Electromagnets

1.1 Permanent Magnet

A permanent magnet has fixed (permanent) N and S-poles (i.e. north and south poles). For
example, a permanent bar magnet, as shown in Fig. 1.

1.2 Electromagnet
An electromagnet is a type of magnet in which the magnetic field is produced by electric
current. For example, a solenoid when energized with a DC supply can act as an
electromagnet, as shown in Fig. 2.
Electromagnet is a temporary magnet and its magnetic field exists as long as the current
flows through the coil. The polarity (north and south poles) of electromagnet can be
interchanged/reversed by simply reversing the current through the coil.

1.3 Magnetic Field

Discovery of magnetism: The first known recognition of magnetism was made by the Chinese
in 2637 BC. An emperor, Hoang-ti, is reputed to have had a chariot with a figurehead which
always pointed South no matter in what direction the chariot was moving. This arrangement
was developed into the compass and it is even suggested that it was King Solomon who
invented it. The ore from which the magnet was produced was called magnesianstone, hence
the name magnet.
Nowadays we make compasses from steel, but the action remains the same. The pointer of a
compass is called a permanent magnet because it always retains its peculiar properties, i.e. if
a permanent bar magnet is suspended in a horizontal plane, as shown in Fig. 1, it takes up a
position such that its one end points to the earth’s north pole. That end is said to be the north-
seeking pole or simply the north pole (N-pole) of the magnet, while the other end pointing to
the earth’s south pole is called the south-seeking pole or simply the south pole (S-pole).

Fig.1: A permanent bar magnet suspended in a horizontal plane

Let us place a permanent bar magnet on a table, cover it over with a sheet of smooth
cardboard and sprinkle steel filings uniformly over the sheet. Start knocking the cardboard
gently; this will cause the steel filings to set themselves in curved lines (elliptical lines)
between the north and south poles, as shown in Fig. 2. These curved lines are called magnetic
lines of force or magnetic flux lines and this space surrounding the magnet is called the
magnetic field around the bar magnet. It should be noted, however, that these magnetic flux
lines have no physical existence; they are purely imaginary and were introduced by Michael
Faraday as a means of visualizing the distribution and density of a magnetic field.

Fig. 2: Use of steel filings for determination of distribution of magnetic field (magnetic flux lines) around a bar
magnet

YouTube Videos:
1. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xy6H0mr3KXw
2. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2oUTI2pPuzY

1.4 Determination of the Direction of A Magnetic Field (Magnetic Flux Lines) of

A Bar Magnet Using Compass Needles
The magnetic flux lines of a bar magnet can be traced out with the help of a compass, as
shown in Fig. 4. The needle (pointer) of a compass itself is a small permanent magnet and the
north indicator of the compass (shown red) is a magnetic N-pole. A suspended compass
needle will rotate until it lines up with the external magnetic field of the bar magnet. Since
unlike magnetic poles attract, so the (magnetic) N-pole of the compass will point towards the
(magnetic) S-pole of the bar magnet, and vice versa, as shown in Fig. 3.
In response to the Earth's magnetic field, (north indicator or magnetic N-pole of) the compass
needle will point toward the geographic N-Pole of the Earth because it is in fact a magnetic
S-pole. The magnetic flux lines of the Earth emerge from the geographic S-pole (magnetic N-
pole) and return at/enter the Earth near the geographic N-Pole (magnetic S-pole).
 Fig. 4: Compass
Fig. 3: Use of compass for the determination of direction of
magnetic field (magnetic flux lines) of a bar magnet

YouTube Videos:
1. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DMO373nDp8M
2. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0jjG7-hZ0gc

1.4.1 Earth’s Magnetic Field

The reason how and why a compass works is more interesting. It turns out that you can think
of the Earth as having a gigantic bar magnet buried inside it, having a magnetic S-pole at the
geographic N-pole of the Earth and a magnetic N-pole at the geographic S-pole of the Earth.
Since the opposite poles attract each other, that’s why the north-indicator or the magnetic N-
pole of the compass needle points towards geographic N-pole (magnetic S-pole) of the Earth,
and vice versa.

Fig. 5: Earth's Magnetic Field

1.5 Characteristics (or Properties) of Magnetic Flux Lines
Magnetic flux lines are assumed to have the following properties:
1. The direction of a magnetic flux line any point in a non-magnetic medium, such as
air, is that of the north-seeking pole of a compass needle placed at that point. For
examples, as shown in Fig. 3.
2. Each line of magnetic flux is continuous and forms a closed loop, as shown by the
dotted lines in Fig. 6 and Fig.7. It means that magnetic flux lines are assumed to pass
through the magnet, emerge from the N-pole and return to the S-pole.
3. Magnetic flux lines never intersect (or cross) one another. It means that if a compass
needle is placed in a magnetic field, its north-seeking pole will always point in one
direction only, namely in the direction of the magnetic flux at that point.
4. Magnetic flux lines are like stretched elastic rubber bands (or cords), always trying to
shorten themselves. Therefore, the magnetic flux lines existing between two opposite
poles cause the poles to be pulled together. This effect can be demonstrated by
suspending two permanent bar magnets, A and B, parallel to each other, with their
poles arranged as shown in Fig. 6. The distribution of the resultant magnetic field is
indicated by the dotted lines. The magnetic flux lines passing between A and B
behave as if they were in tension, trying to shorten themselves and thereby causing
the magnets to be attracted towards each other. In other words, unlike poles attract
each other.
5. Magnetic flux which are parallel and travelling in the same direction repel one
another (by exerting a lateral pressure on one another). This effect can be
demonstrated by suspending two permanent bar magnets, A and B, parallel to each
other, with their N poles pointing in the same direction, as shown in Fig. 7. In the
space between A and B the lines of flux are practically parallel and are in the same
direction. These flux lines behave as if they exert a lateral pressure on one another,
thereby causing magnets A and B to repel each other. Hence like poles repel each
other.
6. Magnetic flux lines which are parallel and traveling in the opposite directions (i.e.
antiparallel) tend to unite with each other and form into single lines traveling in a
direction determined by the magnetic poles creating those lines of force.
7. Magnetic flux lines pass through all materials, both magnetic and nonmagnetic.
8. Magnetic flux lines always enter or leave a magnetic material at right angles to the
surface.
 Fig. 6: Attraction between (opposite poles of two) Fig. 7: Repulsion between (alike poles of two)
permanent bar magnets permanent bar magnets

References:
[1] J. Hiley, K. Brown, and M. Smith, Hughes Electrical and Electronic Technology, 10th ed. Pearson
Education Limited, 2008, Page: 133-134.
[2] Hyperphysics hosted by Georgia State University, “Magnets and Electromagnets.” [Online]. Available:
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/magnetic/elemag.html. [Accessed: 01-Sep-2013].

1.6 Magnetic Field of a Straight Current Carrying Conductor

When a conductor carries an electric current, a magnetic field is produced around that
conductor. This phenomenon was discovered by Oersted at Copenhagen (Denmark) in 1820.
He found that when a current carrying conductor was placed above a magnetic needle and in
line with the normal direction of the latter, the needle was deflected clockwise or
anticlockwise, depending upon the direction of the current, as shown in Fig. 8.

Fig. 8: Oersted's Experiment

Thus he found that if we look along the conductor and if the current is flowing away
(departing) from us, as shown by the cross (×) inside the conductor in Fig. 9 and 10, the
magnetic field has a clockwise direction and the magnetic flux lines can be represented by
concentric circles around the conductor. On the other hand, if we look along the conductor
and if the current is flowing towards (approaching) us, as shown by the dot (•) inside the
conductor, the magnetic field has a counter-clockwise direction.
 Fig. 10: Magnetic field around a straight current carrying conductor

Fig. 9: Current Flow Conventions

1.6.1 How to find the direction of magnetic field around a current carrying conductor?

The direction of magnetic field around a current carrying conductor can be found by
applying:
1. Right-Hand Grip Rule
2. Cork-Screw Rule

1.6.1.1 Right-Hand Grip Rule

Grip the current carrying conductor in the right hand, with the thumb outstretched parallel to
the conductor and pointing in the direction of the current; the curling of fingers then point in
the direction of the magnetic field (flux) around the conductor, as shown in Fig. 11.

1.6.1.2 Cork-Screw Rule or Wood-Screw Rule

Place a corkscrew or a woodscrew, as shown in Fig. 12, along the current carrying conductor.
In order that the screw may travel in the same direction as the current, namely towards the
right in Fig. 12, it has to be turned clockwise when viewed from the left-hand side. Similarly,
the direction of the magnetic field (flux), viewed from the same side, is clockwise around the
conductor, as indicated by the curved arrow F.
 Fig. 12: Cork-Screw Rule

Fig. 11: Right-Hand Grip Rule

YouTube Videos:
1. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h5N2grjG8d8
2. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hX7TKEBGUXk

1.7 Magnetic Field of a Solenoid

If a coil is wound on a steel rod, as shown in Fig. 13, and connected to a DC battery. The
steel becomes magnetized and behaves as a permanent magnet.

1.7.1 How to find the direction of magnetic field of a solenoid?

The direction of the magnetic field produced by a current in a solenoid can be found be by
applying either the Cork-Screw Rule or the Right-Hand Grip Rule.
The cork screw rule can be expressed thus: if the axis of the screw is placed along that of the
current carrying solenoid, and if the screw is turned in the direction of the current, it travels in
the direction of the magnetic field inside the solenoid (equivalently we can say that the thumb
points in the direction of N-pole of the solenoid), namely towards the right in Fig. 13.
The grip rule can be expressed thus: if the current carrying solenoid is gripped in the right
hand, with the curling of fingers pointing in the direction of the current, i.e. conventional
current, then the thumb outstretched parallel to the axis of the solenoid points in the direction
of the magnetic field inside the solenoid (equivalently we can say that the thumb points in the
direction of N-pole of the solenoid), namely towards the right in Fig. 14.
 Fig. 14: Determination of the direction of magnetic field of solenoid with
the help of Right-Hand Grip Rule
Fig. 13: Magnetic Field of a
Solenoid
YouTube Video:
1. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6tG9fY0WX3U

1.8 Force on a Current Carrying Conductor Lying in a Magnetic Field—Lorentz

Force
Whenever a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it is acted upon by a
mechanical force called Lorentz Force, F. The direction of this force is always perpendicular
to (the plane of) the current (carrying conductor) and the incident magnetic field, and can be
found by applying Fleming’s Left Hand Rule.
Consider the situation as shown in Fig. 15. The two fields are in the same direction in upper
region thereby strengthening the field, whereas in the lower region the two fields in in the
opposite direction thereby weakening the field. So the net effect is that the magnetic flux is
distorted, as shown in Fig. 16. This distorted flux acts like stretched elastic cords, bent out of
the straight. The magnetic flux lines try to shorten their paths between the two opposite poles
PP thereby exerting a mechanical force F urging the conductor out of the way.

Fig. 15: Demonstration of Lorentz Force

 Fig. 16: Resultant distribution of the two magnetic fields

Lorentz Force is of fundamental importance because it constitutes the basis of operation of

DC motors.

1.8.1 Magnitude of Lorentz Force

The magnitude of the Lorentz Force F depends, the magnitude of the magnetic flux density
(B), active length of the conductor lying in the magnetic field (L), the magnitude of current
flowing through that conductor (I), and the orientation of the current carrying conductor with
respect to the incident magnetic field (𝜃). That is:

𝐹 = 𝐵𝐼𝐿𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝐼(𝐿⃗ × 𝐵
⃗)

Where B is called the magnetic flux density. Its unit is webers per square meters (Wb/m2)
also called Tesla (T). Such that: 1T= 1Wb/m2= 104 Gauss

Mathematically:

Φ 𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑥
(𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦)𝐵 = =
𝐴 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
Or

Φ(𝑊𝑒𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠) = 𝐵(𝑊𝑒𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠/𝑚2 ). 𝐴(𝑚2 )

Magnetic flux is represented by the Greek symbol Φ (phi) and it is measured in Webers
(Wb).

1.8.2 Fleming’s Left Hand Rule

Hold the thumb, fore finger and middle finger of the left hand in such a manner that they are
mutually at right angles, as shown in Fig.17.
1. Point the fore finger in the direction of magnetic field (B)
2. Point the middle finger in the direction of current (I) flowing through the conductor
3. The thumb then indicates the direction of the mechanical force (F) exerted upon the
current carrying conductor by the magnetic field
By trying this with your left hand, you can readily demonstrate that if either the current (I) or
the direction of the magnetic field (B) is reversed then the direction of the force (F) is also
reversed. However, if both the current and field are reversed, the direction of the force (F)
remains unchanged.
 Fig. 17: Fleming's Left Hand Rule

References:
[1] J. Hiley, K. Brown, and M. Smith, Hughes Electrical and Electronic Technology, 10th ed. Pearson
Education Limited, 2008, Page: 136-139.
[2] T. Wildi, Electrical Machines, Drives and Power Systems, 5th ed. Prentice Hall, 2002, Page: 31-32.

Example 6.1 (Home Assignment)

(Hughes Electrical and Electronic Technology, 10th Edition, Page: 139).
A conductor carries a current of 800 A at right angles to a magnetic field having a density of
0.5 T. Calculate the force on the conductor in newtons per metre length.

Example 6.2 (Home Assignment)

(Hughes Electrical and Electronic Technology, 10th Edition, Page: 140).
A rectangular coil measuring 200 mm by 100 mm is mounted such that it can be rotated
about the midpoints of the 100 mm sides. The axis of rotation is at right angles to a magnetic
field of uniform flux density 0.05 T. Calculate the flux in the coil for the following
conditions:
(a). the maximum flux through the coil and the position at which it occurs;
(b). the flux through the coil when the 100 mm sides are inclined at 45° to the direction of the
flux

1.9 Electromagnetic Induction

Electromagnetic induction is the method of obtaining electric current (I) with the help of
magnetic flux (Φ). This great discovery was first of all made by Michael Faraday in 1831.
He wound two coils, A and C, on a steel ring R, as shown in Fig.18, and found that when
switch S was closed, a deflection was obtained on galvanometer G in a certain direction, and
that, when S was opened, G was deflected in the reverse direction.
A few weeks later he found that, when a permanent magnet NS was moved toward a
stationary coil C, as shown in Fig. 19, galvanometer G was deflected in one direction, an in
the reverse direction when the magnet was withdrawn; and it was this experiment that finally
convinced Michael Faraday that an electric current (I) could be produced by the movement of
magnetic flux (Φ) relative to a coil.
 Fig.19: Electromagnetic induction in coil "C"
when placed in a varying magnetic field

Fig.18: Electromagnetic induction (mutual induction) in coil

"C" due to change in current in coil "A"

Statement of Faraday’s Law:

Faraday showed that:
1. The magnitude of the emf induced in a conductor (coil) is proportional to the rate of
change of magnetic flux passing through that conductor (coil).
2. Whenever a conductor cuts a (stationary) magnetic flux or a (stationary) conductor is
cut by a magnetic flux, an emf is induced in that conductor (coil) and the magnitude
of the induced emf is proportional to the rate at which the conductor (coil) cuts or is
cut by the magnetic flux.
3. Whenever a magnetic flux linked (or associated) with a stationary conductor (coil) is
varied, by simply varying the current producing that flux, an emf is induced in the
conductor (coil).
Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction is of fundamental importance because it
constitutes the basis of operation of transformers and (AC and DC) generators.

1.10 How to find the direction of induced emf?

There are two methods available for finding the direction of the induced or generated emf:
1. Fleming’s Right-hand Rule
2. Lenz’s Law
The former is empirical, but the latter is fundamental and is based upon electrical principles.

1.10.1 Fleming’s Right-Hand Rule

Hold the thumb, fore finger and middle finger of the right hand in such a manner that they are
mutually at right angles, as shown in Fig.20.
 Fig. 20: Fleming's Right Hand Rule

1. Point the thumb in the direction motion (velocity, 𝑣) of the conductor relative to the
magnetic field (B)
2. Point the fore finger in the direction of magnetic field (B)
3. The middle finger then indicates the direction of (dynamically) emf induced (and
hence induced current) in the conductor
Fleming’s Right-hand Rule is used to find the direction of dynamically (or motionally)
induced emf.

1.10.2 Lenz’s Law

In 1834 Heinrich Lenz, a German physicist, enunciated a simple rule, now known as Lenz’s
Law. It states that: The direction of an induced emf is always such that it tends to set up a
current opposing its cause (i.e. the motion, or the change of magnetic flux) responsible for
inducing that emf.
Let us consider the application of Lenz’s law to the ring shown in Fig.18. By applying either
the cork screw rule or the right-hand grip rule, we find that when switch S is closed and the
battery has the polarity shown, the direction of the magnetic flux in the ring is clockwise.
Consequently, the current in coil C must be such as to try to produce a magnetic flux in an
anticlockwise direction, tending to oppose the growth of the flux due to coil A, namely the
flux which is responsible for the emf induced in coil C. But an anticlockwise flux in the ring
would require the current in coil C to be passing through the coil from point X to Y. Hence,
this must also be the direction of the emf induced in coil C.
Lenz’s Law is used to find the direction of statically induced emf.

1.11 Types of Induced (or Generated) emfs

Basically there are two types of induced emfs:
1. Statically induced emf
2. Dynamically (or Motionally) induced emf
1.11.1 Statically induced emf

Whenever a magnetic flux linked (or associated) with a stationary conductor (or coil) is
varied, by simply varying the current producing that flux, an emf is induced in the conductor
(or coil) which is known as the statically induced emf.
For example, emfs induced in the (primary and secondary windings of) a transformer are
statically induced emfs.
There are again two types of statically induced emfs:
(i). Self-induced emf
(ii). Mutually induced emf

1.11.1.1 Self-induced emf

Whenever a magnetic flux linked with a stationary conductor (or coil) is varied, by simply
varying the current flowing through that conductor (or coil) itself and producing magnetic
flux, an emf is induced in the conductor (or coil) which is known as the self-induced emf.
For example, emf induced in the primary winding by the primary alternating current, and in
the secondary winding by the secondary alternating current, of a transformer is called self-
induced emf of primary and secondary winding, respectively.

1.11.1.2 Mutually induced emf

Whenever a magnetic flux linked with a stationary conductor (or coil) is varied, by simply
varying the current flowing through another conductor (or coil) nearby it and producing
magnetic flux, an emf is induced in first conductor (coil) which is known as the mutually
induced emf.
For example, emf induced in the secondary winding by the primary alternating current of a
transformer is called mutually induced emf of secondary winding.

1.11.2 Dynamically induced emf

Whenever a conductor (or coil) cuts a (stationary) magnetic flux or a (stationary) conductor
(or coil) is cut by a magnetic flux, an emf is induced in that conductor (or coil) which is
known as the dynamically induced emf.
For example, emf induced in armature winding of a DC generator, and stator winding of an
AC generator, is called dynamically induced emf.

1.12 Magnitude of dynamically induced emf in a conductor

Fig. 21, represents the elevation (side or front view) and plan (top view) of a conductor AA
situated in an airgap between two opposite poles NS. Suppose AA to be carrying a current, I
amperes, in the direction shown (i.e. directed into the paper). By applying either the cork
screw rule or the right-hand grip rule, it is found that the effect of this current is to strengthen
the field on the right and weaken that on the left of AA, so that there is a mechanical force
(Lorentz Force) of F=BIl newtons urging the conductor towards the left through a distance d
meters, where B is the flux density in teslas and l is the length in meters of conductor AA in
the magnetic field. Hence, a force of this magnitude has to be applied in the opposite
direction to move the same conductor AA towards the right through a distance d meters, and
to produce a current of I amperes in the reverse direction (i.e. directed outward from the
paper).
 Fig. 21: EMF induced in a conductor when moved in a magnetic field

The work done in moving conductor AA through a distance d meters to position BB in Fig.
21, is given by:
𝑊 = 𝐹. 𝑑 = (𝐵𝐼𝑙)𝑑 (𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠)
If this movement of conductor AA takes place at a uniform velocity 𝑣 in t seconds, the emf
induced in the conductor is constant at, say, E= 𝛷/t volts (Faraday’s Law). Hence the
electrical power generated in conductor AA is given by:
𝑃 = 𝐸𝐼 (𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠)
While the electrical energy generated will be:
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝐸𝐼𝑡 (𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠)
Since the mechanical energy expended (work done) in moving the conductor horizontally
across the airgap, through a distance d meters, is all converted into electrical energy, then:
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 (𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝐷𝑜𝑛𝑒)
𝐸𝐼𝑡 = 𝐵𝐼𝑙𝑑
𝐵𝑙𝑑
𝐸=
𝑡
𝐸 = 𝐵𝑙𝑣
Generally:
(𝑀𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑚𝑓)𝐸 = 𝑣𝐵𝑙𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑙(𝑣 × 𝐵)
Where 𝑣 is the velocity in metres per second and 𝜃 is the angle between 𝑣 and B.
As Bld=BA=Φ is the total magnetic flux in webers, in the area (l×d) shown shaded in Fig. 21.
This flux is cut by the conductor when the latter is moved from AA to BB. Hence:
Φ (𝑤𝑒𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠)
𝐸(𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠) =
𝑡 (𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠)
i.e. the emf, in volts, generated in a conductor is equal to the rate (in webers per second) at
which the magnetic flux is cutting or being cut by the conductor; and the weber may therefore
be defined as that magnetic flux which, when cut at a uniform rate by a conductor in 1 s,
generates an emf of 1V.
In general, if a conductor cuts or is cut by a magnetic flux of d𝛷 webers in dt seconds then:
𝑑Φ
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑒𝑚𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝑑𝑡
𝑑Φ
𝑒=−
𝑑𝑡
Where negative sign is due to Lenz’s Law.

Example 6.3 (Home Assignment)

(Hughes Electrical and Electronic Technology, 10th Edition, Page: 142).
Calculate the e.m.f. generated in the axle of a car travelling at 80 km/h, assuming the length
of the axle to be 2 m and the vertical component of the earth’s magnetic field to be 40 μT
(microteslas).

1.13 Magnitude of statically induced emf in a coil

Suppose the magnetic flux through a coil C of N turns to be increased from 0 to Φ webers in t
seconds due to, say, the relative motion of the coil and a magnet, as shown in Fig. 22. Since
each of the magnetic flux lines cut each turn of the coil, one turn can be regarded as a
conductor cut by Φ webers in t seconds; hence, the average emf induced in each turn is Φ/t
volts. The induced current due to this emf, by Lenz’s Law, tries to prevent the increase of
flux, i.e. tends to set up an opposing flux. Thus, if the magnet NS in Fig. 22 is moved towards
coil C, the flux passing from left to right through Coil C is increased. The emf induced in coil
C circulates a current in the direction represented by the dot and cross, where – for simplicity
– coil C is represented as one turn. The effect of this induced current is to distort the external
magnetic field as shown by the dotted lines, thereby tending to push the coil away from the
magnet. By Newton’s third law of motion, there must be an equal and opposite force tending
to oppose the movement of the magnet.

Fig. 22: EMF induced in a coil C when cut by a magnetic flux

The induced emf circulates a current tending to oppose the increase of flux through the coil,
hence the average emf induced in one turn is:
𝑑Φ
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑒𝑚𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛 = 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 = −(1)
𝑑𝑡
While
𝑑Φ
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑒𝑚𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑁 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠 = −𝑁 (𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠)
𝑑𝑡
which is the average rate of change of flux linkages per-second.
The term flux-linkages merely mean the product of the number of turns of the coil and the
magnetic flux in webers which is linked (or associated) with those turns. Thus if a coil of 20
turns has a flux of 0.1 Wb through it, the flux-linkages = 0.1 × 20 = 2 weber-turns or webers.
The turn is a dimensionless factor, hence the product of webers and turns is measured only in
webers. However, some authors prefer to retain the term turn in the unit although this does
not conform to the SI.
Thus:
(𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑠) 𝜓 = 𝑁Φ (𝑊𝑒𝑏𝑒𝑟 − 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠)
Now we can also write:
𝑑Φ 𝑑𝜓
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑒𝑚𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑁 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠 = −𝑁 =− (𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
References:
[1] J. Hiley, K. Brown, and M. Smith, Hughes Electrical and Electronic Technology, 10th ed. Pearson
Education Limited, 2008, Page: 140-144.
[2] S. J. Chapman, Electric Machinery Fundamentals, 5th ed. McGraw Hill, 2012, Page: 29-31, 85.

Example 6.4 (Home Assignment)

(Hughes Electrical and Electronic Technology, 10th Edition, Page: 145).
A magnetic flux of 400 μWb passing through a coil of 1200 turns is reversed in 0.1 s.
Calculate the average value of the e.m.f. induced in the coil.

Magnetic Circuits
1.14 Magnetic Circuit
The complete closed path followed by any group of magnetic flux lines is referred to as a
magnetic circuit. One of the simplest examples of magnetic circuit is the circular steel ring
shown in Fig. 23, where the steel ring provides a complete closed path followed by magnetic
flux lines. Such a closed steel ring is called a toroid.
 Fig. 23: A toroid

References:
[1] J. Hiley, K. Brown, and M. Smith, Hughes Electrical and Electronic Technology, 10th ed. Pearson
Education Limited, 2008, Page: 148.

1.15 Magnetomotive Force (mmf)

In an electric circuit, the current is due to the existence of an electromotive force (emf), that is
the force which drives (or produces) electric current in an electric circuit is called an
electromotive force (emf). By analogy, the corresponding quantity in a magnetic circuit is the
magnetomotive force (mmf). We may say that the force which drives (or produces) magnetic
flux in a magnetic circuit is called a magnetomotive force (mmf).
Magnetomotive force is caused by a current flowing through one or more turns in a magnetic
circuit. The magnitude of the mmf is given by the product of the number of turns and the
current flowing through those turns. Mathematically:
𝑚𝑚𝑓 = 𝑁𝐼 (𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒 − 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠)…for the circuit shown in Fig. 23.
Its measuring unit is ampere-turns (AT). Since the number of turns is a dimensionless
quantity, it is also expressed in amperes (A).
References:
[1] J. Hiley, K. Brown, and M. Smith, Hughes Electrical and Electronic Technology, 10th ed. Pearson
Education Limited, 2008, Page: 148.
[2] S. J. Chapman, Electric Machinery Fundamentals, 5th ed. McGraw Hill, 2012, Page: 11-12.
[3] T. Wildi, Electrical Machines, Drives and Power Systems, 5th ed. Prentice Hall, 2002, Page: 27.

1.16 Magnetic Field Strength or Magnetizing Force or Magnetic Field Intensity

(H)
If the magnetic circuit is homogeneous and of uniform cross-sectional area, the
magnetomotive force per unit length of that magnetic circuit is termed as the magnetic field
strength. It is represented by the symbol H, and measured in ampere-turns/meter (AT/m) or
ampere/meter (A/m). Thus, if the mean length of the magnetic circuit in Fig. 23, is l meters,
then:
 𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝐹𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ =
𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡
𝑚𝑚𝑓 𝑁𝐼
𝐻= = (𝐴𝑇/𝑚 𝑜𝑟 𝐴/𝑚)
𝑙 𝑙
The magnetic field strength (H), in a sense, represents the effort exerted by the current to
establish a magnetic field (B). The magnetic field strength (H) in a medium depends upon the
nature (or type) of medium.
References:
[1] J. Hiley, K. Brown, and M. Smith, Hughes Electrical and Electronic Technology, 10th ed. Pearson
Education Limited, 2008, Page: 148.
[2] S. J. Chapman, Electric Machinery Fundamentals, 5th ed. McGraw Hill, 2012, Page: 9-10.
[3] T. Wildi, Electrical Machines, Drives and Power Systems, 5th ed. Prentice Hall, 2002, Page: 27.

1.17 Relationship between Magnetic Field Strength (H) and Magnetic Flux
Density (B)
The relationship between the magnetic field strength H and the resulting magnetic flux
density B produced, in a medium (or material), is given by:
𝐵 = 𝜇𝐻
Where 𝜇 is the absolute magnetic permeability of the medium and can be defined as the ease
or readiness with which magnetic flux passes through a medium.
The permeability of free space or vacuum or air is a constant represented by μo, and its value
is 4𝜋 × 10−7 𝐻/𝑚 (Henry/meter).
The absolute permeability of any given medium compared to the permeability of free space is
called relative permeability of that medium. It is represented by μr and mathematically it is
given by:
𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 =
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒
𝜇
𝜇𝑟 =
𝜇𝑜
Relative permeability can also be defined as:
Relative permeability of any given medium is the ratio of the magnetic flux density produced
in that medium to the magnetic flux density that would be produced in vacuum (or in a non-
magnetic medium such as water, oil, wood, copper etc.) by the same magnetic field strength.
Mathematically:
𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑒𝑢𝑐𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 =
𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑚
𝐵
𝜇𝑟 = (𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝐻)
𝐵𝑜
Relative permeability (μr) is a convenient way to compare the magnetizability of other
mediums with that of the air. For example, the ferromagnetic cores used in modem machines
(e.g. in transformer cores etc.) have relative permeabilities of 2000 to 6000 or even more.
This means that, for a given amount of current, 2000 to 6000 times more magnetic flux is
established (passed) in a piece of steel than in a corresponding area of air. Obviously, the
metals used in a transformer or motor core play an extremely important role in increasing and
concentrating the magnetic flux in the device.
Also, because the permeability of iron is so much higher than that of air, the majority of the
magnetic flux remains confined to the core, and there is a very small leakage of flux to the
surrounding air, which has much lower permeability.
Note that the relative permeability of air is 1 (μr=1). No can we can say:
𝐵 = 𝜇𝐻 = 𝜇𝑟 𝜇𝑜 𝐻. . . 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 (ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝜇𝑟 ) 𝑒. 𝑔. 𝑖𝑟𝑜𝑛
𝐵 = 𝜇𝑜 𝐻 … 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑛𝑜𝑛 − 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑒. 𝑔. 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒, 𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑚 , 𝑎𝑖𝑟, 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟, 𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑒𝑡𝑐.
References:
[1] S. J. Chapman, Electric Machinery Fundamentals, 5th ed. McGraw Hill, 2012, Page: 10.
[2] J. Hiley, K. Brown, and M. Smith, Hughes Electrical and Electronic Technology, 10th ed. Pearson
Education Limited, 2008, Page: 149-152.

[3] T. Wildi, Electrical Machines, Drives and Power Systems, 5th ed. Prentice Hall, 2002, Page: 28.

1.18 B-H Curve (Magnetization Curve) of a Medium (or Material)

Whenever a magnetic flux 𝛷 exists in a medium, it is due to the presence of a magnetic field
strength (H) given by:
𝑚𝑚𝑓 𝑁𝐼
𝐻= =
𝑙 𝑙
The resulting magnetic flux density (B) is then given by:
Φ
𝐵=
𝐴
There exists a definite relationship between the magnetic flux density (B) and the magnetic
field strength (H) of any medium. This relationship is usually expressed by means of a graph
or curve, called B-H Curve or Magnetization Curve of that medium.

1.18.1 B-H Curve (or Magnetization Curve) of Vacuum— a non-magnetic material

Generally: 𝐵 = 𝜇𝐻 = 𝜇𝑟 𝜇𝑜 𝐻

𝜇𝑟 = 1
Where: } for vacuum
𝑎𝑛𝑑: 𝜇𝑜 = 4𝜋 × 10−7 𝐻/𝑚 … 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

So 𝐵 = 𝜇𝑜 𝐻

Or 𝐵∝𝐻
It means that in vacuum, the magnetic flux density (B) is directly proportional to the magnetic
field intensity (H). As shown in Fig. 24:
 Fig. 24: B-H Curve of vacuum (and other non-magnetic materials)

Fig. 24 shows that the B-H curve of vacuum is linear (a straight line), which means that
vacuum never saturates no matter how great the flux density (B) may be. Non-magnetic
materials, other than vacuum, such as copper, paper, rubber, wood, oil, water and air have B-
H curves almost identical to that of vacuum.

1.18.2 B-H Curve (Magnetization Curve) of Magnetic Materials

Generally: 𝐵 = 𝜇𝐻 =
𝜇𝑟 𝜇𝑜 𝐻 … 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝜇𝑟

The value of μr is not constant but varies with (or depends upon) the magnetic flux density
(B) in the medium (material). Consequently, the relationship between B and H is not linear
for a magnetic medium, as shown in Fig. 24.
 Fig. 25: B-H Curves of cast Iron, cast Steel, and silicon iron (magnetic mediums)

We prefer to show the B-H curve of magnetic materials by means of a saturation curve
(where B saturates or becomes constant at higher values of H), as shown in Fig. 25.
In Fig. 25, the region in which the curve flattens out is called the saturation region, and the
medium is said to be saturated. In contrast, the region where the magnetic flux density (B)
changes very rapidly with the applied magnetic field strength (H), is called the unsaturated
region of the curve, and the medium is said to be unsaturated. The transition region between
the unsaturated region and the saturated region is sometimes called the knee of the curve.
Note that the magnetic flux density (B) produced in the medium is linearly related to the
applied magnetic field strength (H) in the unsaturated region, and approaches a constant
value regardless of the variation in the magnetic field strength (H), in the saturated region.
References:
[1] T. Wildi, Electrical Machines, Drives and Power Systems, 5th ed. Prentice Hall, 2002, Page: 27-29.
[2] S. J. Chapman, Electric Machinery Fundamentals, 5th ed. McGraw Hill, 2012, Page: 21-25

1.19 Current Ring Theory of Magnetism

Andre-Marie Ampere – after whom the unit of current (ampere) was named – was the first
person who answered the following questions:
 1. Why the presence of a ferromagnetic material (core) inside a current-carrying coil
increases the value of the magnetic flux Φ?
2. Why magnetic hysteresis occurs in ferromagnetic materials?
He suggested that the increase in the magnetic flux Φ might be due to electric currents
circulating within the molecules of the ferromagnetic materials. Subsequent discoveries have
confirmed this suggestion, and the following brief explanation may assist in giving some idea
of the current-ring theory of magnetism.
According to this theory, an atom consists of a positively charged nucleus surrounded by
negatively charged electrons, at distances larger compared with their diameters. The electrons
revolve in orbits around the nucleus and each electron also spins around its own axis –
somewhat like a gyroscope–and the magnetic characteristics of ferromagnetic materials
appear to be mainly due to this electron spin. The movement of an electron around a circular
path is equivalent to a minute current flowing in a circular ring. In a ferromagnetic atom, e.g.
iron, four more electrons spin round in one direction than in the reverse direction, as shown in
Fig. 27, and the axes of spin of these electrons are parallel with one another; consequently,
the net effect is equivalent to four current rings producing magnetic flux in a certain
direction.

Fig. 26: Order of filling of orbitals with electrons

 Fig. 27: Electronic configuration of Iron (Fe) with atomic number 26

References:
[1] J. Hiley, K. Brown, and M. Smith, Hughes Electrical and Electronic Technology, 10th ed. Pearson
Education Limited, 2008, Page: 902-904.

1.19.1 Magnetic Domains

Ferromagnetic materials typically composed of iron and alloys of iron with aluminum, nickel,
cobalt, tungsten and other metals, are by far the most common magnetic materials.
In ferromagnetic materials, there are numerous microscopic regions called magnetic domains,
each about 0.1 mm in width. In each domain the atoms are grouped together with their
magnetic fields parallel with one another (i.e. pointing in the same direction) thus giving rise
to a net magnetic field for that domain. So each domain within the ferromagnetic material
acts like a small permanent magnet. These domains are represented by arrows. Between
adjacent domains there is a region or wall, about 10−4 mm thick, within which the direction of
the magnetic field of the atoms changes gradually from that of the direction in one domain to
that of the direction in the adjacent domain.
In an un-magnetized ferromagnetic material the magnetic domains are randomly oriented (i.e.
magnetic domains are pointing in different directions) so that their magnetizing effects cancel
out one another and the net magnetic flux in the material is zero, as shown in Fig. 28. When
this un-magnetized ferromagnetic material is placed in a magnetic field, the domains
physically switch their orientations and align themselves with the externally applied magnetic
field, as shown in Fig. 29. As a result, the magnetic fields of the domains add to the
externally applied magnetic field, thereby increasing the magnetic flux (density) beyond the
value that would exist due to the externally applied magnetic field alone. This phenomenon is
known as the Barkhausen Effect named after its discoverer, a German physicist, Heinrich
Georg Barkhausen in 1919.
It means that when a current-carrying solenoid has a ferromagnetic core, then the magnetic
flux can be regarded as consisting of two components:
1. The magnetic flux produced by the solenoid without a ferromagnetic core (i.e.
produced by the current resulting from an external source)
 2. The magnetic flux due to ampere-turns equivalent to the current rings formed by the
spinning electrons in the orientated domains. This component reaches its maximum
value when all the domains have been orientated with the externally applied magnetic
field. The core is then said to be saturated.
Note that the arrow-head of the magnetic domain represents the N-pole of the magnet,
whereas the tail represents the S-pole.

Fig. 28: Randomly- Fig. 29: Magnetic domains aligned with externally applied magnetic field (in a
oriented magnetic magnetized ferromagnetic material)
domains
(in an un-magnetized
ferromagnetic material)

Barkhausen demonstrated this effect by connecting a coil, wound on an iron core, to a

loudspeaker through an amplifier, and then bringing a permanent bar magnet close to the coil,
as shown in Fig. 30. Barkhausen heard a series of cracking or rustling or hissing sounds
whenever he brought the bar magnet close to the coil. According to Barkhausen, when the bar
magnet is brought close to the coil, the magnetic domains in the iron core starts shifting or
aligning themselves with the externally applied magnetic field of the bar magnet. Due to the
shifting of a domain, there is a change in the magnetic field around the iron core, and that
changing magnetic field induces a current in the coil surrounding the iron core, according to
Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction, detectable by the amplifier and loudspeaker as
a cracking or rustling or hissing sound.
 Fig. 30: Demonstration of Barkhausen Effect

References:
[1] J. Hiley, K. Brown, and M. Smith, Hughes Electrical and Electronic Technology, 10th ed. Pearson
Education Limited, 2008, Page: 904.
[2] A. E. Fitzgerald, J. Charles Kingsley, and S. D. Umans, Electric Machinery, 6th ed. McGraw Hill,
2003, Page: 20.
[3] S. J. Chapman, Electric Machinery Fundamentals, 5th ed. McGraw Hill, 2012, Page: 27-28.
[4] http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/solids/ferro.html

1.20 Magnetic Hysteresis

Consider an un-magnetized bar of iron, and magnetize it by placing it in the magnetic field of
a cylindrical coil, thus forming a solenoid, as shown in Fig. 12. The magnetizing force H of
this solenoid will be:
𝑁𝐼 𝑁𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑖𝑑 × 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙
𝐻= =
𝑙 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙
The value of H can be increased or decreased by increasing or decreasing the current I
through the coil (i.e. 𝐼 ↑: 𝐻 ↑ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑎). Now let H be increased in steps from 0 upto a
certain maximum value and the corresponding values of magnetic flux density B be noted. If
we plot a curve between B and H, a curve OC is obtained, as shown in Fig. 31.
Beyond point C there is not further increase in B irrespective of increase in H, because all the
magnetic domains within the iron bar have already been aligned with the externally applied
magnetic field. Hence at this point C the iron bar is said to be magnetically saturated and it
gives the maximum value of magnetic flux density Bmax established through the iron core.
Now if H is decreased gradually by gradually decreasing the solenoid current I, the magnetic
flux density will not decrease proportionally, as one might expect, rather it will decrease less
rapidly and will follow the path CD. When H is decreased to zero by decreasing the solenoid
current I to zero, B is not zero at that time rather it has some definite value Br = OD. Because
all of the magnetic domains don not completely randomize their alignment or orientation and
tend to retain their previous orientation; energy is required to turn them back. This simply
means that upon removing the magnetizing force H, the iron bar is not completed
demagnetized rather it retains some of the magnetism called remanence or retentivity of the
iron bar. While the value of the magnetic flux density which measures or represents the
remanance or retentivity of the material is known the remanent or residual flux density Br
(=OD).
Now to demagnetize the iron bar completely, we will have to apply the magnetizing force H
in the reverse direction by reversing the current I through the solenoid (i.e. by reversing the
magnetization of the iron bar). So when H is reversed, magnetic domains gradually change
(or reverse) their previous orientation until B is reduced to 0 at point -Hc = OE. The value of
H required to wipe out the residual magnetism (Br) is known as the coercive force, Hc (=OE).
The value of the coercive force varies enormously for different materials, being about 40,000
A/m for Alnico (an alloy of iron, aluminum, nickel, copper and cobalt, used for making
permanent magnets) and about 3 A/m for Mumetal (an alloy of iron, nickel, copper and
molybdenum).
The energy supplied to reduce B from Br to 0 is used to overcome the frictional resistance of
the magnetic domains as they oppose the change in their orientation. The energy supplied is
dissipated as heat in the iron bar. A very sensitive thermometer would indicate a slight
temperature rise as the iron bar is being demagnetized.
If value of H is further increased in the reversed direction, the iron bar again reaches a state
of magnetic saturation at point F, where H = OL, in the reverse direction. By taking H back
from its value corresponding to negative saturation (i.e. H = OL) to its value for positive
saturation (i.e. H = OK) a similar curve FGC is obtained. If we again start from point C, the
same curve CDEFGC is obtained once again.
It is seen that B always lags behind H and the two never attain the same (zero) value
simultaneously. This lagging of B behind H is known as the Magnetic Hysteresis, which
literally means to lag behind. Whereas the closed loop (CDEFGC) obtained when the iron
bar is taken through one complete cycle of magnetic reversal is known as the Hysteresis
Loop. By one cycle of magnetic reversal means to reverse the magnetization of iron bar one
time only, as shown below in Fig. 31.
 Bmax

Br

-Hc Hc

-Br

-Bmax

Fig. 31: Hysteresis Loop

Instead of applying DC to the coil wound on the iron core, if we now apply AC, we will get
the same type of hysteresis loop, as shown in Fig. 31, as we got already for DC.

1.20.1 Why does hysteresis occur?

The lagging behind of B behind H (i.e. magnetic hysteresis) occurs due to the existence of
magnetic domains within the material. Once the magnetic domains are oriented or aligned
with the external magnetic field, it requires some external energy to turn them back (i.e. to
reverse their orientation).
Examples of sources of external energy that can change the boundaries between domains
and/or the alignment of domains, are magnetomotive force applied in the reverse direction, a
large mechanical shock, and heating. Any of these events can impart energy to the domains
and enable them to change their alignment. (It is for this reason that a permanent magnet can
lose its magnetism if it is dropped, hit with a hammer, or heated).
Some composition of ferromagnetic materials will retain the externally applied magnetic field
indefinitely (permanently) and are useful as permanent magnets. Such as iron (a
ferromagnetic material).

1.20.2 Area of hysteresis loop represents what?

The area of hysteresis loop represents the electrical energy dissipated due to magnetic
hysteresis, which appears in the form of heat and so raise the temperature of that portion of a
material or magnetic circuit which is subjected to magnetic reversals.
Mumetal and Permalloy have very narrow hysteresis loops due to their low coercive forces
(Hc), and consequently have very low hysteresis losses.
References:
[1] J. Hiley, K. Brown, and M. Smith, Hughes Electrical and Electronic Technology, 10th ed. Pearson
Education Limited, 2008, Page: 902.
[2] A. E. Fitzgerald, J. Charles Kingsley, and S. D. Umans, Electric Machinery, 6th ed. McGraw Hill,
2003, Page: 20-21.
[3] S. J. Chapman, Electric Machinery Fundamentals, 5th ed. McGraw Hill, 2012, Page: 26-28.
[4] T. Wildi, Electrical Machines, Drives and Power Systems, 5th ed. Prentice Hall, 2002, Page: 32-34.

1.21 Reluctance
Reluctance (represented by symbol S) is analogous to resistance (R) in an electric circuit, and can be
defined as: the opposition to the passage of magnetic flux through a medium is called
reluctance. Mathematically it is expressed as the ratio of magnetomotive force to the
magnetic flux in a magnetic circuit i.e.
𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑜𝑐𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑚𝑓
(𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒) 𝑆 = = (1)
𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 Φ
Its measuring unit is ampere-turns/weber (AT/Wb). It is equivalent to 1/Henry (i.e. 1/H), and is called
reciprocal henry or inverse henry.
Expanding the above expression we get:
𝑚𝑚𝑓 𝐻𝑙 (𝐵/𝜇)𝑙 𝑙
𝑆= = = =
Φ 𝐵𝐴 𝐵𝐴 𝜇𝐴
𝑙 𝑙
𝑆= = … 𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡 (2)
𝜇𝐴 𝜇𝑟 𝜇𝑜 𝐴

Where:
μr = Relative magnetic permeability of the material used in magnetic circuit
μo = Magnetic permeability of free space (constant: 4π×10-7H/m)
μ = Absolute magnetic permeability of the material
It is useful here to compare the reluctance S of a magnetic circuit with the resistance R of an
electric circuit. The resistance R of a conductor of length l, cross-sectional area A and
resistivity ρ (rho) is given by equation:
𝜌𝑙 𝑙
𝑅= = (3)
𝐴 𝜎𝐴
Where σ (sigma) represent electrical conductivity of the conductor, which is the reciprocal of
electrical resistivity ρ, i.e. σ = 1/ρ.
Comparing equation (3) with (2), we find that the two are very similar. In equation (3) only σ
replaces μ. Now we can say that for both electrical and magnetic circuits, increasing the
length (l) of the (of the electric or magnetic) circuit increases the opposition to the flow of
electric current (R) or opposition to the passage of magnetic flux (S), respectively. Similarly,
decreasing the cross-sectional area (A) of (the electric or magnetic) circuit decreases the
opposition to the flow of electric current (R) or opposition to the passage of magnetic flux
(S), respectively.
Equation (1) can also be written as:
𝑚𝑚𝑓 = Φ𝑆…This is called Ohm’s Law for magnetic circuit (4)
Equation (4) is similar to Ohm’s law for electric circuit, expressed as:
𝑒𝑚𝑓 (𝑜𝑟 𝑉) = 𝐼𝑅… Ohm’s law for electric circuit (5)
Comparing equation (4) and (5) we find that current (I) in an electric circuit is analogous to
magnetic flux (Φ) in a magnetic circuit.
References:
[1] J. Hiley, K. Brown, and M. Smith, Hughes Electrical and Electronic Technology, 10th ed. Pearson
Education Limited, 2008, Page: 153-154.
[2] A. E. Fitzgerald, J. Charles Kingsley, and S. D. Umans, Electric Machinery, 6th ed. McGraw Hill,
2003, Page: 6-7.
[3] S. J. Chapman, Electric Machinery Fundamentals, 5th ed. McGraw Hill, 2012, Page: 12-13.
[4] T. Wildi, Electrical Machines, Drives and Power Systems, 5th ed. Prentice Hall, 2002, Page: 32-34.

1.22 Permeance
Permeance (represented by symbol P) is analogous to conductance (G) in an electric circuit,
and can be defined as: the permeance of a magnetic circuit is the reciprocal (or inverse) of its
magnetic reluctance. It is represented by symbol P and mathematically is expressed as:
1 1
(𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒) 𝑃 = =
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑆
Its measuring unit is webers/ampere-turn (Wb/AT). It is equivalent to Henry (i.e. H), the same
as the unit of inductance (L), although the two concepts are different.
References:
[1] A. E. Fitzgerald, J. Charles Kingsley, and S. D. Umans, Electric Machinery, 6th ed. McGraw Hill,
2003, Page: 7.
[2] S. J. Chapman, Electric Machinery Fundamentals, 5th ed. McGraw Hill, 2012, Page: 13.

1.23 Comparison of (DC) Electric Circuit with Magnetic Circuit [Analogies

between (DC) Electric Circuit and Magnetic Circuit]

Electric Circuit Magnetic Circuit

Current (I), Ampere
Resistance (R=l/σA), Ohm
emf (V=IR), Volt
Conductance (G=1/R), Siemens
Conductivity (σ=1/ρ), Siemens
Electric Current Density (J=I/A),
Ampere/meter2
Resistances in series: Req= R1+R2+R3+…
Resistances in parallel:
1/Req=1/R1+1/R2+1/R3+…
Resistance (R) is associated with an energy
loss (Rate of energy loss=I2Rt/t=I2R).
Electric current (I) never takes leakage path
When emf (V) is increased in an electric
Magnetic Flux (Φ), Webers
Reluctance (S=l/μA), Ampere (turn)/Weber
mmf=NI, Ampere (turn)
Permeance (P=1/S), Henry
Permeability (μ=1/Reluctivity), Henry/meter
Magnetic Flux Density (B= 𝛷/A),
Weber/meter2
Reluctances in series: Seq=S1+S2+S3+…
Reluctances in parallel:
1/Seq=1/S1+1/S2+1/S3+…
Reluctance (S) is not associated with energy
loss.
Magnetic flux (Φ) may take leakage path
In a magnetic circuit, the relative
circuit, the current (I) will likewise increase. permeability (μr) is not constant. As we
Over a wide range of current densities (J), the increase the mmf in the circuit, the flux
increase in current is directly proportional to density (B) will also increase but not in direct
the increase in emf (VI) because proportion to the applied mmf.
conductivity σ is constant. This
proportionality changes only when the
current density reaches such a high value that
the conductor becomes hot.

1.24 Comparison of Electrostatic Circuit with Magnetic Circuit [Analogies

between Electrostatic Circuit and Magnetic Circuit]

Electrostatic Circuit Magnetic Circuit

Electric Flux (𝛷e)
Electric Flux Density (D= Φe /A)
Electric Field Strength (E)
Electromotive Force (emf)
Absolute Electric Permitivity
(=D/E=Electric Flux Density/Electric Field
Strength)
Relative Electric Permitivity (r)
Electric Permitivity of Free Space (o)
Magnetic Flux (Φm)
Magnetic Flux Density (B= Φm /A)
Magnetic Field Strength (H)
Magnetomotive Force (mmf)
Absolute Magnetic Permeability (μ=B/H)
Relative Magnetic Permeability (μr)
Magnetic Permeability of Free Space (μo)

References:
[1] J. Hiley, K. Brown, and M. Smith, Hughes Electrical and Electronic Technology, 10th ed. Pearson
Education Limited, 2008, Page: 154-158.

1.25 Composite Series Magnetic Circuit

Consider a composite series magnetic circuit consisting of three different magnetic materials
A, B and C having reluctances S1, S2 and S3, mean lengths l1, l2 and l3, absolute magnetic
permeabilities μ1, μ2 and μ3, and cross-sectional areas A1, A2 and A3, respectively. There is
also a small airgap between material A and material C having reluctance Sa, length la,
absolute magnetic permeability μa, and cross-sectional area Aa, as shown in Fig.32.
 Fig. 32: Composite series magnetic circuit

The total reluctance of this composite series magnetic circuit will be the sum of individual
reluctances as they are joined in series. Such that:
𝑆𝑒𝑞 = 𝑆1 + 𝑆2 + 𝑆3 + 𝑆𝑎
𝑙1 𝑙2 𝑙3 𝑙𝑎
𝑆𝑒𝑞 = + + +
𝜇1 𝐴1 𝜇2 𝐴2 𝜇3 𝐴3 𝜇𝑎 𝐴𝑎
𝑙1 𝑙2 𝑙3 𝑙𝑎
𝑆𝑒𝑞 = + + + … (𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒: 𝜇𝑟𝑎 = 1)
𝜇𝑟1 𝜇𝑜 𝐴1 𝜇𝑟2 𝜇𝑜 𝐴2 𝜇𝑟3 𝜇𝑜 𝐴3 𝜇𝑟𝑎 𝜇𝑜 𝐴𝑎
1 𝑙1 𝑙2 𝑙3 𝑙𝑎
𝑆𝑒𝑞 = [ + + + ]
𝜇0 𝜇𝑟1 𝐴1 𝜇𝑟2 𝐴2 𝜇𝑟3 𝐴3 𝐴𝑎
References:
[1] B. L. Theraja, and A. K. Theraja, A Text Book of Electrical Technology, Volume II. S. Chand &
Company Ltd., 2008, Page: 273.

Example 7.1 (Home Assignment)

(Hughes Electrical and Electronic Technology, 10th Edition, Page: 150).
A coil of 200 turns is wound uniformly over a wooden ring having a mean circumference of
600 mm and a uniform cross-sectional area of 500 mm2. If the current through the coil is 4 A,
calculate:
(a). the magnetic field strength;
(b). the flux density;
(c). the total flux

Example 7.2 (Home Assignment)

(Hughes Electrical and Electronic Technology, 10th Edition, Page: 150).
Calculate the magnetomotive force required to produce a flux of 0.015 Wb across an airgap
2.5 mm long, having an effective area of 200 cm2.
Example 7.3 (Home Assignment)
(Hughes Electrical and Electronic Technology, 10th Edition, Page: 154-155).
A mild-steel ring having a cross-sectional area of 500 mm2 and a mean circumference of 400
mm has a coil of 200 turns wound uniformly around it. Calculate:
(a). the reluctance of the ring;
(b). the current required to produce a flux of 800 μWb in the ring

Example 7.4 (Home Assignment)

(Hughes Electrical and Electronic Technology, 10th Edition, Page: 155-156).
A magnetic circuit comprises three parts in series, each of uniform cross-sectional area. They
are:
(a). a length of 80 mm and cross-sectional area 50 mm2
(b). a length of 60 mm and cross-sectional area 90 mm2
(c). an airgap of length 0.5 mm and cross-sectional area 150 mm2
A coil of 4000 turns is wound on part (b), and the flux density in the airgap is 0.30 T.
Assuming that all the flux passes through the given circuit, and that the relative permeability
μr is 1300, estimate the coil current to produce such a flux density.

1.26 Force Between Two Infinite Long Straight Parallel Current Carrying
Conductors
Home Assignment.

YouTube Video:
1. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kKi7H-y98bA