Structure of atom

An Indian Philosopher Maharishi kanad posulated that if we go on dividing matter

(padarth), we shall ultimately get smallest particles beyond which further division
will not be possible .He named these particles as Parmanu.
*Greek philosophers Democritus and Leucippus suggest that if we go on dividing
matter ,a stage will come when particle obtained cannot be divided further.
*The word ‘atom’has been derived from the Greek word ‘a-tomio’ meaning
uncuttable or non -divisible .
*The first definite theory about the structure of matter was put forward by John
Dalton .According to his theory ,all matter are composed of extremely small
particles called Atoms.
Posulates of Daltons atomic theory –
1. All matter consists of indivisible particles called atoms.
2. Atoms of the same element are similar in shape and mass, but differ from
the atoms of other elements.
3. Atoms cannot be created or destroyed.
4. Atoms of different elements may combine with each other in a fixed,
simple, whole number ratios to form compound atoms.

5. Atoms of same element can combine in more than one ratio to form two or
more compounds.
6.The atom is the smallest unit of matter that can take part in a chemical
reaction
Drawbacks of Dalton's Atomic Theory
 The indivisibility of an atom was proved wrong: an atom can be further
subdivided into protons, neutrons and electrons. However an atom is the
smallest particle that takes part in chemical reactions.
 According to Dalton, the atoms of same element are similar in all respects.
However, atoms of some elements vary in their masses and densities.
 These atoms of different masses are called isotopes. For example, chlorine
has two isotopes with mass numbers 35 and 37.
 Dalton also claimed that atoms of different elements are different in all
respects. This has been proven wrong in certain cases: argon and calcium
atoms each have an atomic mass of 40 amu. These atoms are known as
isobars.
 According to Dalton, atoms of different elements combine in simple whole
number ratios to form compounds. This is not observed in complex organic
compounds like sugar (C12H22O11).
 The theory fails to explain the existence of allotropes; it does not account
for differences in properties of charcoal, graphite, diamond.

Merits of Dalton's Atomic Theory

 The atomic theory explains the laws of chemical combination (the Law of
Constant Composition and the Law of Multiple Proportions).
 Dalton was the first person to recognize a workable distinction between the
fundamental particle of an element (atom) and that of a compound
(molecule).
Symbols representing Atom proposed by Dalton:-
 .

Cathode rays – Discovery of electron

Scientist William crooks (in 1879),Julius Plencker (in 1889) studied the electrical
conduction through gases at low pressure .A discharge tube is a long glass tube
having two metal pates sealed at each end .The metal plates are known as
electrodes.The plate which is connected to the positive terminal of the battery is
known as anode (positive electrode) and the electrode which is connected to
negative terminal of the battery is called cathode(negative electrode).The
discharge tube had a side tube through which air and other gases from the tube is
pumped out by a vacuum pump.The following observation were made
1.When the pressure inside the discharge tube is at 1 atmosphere and 10,000
volts ,DC is applied to the electrode ;electricity did not flow through the air in the
discharge tube.
2.When the pressure inside the discharge tube is reduced to 10-4 atmosphere with
high voltage ,electricity began to flow through air , an invisible rays moved from
negative electrode to positive electrode and rays were called cathode rays.

Properties of cathode rays

a.they travel in straight line away from the cathide with high velocity.
b. A shadow of metallic object placed in the path is cast on walls opposite to the
cathode.

c.they produced green glow when strike the glass walls beyond anode .Light is
emitted when they strike fluorescent zinc sulphide screen .
d.They produce heat energy and deflected by electric and magnetic field .These
are deflected towards the positively charged plate indicating cathode rays are
negatively charged particle .A cathode ray produced mechanical effect ,when a
small pin wheel is placed in then , the blades of the wheel rotates showing
cathode rays are beam of particles having mass and kinetic energy.
e. The nature of cathode rays doesn’t depends on the nature of gas taken in the
discharge tube on material of the cathode.
f.In 1897,J.J.Thomson determined the e/m value (charge mass ratio) of the
cathode rays obtained from different gases and found to be exactly showing that
atoms of all kind contain the same negative particles . the negatively charged
particles present in the cathode rays are called electrons .
g.The charge on single electron was found to be -1.602× 10-19coulomb .As
electron had the smallest charge knows ; it was thus designated as unit negative
charge .This means that the electron has one unit negative charge ( – 1.6×10-19 C).
1
h.Mass of electron was determined as 9.1×10-31 kg. ,which is nearly equals to
1837
times to mass of Hydrogen atom.
POSITIVE RAYS – Anode rays -Discovery of Proton
After the discovery of electrons ,scientists started looking for positively charged
particles because matter is electrically neutral under ordinary conditions.
Goldstein (in 1886) discovered positive particles .He used cathode with several
holes (perforations) in the discharging tube.When high potentials were applied
between electrodes ,in addition to cathode rays ,but also a new type rays were
produced simultaneously from node moving towards cathode and passed through
the holes or canals of the cathode .These were named as Canal rays and also as
anode rays as originated from anode.
Properties of anode rays (Positive rays) –
1.Anode rays travels in straight lines as cathode rays .
2,Anode rays produced mechanical effects i.e. rotated the light pin paddle placed
in their path .
3.Anode rays are positively charged .They were deflected towards the negative
plate of the electric field .
4 The nature of the anode rays depends on the nature of gas taken in the
discharging tube i.e.positive particles are different for different gas .
Characteristics of a proton –
The charge mass ratio was maximum when hydrogen gas was taken in the
discharging tube .This shows that the positive ion formed when hydrogen is
lightest.This particle was named as Proton by Rutherford in 1911.
a.charge on proton is + 1.6 × 10-19C.(i.e. unit positive charge ).
b.mass of the proton is 1.672×10-27kg.
When the high voltage applied to the gas at low pressure ,the electrical energy
split the gas atoms into negatively charged particles,electrons and positively
charged particles.These negative and positive particles conduct electricity at low
pressures.
Discovery of neutron –
Rutherford (in 1920) suggested that in an atom a third type of the fundamental
particle which should be electrically neutral and possessing mass nearly equal to
proton are proposed the name for such fundamental as neutrons.
In 1932 ,Chadwick bombarded Beryllium with α particles when penetrating
radiations which were not affected by electric and magnetic field ,which were
called Neutrons .The nuclear reactions is written as
9
4 Be + 24He → 12
6 C + 0
1
n
 The mass of neutron was 1.675×10-27 kg (nearly equals to mass of proton).
 All atoms except hydrogen are compose of these three fundamental
particles .

Atomic Mass

Protons and neutrons have approximately the same mass, about 1.67 × 10-
24
grams. Scientists define this amount of mass as one atomic mass unit
(amu) or one Dalton. Although similar in mass, protons are positively
charged, while neutrons have no charge. Therefore, the number of
neutrons in an atom contributes significantly to its mass, but not to its
charge.
Electrons are much smaller in mass than protons, weighing only 9.11 × 10-
28
grams, or about 1/1800 of an atomic mass unit. Therefore, they do not
contribute much to an element’s overall atomic mass. When considering
atomic mass, it is customary to ignore the mass of any electrons and
calculate the atom’s mass based on the number of protons and neutrons
alone.

Electrons contribute greatly to the atom’s charge, as each electron has a

negative charge equal to the positive charge of a proton. Scientists define
these charges as “+1” and “-1. ” In an uncharged, neutral atom, the number
of electrons orbiting the nucleus is equal to the number of protons inside
the nucleus. In these atoms, the positive and negative charges cancel each
other out, leading to an atom with no net charge.

Exploring Electron Properties: Compare the behavior of electrons to that

of other charged particles to discover properties of electrons such as
charge and mass.

Volume of Atoms

Accounting for the sizes of protons, neutrons, and electrons, most of the
volume of an atom—greater than 99 percent—is, in fact, empty space.
Despite all this empty space, solid objects do not just pass through one
another. The electrons that surround all atoms are negatively charged and
cause atoms to repel one another, preventing atoms from occupying the
same space. These intermolecular forces prevent you from falling through
an object like your chair.

Rutherford Alpha Ray Scattering Experiment

Some basic information that will help you understand Rutherford

experiment properly:-

 Proton is a sub-atomic particle which is positively charged and has a

mass of 1u.
  Alpha particles are helium atom with a charge of +2 as they have lost

2 electrons.

 Alpha particles have an atomic mass of 4u.

 Gold is highly malleable and can be beaten into very thin sheets.

Experiment

Rutherford conducted his experiment in the following way:

 Rutherford took a very thin gold foil and bombarded it with high

energy alpha particles.

 He placed a layer of zinc sulphide on the walls where

the experiment was taking place because when alpha particles

 strike zinc sulphide layer, it results in illumination. This helped to

determine the path of the alpha particles.

Observations

After the conducting the experiment, Rutherford observed the following:

1. Most of the alpha particles passed without any deflection.

2. Some of the rays faced minor and major reflections.

3. One out of 12000 rays retraced its path.

Conclusion

Most of the space inside the atom is empty as most of the alpha rays

passed through the foil without any deflection.

 There is a dense and heavy particle at the centre of the atom known

as the nucleus which is positively charged.

 Most of the mass of an atom is concentrated in this nucleus.

 Nucleus in an atom is like a small cricket ball kept at the centre of a

large cricket field.

 All protons of an atom lie in the nucleus.

 The positive charge of the nucleus is due to the presence of protons.

Rutherford's Model
He proposed that atom consists 2 parts:

1. Nuclear Part: Containing the nucleus which comprises of protons and

electrons.

2. Extra Nuclear Part: Contains electron revolving around the nucleus.

Drawbacks

 Rutherford could not explain the stability of the atom.

 Rutherford could not explain the line spectrum of energy.

 If an atom revolves around the nucleus in a spiral path it will radiate

energy and in 10^ -8 seconds, the electron will collide with the nucleus,

destroying the atom, but this doesn't happen as matter exist.

Atomic Number and Mass Number

The atomic number is the number of protons in an element, while the mass
number is the number of protons plus the number of neutrons.

Key Points

 Neutralatoms of each element contain an equal number of protons and

electrons.
 Thenumber of protons determines an element’s atomic number and is
used to distinguish one element from another.
 The number of neutrons is variable, resulting in isotopes, which are
different forms of the same atom that vary only in the number of
neutrons they possess.
 Together,
the number of protons and the number of neutrons determine
an element’s mass number.
 Since an element’s isotopes have slightly different mass numbers, the
atomic mass is calculated by obtaining the mean of the mass numbers
for its isotopes.

Atomic Number
Neutral atoms of an element contain an equal number of protons and
electrons. The number of protons determines an element’s atomic number
(Z) and distinguishes one element from another. For example, carbon’s
atomic number (Z) is 6 because it has 6 protons. The number of neutrons
can vary to produce isotopes, which are atoms of the same element that
have different numbers of neutrons. The number of electrons can also be
different in atoms of the same element, thus producing ions (charged
atoms). For instance, iron, Fe, can exist in its neutral state, or in the +2 and
+3 ionic states.

What is an Isotope?

Isotopes are various forms of an element that have the same number of
protons but a different number of neutrons. Some elements, such as
carbon, potassium, and uranium, have multiple naturally-occurring
isotopes. Isotopes are defined first by their element and then by the sum of
the protons and neutrons present.

 Carbon-12 (or 12C) contains six protons, six neutrons, and six
electrons; therefore, it has a mass number of 12 amu (six protons and
six neutrons).
  Carbon-14 (or 14C) contains six protons, eight neutrons, and six
electrons; its atomic mass is 14 amu (six protons and eight neutrons).

While the mass of individual isotopes is different, their physical and

chemical properties remain mostly unchanged.

Isotopes do differ in their stability. Carbon-12 (12C) is the most abundant of

the carbon isotopes, accounting for 98.89% of carbon on Earth. Carbon-14
(14C) is unstable and only occurs in trace amounts. Unstable isotopes most
commonly emit alpha particles (He2+) and electrons. Neutrons, protons, and
positrons can also be emitted and electrons can be captured to attain a
more stable atomic configuration (lower level of potential energy ) through a
process called radioactive decay. The new atoms created may be in a high
energy state and emit gamma rays which lowers the energy but alone does
not change the atom into another isotope. These atoms are called
radioactive isotopes or radioisotopes.

Radiocarbon Dating

Carbon is normally present in the atmosphere in the form of gaseous

compounds like carbon dioxide and methane. Carbon-14 (14C) is a
naturally-occurring radioisotope that is created from atmospheric 14N
(nitrogen) by the addition of a neutron and the loss of a proton, which is
caused by cosmic rays. This is a continuous process so more 14C is always
being created in the atmosphere. Once produced, the 14C often combines
with the oxygen in the atmosphere to form carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide
produced in this way diffuses in the atmosphere, is dissolved in the ocean,
and is incorporated by plants via photosynthesis. Animals eat the plants
and, ultimately, the radiocarbon is distributed throughout the biosphere.

In living organisms, the relative amount of 14C in their body is approximately

equal to the concentration of 14C in the atmosphere. When an organism
dies, it is no longer ingesting 14C, so the ratio between 14C and 12C will
decline as 14C gradually decays back to 14N. This slow process, which is
called beta decay, releases energy through the emission of electrons from
the nucleus or positrons.

After approximately 5,730 years, half of the starting concentration of 14C will
have been converted back to 14N. This is referred to as its half-life, or the
time it takes for half of the original concentration of an isotope to decay
back to its more stable form. Because the half-life of 14C is long, it is used
to date formerly-living objects such as old bones or wood. Comparing the
ratio of the 14C concentration found in an object to the amount of 14C in the
atmosphere, the amount of the isotope that has not yet decayed can be
determined. On the basis of this amount, the age of the material can be
accurately calculated, as long as the material is believed to be less than
50,000 years old. This technique is called radiocarbon dating, or carbon
dating for short.

Application of carbon dating: The age of carbon-containing remains less

than 50,000 years old, such as this pygmy mammoth, can be determined
using carbon dating.

Other elements have isotopes with different half lives. For example, 40K
(potassium-40) has a half-life of 1.25 billion years, and 235U (uranium-235)
has a half-life of about 700 million years. Scientists often use these other
radioactive elements to date objects that are older than 50,000 years (the
limit of carbon dating). Through the use of radiometric dating, scientists can
study the age of fossils or other remains of extinct organisms.

2. Isobars-
atoms of different elements with different atomic numbers which have the
same mass number are known as Isobars.

For example, consider two elements calcium and argon which have 20 and
18 as their atomic number respectively but they both have same mass
number that is 40.

Differences between isotope and Isobars:-

1. isotopes have different mass numbers because they have different numbers
of neutrons whereas Isobars have different atomic numbers because they have
different numbers of protons.

2.Isotopes occur at the same place in periodic table whereas Isobars occur at
different places in the Periodic Table.
3.ISOTONES - atoms of different elements with different atomic numbers and
different atomic mass but have the same number of neutrons are known as
Isotones.
For example - 36
S, Cl, 38Ar, 39K, and 40Ca having atomic numer 16 to 20
37

respectively.
Isoelectronicity - is the phenomenon of two or more chemical species
(atoms, molecules, radicals, ions , etc.) differing in the atoms that comprise
them but having the same number of valance electrons and the same
structure (that is, the same number of atoms with the same
connectivity). The species concerned are called as isoelectronic species.
+ 2+
For example – Ne,Na ,Mg etc .
Bohr’s atomic model –
To overcome the objections of Rutherford model of atom ,and to explain the
stability of an atom .Neil Bohr (in 1913) proposed new arrangement of electrons.
The important theories are
1.An atom consists of three subatomic particles electrons ,protons and neutrons
.The atom is electrically neutral containing equal number of positively and
negatively charged electrons.
2.Negatively charged electrons are revolving around the nucleus at the centre of
the atom containing the protons and neutrons .The force of attraction between
the nucleus and the electron is equal to centrifugal force of the moving electron.
3.The electrons revolve around the nucleus in fixed circular orbits called energy
levels or shells.The energy level or shells are represented either by numbers
1,2,3,4,5,6 etc.,or by the alphabet K,L,M,N,O,P etc from the nucleus outward.
4. Each energy level (or shell ) is associated with fixed amount of energy .The shell
nearest to the nucleus having minimum energy and the shell for away from the
nucleus having maximum energy.
5.An electron remains in any one of the shell or orbit ,it does not loose
energy.Such a state is called group state or normal state .
6.An electron can go from a lower energy level to a higher energy level to a higher
energy level if it gain the extra energy .An electron may come down from a higher
energy level to a lower energy level by loosing energy.

The Arrangement of Electrons in Different Orbits

The shells begin from the centre and gradually move outwards. So K shell will
always have minimum energy. Similarly, L shell is a little away from nucleus so it
will have higher energy than K shell. The outermost shell will have maximum
energy. Now it is important to understand the distribution and arrangement of
electrons in the atoms of any elements in the different energy levels.
An atom of any element is most stable when it has minimum energy. An atom will
first fill the lowest energy level so as to attain the state of minimum energy.
Gradually, the electrons will fill the higher energy levels. Therefore, electrons will
first fill K shell, then L shell, M shell, N shell, and so on.

Electronic Configuration of Elements

According to the postulate of Neils Bohr, “electrons revolve around the centre of an
atom (nucleus) in a predictable pathway named orbits”. The representation of the
orbits is done by letters and numbers such as K, L, M, N, O…. and 1,2,3,4….
respectively. The arrangement and distribution of electrons in different orbits was
given by Bohr and Bury.

The arrangement of electrons in different shells and sub-shells is known as the

electronic configuration of a particular element. The electronic configuration diagram
represents an element in its ground state or stable state. There are a set of rules to
remember while distribution off electrons in different orbits.

 Rule 1: The maximum number of electrons present in a particular shell is

calculated by the formula 2n2, where “n” represents the shell number. For
instance, K shell is the first shell and it can hold up to 2(1)2 = 2 electrons.
Similarly, L shell is the second shell and it can hold up to 2(2)2 = 8 electrons.
This formula helps to calculate the maximum number of electrons that an orbit
can accommodate.
 Rule 2: The maximum capacity to hold electrons in the outermost shell is 8.
 Rule 3: The electrons will fill the inner shells before the outer shells. First
electrons will fill the K-shell and then L shell and so on. Thus, electronic
configuration of elements follows an ascending order.
Examples of the Electronic Configuration

1) Helium
The atomic number of the element = 2. The total number of electrons present in
Helium = 2. The maximum number of electrons in K shell (1st orbit) = 2. Therefore,
shells needed = 1.

Electronic Configuration of Helium

2) Lithium
The atomic number of the element = 3. Lithium has 3 electrons. We can apply rule
number 3 to fill the electrons in different in different orbits. The maximum number of
electrons accommodated in K shell (1st orbit) will be 2. The second orbit will
accommodate rest of the electrons. Electronic configuration of Lithium= 2, 1.
Therefore, the total number of shells required = 2.
Electronic Configuration of Lithium

3) Oxygen
The atomic number of the element = 8. Oxygen has 8 electrons. The maximum
number of electrons accommodated in the K shell (1st orbit) will be 2. The second
orbit will accommodate rest of the electrons left (6 electrons). Electronic
configuration of Oxygen = 2, 6. Therefore, the total number of shells required = 2
(1st and 2nd shell/orbit).

Electronic Configuration of Oxygen

4) Chlorine
The atomic number of the element= 17. Chlorine has 17 electrons. The maximum
number of electrons accommodated in the K shell (1st orbit) will be 2. The second
orbit will fill up to 8 electrons. Finally, The third orbit will accommodate rest of the
electrons left. Electronic configuration of Chlorine = 2, 8, 7. Therefore, the total
number of shells required = 3 (1st, 2nd, and 3rd shell).

Electronic Configuration of Chlorine

5) Argon
The atomic number of the element= 18. Argon has 18 electrons. The maximum
number of electrons accommodated in K shell is 2. The second orbit will fill up to 8
electrons. The third orbit can fill up to 18 electrons and it will accommodate left
electrons of the element. Electronic configuration of Argon = 2, 8, 8. Therefore, the
total number of shells = 3.
Electronic Configuration of Argon

Uses of the Electronic Configuration

 Electronic Configuration helps to understand the structure of periodic table with

respect to each element.
 It also helps in understanding and explanation of the chemical bonds between
the atoms.
 It explains the different properties and peculiar properties of certain elements.
For example, electronic configuration explains the reason for the unique
properties of lasers and semiconductors.

Importance of the Electronic Configuration

The electronic configuration is very important and basic part of understanding

chemistry. It forms the basis of the periodic table. Additionally, the stability of any
orbital will depend upon the electronic configuration of that element. It also helps us
to understand the arrangement of elements in different periods and groups.

Electronic Distribution of First 18 Elements

Electronic
configuration

Atomic No. of
Element Symbol Shells Valency
Number Electrons

K L M N

Hydrogen H 1 1 1 1
Helium He 2 2 2 0

Lithium Li 3 3 2 1 1

Beryllium Be 4 4 2 2 2

Boron B 5 5 2 3 3

Carbon C 6 6 2 4 4

Nitrogen N 7 7 2 5 3

Oxygen O 8 8 2 6 2

Fluorine F 9 9 2 7 1

Neon Ne 10 10 2 8 0
Sodium Na 11 11 2 8 1 1

Magnesium Mg 12 12 2 8 2 2

Aluminum Al 13 13 2 8 3 3

Silicon Si 14 14 2 8 4 4

Phosphorus P 15 15 2 8 5 3

Sulphur S 16 16 2 8 6 2

Chlorine Cl 17 17 2 8 7 1

Argon Ar 18 18 2 8 8 0

Q: Find the Electronic Configuration of Potassium (K).

1. 2,8,8,4
2. 2,8,8,1
3. 2, 8, 7
4. 2,8,8,3
Ans: The correct answer is option 2 (2, 8, 8, 1).

Solution: Atomic number of the potassium = 19. Potassium has 18 electrons.

Applying rule number 3, the maximum number of electrons accommodated in K
shell is 2. After filling the first orbit, the second orbit will consist of 8 electrons.
Although it can fill up to 18 electrons the 3rd orbit will fill up to 8 electrons.

The reason behind the arrangement of electrons in such a manner is due to the
presence of subshells. An atom always tends to remain in its stable state.
Furthermore, it is necessary to arrange the electrons in the sub-shells in such a way
that the element gains stability to attain the lowest energy level.

There are separate principles to fill the electrons in its subshells. Hence, the fourth
orbit will accommodate the one electron left. Thus, the Electronic configuration of
potassium = 2, 8, 8, 1