Curtin University

Department of Civil Engineering

Geotechnical Engineering 3
Seepage
Lecture Note

The Pomme de Terre Earth Dam, Kansas City District, USA.

Image courtesy: http:/ /\Vlvw .nwk. us ace .army.mil/Locations/District-Lakes/Pomme-de-Terre-Lake/Learn-Abou t-
the-Lake/

August 2016
 GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING 3- SEEPAGE II Curtin University
SOIL WATER IN MOTION

Any change in the state of static equilibrium converts the soil cavities from water-storage
reservoirs to passageways through which the water can flow. The effe~ts of water movement
within soil are also very important in many geotechnical engineering applications. Factors
such as highway subdrainage, wells as a source of water supply, capillary and first action,
seepage flow analysis, pumping water for underground construction, for malting stability
analyses of earth dams and earth retaining structures all require the consideration of in-soil
water movement.

Dynamics of fluid flow

In general, the fluid flows fall into two major categories:

1. The turbulent flow, the fluid particles of which move in very irregular (chaotic) paths,
causing losses of energy approximately proportional to the square of flow velocity. The
development of this flow requires a high velocity and large flow profiles.

2. The laminar flow, the fluid particles of which move in smooth, orderly streams
(larninas), causing energy losses directly proportional to flow velocity. The development of
this flow requires high viscosity, low velocity, and small flow particles.

These states are illustrated in Figure 1, which shows how the hydraulic gradient changes with
increasing velocity of flow. Hydraulic gradient n, a very important concept, is defined as the
energy or head loss h per unit length 1, or

. h
l= - (1)
l

i: Hydraulic Gradient
Phase 1 : Phase 3:
Laminar Turbulent

Velaciry

Fig. 1 variation of the hydraulic gradient with increasing velocity

 2 GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING 3- SEEPAGE Curtin Universit!J

The study of soil water in motion is one of the most important aspects of engineering soil
mechanics.

The turbulent flow rarely occurs in soils (except in shattered rock and coarse-gravel deposits).
The laminar flow, however, is characteristic of all soils finer than coarse gravels, and, unless
specifically stated otherwise, all water flows in this chapter are laminar. Thus from Figure 1,
we could write that V is proportional to i, or

V=Ki (2)

Equation 2 is an expression for Darcy's law, which is discussed later in this chapter.

Another well-known equation from fluid mechanics that we shall use is the Bernoulli energy
equation for incompressible steady flow of a fluid:

(3)

Pressure Velocity Elevation

head head head

where h = total head

u =pressure
v =velocity
=
g acceleration due to gravity
yw = unit weight of water

Note that the elevation head, Z, is the vertical distance of a given point above or below a
datum plane. The pressure head is the water pressure, u, at that point divided by the unit
weight of water, yw.

If Bernoulli's equation is applied to the flow of water through a porous soil medium, the term
containing the velocity head can be neglected, because the seepage velocity is small and the
total head at any point can be adequately represented by

u
h= -+z (4)
/{v

Darcy's law for flow through porous media

In 1856 Darcy showed experimentally that a fluid's velocity of flow through a por~us medium
was directly related to the hydraulic gradient causing the flow. Referring to Figure 2 and
assuming laminar flow, Darcy's law may be written as

W=kiA

or
 3 GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING 3- SEEPAGE Curtin Universit~

(5)

where Q =rate of flow

k = coefficient of permeability
i = gradient or head loss between two given points, = (hl - h2)/L
A = total cross-sectional area of tube
=
Lili difference in heads at the two ends of soil sample
L = length of sample

L1h

courtesy: https:/ /bae.okstate.edu/faculty-sites/Darcy/LaLoi/Basics.ht m

Figure 2. Uniform gravitational flow through soils.

In Figure 2, one notes that the "tube" velocity u of the water must necessarily be different
from the velocity of the water through the soil voids, or seepage velocity us, since the tube
area A is much larger than the cross-sectional area of the voids Av. For continuity of fl.ow,
the quantity of flow Q must be the same throughout the system. Hence,

Q =Av= Avus (a)

from which

Vs=(~)v
Av
=(AL
AvL
)v =~V
Vv
(b)

or

1
Vs=-V (6)
n

or
 4 GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING 3- SEEPAGE Curtin Universit~

u =nus (6a)

where V = total volume of mass

V v = volume of voids
=
n porosity ratio

It is rather obvious then that the velocity 'U is a superficial velocity; the use of u instead of us,
however, is a convenient and widely used notation.

From Equation 5, Q/A =u = ki. Hence, substituting in Equation 6a,

ki
'US= - (7)
n

Determination of K

The constant head and falling head permeation tests

Permeability cannot be assigned a textbook vlaue on the basis of other tests but must be
measured directly, by field or laboratory model tests devised for the design situation, or by
standard laboratory tests. The two most commonly used techniques are constant head or
falling head permeation. These tests are illustrated schematically in Figures 3 and 4.

Consta nt water level

. . . ~flow
L

Image courtesy: Fetter. Applied Hydrogeology 4th Edition

Figure 3. Constant head permeameter.

 5 GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING 3- SEEPAGE II Curtin University
The constant head penneameter (Figure 3) yields direct measurement of all
parameters in the equation.
Q.' l-
K =t HA (8)
where Q' = quantity of flow in time = t

h = total head

1bis test must be used for all soils where (k) is hi~ that is most granular soils.

Permeability can be determined from the falling head permeameter by the expression:
ctl- l ( hQ
K = 2. 3 At oj h )
(9)

In the apparatus shown in Figure 4, where

1..-.j
a

Image courtesy: Fetter. Applied Hydrogeology4th Edition

T
ho
<11
..0
i:l

1
"O
"'
<11

~
..c
Oo
c

"'
u..

T
L

1
Fig 4. Falling head permeameter.

In either test setup, a series of readings enabled a cross-check on calculation.

NOTE: Within the time scale of routine tests, there is no interference from
consolidation and tests are performed under full saturation, that is:

e =constant
s =1
k := constant

In a field situation, the void ratio (e) is probably falling with time.

Rowe cell test

The Rowe cell was introduced by Rowe and Barden in 1966 for the purpose of
carrying out consolidation tests. Its use has also been developed for permeability.
Either vertical or horizontal permeabilities may be measured, with a high degree of
 6 GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING 3- SEEPAGE g Curtin Universit\:l

reliability. The test is of the constant head type, with the field values of void ratio,
pore pressure and effective stress closely simulated.

Vertical penneab ility

The arrangement of the apparatus for the determination of vertical permeability is

shown in Figure 5. An undisturbed sample of soil is fitted into the body of the cell
between porous discs and consolidated to an effective pressure relating to site
conditions using the hydraulic pressure jack. This can be set to simulate field pore-
pressure levels. A second constant pressure system is connected to the upper drain and
set at a pressure slightly lower than that at the outlet The pressure transducers
between the inlet and outlet tubes. This is usually maintained at less than 10 per cent
of the effective pressure exerted on the sample.
LVOT

---+ to V8CUIM11 line

to dlapliragm pressure system -

to pressurir ~
volume controller

connecting rod

Fig. 5 Im age courtesy: https://\WiW.researchgate.net/ publication/237373655_Final_state_of_soils_unde r_vacuum_preloading/figures?lo= l

Applying Darcy' s law (Equation 5):
ct= kAL
~ - 'tl-
k= Ai. - A h (10)

Where q =flow quantity (mm3/s)

L = length of sample thickness after initial
consolidation (mm)
i =Hydraulic Gradient
A = cross-sectional area of sample (mm 2 ) h
=differential pressure head (mm of water)
Horizontal permeability

The arrangement of the apparatus for the determination of horizontal permeability is

shown in Figure 6. In this set~up the flow is radial, with the cylindrical limit inlet
surface being surrounded by a porous drainage material and a central porous drain
inserted as the outlet
 7 GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING 3- SEEPAGE El Curtin Universit~

to flow our pipe

pressure
I
p p

:-~
.. ,, ·-~
.~·
.
;• .~"'. •~ ' • • flow
.··s_oil :· .•. f~il: ·.:·

Fig6.

Then the horizontal coefficient of permeabiJity may be obtained from:

k .=.
<t l.,3 e ( R/ r l. (11)
H lh'l- h
Where q =flow quantity (mm3/s)
L= length of sample
=thickness after initial consolidation (mm)
R=outside radius of the sample (mm)
r =inside radius of the sample
=radius of centre drain spindle (mm)
h =differential pressure head (mm of water)

Emperical relationships for coefficient of permeability

Table 1 provides the general range for the values of k for various soils. In granular
soils. the value primarily depends in the void ratio. In the past, several equations have
been proposed to relate the value of k with the void ratio in the granular soil:

(12)

(13)
~

I<, ·- ( i +e ie' )
---;;-- - ( '\?1 ) (14)
.2. \ -+ e:2.
where k 1 and k1 are the hydraulic conductivities of a given soil at void ratios e 1 and e2,
respectively

Table 1. Range of the k for various soils.

Til!e of soil Hydraulic conductivity, k {cm/sec)

Medium to coarse gravel Greater than 10-r
Coarse to fine sand 10-1to10-3 I
Fine sand. silty sand 10-3 to 10-5
Silt, clavev silt. silty clay 10-4to 10-6
Clavs 10-7 or less
 8 GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING 3- SEEPAGE II Curtin University
Table 2. Classification of soils according to their coefficients of permeability.

Def!:ree of oermeabilitv Value of k (mis)

Him Over 10-3
Medium 10-3to10-5
Low 10-5 to 10-7
Very low 10-7to10-9
Practically imnermeable Less than 10-9

The coefficient of permeability for uniform sands in a loose state can be estimated by
using an empirical formulae proposed by Hazen as follows:

/(-== C D2. (15)

I IO

Where k= coefficient of permeability (cm/s)

C 1 = 100 to 150 (1/cm.s)
D 10 = effective grain size (soil particle diameter corresponding to 10%
passing on the grain-size distnbution cwve) (cm)

For dense or compacted sands, the coefficient of permeability can be approximated by

using the following equation:
;z
K = 0.35D1s (16)

Where k= coefficient of permeability (cm/s)

Dis= soil particles diameter corresponding to 15% passing in the grain-
size distribution curve (mm)

If silts and/or clays are present in a sandy soil, even in small amounts, the coefficient
of permeability may change significantly, because the fine silt-clay particles clog the
sand's pore area.

For clayey soils in the field, a practical relationship for estimating the hydraulic
conductivity (Tavenas et al., 1983) is:

Loj /( :::
lo
~
ko -
ecc- e (17)
k.
Where k= hydraulic conductivity at a void ratio, e
ko = in situ hydraulic conductivity at a void ratio, eo
Ck = conductivity change index ~ 0.5eo

For clayey soils, the hydraulic conductivity for flow in the vertical and horizontal
directions may vary substantially. The hydraulic conductivity for flow in the vertical
direction (kv) for in situ soils can be estimated from Figure 7. For marine and other
massive clay deposits:
kt, I
kv ,t·5 (18)

Where kii = hydraulic conductivity for flow in the horizontal direction. For carved
clays the, ratio of ki/kv may exceed 10.
 9 GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING 3- SEEPAGE Curtin University
2.8

e: void ratio
Pl : PLASTICITY INDEJ
2 CF: CLAY FRACTION
Fig. 7 the graph for calculation of
the vertical hydraulic conductivity
for in-situ soils
1.2

Determination of k in the field 10-9

Kv {m/sec)

As noted previously, permeability determined in a laboratory may not be truly

indicative of the in situ permeability. Thus, field tests are generally more reliable than
laboratory tests for determining soil permeability, the main reason being that field
tests are performed on the undistributed soil exactly as it occurs in situ at the test
location. Other reasons are that soil stratification, overburden stress, location of the
groundwater table, and certain other factors that might influence permeability test
results are virtually unchanged with field tests, which is not the case for laboratory
tests.

There are several field methods for evaluating permeability, such as pumping,
borehole, and tracer tests. The latter use dye, salt, or radioactive tracers to find the
time it takes a given tracer to travel between two wells or borings; by finding the
differential head between the two, the soils engineer can determine the coefficient of
permeability. The pumping method is detailed next

Figure 8 illustrates a well extending downward through an impermeable layer and

then a permeable layer (an aquifer) to another impermeable layer. If water is pumped
from the well at a constant discharge (q), flow will enter the well only from the
aquifer, and the piezometric surface will be drawn down toward the well as shown in
Figure 8. At some time after pumping begins, an equilibrium condition will be
reached. The piezometric surface can be located by auxiliary observation wells
located at distance h1 above the top of the aquifer at point r1 from the pumping well
and at distance h2 at point r1. All parameters noted in this discussion and on Figure 8
can be measured during a pumping test, and from these data the coefficient of
permeability can be computed as follows. It should be noted that the permeability so
determined is that of the soil in the aquifer in the direction of flow (i.e. in horizontal
radial directions).

Equation 5 can be applied to the equilibrium pumping condition in Figure 8.

Hydraulic gradient i in.the equation is given for any point on the piezometric surface
by dh/dr. The soil's cross-sectional area at any point in the piezometric surface
through which water flows (A in equation 5) is that of a cylinder with radius rand
height H (see Figure 8). Substituting these into Equation 5 gives:
Ground level -,YS. '\.V

clay as a
impermeable
, ,

I
dh L
___ .... 1:::"...:-l" --- 1-
..... .... .....
r1
h,
h,
and
I r
~ sand layer thickness
r2

I l
Impermeable

Fig. 8 shows an equilibirium pumping condition

 (

10 GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING 3- SEEPAGE Curtin Universit~ c

(
(19)
'f'= k i, A .: i< :; -< l\ r j-1 ,..
I.

r,. t
r,
J..-
r
=~ hh ,_ :t 7\ KH dh (20)
(
'-
(
'
Integrating gives:
't'l \n r J'i"i. : - ~IC k H \.h}~'"
I
(21) (
'
1

t' \n ("'I. :: ,."l I \ J< f..J ( hl. - ~I )

(22)
(
r, (
Solving fork yields:
Cf" \n (fl./ r, ) {
I< :: (23) (
(h 4 -h,) 2.~H
(
Figure 9 illustrates a pumping well located in an unconfined, homogeneous aquifer. In
{
this case, the piezometric surface lies within the aquifer. The analysis of this type of c

well is the same as that for the confined aquifer (i.e., Figure 8), except that the A term
in Equation 5 becomes 21Uh. Hence, ;;
{

d.h 2 7\1 h (
t ::: k Jr (24)
{
{
( r l. d.r - (h 'l 2 7\ K h Jh (25)
) q---) (
"
r, r h, - h2..1 h,. r'

Cf- l \Y\ r 1'1r,. : : . ;i. 7\ K L2:' .Ji,, (26)

(
'

'
F
\
(27)
(

(28)
l< -

well ~
2
Pumping r1 •I r 0bservation well "I
Initial water
table position

Impermeable layer

. ....... . . .... .. . ..

-~· · [·~· · · · · @,~,·· · · ·

'
. . . '. ' ' .......
:::::-~: ~: ~: ~: ~: ~: ~: ~: ~: ~: ~: ~: ~: ~: ~: ~:;:
. . ........ . ... . .....
. ' . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. . .
. . . . --·. '-' .... ' ' . ' ...
.
.- ·. · .· .·. · .·. ·.·
.- ••
Impermeable layer

Fig. 9. drawdown in a homogenous unconfined aquifer

Image courtesy: http: //ecoursesonline.iasri. res.in/mod/page/view. php?id= 125155
 11 GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING 3- SEEPAGE II Curtin University
Permeability of sedimentary deposits

A sedimentary deposit may consist of several different soils and if is often necessary
to determine the average values of permeability in two directions, one parallel to the
bedding planes and the other at right angles to them (see Figure 10).

dz,. Hn
mage courtesy: http://nptel.ac.in/courses/105103026/5
Fig. 10 a sedimentary deposit with different soil layer and different hydraulic conductivity

Let there be n layers of thicknesses Hi. H2, H3, .... Hn.

Let the total thickness of the layers be H.
Let ki, k2, k3, ... kn be the respective coefficients of permeability for each individual
layer.
Let the average permeability for the whole deposit be kx for flow parallel to the
bedding planes and ky for flow perpendicular to this direction_

Consider flow parallel to the bedding planes:

Total flow= q = Akxi, where A= total area and i =hydraulic gradient.

This total flow must equal the sum of the flow through each layer.

Therefore

Considering unit width of soil:

Hkxi = i(H1k1 + H2k2 + H3k3 + .... + Hnkn)

H K+H K +HK +•~··-f-Hnl<Y\
Hence K : '
1
l, :i.
3 3
~ ~
Consider flow perpendicular to the bedding planes:

Considering unit area:

 12 GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING 3- SEEPAGE Curtin University

( I, I + h 2.. f h 3 ·t- • • - • + I, h )
Now K i
1 H
Where h1 ,h2, h3, etc., are the respective head losses across each layer.

now
K1h,
.• ·='t/
K 1.. h 2..
H�.
:::.<t; 1<. 3 h� a.,II H ·=
1 H 3

l
h Kl
-� ,
I
1, ::: 1' 1-i :i.
2.. K ;
h == 't. H 3
3 K3 I
i,

L< (f;H1 + 9-H.,,_ + 't�3 + - - ·- -

i l-< I K i<?,

H
H,
K,
Hl,.
·"\"-K +-
. H3 + .....
+-
1<
H ;,
2.
General differential equation of flow 3 K
,,

For most cases of seepage under hydraulic structures the flow path changes direction
and is not uniform over the entire area. In such cases, one of the ways of determining
the rate of seepage is by a graphical construction referred to asflow net. The flow net
is based on Laplace's theory of continuity. According to this theory, for a steady
flow condition, the flow at any point A (Figure 11) can be represented by the
equations 31,32,33:

where kx, ky, kz = hydraulic conductivity of the soil in the x, y and z directions,
Respectively
h = hydraulic head at point A (that is, the head of water that a
piezometer placed at A would show with the downstream water
lever as datum as shown in Figure 11 ).
upstream water

=
------------r
difference up& dmim

.. ··-·:... _..__.

!J

Fig. 11 Two dimensional flow condition below a dam

z

For a two-dimentional flow condition as shown in Figure 11,

(31)
 13 GEOTECHNICAL ENG INEERING 3- SEEPAGE II Curtin University
So Equation 31 takes the fonn
K o'"J-i + k (32)
x. ox. "2.. 'Z
If the soil is isotropic with respectto hydraulic conductivity, kx = ky = kz, and
4
?;'- h
o x_2.. + o
az
h
2.
=0 (33)

Equation 33, which is referred to as Laplace's equation and is valid for confined flow,
represents two orthogonal sits of curves that are known as flow lines and equipotential
lines. A flow net is a combination of numerous equipotential lines and flow lines.

Laplace's equation is a very important equation in mathematical physics; it represents

the energy loss through any resistive medium (for example, the flow of water through
soils). But, for most practical engineering problems, it is simpler to solve such
problems graphically. Flow nets are such graphical solutions to Laplace's equation for
a given sot of boundary conditions. Although other methods of solution are available,
and are briefly described in the following paragraphs, the flow net method is the most
commonly used

There are three other possible methods of solution:

1. Electrical analogue
2. Seepage tank
3. Nwnerical methods

Electrical analogue - a similar equation to Laplace's equation holds for the two-
dimentional flow of electricity through a conducting medium, so that the solution of a
two-dimensional seepage problem can be obtained from studying the form of
electrical flow through a conducting medium, that is geometrically similar to the
cross-section of soil through which flow is taking place. The electrical analogue can
be very helpful for cases where the boundaries are irregular.

Seepage tank- with this method a model of the percolation medium is made up from
sand in a perspex tank (see Figure 12). At certain points along the upstream
equipotential coloured dye is injected into the model and very soon traces out a flow
line that enables the whole flow pattern to be seen. The sand used must be clean and
fairly coarse, as too many fines in the model will reduce capillarity effects that tend to
make the flow line run into each other. The solution of actual seepages problems by
this method is not altogether satisfactory, due to the scale effects involved.

approx.450mm

---...approx. 1.""'85cu;m_ _ __

Fig. 12 a physical model to simulate the percolation in sand

 14 GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING 3- SEEPAGE Curtin Universit\J

Numerical methods - a cross-sectional drawing of the seepage area, within realistic

lateral limits, is prepared and a suitably spaces grid superimposed upon if. The known
excess hydrostatic heads, relative to some datum, are marked at the relevant nodal
points and estimated values of head are allocated to other nodal points.

Flow net : Two dimensional flow

When water flows underground through well-defined aquifer over long distances, the
flow rate can be computed by using Darcy's Law (Q=kiA) if the individual terms in
the equation can be evaluated. In cases where the path of flow is irregular or if the
water entering and leaving the permeable soil is over a short distance, flow boundary
conditions may not be well defined and analytic solutions, such as the use of Darcy's
equation, become difficult. In such cases, flow may be evaluated by using flow nets.

A flow net is a combination of numerous equipotential lines and flow lines. A flow
line is a path that a water particle would follow in travelling from the upstream side to
the downstream side. An equipotential line is a line along which water in piezometers
would rise to the same elevation (see Figure 13).

upstream water level

downstream water

flow lines
\
soil

a b
Fig. 13 the flow and equipotential lines below a dam

Construction of flow nets

A soft pencil, a rubber and a pair of dividers or compasses are necessary. To complete
the graphic construction of a flow net, one must draw the flow and equipotential lines
in such a way that:

L The equipotential line intersect the flow lines at right angles.

2. The flow elements formed are approximate squares.
 15 GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING 3- SEEPAGE II Curtin University
The first step is to draw in one flow line, upon the accuracy of which the final
correctness of flow net depends. There are various boundary conditions that help to
position this first flow line including:

(i) Buried surfaces (e.g. the base of the dam, sheet piling), which are flow lines as
water cannot penetrate into such surfaces.
(ii) The junction between a permeable and an impermeable material, which is also
a fl.ow line; for flow net purposes a soil that bas a permeability of one-tenth or
less the permeability of the other may be regarded as impenneable.
(iii) The horiz.ontal ground surfaces in each side of the dam, which are
equipotential lines.

Drawing a flow net takes several trials. While constructing the flow net, keep the
boundary conditions in mind- As an example, for the flow net shown in Figure 14, the
following four boundary conditions apply:

1. The upstream and downstream surfaces of the permeable layer (lines ab and de)
are equipotential lines.
2. Because ab and de are equipotential lines, all the flow lines intersect them at right
angles.
3. The boundary of the impervious layer - that is, line /g- is a flow line, and so is
the surface of the impervious sheet pile, line acd.
4. The equipotential lines intersect acd andfg at right angles.

c Puvious StrabJm

'2Z'
) I;;;;;;;;;» I c::s:s I

Impcrriow StrtiUm
(b)
(•)

p :
I c:s::s I
I c::s:s I

(d)
(c)

Fig 14. Construction of flow net: (a) scale drawing showing pervious and impervious
boundaries; (b) flow lines; (c) equipotential lines; (d) final flow net

Note that no figure in a flow net can be truly square, but the vast majority of the
figures do approximate to squares in that the four comers of the figure are at right
angles and the distance between the flow lines (b) equals the distance between the
 16 GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING 3- SEEPAGE II Curtin University
equipotintials ()(see Figure 15 .). A little imagination is sometimes needed when
asserting that a certain figure is a square and some figures are definitely triangular in
shape, but provided the flow net is drawn with a sensible number of flow channels,
(generally five or six) the results obtained will be within the range of accuracy
possible. The more flow channels that are drawn the more the figures will
approximate to true squares, but the apparent increase in accuracy is misleading and
the extra work involved in drawing perhaps twelve channels is not worthwhile .
.}
/ ~\O
\
\ J
~
'\. fa..v'ipo't-< vi-r,·t>-f
~,-

"~
Fig. 15 the distance between flow lines and equipotential lines are th e same

Flow nets can be used to determine the uplift pressure at the base of hydraulic
structure (this general concept can be demonstrated by an example - see the
Application section at the end of this chapter).

Calculation of seepage quantities from flow net

Once a suitable flow net has been prepared as described in the preceding paragraphs,
seepage flow can be determined by modifying Darcy's law, as follows:

q=kiA (5)

Consider one square in a flow net - for example, the one labeled "G" in Figure 15b.
Let Liq and Afl denote the flow rate and drop in head (energy), respectively, for this
square. Since each square is b units wide and l units long and has a unit width
perpendicular to the figure, term i in Equation 5 is given by Ahlb and term A is equal
to 1. Hence,

(34)

I
I
I
I - - Flow Channel

Fig lSb. Flow channel and equipotential drops.

 17 GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING 3- SEEPAGE II Curtin University
However, since the figure is square jib, is unity and

(35)

If Nd represents the number of equipotential increments (spaces between equipotential

lines), then Ah equals hi Nd and
k. h
D,. '1"' = (36)
"'<i
If Nr denotes the number of flow paths (spaces between flow lines), then Aq equals
q/Nr(where q is the total flow rate of the flow net per unit width) and
<}' k. h
-= (37)
NF Nd
or I< h Nf
(38)
"'c1.
Computation of seepage quality in anistropic soil (.k..t -:t: k2)

In the foregoing discussion of flow nets, it was assumed that soil was isotropic - that
is, equal soil permeability in all directions (kx = k"?). In actuality, natwal soils are not
isotropic, but often soil permeabilities in vertical and horizontal directions are similar
enough that the assmnption of isotropic soil is acceptable for finding flow without
appreciable error. In stratified soil deposits, however, where horizontal permeability is
much greater than vertical permeability, the flow net must be modified and Equation
38 altered to compute flow. For the situation where kz.and kx (representing average
vertical and horizontal coefficients of permeability, respectively) differ appreciably,
the method for constructing the flow net can be modified by use of a transformed
section to account for the different permeabilities. The modification is done when the
scale drawing of the cross section of the flow path is prepared. In Figure 16 we see the
same section to transformed and natural scales.

;:::10.,..,
--111=-
(. b)
( °" )
Fig 16. (a) Transformed scale. (b) Natural scale.

To construct the flow net, use the following procedure:

1. Adopt a vertical scale (that is, z axis) for drawing the cross section. {;:_
2. Adopt a horizontal scale (that is, x axis) such that horizontal scale
scale.
=v::;
x.
)I.vertical

3. With scales adopted as in steps 1 and 2, plot the vertical section through the
permeable layer parallel to the direction of flow.
 18 GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING 3- SEEPAGE Curtin University

4. Draw the flow net for the penneable layer on the section obtained from step 3,
with flow lines intersecting equipotential lines at right angles and the elements as
approximate squares.

The rate of seepage per unit length can be calculated by modifying Equation 38 to:
.N
a,.,
\ = Ji<-..,..- /<.2 HNJf- (39)

Where H = total head loss

Nr and Nd =number of flow channels and potential drops, respectively (from
flow net drawn in step 4)

Note that when flow nets are drawn in transformed sections (in anisotropic soils), the
flow lines and the equipotential lines are orthogonal. However, when they are redrawn
in a true section, these lines are not at right angles to each other. This fact is shown in
Figure 17. In this figure, it is assumed that kx = 6kz . Figure 17a shows a flow element
in a transformed section. The flow element had been redrawn in a true section in
Figure 17b.

-.-
-- K I
-6=[;
J<"'-
"e {'"Tl~.,.. I Sc.... le-:: 2.o~
I

ti o ri 3o"'-t.:..\ Sc"'i e =
10../Z == 4 0 l'")'"l

(b)

Fig 17. A flow element in anisotropic soil: (a) in transformed section; (b) in true
section.

Seepage forces and quick conditions

When water flows through soils (such as the flow of water in the permeability test
already discussed) it exerts forces called seepage forces on the individual soil grains.
 19 GEOTE CHNICAL ENGIN EERING 3- SEEPAGE Curtin Universit~

Seepage forces effects the intergranular or effective stresses in the soil. The typical
cases of such effects are considered in this section.

1. Downward fl.ow

Fig. 18 the condition of the downward seepage

The hydraulic gradient caused by the downward seepage equals i = h/H2. The total
stress, pore water pressure, and effective stress at any point C are, respectively,

O'c = H1Yw + Z¥sat

Uc = (H1 + z-iz)yw

cr' c = (H1Yw + Z¥sat)- (H1 + z- iz)yw

= ry' + ixyw (40)

The variations of total stress, pore water pressure, and effective stress with depth are
shown graphically in Figure 19a through 19c.
P>c.re ,.,~..-r p.....s~"'""' / u ffl-<-J1·vc $1'r'es~ o
0 0 . 0

H,

Hl +2

H1+tll - ---
\ - - ------
/
H1 'i + H ~s T (11 1 + H., - h) t"" "-· H l( + i, k'.' •
L'> e. \>'#-. I" Z. n. D<>.(>'Th, - <-<: f' 'ti.. l- .......
(. C•) ( b) ( C::)
Fig 19. Seepage variation of (a) total stress~ (b) pore water pressure; (c) effective
stress with depth for a soil layer with downward seepage.
 20 GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING 3- SEEPAGE Curtin University

2. Upward flow
"1
In the system of Figure 20, with the upward flow of:C.= H the intergranular pressure at
B is reduced as a result of the upward drag of the moving fluid.
'7 / Co,,t~o.v. T ( h )
z \.
-- -- r~ T~
-~~I_ -
'

I- - -
~
o'/~r- j'.:-low
Q
H t
I

I
I/
~
1
·4
---- - A.
.-,:

ll
z"
H').
~
t
?/ c•
-
fr 1s_t
.ll
Ii
~
-.L . .
-0
I.. . l•I ' ·.1 '"

l
- P::..low

Fig. 20 the conditi on of the upward flow

To find the effective pressure calculations at point A, B and C:

AtA

• Total stress: crA = H1'\'w

• Pore water pressure: UA = H1Yw
• Effective stress: o" A= crA - UA = 0

AtB

•Total stress: O'B = H1Yw+ H2'Ysat

• Pore water pressure: ua = (H1 + H2 + h)yw
• Effective stress:cr' a= as - us
= H2('Ysat - 'Yw) - hyw
=Ht(' -hyw

AtC

• Total stress: crc = H1Yw + Z'fsat

• Pore water pressure: lL .:;::. ( 1-1
I C I
+Z +~
11-:i.,.
Z J ~ ""'
• Effective stress: <."5° = cs - ~c
c c::: . h
z ( Ii
!!-St....T
~ k''""") ) - ·- i-\ ., 2 Y..I
t"'

= z ~I
.z J5
I
_b_ J
H
 21 GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING 3- SEEPAGE II Curtin University
The variations of total stress, pore water pressure, and effective stress is with depth
are plotted in Figure 2la through 21c respectively. ,.
0 ·- ·r .. "' .. ~
L..., - ~ <f'"'-";>i , . . . u fCt"e. \N(l.lt..... p,...~~,,fl:u t:ff~c:/"l'V~ ~°'i'r""SS/ e-
C>; u. /
0

. .1
H('fw+ H2"fm (H1 + H2 + h)y,. H2f-lry,.
1:lef>·rt-. (<A-) Def.>17.,,, (b) Pe.1'.>ft...(c.)
Fig 21. Seepage variation of (a) total stress; (b) pore water pressure; (c) effective
stress with depth for a soil layer with upward seepage.

Note that if the rate of seepage and thereby the hydraulic gradient are gradually
increased, a limiting condition will be reached, at which point:

o" 0 = zy' - ~zyw = 0 (42)

where ~ equals the critical hydraulic gradient for zero effective stress. Under such a
situation, soil stability is lost This situation is generally referred to as boiling. Quick
condition or quicks and condition from Equation 42,
' )t I
/\. =- (43)
er ¥~
For most soils, the value of~ varies from 0.9 to 1.1, with an average of 1.

The critical hydraulic gradient is very important in foundation design problems

because, under such a condition, cohesionless soil becomes very loose and cannot
carry loads.

A numerical value may also be obtained for ic thus:

/ I. .
g' == i'So.T - ((w
....
c !{w \C-.,..;

-- ~+€
(44)

Hence, for some rather common values of G = 2.2 and e = 0.7 (approximately), io is
about unity (critical grndient).
 22 GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING 3- SEEPAGE II Curtin University
Another phenomenon i:e1ated to quicksand is liquefaction. If a saturated and/or
inorganic silt is totally saturated and under hydrostatic neutral stress such that it is not
subjected to any effective stress, the case is in a state of liquefaction. Under such
circumstances the pore water pressure equals the total normal stress cr, thereby
reducing the shear strength to zero. It is apparent that in this state the soil is in quick
condition. Also, if not confined, such a mass will "flow' since it cannot resist stress.
If a submerged fine sand undergoes a sudden decrease in the void ratio, an increase in
the void ratio may result such that the u may equal or even exceed the value of er. For
example, pile driving, earthquakes, blasts, or other forms of vibration or shock may
cause a sudden decrease in the volume, thereby increasing the u as result of a surge in
hydrostatic excess pressure. Should the value u reach sufficient magnitude, say u:::cr,
the shear strength of the soil may be totally lost, resulting in what is known as
spontaneous Iiquefuction. Loose, fine silty sands are most vulnerable to such effects
from shock or dynamic loads or sudden fluctuations in the water table. Compacting a
loose sand stratum is frequently a viable option to decrease the possibility of
liquefaction.

Control of piping

The risk of piping can occur in several circumstances, such as a cofferdam (Figure
22a) or the downstream end of a dam (Fig 22b).
Upsrream water
sheet pile
warer
\
"'-.,'-. ., 3 T'.
\_ seepage flow T r:
upward forces
:,:~. :~::\· ~~;._.: .. ;- •· ....., "
seepage flow ..~ ·: ". : : .: .=.-;:
"."...
\.~lTn :· .. ·
' • "-.:..::,. upword forces (:B)
Fig. 22 (a) a cofferdam (b) downstream end of a dam

In order to increase the factor of safety against piping in these cases two methods can
be adopted The first procedure involves increasing the heel of the dam in Figure 22b;
in either case there is an increase in the length of the flow path for the water with a
resulting drop in the water pressure at the critical section. A similar effect is achieved
by laying down a blanket of impermeable material for some length along the upstream
ground surface (see Figure 23).
The second procedure is to place a surcharge or filter apron on top of the downstream
side, the weight of which increases the downward forces.

Upstream water
Upstream water
fllrer
flow direction \ I downstream water level
\ !
addltianal exrenst/an

~y
sail •
\ J
{low direction

(b}
----
{al
Fig. 23 a blanket of impermeable materials
 23 GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING 3- SEEPAGE a Curtin University

Where a flow net has been drawn to represent the seepage conditions, a simple
method may be used to determine a factor of safety against the occurrence of piping.
This is done by considering the prism of soil of unit thickness abed (Figure 24b).
Upstream water

d c
soil block

down stream water

soil

u,
\lpwar9 forc~s
)]§§Ii
Fig24.
!JQQA)LX:OCSCQ-~ S&DOkS&
<. 0..) (b)
ad = depth of penetration of sheet pile
ab = 0.5ad (Terz.ahi, 1922)

The downward force w = force due to submerged density of soil in prism

= (rsat-yw) x ad x ab

The upward seepage force in plane ab is found from the flow net. The seepage
pressure in ah will be equal to the loss of head between ah and cd in m of water. This
head loss is equal to the average number of drops in head between plane ab and plane
cd divided by the total number of head drops from inlet to outlet Nd and multiplied by
the total head loss h.
r\().V x
.·. The upward seepage force .:: - - - - -
N<i

:. Factor of safety against piping F -=-

k - x (Q..d) n h "I- ~I x o..d

;<. (
sa;:r
j(
w
) ().. v w
I

..
(45)

As discussed above the factor of safety against heave can be increased by use of
filters ( see Figure 25)
 24 GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING 3- SEEPAGE
II Curtin University
-

--r5-

Fig. 25 increasing the safety factor against heave by using a filter.

PS=
-
I
+ i(

(46)
1 {).V Yw
where y' f = effective unit weight of the filter
y' = effective unit weight of the soil

Design of filter
Piping can be controlled and/or eliminated in earth dams by using afilter or graded
filter on the exit side of the impermeable element (core or cut-off wall). Toe filter
should be graded to ensure that the protected soil cannot wash through the filter
material.
Experience, supported by tests made by Bertram (1940), indicates that if the following
filter criterion is me� piping will be adequately controlled:

<4
·:Dl� (f=tl'tc.r)
-r-o ,;.- (47)
1)8'$' (?rDtac::t� Soil)
This criterion states that the piping ratio of the D1s size of the filter soil is not more
than four of five times the D&S size of the protected soil A further criterion is:

�S" (Ft1""<-..-)
>4 "To S (48)