Week 3, 4 and 5 Lecture Notes (DC Generators and Related Topics)

DC Generator
A generator is a machine which converts mechanical energy (or power) into electrical energy
(or power). Hence a DC generator is a machine which converts mechanical power into DC
power.
1.1 Construction of a DC Generator

A practical DC generator consists of the following main parts:
1. The outer magnetic Frame or Yoke
2. Poles and Field Windings
3. Armature and Armature Conductors
4. Commutator or Split-rings
5. Brushes and Bearings
1.1.1 The outer magnetic frame or Yoke
The outer magnetic frame is known as yoke, as shown in Fig. 1. It performs two functions:
1. It provides physical support to the poles (or pole pieces) and also acts as a protective
covering for the whole machine
2. It carries the magnetic flux produced by the poles
Fig. 1: Cross-sectional view of a DC machine
1.1.2 Poles and Field Windings
Poles are actually the field magnets that project inward from the inner surface of the yoke.
They produce magnetic flux and consist of two parts:
1. Pole core, and
2. Pole shoe
The exposed surface of a pole shoe is called the pole face, as shown in Fig. 2. The distance
between the pole face and the armature (rotating part of a DC generator) is called the air gap.
Pole (shoe) performs two functions:
i. They support the field windings, and
ii. They also spread out magnetic flux in the air gap
Poles may either be permanent magnet type (having no field windings) or electromagnetic
type having field windings wound on them. When DC is passed through these field windings,
they electromagnetize the poles which in turn produce the necessary magnetic flux that is cut
by the revolving armature conductors.
Fig. 2: Pole of a DC machine
1.1.3 Armature and Armature Conductors
Armature is the rotating part of a DC machine (both generator and motor). It is a cylindrical
or drum-shaped structure and is made up of circular steel sheets or laminations as shown in
Fig. 3. All these laminations are insulated from one another by thin varnish coating.
The purpose of laminating the armature core is to reduce the eddy current loss i.e. the loss
due to the current induced in the armature core. Because when armature rotates in the
magnetic flux of the poles, current is induced in it (in addition to the current induced in the
rotating armature conductors) called the induced current or eddy current. Now due to
armature core, being one continuous solid piece, the armature cross-sectional area is large but
have a small resistance (R=ρL/A). Hence a large emf and current induced in it causing a large
I2R-loss or eddy current loss. But when the same armature core is made up of laminations,
insulated from one another by thin varnish coating, each lamination has a very small cross-
sectional area but a very large resistance. Hence a small emf and (eddy) current is induced in
it causing a small I2R-loss or eddy current loss.
There are slots on the outer periphery of the armature which house the armature conductors.
Moreover, the armature of DC generator (and hence rotor of an AC generator) is rotated
mechanically by another machine called the Prime Mover.
The armature conductors consist of copper wires and are placed into the armature slots.
Various armature conductors are insulated from one another and also form the armature core
(same is the case with field windings i.e. various field windings are insulated from one
another and also from the pole core).
Note: Periphery means boundary (especially of a round surface).
Fig. 3: Armature lamination of a DC machine
1.1.4 Commutator or Split Rings
Remember that actually AC is induced in the rotating armature conductors of a DC generator.

So the commutator acts as mechanical rectifier and converts this AC into DC in the external
load circuit.
The commutator is a cylindrical shaped structure and is usually made up of V-shaped or
wedge-shaped copper segments of very high electrical conductivity. Various segments are
insulated from one another by thin mica sheets. The number of commutator segments is equal
to the number of armature coils. Each commutator segment is connected to the armature
conductor by means of a copper lug or strip or riser.
Note: A coil may be a single-turn coil (consisting of two conductors only with a single
conductor per coil side) or a multi-turn coil (consisting of many conductors per coil side). In
case of a multi-turn coil, it is wrapped with a tape as a single unit and is then placed into the
armature slot.
1.1.5 Brushes and Bearings
The brushes are made up of carbon, graphite, metal graphite or a mixture of carbon and
graphite and are mostly rectangular-shaped structures. They have a high electrical
conductivity to reduce electrical losses and a low coefficient of friction to reduce excessive
wear.
The brushes slide on the commutator surface and their function is to collect DC from the
commutator and supply it to an external load (in case of a DC generator), or to supply
external DC from a source to armature conductors (in case of a DC motor). They are
deliberately made of much softer material than that of the commutator segments, so that the
commutator surface will experience very little wear. The choice of brush hardness is a
compromise: If the brushes are too soft, they will have to be replaced too often; but if they
are too hard, the commutator surface will wear excessively over the life of the machine.
Bearings facilitate the free rotation of the armature about an axis. They reduce the friction
and make the operation (rotation) quieter. A complete armature is shown in Fig. 4.
Note: A best example of a DC generator is a dynamo commonly used for powering bicycle
head light. In this particular case, the DC generator possesses permanent magnet poles
(having no field windings) and the armature is rotated mechanically by the wheel of the
bicycle (acting as a prime mover).
Fig. 4: Complete armature of a DC machine
References:
[1] B. L. Theraja, and A. K. Theraja, A Text Book of Electrical Technology, Volume II. S. Chand &
Company Ltd., 2008, Page: 890-894.
[2] S. J. Chapman, Electric Machinery Fundamentals, 5th ed. McGraw Hill, 2012, Page:449- 454.
1.2 Working Principle of a DC Generator

A DC generator works on the principle of Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction. That
is, an alternating emf is induced in the rotating armature conductors (called the dynamically
or motionally induced emf) when they cut the stationary magnetic flux of the poles.
1.3 Definition of Various Terms Associated with Armature Winding

The various terms associated with armature winding of a DC machine are as follows:
1.3.1 Commutator Pitch — YC
The distance between the commutator segments (in terms of commutator segments) to which
the two ends of a coil are connected is called the commutator pitch and is representaed by YC.
If the finishing end of a coil (or a set number of coils, for wave construction) is connected
to a commutator segment ahead of the one its starting end is connected to, the winding is
called a progressive winding as shown in Fig. 8(a). If the finishing end of a coil is
connected to a commutator segment behind the one its starting end is connected to, the
winding is called a retrogressive winding as shown in Fig. 8(b). If everything else is identical,
the direction of rotation of a progressive-wound armature will be opposite to the direction of
rotation of a retrogressive-wound armature.
References:
Company Ltd., 2008, Page: 898.
[2] S. J. Chapman, Electric Machinery Fundamentals, 5th ed. McGraw Hill, 2012, Page: 423, 452.
1.3.2 Pole Pitch
The angular distance between the centers of two adjacent (opposite) poles is called a pole
pitch. This angular distance (pole pitch) is either measured in terms of mechanical angle θm,
or then electrical angle θe.
In terms of mechanical angle θm, pole pitch is given as:
𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 3600 (𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙)
𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑃𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ = =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑃
While, in terms of electrical angle θe, a pole pitch is always 1800 electrical, regardless of the
number of poles (P) of a machine. That is:
𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑃𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ = 1800 (𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙) … 𝑅𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 (𝑃)
The mechanical and electrical angles are interrelated as:
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝜃𝑒
(𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒)𝜃𝑚 = =
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠/2
𝜃𝑒
or 𝜃𝑚 =
𝑃/2
Pole pitch is sometimes also defined as, the number of armature conductors per pole.
Mathematically:
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 𝑍
𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑃𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ = =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑃
Example:
Consider a 4-pole DC generator having16 slots in its armature with 2 conductors per slot, as
shown in Fig. 5.
Fig. 5: A 4-pole DC machine
Now, in terms of mechanical angle, θm, pole pitch is calculated as follows:

3600 (𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙) 3600
𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑃𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ = = = 900 (𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙)
𝑃 4
While, in terms of electrical angle, θe, pole pitch is calculated as follows:
𝑃 900 × 4
𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑃𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ = 𝜃𝑚 × = = 1800 (𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙)
2 2
References:
[2] S. J. Chapman, Electric Machinery Fundamentals, 5th ed. McGraw Hill, 2012, Page: 640.
[3] T. Wildi, Electrical Machines, Drives and Power Systems, 5th ed. Prentice Hall, 2002, Page: 285.
1.3.3 Coil Pitch or Coil Span — YS
The angular distance between the two sides of a coil (in terms of electrical angle) is called coil pitch
or coil span. It is represented by symbol YS.
Coil pitch is sometimes also defined as, the distance between the two sides of a coil in terms
of armature slots. Mathematically:
(𝐶𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑃𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ)𝑌𝑠
= |𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙
− 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙|
Consider the armature of a DC machine, as shown in Fig. 6.
Fig. 6: Armature of a DC machine
Where one side (say starting end) of coil A is in slot 1 whereas its other end (finishing end) is
in slot 5. Then by definition:
(𝐶𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑃𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ)𝑌𝑠 = |1 − 5| = |5 − 1| = 4
In practice, the coil pitch must be a whole number and it is approximately equal to the
number of armature slots per pole. That is:
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑠
(𝐶𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑃𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ)𝑌𝑠 ≅
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 (𝑃)
In the above example, a very small number of slots have been chosen for simplicity. In actual
machines, the number of slots per pole usually lies between 10 and 15 and the coil span Ys is
slightly less than the value given by the previous expression.
References:
[2] J. Hiley, K. Brown, and M. Smith, Hughes Electrical and Electronic Technology, 10th ed. Pearson
Education Limited, 2008, Page: 858.
[3] T. Wildi, Electrical Machines, Drives and Power Systems, 5th ed. Prentice Hall, 2002, Page: 89, 285.
1.3.4 Full-Pitched Coil
If the coil pitch is equal to the pole pitch, then the coil is said to be a full-pitched coil.
In case of a full-pitched coil, the two sides of that coil are 1800 electrical apart i.e. one pole
pitch apart. In other words, one side of the coil lies under the center of a N-pole whereas the
other side lies under the center of adjacent S-pole. Under such a condition, the emfs in the
two coil sides are exactly the same in magnitude and are in phase all the times. Hence, they
are additive and a maximum emf is induced in the coil as a whole.
References:
Company Ltd., 2008, Page: 896, 1410-1411.
Education Limited, 2008, Page: 741-742.
[4] A. E. Fitzgerald, J. Charles Kingsley, and S. D. Umans, Electric Machinery, 6th ed. McGraw Hill,
2003, Page: 187-188.
1.3.5 Short-Pitched Coil or Fractional-Pitched Coil or Chorded Coil
If the coil pitch is less than the pole pitch, then the coil is said to be a short-pitched coil or a
fractional pitched coil or a chorded coil.
Under such a condition, the emfs in the two coil sides are slightly out of phase. Hence, a
slightly less emf is induced in the coil as a whole (because the resultant vectorial sum of the
two emfs is less than their arithmetic sum).
The coil pitch (or coil span) YS of a fractional-pitched coil is often expressed as a fraction of
the pole pitch it spans. As explained in the following example:
Example:
Consider the situation as shown in Fig. 7.
Fig. 7: A lap-wound armature of DC machine
Where the two coil sides are placed in slot 1 and 7, and in this arrangement the coil is full-
pitched (i.e. pole pitch= coil pitch= 1800 electrical). Now if the two coil sides are placed in
slot 1 and 6 then the coil is not full-pitched, rather it is short-pitched. This short-pitched coil
is called 5/6 pitched-coil, which means that it is 5/6 of a pole pitch, or it falls short from full-
pitched condition by 1/6 of the pole pitch.
Now the coil pitch (or coil span) YS of this 5/6 pitched-coil will be:
5 5
Coil pitch of pitched coil = × 1800 (𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙) = 1500 (𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙)
6 6
The angle by which a coil falls short from the pole pitch or from the full-pitched condition, is
called chording angle (α).
So the angle by which the 5/6 pitched-coil falls short from the pole pitch, or from the full-
pitched condition will be:
(Chording Angle)α = 1800 − 1500 = 300 (𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙)
Or
1
(Chording Angle) α = × 1800 (𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙) = 300 (𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙)
6
Generally coil pitch (or coil span) YS lies between 80% and 100% of the pole pitch. The coil
pitch is usually made less than the pole pitch (often one slot less than the pole pitch),
deliberately, for the following advantages:
1. In order to save copper and hence to reduce cost and weight of the machine
2. To improve the flux distribution in the air gap
3. To improve the waveform of the generated emf so that it is sinusoidal
4. To partially or wholly eliminate the high frequency distorting harmonics in the
generated emf wave of AC machines
5. In case of 2-pole machines, the shorter pitch also makes the coils much easier to insert
or place in the slots
6. Due to elimination of high frequency harmonics, eddy current losses and hysteresis
losses are reduced thereby increasing the efficiency
7. Sometimes a small amount of chording (short-pitching) is helpful in armature
windings to improve commutation
References:
Company Ltd., 2008, Page: 896, 1410-1411.
[3] S. J. Chapman, Electric Machinery Fundamentals, 5th ed. McGraw Hill, 2012, Page: 422, 640.
2003, Page: 187-188.
1.4 Types of Armature Winding
1.4.1 Types of Armature Winding Based On The Plex Or Multiplicity (m) Of The
Winding
The armature windings are sometimes classified according to their plex or multiplicity
(represented by m). Such as:
A simplex armature winding consists of a single, complete, closed set of winding wound on
armature. For simplex winding, m=1.
A duplex armature winding consists of two, complete, closed and independent sets of
windings wound on armature. For duplex winding, m=2. If the armature has a duplex
winding, then each of the windings will be connected to every second commutator segment:
One winding will be connected to commutator segments 1, 3, 5 etc., and the other winding
will be connected to commutator segments 2, 4, 6 etc.
A triplex armature winding consists of three, complete, closed and independent sets of
windings wound on armature. For triplex winding, m=3. If the armature has a triplex winding,
then each of the windings will be connected to every third commutator segment.
Collectively, all armatures with more than one complete, closed and independent sets of
windings are said to have multiplex windings.
The plex or multiplicity, m, of the winding affects the number of parallel paths (represented
by A) for current flow between the brushes in the armature winding. For a given number of
armature slots and coils, as the multiplicity increases, the number of parallel paths increases
thereby increasing the current rating but decreasing the voltage rating.
References:
[2] S. J. Chapman, Electric Machinery Fundamentals, 5th ed. McGraw Hill, 2012, Page: 423-424.
1.4.2 Types of Armature Winding Based On Their End Connections To The

Commutator (Segments)
There are two types of armature winding based on their end connections to the commutator
(segments):
1. Lap Winding, and
2. Wave Winding
Both winding can be arranged progressively or retrogressively.
1.4.2.1 Lap Winding
In lap winding, the two ends of any one coil are connected to the adjacent commutator
segments.
OR
In lap winding, the finishing end of one coil is connected to the starting end of the adjacent
coil at the adjacent commutator segment.
As shown in Fig 8.
Fig. 8: (a). Progressive Simplex Lap Winding, (b). Retrogressive Simplex Lap Winding
Generally, for an m-plex lap winding, the commutator pitch YC is given by:
+𝑚 … 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝐿𝑎𝑝 𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑌𝐶 = ±𝑚 = {
−𝑚 … 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑅𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝐿𝑎𝑝 𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔
Hence
+1 … 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑆𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑥 𝐿𝑎𝑝 𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔: 𝑌𝐶 = ±1 = {
−1 … 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑅𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
For example, for the situation shown in Fig. 8(a) and (b):
𝑌𝐶 = (𝐶 + 1) − 𝐶 = 1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐹𝑖𝑔. 8(𝑎)
𝑌𝐶 = 𝐶 − (𝐶 + 1) = −1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐹𝑖𝑔. 8(𝑏)
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝐷𝑢𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑥 𝐿𝑎𝑝 𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔: 𝑌𝐶 = ±2 = {
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑇𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑥 𝐿𝑎𝑝 𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔: 𝑌𝐶 = ±3 = {
And so on.
Generally, the number of parallel paths, A, for a lap-wound armature (winding) is given by:
𝐴 = 𝑚𝑃
Where
m= Plex of the winding (i.e. 1, 2, 3 etc. for simplex, duplex, triplex winding etc.,
respectively)
P= No of poles of the DC machine
Hence
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑆𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑥 𝐿𝑎𝑝 𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔: 𝐴 = 𝑃

That is, there are as many parallel current paths through the simplex lap winding as there are
poles on the machine.
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝐷𝑢𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑥 𝐿𝑎𝑝 𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔: 𝐴 = 2𝑃
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑇𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑥 𝐿𝑎𝑝 𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔: 𝐴 = 3𝑃
And so on.
References:
1.4.2.2 Wave Winding
In wave winding, the two ends of any one coil are bent in the opposite direction and are then
connected to the commutator segments some distance apart. As shown in Fig. 9.
Figure 9: Progressive Simplex Wave Winding
Generally, for a simplex wave winding, the commutator pitch YC is given by:
(2𝐶 ± 1) + 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 … 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑊𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑌𝐶 = ={
𝑃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 … 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑅𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑊𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔
Where:
C= No. of armature coils
P= No. of poles
Generally, the number of parallel paths, A, for a wave-wound armature is given by:
𝐴 = 2𝑚
Where
respectively)
Hence
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑆𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑥 𝑊𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔: 𝐴 = 2

That is, there are two parallel current paths through the simplex wave winding.
References:
1.4.3 Types of Armature Winding Based on Their Layers
There are two types of armature winding based on their layers:

1. Single Layer Armature Winding
2. Two Layer Armature Winding
1.4.3.1 Single Layer Armature Winding
In single layer armature winding, one coil side is placed in each armature slot. Such a
winding is not much used. As shown in Fig. 10.
Figure 10: Single Layer Armature Winding
1.4.3.2 Two Layer Armature Winding
In two layer armature winding, two coil sides (from two different coils) are placed in each
armature slot. Mostly this type of winding is used in real DC machines.
One side of each of the coils is placed in the bottom (lower half) of one slot, and then after all
the bottom sides are in place, the other side of each of the coil is placed in the top (upper half)
of some other slot, at a distance of approximately one pole pitch apart. As shown in Fig. 11.
In this fashion, all the windings are woven together, increasing the mechanical strength and
uniformity of the final structure.
The transfer of coil from one slot to another is usually made in a radial plane by means of a
peculiar bend or twist at the back ends. As shown in Fig. 12.
Fig. 11: A simple two-pole DC machine with a lap-wound, two-layer armature winding
Fig. 12: Back connections of a two-layer armature winding
References:
Example 41.1 (Home Assignment)

(Hughes Electrical and Electronic Technology, 10th Edition, Page: 859).
An eight-pole armature is wound with 480 conductors. The magnetic flux and the speed are
such that the average emf generated in each conductor is 2.2 V, and each conductor is capable
of carrying a full-load current of 100 A. Calculate the terminal voltage on no load, the output
current on full load and the total power generated on full load when the armature is:
(a) Lap-connected
(b) Wave-connected.
1.4.4 Applications of Lap Winding and Wave Winding
Generally, the number of parallel paths, A, for an armature winding is given by:
𝐴 = 𝑚𝑃 … 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝐿𝑎𝑝 − 𝑤𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝐴𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝐴 = 2𝑚 … 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑊𝑎𝑣𝑒 − 𝑤𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝐴𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔
Where
respectively)
P= No of poles of the DC machine
Since there are more parallel paths between the (positive and negative) carbon brushes in the
armature winding for current flow, in case of lap winding hence it can be concluded that lap
winding is suitable for high-current, low-voltage (small) DC machines. On the other hand,
wave winding is suitable for low-current, high-voltage (large) DC machines.
References:
1.5 Induced or Generated EMF Equation of DC Generator

When an armature is rotated through one revolution, each conductor cuts the magnetic flux
emerging from all the N-poles and also that entering all the S-poles. Now if:
Φ= Useful flux per pole, entering or leaving the armature, Webers
P= Number of poles
N= Speed of armature, rev/min or rpm
Z= Total number of armature conductors
Hence, according to Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction, average emf generated per
armature conductor in anyone parallel path during one revolution of armature will be:
𝑑Φ
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑒𝑚𝑓 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
𝑑𝑡
𝑍𝑑Φ
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑒𝑚𝑓 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 "𝑍" 𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
𝑑𝑡
Where:
dΦ= Magnetic flux cut by one armature conductor during one revolution of armature (i.e.
change in magnetic flux when an armature conductor moves through one revolution)
dΦ= ΦP
While:
dt= time taken for one revolution of armature
dt= (60/N) seconds
Now:
Φ𝑃𝑁
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑒𝑚𝑓 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
60
𝑍Φ𝑁𝑃
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑒𝑚𝑓 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 "𝑍" 𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
60
Hence:
𝑍Φ𝑁𝑃
(𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑒𝑚𝑓 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑟𝑢𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑠)𝐸𝑔 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
60𝐴
Where:
Z/A= Number of armature conductors, in series, per parallel path

(Hughes Electrical and Electronic Technology, 10th Edition, Page: 860-861).
A four-pole wave-connected armature has 51 slots with 12 conductors per slot and is driven
at 900 r/min. If the useful flux per pole is 25 mWb, calculate the value of the generated emf.

(Hughes Electrical and Electronic Technology, 10th Edition, Page: 861).
An eight-pole lap-connected armature, driven at 350 r/min, is required to generate 260 V. The
useful flux per pole is about 0.05 Wb. If the armature has 120 slots, calculate a suitable
number of conductors per slot.

(A Text Book of Electrical Technology, Volume II. S. Chand & Company Ltd., 2008, Page: 915).
A four-pole generator, having wave-wound armature winding has 51 slots, each slot
containing 20 armature conductors. What will be the voltage generated in the machine when
driven at 1500 rpm assuming the flux per pole to be 0.7 mWb?

An eight-pole DC generator has 500 armature conductors, and a useful flux of 0.05 Wb per
pole. What will be the emf generated if it is lap-connected snd runs at 1200 rpm? What must
be the speed at which it is to be driven to produce the same emf it is wave-connected?
Assume a current of 1 A per parallel path.
Example 26.11(a) (Home Assignment)

An 8-pole DC shunt-generator with 778 wave-connected armature conductors and running at
500 rpm supplies a load of 12.50 Ω resistance at a terminal voltage of 50 V. The armature
resistance is 0.24 Ω and the field resistance is 250 Ω. Find the armature current, the induced
emf and the flux per pole.
Example 26.11(b) (Home Assignment)

A 4-pole lap-connected armature of a DC shunt-generator is required to supply the loads
connected in parallel. That is:
1. A 5 kW Geyser at 250 V, and
2. A 2.50 kW Lighting load at 250 V
The generator has an armature resistance of 0.2 Ω and a field resistance of 250 Ω. The
armature has 120 conductors in the slots and runs at 1000 rpm. Allowing 1 V per brush for
contact drops and neglecting friction, find:
3. Flux per pole, and
4. Armature current per parallel path

A separately-excited DC generator when running at 1000 rpm supplied 200 A at 125 V. What
will be the load current when the speed drops to 800 rpm, while the field current remains
unchanged? Given that the armature resistance is 0.04 Ω and brush voltage drop is 2 V.

A 4-pole, 900 rpm DC machine has a terminal voltage of 220 V and an induced voltage of
240 V at rated speed. The armature circuit resistance is 0.2 Ω. Is the machine running as a
generator or a motor? Compute the armature current and the number of armature coils if the
air-gap flux per pole is 10 mWb and the armature turns per coil are 8. The armature is wave-
wound.

A 4-pole, long-shunt lap-wound generator supplies 25 kW at a terminal voltage of 500 V.
The armature resistance is 0.03 Ω, series-field resistance is 0.04 Ω and shunt-field resistance
is 200 Ω. The brush voltage drop may be taken as 1 V. Determine the emf generated. Also
calculate the number of armature conductors if the speed is 1200 rpm and flux per pole is
0.02 Weber. Neglect armature reaction.

A 4-pole, lap-wound, DC shunt-generator has a useful flux per pole of 0.07 Webers. The
armature winding consists of 220 turns each of 0.004 Ω. Calculate the terminal voltage when
the generator is running at 900 rpm with an armature current of 50 A.

A 4-pole, DC shunt-generator with a shunt field resistance of 100 Ω an armature resistance of
1 Ω, has 378 wave-connected conductors in its armature. The flux per pole is 0.02 Webers. If
a load resistance of 10 Ω is connected across the armature terminals and the generator is
driven at 1000 rpm, calculate the power absorbed by the load.
Example 26.20(b) (Home Assignment)

A four-pole, lap-wound shunt generator has 300 armature conductors and flux per pole of 0.1
Webers. It runs at 1000 rpm. The armature and field resistances are 0.2 Ω and 125 Ω
respectively. Calculate the terminal voltage when it is loaded to take a load current of 90 A.
Ignore armature reaction.
Example 26.21(d) (Home Assignment)

A short-shunt, compound generator supplies 200 A at 100 V. The resistance of armature,
series-field and shunt-field windings are 0.04, 0.03 60 Ω, respectively. Find the mf generated.
Also find the emf generated when the same machine is connected as a long-shunt generator.

(A Text Book of Electrical Technolgy, Volume II. S. Chand & Company Ltd., 2008, Page: 928).
A shunt-generator delivers 195 A at a terminal potential difference of 250 V. The armature
resistance and shunt-field resistance are 0.02 Ω and 50 Ω, respectively. The iron and friction
losses are equal to 950 W. Find:
1. emf generated
2. Copper losses
3. Output of the prime mover
1.6 Equivalent Circuit of a DC Generator

The equivalent circuit of a DC generator is shown in Fig. 13, and a simplified version of the
equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 14.
Fig. 13: Equivalent Circuit of a DC Generator
Where:
Ra = Resistance of the armature winding (circuit)
Ia = Armature current
Ea = Internally induced or generated emf in the armature winding
Rf = Resistance of the field winding
Lf = Inductance of the field winding
If = Field current or field excitation
Vf = Voltage across the field winding
Radj = Adjustable or variable resistor (rheostat) to vary the field excitation
A1A2 = Terminals of the armature winding (circuit)
VT = Terminal voltage or output voltage of the generator
Vbrush = Voltage drop in the carbon brushes
F1F2 = Terminals of the field winding
Fig. 14: Simplified equivalent circuit of a DC Generator

In the simplified equivalent circuit of a DC generator, shown in Fig. 14, the variable
resistance, Rf, combines the resistances of the field winding and the variable control resistor
Radj. Similarly, the resistance Ra combines the resistances of the brushes and the armature
winding.
References:
1.7 Types of DC Generators (Machines)

Basically there are two types of DC generators (machines) according to the way in which
their field windings are excited (or energized or given DC supply):
1. Separately-excited DC Generators
2. Self-excited DC Generators
The self-excited DC generators are further subdivided into:
a). Series-wound DC Generators
b). Shunt Wound DC Generators
c). Compound-wound DC Generators
1.7.1 Separately-excited DC generators
In separately-excited DC generators, the field windings are energized from a separate

external source of DC, independent of the generator itself. As shown in Fig. 15 and 16.
Figure 15: Separately-excited DC Generator
Figure 16: Equivalent Circuit of Separately-excited DC Generator
References:
[1] S. J. Chapman, Electric Machinery Fundamentals, 5th ed. McGraw Hill, 2012, Page: 526, 528-529.
2003, Page: 361.
1.7.2 Self-excited DC Generators
In self-excited DC generators, the field windings are energized from its own (DC output of
the) armature windings. This type of generator has a distinct advantage over the separately
excited DC generator in the sense that no external power supply is required for energizing the
field winding. But that leaves an important question unanswered: If the generator supplies its
own field current, how does it get the initial field flux to start when it is first turned on?
The question to the above answer is that due to residual magnetism, there is always present
some magnetic flux in the (iron of the) poles called residual magnetic flux. So when armature
rotates some emf, and hence, current is induced in armature conductors which are partly or
fully passed through the field windings, thereby strengthening the residual pole flux.
References:
2003, Page: 361-362.
1.7.2.1 Series-wound DC Generators
In series-wound DC generators, the field windings are connected in series with the armature
winding. As shown in Fig. 17.
Fig. 17: Series-wound DC Generator

Since the armature winding carries a much higher current than the shunt-field winding, (i.e.
Ia>>Ish), the series-field winding in a DC generator of this sort will have only a very few
turns of wire, and the wire used will be much thicker than the wire used in a shunt-field
winding. Because magnetomotive force is given by the equation mmf= NI, exactly the same
magnetomotive force can be produced from a few turns with high current as can be produced
from many turns with a low current. Since the full-load current flows through it, a series-
field winding is designed to have the lowest possible resistance.
References:
2003, Page: 361-362.
1.7.2.2 Shunt-wound DC Generators
In shunt-wound DC generators, the field windings are connected in parallel with the armature
winding (or across the terminals of the armature winding). As shown in Fig. 18 and 19.
Fig. 18: A Shunt-wound DC Generator
Fig. 19: A Shunt-wound DC Generator
References:
2003, Page: 362.
[5] T. Wildi, Electrical Machines, Drives and Power Systems, 5th ed. Prentice Hall, 2002, Page: 80-81.
1.7.2.3 Compound-wound DC Generators
In compound-wound DC generators, both the shunt-field winding and the series-field

winding exist. Now there are two possible connections of the two field-windings: a short-
shunt connection and a long shunt-connection. In a short-shunt connection, the series-field
circuit is outside the shunt-field circuit. Moreover, only load current, IL, flows through it
instead of the full armature current, Ia. On the other hand in a long-shunt connection, the
series-field circuit is inside the shunt-field circuit and full armature current, Ia, flows through
it.
If the series field (mmf) and the shunt field (mmf) are in the same direction, the two are
additive and such a generator is said to be a commutatively-compound. On the other hand, if
the series field (mmf) and the shunt field (mmf) are in the opposite direction, the two are
subtractive and such a generator is said to be a differentially-compound. But remember, both
the cumulatively compounded DC generator and the differentially compound DC generator
can be connected in either long-shunt or short-shunt manner.
The dots appearing on the two field windings have the same meaning as the dots appearing
on a transformer. That is, current flowing into a dot produces a positive magnetomotive force
and vice versa.
Fig. 20 shows a cumulatively compound DC generator with a long-shunt connection.
Fig. 20: Cumulatively-compound DC Generator with a long-shunt connection

Notice that the armature current, Ia, (i.e. the series-field current, Is) flows into the dotted end
of the series-field winding. Similarly, the shunt-field current, Ish, flows into the dotted end of
the shunt-field winding. Therefore, the net magnetomotive force on this machine is given by:
𝑚𝑚𝑓𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑚𝑚𝑓𝑠ℎ + 𝑚𝑚𝑓𝑠 − 𝑚𝑚𝑓𝐴𝑅
Where:
mmfnet = Net mmf
mmfsh = mmf of the shunt-field winding
mmfs = mmf of the series field winding
mmfAR = mmf due to armature reaction
F1F2 = Terminals of the shunt-field winding
C1C2 = Terminals of the series-field winding
A1A2 = Terminals of the armature winding (circuit)
Fig. 21 and 22, shows a cumulatively-compound DC generator with a short-shunt connection.
Fig. 21: Cumulatively-Compound DC Generator with a short-shunt connection
Fig. 22: Equivalent Circuit of Cumulatively-Compound DC Generator with a short-shunt connection

The net magnetomotive force on this machine is given by:
𝑚𝑚𝑓𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑚𝑚𝑓𝑠ℎ + 𝑚𝑚𝑓𝑠 − 𝑚𝑚𝑓𝐴𝑅
Fig. 23, shows a differentially-compound DC generator with a long-shunt connection.

Fig. 23: Differentially-compound DC Generator with a long-shunt connection
Notice that the armature current, Ia, (i.e. the series-field current, Is) flows out of the dotted
end of the series-field winding. On the other hand, the shunt-field current, Ish, flows into the
dotted end of the shunt-field winding. Therefore, the net magnetomotive force on this
machine is given by:
𝑚𝑚𝑓𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑚𝑚𝑓𝑠ℎ − 𝑚𝑚𝑓𝑠 − 𝑚𝑚𝑓𝐴𝑅
References:
[3] S. J. Chapman, Electric Machinery Fundamentals, 5th ed. McGraw Hill, 2012, Page: 543-544, 547-
549.
2003, Page: 364.
1.8 Power Losses in DC Machines

The total power losses occurring in a DC machine can be classified into the following
categories:
1. Copper or I2R-Losses
2. Iron or Core or Magnetic Losses
3. Mechanical Losses
4. Stray Losses or Miscellaneous Losses
Generally, power losses cause heating of the machine thereby limiting the machine’s output power,
and hence its efficiency.
1.8.1 Copper or I2R-Losses
Copper losses are the losses occurring in armature winding and field winding of a DC
machine. The copper losses are further subdivided into:
i. Armature copper loss (Pa= Ia2Ra)
ii. Series-field copper loss (Ps= Is2Rs)
iii. Shunt-field copper loss (Psh= Ish2Rsh= VTIsh)
Where:
P = Power loss, Watts
Ia = Armature current, Amperes
Is = Series-field current, Amperes
Ish = Shunt-field current, Amperes
Ra = Armature (winding) resistance, Ohms
Rs = Series-field winding resistance, Ohms
Rsh = Shunt-field winding resistance, Ohms
The series-field copper loss occurs in the series–field winding (in case of a series-wound DC
generator and a compound-wound DC generator) and is considered as variable loss because the
series-field current, Is, is variable (dependent upon load i.e. IL↑: Is↑ and vice versa). The shunt-field
copper loss occurs in the shunt–field winding (in case of a shunt-wound DC generator and a
compound-wound DC generator) and is considered as constant loss because the terminal voltage, VT
(which is also the voltage across the shunt-field winding, Vf) varies very little (remains almost
constant) when the load varies. Hence, the shunt-field current, Ish, remains practically constant
(independent of load).
There is also another very small power loss in the brushes, as follows:
a). Due to the contact resistance between the sliding brushes and the commutator
segments
 Mathematically the power loss in the brushes due to contact resistance between the
sliding brushes and the commutator segments, Pb, is given by:
𝑃𝑏 = 𝑉𝑏 𝐼𝑏 = 𝑉𝑏 𝐼𝑎
Where:
Vb = Voltage drop in the brushes due to contact resistance, Volt
Ib = Brush current, Ampere
Ia = Armature current, Ampere
 This loss depends upon the quality of the brushes. For carbon brushes, the voltage
drop between a brush and the commutator, over a wide range of current, is usually
about 1 V per positive set of brushes and 1 V per negative set of brushes, so that the
total contact-resistance drop, in watts, is approximately twice the armature current, Ia.
b). Due to friction between the sliding brushes and the commutator segments
 This loss depends upon the total brush pressure, the coefficient of friction and the
peripheral speed of the commutator
The brush-commutator power losses are usually included in the armature copper loss (Pa=
Ia2Ra).
The copper or I2R-losses cause heating of the armature (winding) and field windings thereby
limiting the machine’s output power, and hence its efficiency.
References:
Education Limited, 2008, Page: 873, 907-909.
525.
1.8.2 Iron or Core or Magnetic Losses
These are the losses occurring in the (iron) core of armature and are subdivide into:
i. Eddy current loss
ii. Hysteresis loss
1.8.2.1 Eddy Current Loss
When armature rotates in the magnetic flux of the poles, emf is induced in its body or core (in
addition to the emf induced in the rotating armature conductors) according to Farady’s Law
of Electromagnetic Induction. This emf, though small in magnitude, induces a very large
circulating current in the armature core due to its small resistance. This induced current is
called the eddy current and (the I2R) power loss due to this current is called the eddy current
loss.
Eddy current loss is minimized by laminating the armature core. Eddy-current loss can also
be minimized considerably by choosing a higher resistivity material for armature core. For
example, manufacturing armature core from a silicon–iron alloy (consisting of usually about
4 % of silicon) considerably reduces the eddy current loss due to its much higher electrical
resistivity than that of ordinary steel.
Mathematically the eddy current loss is given by:
2
𝑃𝑒 = 𝐾𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑓 2𝑡2𝑉 2
Where:
Pe = Eddy current loss, Watts
K = A constant
Bmax = Maximum value of magnetic flux density, Teslas
f = Frequency of magnetic reversals, Hertz
t = Thickness of each lamination, meters
V = Volume of armature core, square meters
References:
Education Limited, 2008, Page: 681-682, 873, 907-909.
525.
1.8.2.2 Hysteresis Loss
This loss occurs due to the reversal of magnetization of the armature core. Because when
armature rotates in the magnetic flux of the poles, every portion of it passes under N and S
pole alternately, thereby attaining S and N polarity, respectively. This results in a power loss
in the armature core, known as hysteresis loss.
The core undergoes one complete cycle of magnetic reversal when it passes under one pair of
poles. If P is the number of poles and N is the speed of armature in rpm, then the frequency of
magnetic reversals, in Hz, is given by:
𝑃𝑁
𝑓=
120
Or
120𝑓
𝑁=
𝑃
According to Charles Steinmetz, mathematically the hysteresis loss is given by:
𝑥
𝑃ℎ = 𝜂𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑓𝑉
Where:
η = A constant called Steinmetz Coefficeint or Hysteresis Coefficient
x = 1.50 – 2.50, depending upon the grade (or quality) of the steel
Ph = Hysteresis loss, Watts
Bmax = Maximum value of magnetic flux density, Teslas
f = Frequency of magnetic reversals, Hertz
V = Volume of armature core, square meters
Hysteresis loss depends upon the grade or quality of steel used in armature core and can be
minimized by choosing a high grade steel having a low hysteresis coefficient (η). For
example, it can be minimized by choosing special heat treated silicon steel sheets (called
stalloys) for armature core which not only have a low hysteresis coefficient (η) but also a
higher electrical resistivity.
Note that practically iron or core or magnetic losses are constant for a shunt-wound DC
machine because the shunt field current, Ish, is approximately constant.
Both the hysteresis and eddy current losses cause heating of the armature core thereby
limiting the machine’s output power, and hence its efficiency.
References:
Education Limited, 2008, Page: 681-682, 904, 906-909.
525.
1.8.3 Mechanical Losses
The mechanical losses in a DC machine are the losses associated with mechanical effects.
There are two basic types of mechanical losses:
i. Friction losses
ii. Windage Losses
The mechanical losses remain practically constant (independent of load).

1.8.3.1 Friction Losses
Friction losses are the losses caused by the friction of the bearings in the machine. It is
roughly proportional to the speed of armature, N.
1.8.3.2 Windage Losses
Windage losses are caused by the friction between the moving parts of the machine and
the air inside the machine's casing. It is proportional to the cube of speed of armature, N.
The mechanical and core losses of a machine are often lumped together and are called the no-
load rotational loss of the machine.
1.8.4 Stray Losses
Stray losses are the losses that cannot be placed in any of the previous categories. No matter
how carefully losses are accounted for, some losses always escape inclusion in any of the
above categories. All such losses are lumped into stray losses.
For example, an effect of armature reaction is to distort the main flux such that the flux
density at certain points of the armature core is increased; consequently the core loss is also
increased. This core loss is then called stray loss.
For most machines, stray loss is usually neglected as it is difficult to estimate its value or then
it is taken by convention to be 1% of the full load losses.
References:
[3] S. J. Chapman, Electric Machinery Fundamentals, 5th ed. McGraw Hill, 2012, Page: 185, 456, 524-
525.
Note: (Important for calculation of efficiency of a DC machine)

For a shunt-wound DC machine, the magnetic losses (i.e. iron or core losses), the mechanical
losses and the shunt-field copper losses are constant and are collectively known as constant
power losses, Pc. On the other hand, the armature copper loss, I2aRa, is called the variable
power loss because the armature current, Ia, varies with the load current, IL.
Hence, for a shunt-wound DC generator:
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 = 𝐴𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 + 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
𝑃𝑇 = 𝐼𝑎2 𝑅𝑎 + 𝑃𝑐
𝑃𝑇 = (𝐼𝑠ℎ + 𝐼𝐿 )2 𝑅𝑎 + 𝑃𝑐
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 = 𝑉𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 + 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
Where:
PT = Total power losses
Ish = Shunt-field current
IL = Load current
Ra = Resistance of armature winding
Pc = Constant power losses
References:
1.9 Efficiency of a DC Machine (Generator)

Generally efficiency means, the ratio of output power to the input power. It is denoted by a
Greek letter eta i.e. η. Mathematically it is given by:
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
(𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦)𝜂 = =
𝑃𝑖𝑛 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
Now if:
IL = Output current or load current
Ish = Shunt-field current
Ia = Armature current
Ra = Resistance of the armature winding including the brush contact resistance
VT = Terminal voltage of the generator or the load voltage
Pc = Constant power losses
Then:
Pout = VTIL
Pin = Pout + Total power losses= VTIL + (Variable power loss+ Constant power losses)
= VTIL + I2aRa+ Pc
So the efficiency will be:

𝑉𝑇 𝐼𝐿
𝜂=
𝑉𝑇 𝐼𝐿 + 𝐼𝑎2 𝑅𝑎 + 𝑃𝑐
1.9.1 Condition for Maximum Efficiency of a DC Machine (Generator)
As for a shunt-wound DC generator:

𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼𝐿 + 𝐼𝑠ℎ
Let us assume:
That the shunt-field current, Ish, is negligible compared with the armature current, Ia, at load
corresponding to maximum efficiency. Such that:
𝐼𝑎 = 0 + 𝐼𝐿
Now we can write:
𝑉𝑇 𝐼𝐿 𝑉𝑇 𝐼𝑎
𝜂= =
𝑉𝑇 𝐼𝐿 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 + 𝑃𝑐 𝑉𝑇 𝐼𝑎 + 𝐼𝑎2 𝑅𝑎 + 𝑃𝑐
2
𝑉𝑇 𝐼𝑎 1
𝜂= ( )
𝑉𝑇 𝐼𝑎 1 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 + 𝑃𝑐
𝑉𝑇 𝑉𝑇 𝐼𝑎
1
𝜂=
𝐼 𝑅 𝑃
1 + 𝑎𝑉 𝑎 + 𝑉 𝑐𝐼
𝑇 𝑇 𝑎
This efficiency is a maximum when the denominator of the above equation is a minimum,
namely when:
𝑑 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 𝑃𝑐
(1 + + )=0 (1)
𝑑𝐼𝑎 𝑉𝑇 𝑉𝑇 𝐼𝑎
𝑅𝑎 𝑃𝑐
0+ − =0
𝑉𝑇 𝑉𝑇 𝐼𝑎2
𝐼𝑎2 𝑅𝑎 = 𝑃𝑐
That is:
𝑉𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠
Note:
The condition for the numerator to be a minimum, and therefore the efficiency to be a
maximum, is that the left-hand side of equation (1), when differentiated with respect to Ia,
should be positive. Thus:
𝑑 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 𝑃𝑐 𝑅𝑎 𝑃𝑐
(1 + + )=0+ −
𝑑𝐼𝑎 𝑉𝑇 𝑉𝑇 𝐼𝑎 𝑉𝑇 𝑉𝑇 𝐼𝑎2
𝑅 𝑃𝑐
Since 𝑉𝑎 > 𝑉 2 , this quantity is positive, it follows that the expression (𝐼𝑎2 𝑅𝑎 = 𝑃𝑐 ) represents
𝑇 𝑇 𝐼𝑎
the condition for maximum efficiency of the DC generator i.e. the efficiency of the DC
generator is a maximum when the load is such that the variable power loss is equal to the
constant power loss.
Precisely the same conclusion can be derived for a DC motor.
References:
1.10 Commutation
Commutation is the process of conversion of AC induced in the rotating armature
(conductors) of a DC generator into DC at its output terminals.
Recall that emf and hence current induced in the armature conductors of a DC generator are
alternating in nature. Hence, the commutator acts as a mechanical rectifier and converts this
induced AC into DC at the generator’s output terminals.
Consider a simple 2-pole DC machine having an armature winding consisting of four single
turn coils, placed in four armature slots, as shown in Fig. 24. There are four commutator
segments (a, b, c and d) and two carbon brushes x and y. The unprimed numbers represent the
outermost conductors (say the finishing ends of the coils) in each slot, while the primed
numbers represent the innermost conductors (say the starting ends of the same coils) in the
slots directly opposite. The pole faces of the machine are curved to provide a uniform air-gap
width and to give a uniform flux density everywhere under the pole faces.
Figure 24: A 2-pole DC generator (at an angle 𝝎𝒕 = 𝟎°)
Notice that:
Coil 11' stretches between commutator segments a and b
Coil 22' stretches between commutator segments b and c
Coil 33' stretches between commutator segments c and d
Coil 44' stretches between commutator segments d and a
Case 1
Now when 𝜔𝑡 = 0°, the emfs induced in each armature coil will have the polarities, as shown
in Fig. 25.
Figure 25: Polarities of emfs induced in armature coils (at an angle 𝝎𝒕 = 𝟎°)
So when 𝜔𝑡 = 0°, the resultant emf induced in four armature coils, and available at the
brushes, will be:
𝐸𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 4𝑒 (𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑠 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑟𝑢𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑠)
Case 2
When 𝜔𝑡 = 45° (𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 45° 𝑖𝑛 𝐶𝐶𝑊 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛) as shown in
Fig. 26, the emfs induced in each armature coil will have the polarities, as shown in Fig. 27.
Figure 26: A 2-pole DC generator (at an angle 𝝎𝒕 = 𝟒𝟓°)

Figure 27: Polarities of emfs induced in armature coils (at an angle 𝝎𝒕 = 𝟒𝟓°)
brushes, will be:
Notice that at this instant, the brushes of the machine are shorting out commutator segments
ab and cd. This happens just at the time when the coils between these segments have 0 V
across them, so shorting out the segments creates no problem.
Case 3
When 𝜔𝑡 = 90° (𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 90° 𝑖𝑛 𝐶𝐶𝑊 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛) as shown in
Fig. 28, the emfs induced in each armature coil will have the polarities, as shown in Fig. 29.
Figure 28: A 2-pole DC generator (at an angle 𝝎𝒕 = 𝟗𝟎°)

Figure 29: Polarities of emfs induced in armature coils (at an angle 𝝎𝒕 = 𝟗𝟎°)
brushes, will be:
No comparing the figures for 𝜔𝑡 = 0° case and 𝜔𝑡 = 90° case, we find that the voltages in
coil 1 and 3 have reversed their polarities, but since their connections have also reversed,
the total voltage is still being built up in the same direction as before. This fact is at the
heart of every commutation scheme. Whenever the voltage reverses its polarity in a coil, the
connections of the coil (at the brushes) are also switched (reversed), and the total voltage is
still built up in the original direction.
The terminal voltage of this machine as a function of time is shown in Fig. 30. As the number
of coils on the armature increases, the approximation to a perfect DC voltage continues to get
better and better.
Figure 30: The resulting output voltage waveform of the 2-pole DC machine
Now we can define commutation in another way:
Commutation is the process of switching the coil connections at the brushes of a DC machine
just at the instant the emf in the coil switches its polarity, in order to maintain an essentially
constant DC output voltage.
References:
2003, Page: 364-367.
1.11 Problems Affecting (Disturbing) Commutation in Real DC Machines

The commutation process is not as simple in practice as it seems in theory. Because the
following two major effects occur in the real world DC machines to disturb it:
1. Armature Reaction
2. Reaction Voltage
1.11.1 Armature Reaction
Armature reaction is the effect of magnetic flux (or mmf) set up by the armature current, Ia,
upon the value and distribution of magnetic flux (or mmf) set up by the poles, and entering
and leaving the armature core.
Armature reaction causes two major problems in real DC machines:
a. It cross-magnetizes (or distorts) the magnetic flux produced by the poles. This is also
known as the magnetic neutral plane shift
b. It demagnetizes (or decreases or weakens) the magnetic flux produced by the poles
The magnetic neutral plane can be defined as the plane within the DC machine along which
no emf is induced in the rotating armature conductors because there they move parallel to
the magnetic flux lines and hence rate of change of magnetic flux is zero.
1.11.1.1 Cross-magnetizing Problem Caused by the Armature Reaction (i.e. the Magnetic
Neutral Plane Shift)
Consider a two pole DC machine used as a DC generator with its armature rotating in the
CCW (counter-clockwise) direction. When the generator is unloaded (i.e. when the armature
current, Ia, is zero) the magnetic-neutral plane is exactly vertical (or perpendicular) to the
incident magnetic flux, midway between the two poles and the flux distribution is uniform in
the airgap under the pole faces, as shown in in Fig. 31:
Figure 31: Magnetic flux produced by poles only when the generator is unloaded (Ia=0)
Now suppose a load is connected across the output terminals of the generator. So there will
be a current flow through the armature conductors. The armature current, Ia, will flow out of
the page for conductors under the N-pole face and into the page for conductors under the S-
pole face. This armature current, Ia, produces its own magnetic flux. As shown in Fig. 32:
Figure 32: Magnetic flux produced by armature current only
Figure 33: Mutual interaction of magnetic flux produced by poles and that produced by armature current
Figure 34: (Mutual interaction of magnetic flux produced by poles and that produced by armature current
resulting in) Magnetic Neutral Plane Shift
The magnetic flux set up by the armature current, Ia, affects the original magnetic flux
produced by the poles. The overall result is that the magnetic flux in the air gap of the
machine is not uniform; rather it is skewed (or distorted) as shown in Fig. 34. Also the
magnetic neutral plane is shifted to a new position; say through an angle, θ, in the direction of
rotation. Furthermore, some armature conductors which were earlier under the influence of
N-pole come under the influence of S-pole, and vice versa, as shown in Fig. 34. Note that the
resultant magnetic flux (resultant mmf or mmfR) is perpendicular to the (new) magnetic
neutral plane.
In general, the magnetic neutral plane shifts in the direction of rotation for a generator and
opposite to the direction of rotation for a motor. This is so because if the machine had been a
motor, the direction of armature current, Ia, and hence armature magnetic flux (mmf) would
be opposite. As a result, the magnetic neutral plane would shift the other way.
The amount of the shift in the position of magnetic neutral plane, θ, depends on the amount
of armature current, Ia, and hence on the load, IL, on the machine. Mathematically:
𝐴𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ∝ (𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑁𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑆ℎ𝑖𝑓𝑡) 𝜃 ∝ 𝐼𝑎 ∝ 𝐼𝐿
Now, what happens when the magnetic neutral plane shifts to a new position? So the answer
is:
Practically the brushes are set to short-circuit the adjacent commutator segments, and hence
the coil sides connected to them, along the magnetic neutral plane where the voltage across
them is equal to zero. No sparking is produced between the brushes and the commutator
segments being short-circuited by it, as long as the generator is unloaded. But once the
generator is loaded, the magnetic neutral plane shifts to a new position along the direction of
rotation. The brushes although now short-circuit the adjacent commutator segments, and
hence the coil sides connected to them, but they have certain finite voltage induced across
them (i.e. the voltage across them is not equal to zero). This results in a current flow
circulating between the shorted commutator segments and the coil sides. This circulating
current produces large sparks between the brushes and the shorted commutator segments,
when the current path is interrupted as the brush leaves a commutator segment. This is a very
serious problem, since it leads to drastically reduced brush life, pitting of the commutator
segments, and greatly increased maintenance costs. Notice that this problem cannot be fixed
even by placing the brushes over the position of the full-load magnetic neutral plane, because
then they would spark at no load.
In extreme cases, the magnetic neutral-plane shift can even lead to flashover in the
commutator segments near the brushes. The air near the brushes in the machine is normally
ionized as a result of the sparking. Flashover occurs when the voltage of adjacent shorted
commutator segments gets large enough to sustain an arc in the ionized air above them. If
flashover occurs, the resulting arc can even melt the commutator’s surface.
So the end result of magnetic neutral plane shift is sparking and arcing between the brushes
and the shorted commutator segments.
.References:
2003, Page: 367-370.
1.11.1.2 Demagnetizing Problem Caused by the Armature Reaction
The magnetic flux distortion (cross-magnetizing effect of the armature reaction) produces still
another effect, known as the demagnetizing effect of the armature reaction.
As shown in Fig. 33, under the leading pole tips (1 and 2), the magnetic flux (mmf) produced
by the armature current and the poles are in the opposite direction, hence there is a decrease
in magnetic flux under those pole tips. Whereas under the trailing pole tips (3 and 4), the
magnetic flux (mmf) produced by the armature current and the poles are in the same direction,
hence there is an increase in magnetic flux under those pole tips.
Most machines operate at magnetic flux densities near the saturation point (refer to BH-
curve). Therefore, the increase in magnetic flux under the leading pole tips (1 and 2) is less
than the decrease in magnetic flux under the trailing pole tips (3 and 4). The net result is that
the total average magnetic flux produced by the N and S-poles decreases (i.e. it is now less
than the value when the generator was unloaded). In large DC machines, the decrease in
magnetic flux may be as much as 10 percent. It is important to note that the orientation of the
magnetic flux produced by the armature current, Ia, remains fixed in space i.e. it does not
rotate with the rotating armature.
The decrease in magnetic flux (due to demagnetizing effect of armature reaction) causes
problems in both DC generators and DC motors. In generators, the effect of decrease in
𝑍Φ𝑁𝑃
magnetic flux is simply to reduce the emf generated in the armature (𝐸𝑔 = 60𝐴 ) and also the
terminal voltage of the generator (VT) at any given load. However, in motors the effect of
decrease in magnetic flux can be more serious. When the magnetic flux in a motor is
𝑍Φ𝑁𝑃
decreased, its speed increases (𝐸𝑏 = 60𝐴 ). But increasing the speed of a motor can increase
its load, resulting in more flux weakening (𝐴𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ∝ 𝐼𝑎 ∝ 𝐼𝐿 ). It is possible for
some shunt-wound DC motors to reach a runaway condition as a result of magnetic flux
weakening, where the speed of the motor just keeps increasing and becomes dangerously
high until the machine is disconnected from the power supply, or until it destroys itself.
Note:
The pole tip which is first met during rotation by a point on the armature surface is known as
the leading pole tip and the other as the trailing pole tip. For example, in Fig. 33 pole tips 1
and 2 are the leading pole tips whereas 3 and 4 are the trailing pole tips.
References:
2003, Page: 367-370.
For Your Information (Study this before the topic: Reactance Voltage)
Recall that emf and hence current induced in the rotating armature conductors of a DC
generator are alternating in nature. Hence, the commutator acts as a mechanical rectifier and
converts this induced AC into DC at the generator’s output terminals. Moreover, this current
in armature conductors flows in one direction when they are under a N-pole and in the
reverse or opposite direction when they are under a S-pole. This reversal of armature current
takes place along the magnetic neutral plane when the brush spans and hence short-circuits
the two commutator segments, and hence the two sides of an armature coil (connected to
them) undergoing commutation. This process by which current in a short-circuited armature
coil is reversed while it crosses the magnetic neutral plane is known as commutation. The
brief period during which the coil remains short-circuited is known as the commutation
period (TC) and it is usually of the order of 1/500 sec= 0.002 sec= 2 msec.
Now if the current reversal or commutation i.e. the change from +I to 0 and then to –I is
completed by the end of commutation period, then the commutation is ideal and hence no
sparking is produced between the brushes and the shorted commutator segments, to which the
two sides of an armature coil, undergoing commutation, are connected. However, if the
current reversal is not completed by that period then sparking is produced between the
brushes and the commutator segments which results in progressive damage to both. This type
of commutation is known as poor or improper commutation. Improper brush placement is the
main cause of improper commutation.
References:
𝒅𝒊
1.11.2 Reactance Voltage (𝒗𝑳 = 𝑳 𝒅𝒕 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆)
The second major problem that disturbs commutation is the reactance voltage, sometimes
also called inductive voltage kick. The armature winding as a whole is a highly inductive
circuit having a very high self-inductance, L. So when armature conductors pass out of the
influence of one pole and enter that of the opposite pole, the current reversal is delayed in the
short-circuited commutator segments, and hence short-circuited armature coil undergoing
commutation because of the production of a very high self-induced emf in it. This self-
induced emf is known as the reactance voltage, and though small in magnitude, it induces a
very large current in the short-circuited armature coil undergoing commutation because of its
very low resistance.
The end result is that that the reactance voltage induced in the short-circuited armature coil
retards or delays the quick reversal of armature current and produces sparking between the
brushes and the short-circuited commutator segments (to which the two sides of the armature
coil, undergoing commutation, are connected) in the same way as it occurs in case of a
magnetic neutral plane shift.
It is this reactance voltage that is mainly responsible for sparking between the brushes and the
commutator segments of DC machines, and most methods of reducing sparking are directed
towards the reduction or neutralization of the reactance voltage.
Explanation:
Consider a lap-wound armature of a DC generator rotating in CW (clockwise direction) along
with its commutator. There will be two parallel paths for current flow in the armature
winding between the (positive and negative) brushes. If the current (through the coils in
series) in each parallel path is 20 A, the brush current will be 40 A, as shown in Fig. 35:
Figure 35: Coil B at the start of its commutation period (short-circuit period)
The brush width here is assumed to be equal to one commutator segment plus one mica
insulation between the segments. Coils lying to the left of the magnetic neutral plane are
under the influence of a N-pole and those lying to the right are under the influence of a S-
pole. Hence, current flow is opposite in the left and right side coils.
In Fig. 35, coil B is about to be short-circuited because the brush is about to come in contact
with segment a. Now let coil B is short-circuited by the brush and is approximately at one-
third of its short-circuit period, as shown in Fig. 36:
Figure 36: Coil B at one-third of its commutation period
The current through coil B, as shown in Fig. 36, has decreased down from 20 A to 10 A
because the other 10 A flows via segment a. As area of contact of the brush is more with
segment b than with segment a, it receives (greater current) 30 A from segment b, and the
total brush current is again 40 A (= 10 A + 30 A).
Now let the coil B has reached the middle of its short-circuit period, as shown in Fig. 36:
Figure 37: Coil B at the middle of its commutation period
The current through coil B, as shown in Fig. 37, has decreased to zero because the two
currents of value 20 A each, pass to the brush directly from coil A and C. The brush contact
areas with two segments a and b are now equal.
Now let coil B starts coming under the influence of N-pole (i.e. towards the left of magnetic
neutral plane) as shown in Fig. 38:
Figure 38: Coil B at three-fourth of its commutation period
The current through coil B, as shown in Fig. 38, is now 10 A in the reverse direction which
combines with the 20 A supplied by coil A to make 30 A that passes from segment a to the
brush. The other 10 A is supplied by the coil C which passes from segment b to the brush,
again giving a total of 40 A at the brush. It is also clear that the brush contact area with
segment b is decreasing rapidly whereas that with segment a is increasing.
Now consider the shown in Fig. 39:
Figure 39: Coil B at the end of its commutation period
The Fig. 39 depicts the moment when coil B is almost at the end of its commutation or short-
circuit period. For ideal commutation, the current through coil B should have completely
reversed by now, but as shown in Fig. 39 , it is carrying 15 A (instead of 20 A) and the
remaining 5 A (delayed) current which has delayed, jumps directly from segment b to the
brush through the air thus producing spark.
This sparking represents the inability (delay) of the current in the short-circuited armature
coil, undergoing commutation, to reverse completely by the end of short-circuit period (or
commutation period).
Example
Consider armature of a DC motor rotating at 800 rpm and let there are 50 commutator
segments (a reasonable number for a typical DC motor). Each commutator segment moves
under a brush and clears it in t= 0.002 sec (this is also the time to reverse the current in the
short-circuited armature coil undergoing commutation). The brush current is 40 A (i.e. the
current in each parallel path, if the armature winding is lap-wound, is 20 A). Therefore, the
average rate of change in current with respect to time in the short-circuited armature coil,
undergoing commutation will be:
𝑑𝑖 20 − (−20)
= = 20,000 𝐴
𝑑𝑡 0.002
If the short-circuited armature coil, undergoing commutation has a self-inductance of 150 μH
then the magnitude of reactance voltage induced in it will be:
𝑑𝑖
𝑣𝐿 = 𝐿 = (150 × 10−6 )(20,000) = 3 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
𝑑𝑡
This small reactance voltage then hinders or delays the quick reversal of current in the short-
circuited armature coil, undergoing commutation and produces sparking between the brushes
and the commutator segments.
References:
2003, Page: 390-393.
1.12 Characteristics of DC Generators

Following are the important characteristics of a DC generator:
1. No-load Saturation Characteristic or No-load Magnetization Characteristic or Open
Circuit Characteristic. That is:
The plot of no-load generated emf in the armature versus the field current, provided
the speed of armature remains constant (Eg vs. If…when N is kept constant).
2. Load Characteristic or Terminal characteristic or Volt-ampere Characteristic. That is:

The plot of terminal (or output) quantities of the DC generator versus each other or
the plot of the terminal voltage of the generator versus the load current, provided the
speed of armature and field current remains constant (VT vs. IL…when N and If are
kept constant).
References:
1.12.1 No-load Saturation Characteristic of a Separately-excited DC Generator
.

Week 3, 4 and 5 Lecture Notes (DC Generators and Related Topics)

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DC Generator

1.1 Construction of a DC Generator

1.1.1 The outer magnetic frame or Yoke

Fig. 1: Cross-sectional view of a DC machine

1.1.2 Poles and Field Windings

Fig. 2: Pole of a DC machine

1.1.3 Armature and Armature Conductors

1.1.4 Commutator or Split Rings

Remember that actually AC is induced in the rotating armature conductors of a DC generator.

1.1.5 Brushes and Bearings

1.2 Working Principle of a DC Generator

1.3 Definition of Various Terms Associated with Armature Winding

1.3.1 Commutator Pitch — YC

1.3.2 Pole Pitch

Fig. 5: A 4-pole DC machine

Now, in terms of mechanical angle, θm, pole pitch is calculated as follows:

1.3.3 Coil Pitch or Coil Span — YS

Consider the armature of a DC machine, as shown in Fig. 6.

Fig. 6: Armature of a DC machine

1.3.4 Full-Pitched Coil

1.3.5 Short-Pitched Coil or Fractional-Pitched Coil or Chorded Coil

1.4 Types of Armature Winding

1.4.2 Types of Armature Winding Based On Their End Connections To The

1.4.2.1 Lap Winding

𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑆𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑥 𝐿𝑎𝑝 𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔: 𝐴 = 𝑃

1.4.2.2 Wave Winding

Figure 9: Progressive Simplex Wave Winding

𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑆𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑥 𝑊𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔: 𝐴 = 2

1.4.3 Types of Armature Winding Based on Their Layers

There are two types of armature winding based on their layers:

1.4.3.1 Single Layer Armature Winding

Figure 10: Single Layer Armature Winding

1.4.3.2 Two Layer Armature Winding

Fig. 12: Back connections of a two-layer armature winding

Example 41.1 (Home Assignment)

1.4.4 Applications of Lap Winding and Wave Winding

1.5 Induced or Generated EMF Equation of DC Generator

Example 41.2 (Home Assignment)

Example 41.3 (Home Assignment)

Example 26.8 (Home Assignment)

Example 26.9 (Home Assignment)

Example 26.11(a) (Home Assignment)

Example 26.11(b) (Home Assignment)

Example 26.12 (Home Assignment)

Example 26.13 (Home Assignment)

Example 26.15 (Home Assignment)

Example 26.17 (Home Assignment)

Example 26.20(a) (Home Assignment)

Example 26.20(b) (Home Assignment)

Example 26.21(d) (Home Assignment)

Example 26.24(a) (Home Assignment)

1.6 Equivalent Circuit of a DC Generator

Fig. 13: Equivalent Circuit of a DC Generator

Fig. 14: Simplified equivalent circuit of a DC Generator

1.7 Types of DC Generators (Machines)

1.7.1 Separately-excited DC generators

In separately-excited DC generators, the field windings are energized from a separate

Figure 16: Equivalent Circuit of Separately-excited DC Generator

1.7.2 Self-excited DC Generators

1.7.2.1 Series-wound DC Generators

Fig. 17: Series-wound DC Generator

1.7.2.2 Shunt-wound DC Generators

Fig. 19: A Shunt-wound DC Generator

In compound-wound DC generators, both the shunt-field winding and the series-field