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EXPERIMENT NO. – 2
THEORY:
The Colpitts circuit, like other LC oscillators, consists of a gain
device (such as a bipolar junction transistor, field effect transistor, operational
amplifier, or vacuum tube) with its output connected to its input in a feedback
loop containing a parallel LC circuit (tuned circuit) which functions as a band
pass filter to set the frequency of oscillation.
A Colpitts oscillator is the electrical dual of a Hartley oscillator,
where the feedback signal is taken from an "inductive" voltage divider
consisting of two coils in series (or a tapped coil). Fig. shows the common-base
Colpitts circuit. L and the series combination of C1 and C2 form the parallel
resonant tank circuit which determines the frequency of the oscillator. The
voltage across C2 is applied to the base-emitter junction of the transistor, as
feedback to create oscillations. The frequency of oscillation is approximately
the resonant frequency of the LC circuit, which is the series combination of the
two capacitors in parallel with the inductor.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM :
PROCEDURE:
GP GANDHINAGAR EC DEPARTMENT AE(3331102)
OBSERVATION TABLE:
C1 C2 L Theoritical Practical
Frequency (Hz) Frequency
(Hz)
24nF 240nF 340mH
34nF 340nF 340mH
CONCLUSION:
GP GANDHINAGAR EC DEPARTMENT AE(3331102)
EXPERIMENT NO. – 3
AIM: TO TEST HARTLEY OSCILLATOR FOR VARIABLE FREQUENCY.
THEORY:
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM :
PROCEDURE:
GP GANDHINAGAR EC DEPARTMENT AE(3331102)
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. Check the circuit for biasing condition.
3. After connecting the feedback network .check the output.
4. Check for the sinusoidal waveform at output. Note down the
frequency of the output waveform and check for any deviation from the
designed value of the frequency.
5. Calculate the theoretical frequency of the circuit using the
formulae.
6. Compare theoretical and practical value.
Sr L1 L2 Theoretical Practical
No. Frequency frequency(KHz)
(KHz)
1 0.5mH 0.5mH
2 1mH 1mH
CONCLUSION:
GP GANDHINAGAR EC DEPARTMENT AE(3331102)
EXPERIMENT NO. – 4
THEORY:
The wein bridge oscillator is a standard circuit for generating low
frequencies in the range of 10 Hz to about 1MHz.The method used for getting
+ve feedback in wein bridge oscillator is to use two stages of an RC-coupled
amplifier. Since one stage of the RC-coupled amplifier introduces a phase shift
of 180 deg, two stages will introduces a phase shift of 360 deg. At the frequency
of oscillations f the +ve feedback network shown in fig makes the input &
output in the phase. The frequency of oscillations is given as
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
PROCEDURE:
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Sr
No. Resistor Capacitor Theoretical Practical
Value Value Frequency frequency(KHz)
(KHz)
1
2
3
4
CONCLUSION:
GP GANDHINAGAR EC DEPARTMENT AE(3331102)
EXPERIMENT NO.– 5
THEORY:
UJT relaxation oscillator is a type of RC (resistor-capacitor)
oscillator where the active element is a UJT (uni-junction transistor). UJT is an
excellent switch with switching times in the order of nano seconds. It has a
negative resistance region in the characteristics and can be easily employed in
relaxation oscillators. The UJT relaxation oscillator is called so because the
timing interval is set up by the charging of a capacitor and the timing interval is
ceased by the the rapid discharge of the same capacitor.
UJT (uni junction transistor). From the name itself, the UJT or uni junction
transistor is a semiconductor device that has only one junction. The UJT has
three terminals designated B1, B2 and E.
UJT parameters:
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM :
WAVEFORM :
GP GANDHINAGAR EC DEPARTMENT AE(3331102)
PROCEDURE:
OBSERVATION TABLE:
CONCLUSION:
GP GANDHINAGAR EC DEPARTMENT AE(3331102)
EXPERIMENT: 6
THEORY:
The term operational amplifier or "op-amp" refers to a class of
high-gain DC coupled amplifiers with two inputs and a single output. The
modern integrated circuit version is typeset by the famous 741 op-amp. Some
of the general characteristics of the IC version are:
EXPERIMENT NO. – 7
In the inverting amplifier only one input is applied and that is to the
inverting input (V2) terminal. The Non inverting input terminal (V1) is
grounded.
Vo= -A Vin
The negative sign indicates the output voltage is 1800 out of phase with
respect to the input and amplified by gain A.
GP GANDHINAGAR EC DEPARTMENT AE(3331102)
PROCEDURE:
1) Connect the circuit for inverting amplifier on a breadboard.
2) Connect the input terminal of the op-amp to function generator and
output T erminal to CRO.
3) Feed input from function generator and observe the output on CRO.
4) Draw the input and output waveforms on graph paper.
Observation Table :
Inverting Amplifier
Sr. Vin R1 Rf Vout Gain Av
No.
1
2
3
4
TEG AIRCU T AN A PLI A O
S 1510
OUTPUT WAVEFORM :
CONCLUSION:
GP GANDHINAGAR EC DEPARTMENT AE(3331102)
EXPERIMENT NO.– 8
THEORY:
Non-inverting amplifier using 741:
The input is applied to the non-inverting input terminal and the Inverting
terminal is connected to the ground.
Vo= A Vin
The output voltage is larger than the input voltage by gain A & is in phase
with the input signal.
PROCEDURE:
Observation Table :
Non-Inverting Amplifier
Sr. No. Vin R1 Rf Vout Gain Av
1
2
3
4
Output Waveform:
CONCLUSION:
GP GANDHINAGAR EC DEPARTMENT AE(3331102)
EXPERIMENT NO: 9
THEORY:
Adder (Summing Amplifier):
Subtractor:
The basic difference amplifier can be used as a subtractor.
The signals to be subtracted are connected to opposite polarity inputs
i.e. in inverting or non-inverting terminals of the op-amp.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
PROCEDURE:
1. Apply two different sine waves signal to the input of the adder
and subtractor.
2. Give the input amplitude of 5v peak to peak and frequency of 1
kHz.
3. Verify the output on CRO.
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Sr. No. V1 V2 Theoretical Practical Remarks
V0=V1+V2 V0 (values
matched or
not)
1
2
3
4
CONCLUSION:
GP GANDHINAGAR EC DEPARTMENT AE(3331102)
EXPERIMENT NO: 10
THEORY:
The 555 timer IC is an integrated circuit (chip) used in a variety of timer,
pulse generation, and oscillator applications. The 555 can be used to provide
time delays, as an oscillator, and as a flip-flop element. Derivatives provide up
to four timing circuits in one package.
Depending on the manufacturer, the standard 555 package includes 25
transistors, 2 diodes and 15 resistors on a silicon chip installed in an 8-pin mini
dual-in-line package (DIP-8).
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
IC 555 Pin Diagrm of IC 555
Specifications
These specifications apply to the NE555. Other 555 timers can have different
specifications depending on the grade (military, medical, etc.).
Supply voltage (VCC) 4.5 to 15 V
Supply current (VCC = +5 V) 3 to 6 mA
Supply current (VCC = +15 V) 10 to 15 mA
Output current (maximum) 200 mA
Maximum Power dissipation 600 mW
Power consumption (minimum operating) 30 mW@5V, 225 mW@15V
Operating temperature 0 to 70 °C
CONCLUSION:
GP GANDHINAGAR EC DEPARTMENT AE(3331102)
GEXPERIMENT NO: 11
THEORY:
Multivibrator:
A circuit designed to have zero, one, or two stable output
states.There are three types of multivibrators:
When Q is low the transistor opens and the capacitor charges. The
complementary signal out of the flip-flop goes to pin 3 and output. When
external reset pin is grounded it inhibits the device. The on – off feature is
useful in many application. The lower OP- AMP inverting terminal input is
called the trigger because of the voltage divider. The non-inverting input has
a voltage of +Vcc/3, the OP-Amp output goes high and resets the flip flop.
f = 1.44/(RA + RB)C
The duty cycle is,
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
PROCEDURE:
Astable multivibrator:
WAVE FORMS:
GP GANDHINAGAR EC DEPARTMENT AE(3331102)
CONCLUSION:
GP GANDHINAGAR EC DEPARTMENT AE(3331102)
EXPERIMENT NO: 12
THEORY:
A timing interval starts when the trigger input ("tr") is brought low.
When this happens, the 555 output goes high. This causes the capacitor to
be charged until it reaches 6.67V. Then, the timing interval ends, the
output goes low, and the capacitor is discharged through the "dis"input.
PROCEDURE:
1) Connect the circuit using the component values as per the
design.
2) Set the square wave 2.5V peak and 1KHz trigger input on
function generator.
3) Apply the trigger input at pin-2 through capacitor C1. Observe
both trigger input and the output of the multivibrator on CRO
simultaneously and sketch the waveforms.
4) Repeat the step 3 for trigger input of 2KHz frequency.
WAVE FORMS:
GP GANDHINAGAR EC DEPARTMENT AE(3331102)
CONCLUSION:
GEXPERIMENT NO: 13
THEORY :
Amplifier receives a signal from some pickup transducer or other input
source and provides larger version of the signal. In small signal amplifiers the
main factors are usually amplification, linearity and magnitude of gain.
Amplifier classes represent the amount the output signal varies over one
cycle of operation for a full cycle of input signal. So the following classes of PA
are defined as
Class A
Class B
Class AB
Class C
Class D
Class A amplifier:
Class A amplifying devices operate over the whole of the input cycle such
that the output signal is an exact scaled-up replica of the input with no clipping.
Class A amplifiers are the usual means of implementing small signal amplifiers.
They are not very efficient. a theoretical maximum of 50% is obtainable with
inductive output coupling and only 25% with capacitive coupling.
Class B:
Class B amplifiers only amplify half of the input wave cycle. As such
they create a large amount of distortion, but their efficiency is greatly improved
and is much better than Class A. Class B has a maximum theoretical efficiency of
78.5% (i.e., π/4). This is because the amplifying element is switched off
altogether half of the time, and so cannot dissipate power. • A single Class B
element is rarely found in practice, though it can be used in RF power amplifier
where the distortion levels are less important. However Class C is more
commonly used for this.
Class AB:
A practical circuit using Class B elements is the complementary pair
or "push–pull" arrangement. Here, complementary or quasi-complementary
devices are used to each amplify the opposite halves of the input signal, which
is then recombined at the output. This arrangement gives excellent efficiency,
but can suffer from the drawback that there is a small mismatch at the "joins"
between the two halves of the signal.. • Class AB sacrifices some efficiency over
class B in favor of linearity, so will always be less efficient (below 78.5%). It is
typically much more efficient than class A.
GP GANDHINAGAR EC DEPARTMENT AE(3331102)
Class C:
Class C amplifiers conduct less than 50% of the input signal and the
distortion at the output is high, but high efficiencies (up to 90%) are possible.
Some applications (for example, megaphones) can tolerate the distortion. A
much more common application for Class C amplifiers is in RF transmitters,
where the distortion can be vastly reduced by using tuned loads on the
amplifier stage. The input signal is used to roughly switch the amplifying device
on and off, which causes pulses of current to flow through a tuned circuit.
Class D:
Class D amplifiers are much more efficient than Class AB power
amplifiers. As such, Class D amplifiers do not need large transformers and
heavy heatsinks, which means that they are smaller and lighter in weight than
an equivalent Class AB amplifier. All power devices in a Class D amplifier are
operated in on/off mode. These amplifiers use pulse width modulation,
CONCLUSION:
GP GANDHINAGAR EC DEPARTMENT AE(3331102)
TEG AIRCU T AN A PLI A O
EXPERIMENT NO: 14
AIM: TO STUDY TRANSFORMER COUPLED CLASS-A POWER AMPLIFIER.
THEORY:
Transformer coupled class A amplifier
GP GANDHINAGAR EC DEPARTMENT AE(3331102)
GP GANDHINAGAR EC DEPARTMENT AE(3331102)
CONCLUSION:
GP GANDHINAGAR EC DEPARTMENT AE(3331102)
EXPERIMENT NO. 15
AIM: TO STUDY AND DETERMINE THE EFFICIENCY OF PUSH-PULL
POWER AMPLIFIER.
THEORY:
DC bias operation
Load line
Power considerations:
Output power:
The output voltage and current varying around the bias point provide ac power
to the load.
GP GANDHINAGAR EC DEPARTMENT AE(3331102)
Class B operation is provided when the dc bias leaves the transistor biased Just
off, the transistor turning on when the ac signal is applied. This is essentially no
bias and conducts for only one half cycles. To obtain output for full cycle, it is
required to use two transistors and have each conduct on opposite half-cycles,
the combined operation providing a full cycle of output on opposite half cycles
of output signal. Since one part of the circuit pushes the signal high during one
half cycles and other part pulls the signal low during the other half cycle, the
GP GANDHINAGAR EC DEPARTMENT AE(3331102)
circuit is referred to as push-pull circuit. Class B operation provides greater
efficiency than was possible using single transistor in class A operation.
Class B push-pull:
GP GANDHINAGAR EC DEPARTMENT AE(3331102)
CONCLUSION:
GP GANDHINAGAR EC DEPARTMENT AE(3331102)
EXPERIMENT NO. 16
THEORY:
GP GANDHINAGAR EC DEPARTMENT AE(3331102)
WORKING:
Every transistor will conduct for half cycle. Single input signal is applied to the
base of both transistors NPN transistor will be biased in conduction for positive
half cycle of the input. During negative half cycle PNP transistor is biased into
conduction when input goes to negative.
Disadvantages
• One disadvantage is that the need of two separate voltage supplies.
• Cross over distortion in the output signal.
• This cross over distortion is referred to as the nonlinearity in the output
signal during cross over from positive to negative or vice-versa. This is due to
the fact that, none of the transistors are on near zero input and thus output
does not follow input.
GP GANDHINAGAR EC DEPARTMENT AE(3331102)
• This circuit provides higher output current and lower output resistance.
• Here the load resistance is matched by low output resistance of the driving
source.
CONCLUSION:
GP GANDHINAGAR EC DEPARTMENT AE(3331102)
44