2 ε2 E2 H 2
r r
• Tangential components of E and H are continuous:
r r
n̂ x E1 = n̂ x E 2
r r
n̂ x H 1 = n̂ x H 2
• For surfaces that are perfect conductors:
r
n̂ x E = 0
• Radiation condition:
r r 1
– As r→∞ E(r ) ∝
r
Scattering Matrix
• For a linear polarization basis Scattering Matrix - S

r ⎡ E VS ⎤ e ikr ⎡S VV S VH ⎤ ⎡ E VI ⎤
ES = ⎢ ⎥=
⎣ HS ⎦
E r
⎢S
⎣ HV S HH ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ E HI ⎥⎦
• The incident field polarization is related to the scattered field

polarization by this Scattering Matrix - S
2
σ VV = 4 π S VV
2
σ HH = 4 π S HH
2
σ VH = 4 π S VH
• For and a reciprocal medium and for monostatic radar cross
section:
σ RR , σ LL , σ RL
• For a circular polarization basis
σ VH = σ HV
Radar Cross Section Calculation Methods
• Introduction
– A look at the few simple problems
• RCS prediction
– Exact Techniques
Finite Difference- Time Domain Technique (FD-TD)
Method of Moments (MOM)
– Approximate Techniques
Geometrical Optics (GO)
Physical Optics (PO)
Geometrical Theory of Diffraction (GTD)
Physical Theory of Diffraction (PTD)
• Comparison of different methodologies

Methods of Radar Cross Section
Calculation
Approach to Determine
RCS Method Surface Currents
Finite Difference- Solve Differential Form of Maxwell’s
Time Domain (FD-TD) Equation’s for Exact Fields
Method of Moments Solve Integral Form of Maxwell’s
(MoM) Equation’s for Exact Currents
Geometrical Optics Current Contribution Assumed to Vanish
(GO) Except at Isolated Specular Points
Physical Optics Currents Approximated by Tangent
(PO) Plane Method
Geometrical Theory of Geometrical Optics with Added Edge
Diffraction (GTD) Current Contribution
Physical Theory of Physical Optics with Added Edge
Diffraction (PTD) Current Contribution

Finite Difference- Time Domain (FD-TD)
Overview
• Exact method for calculation radar cross section
• Solve differential form of Maxwell’s equations

– The change in the E field, in time, is dependent on the change in the H
field, across space, and visa versa
• The differential equations are transformed to difference equations

– These difference equations are used to sequentially calculate the E
field at one time and the use those E field calculations to calculate H
field at an incrementally greater time; etc. etc.
Called “Marching in Time”
• These time stepped E and H field calculations avoid the necessity

of solving simultaneous equations
• Good approach for structures with varying electric and magnetic

properties and for cavities

Maxwell’s Equations in
Rectangular Coordinates
∂
• Examine 2 D problem – no y dependence: =0
∂y
• Equations decouple into H-field polarization and E-field

polarization
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
HZ − H Y = εo EX EZ − E Y = −μ o HX
∂y ∂z ∂t ∂y ∂z ∂t
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
EX − EZ = − μo HY HX − H Z = εo EY
∂z ∂x ∂t ∂z ∂x ∂t
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
HY − H X = εo EZ EY − E X = −μ o HZ
∂x ∂y ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂t
• H-field polarization • E-field polarization

H Y EX EZ EY H X H Z
Maxwell’s Equations in
Rectangular Coordinates
∂
• Examine 2 D problem – no y dependence: =0
∂y
• Equations decouple into H-field polarization and E-field

polarization
=0 =0
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
HZ − H Y = εo EX EZ − E Y = −μ o HX
∂y ∂z ∂t ∂y ∂z ∂t
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
EX − EZ = − μo HY HX − H Z = εo EY
∂z ∂x ∂t ∂z ∂x ∂t
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
HY − H X = εo EZ EY − E X = −μ o HZ
∂x ∂y ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂t
=0 =0
• H-field polarization • E-field polarization

H Y EX EZ EY H X H Z
Discrete Form of Maxwell’s Equations
HY Yee’s
• H-field polarization: EZ
Ex Lattice
∂ ∂
− μo H Y (x, y , t ) = E X (x, y , t ) (2-D)
∂t ∂z
z
∂
− E Z (x, y , t )
∂x y x
• Discrete form:
μo ⎡ ⎛ ΔX ΔZ ΔT ⎞ ⎛ ΔX ΔZ Δ T ⎞⎤
− ⎢ Y⎜ o
H x + , z + , t + ⎟ − H Y⎜ o
x + , z + , t − ⎟⎥
ΔT
o o o o
⎣ ⎝ 2 2 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 2 2 ⎠⎦
1 ⎡ ⎛ ΔX ⎞ ⎛ ΔX ⎞⎤
= E ⎜
⎢ X ox + , z + Δ , t ⎟ − E ⎜ x + , z , t o ⎟⎥
ΔZ
o Z o X o o
⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎦
1 ⎡ ⎛ ΔZ ⎞ ⎛ ΔZ ⎞⎤
− E ⎜
⎢ Z ox + Δ , z + , t ⎟ − E ⎜ x , z + , t o ⎟⎥
ΔX
X o o Z o o
⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎦
• Electric and magnetic fields are calculated alternately by the
marching in time method

FD-TD Calculations and Absorbing
Boundary Conditions (ABC)
⎛1⎛ ∂ ∂ ⎞ 1 ∂ ⎞⎟
1st Order ABC ⎜ ⎜⎜ ⎟
Absorbing Boundary ⎜ 2 ∂ z + ∂ x ⎟ + c ∂ t ⎟ Hy = 0
⎝ ⎝ ⎠ ⎠
HY
Scattered Field EZ
Ex
Total Field
Target
E TAN = 0
Domain of Computation
2nd Order ABC

Layer Perfectly Matched Perfect Conductor ⎛ 1 ∂2 1 ∂2 1 ∂2 ⎞
⎜⎜ + 2 2− ⎟ Hy = 0
2 ⎟
⎝c ∂x ∂t c ∂t 2 ∂x ⎠
• Absorbing Boundary Condition (ABC) Used to Limit Computational Domain
– Reflections at exterior boundary are minimized
– Traditional ABC’s model field as outgoing wave to estimate field quantities outside
domain
– More recent perfectly matched layer (PML) model uses non-physical layer, that
absorbs waves
RCS Calculations Using the FD-TD Method
• Single frequency RCS calculations

– Excite with sinusoidal incident wave
– Run computation until steady state is reached
– Calculate amplitude and phase of scattered wave
• Multiple frequency RCS calculations

– Excite with Gaussian pulse incident wave
– Calculate transient response
– Take Fourier transform of incident pulse and transient
response
– Calculate ratios of these transforms to obtain RCS at multiple
frequencies
From Atkins, Reference 5


Description of Scattering Cases on Video
Finite Difference Time Domain (FDTD) Simulations
Case 1 – Plate I Case 2 – Plate II Case 3 – Plate III

Ei Hi Ei
Ei
Hi
15 deg 15 deg
Hi
Case 4 – Cylinder I Case 5 – Cylinder II Case 6 – Cavity

Ei
Ei Hi Ei Hi Hi
Courtesy of MIT Lincoln Laboratory Used with Permission

FD-TD Simulation of Scattering by Strip
• Gaussian pulse plane wave incidence
Case 1 • E-field polarization (Ey plotted)
• Phenomena: specular reflection
0.5 m
Ey
4m
Courtesy of
MIT Lincoln Laboratory

Case 1
Courtesy of

FD-TD Simulation of Scattering by Strip
Case 1
Courtesy of

FD-TD Simulation of Scattering by Cylinder
• Gaussian pulse plane wave incidence
• H-field polarization (Hy plotted)
Case 5 • Phenomena: creeping wave
0.5 m
Hy
2m
Courtesy of

Case 5
Courtesy of

FD-TD Simulation of Scattering by Cylinder
Case 5
Courtesy of

Backscatter of Short Pulse from Sphere
Specular
Return
Creeping Wave Return
Radius of sphere is equal

to the radar wavelength
Figure by MIT OCW.


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Radar Systems Engineering

Dr. Robert M. O’Donnell

IEEE New Hampshire Section

A/D Pulse Clutter Rejection

User Displays and Radar Control

Figure by MIT OCW.

Figure by MIT OCW.

IEEE New Hampshire Section

Radar Range Equation

IEEE New Hampshire Section

• Radar cross section (RCS) of typical targets

• Physical scattering mechanisms and contributors to

• Prediction of a target’s radar cross section

IEEE New Hampshire Section

RCS vs. Aspect Angle of an Artillery Shell

-50 Courtesy US Marine Corps

IEEE New Hampshire Section

0 90 180 270 360

IEEE New Hampshire Section

Figure by MIT OCW.

IEEE New Hampshire Section

Small open boat 0.02

Automobile / Small truck 100 - 200

Radar Cross Sections of Targets Span at least 50 dB

• Radar cross section (RCS) of typical targets

• Physical scattering mechanisms and contributors to

• Prediction of a target’s radar cross section

IEEE New Hampshire Section

• Types of RCS Contributors

IEEE New Hampshire Section

• RCS Calculations for a Single Frequency

• RCS Calculations for a Multiple Frequencies

IEEE New Hampshire Section

IEEE New Hampshire Section

0 60 120 180 240 300 360

• Radar cross section (RCS) of typical targets

• Physical scattering mechanisms and contributors to

• Prediction of a target’s radar cross section

IEEE New Hampshire Section

Full Scale Measurements

IEEE New Hampshire Section

• Foam column mounting

• Metal pylon mounting

IEEE New Hampshire Section

IEEE New Hampshire Section

MQM-107 Drone in 0.29, 0.034, and 0.01 scaled sizes

Full Scale Scale Factor Subscale

Quantity Full Scale Subscale

Radar Cross Section σ σ´ = σ / S2

IEEE New Hampshire Section

• Radar cross section (RCS) of typical targets

• Physical scattering mechanisms and contributors to

• Prediction of a target’s radar cross section

IEEE New Hampshire Section

IEEE New Hampshire Section

• Other simple shapes

• We will spend the rest of the lecture studying the different

IEEE New Hampshire Section

Scattering Feature Orientation Approximate RCS

Corner Reflector Axis of symmetry along LOS 4 π A eff

Singly Curved Surface Surface perpendicular to LOS 4 π A 2 / λ2

Straight Edge Edge perpendicular to LOS λ2 / π

Adapted from Knott is Skolnik Reference 3