Ball Mill Performance & Efficiency

S. Description Symbol Formula Example

No.
1 Arm of gravity a 0.666 * ( 1 - 4 * R2 )1.5 h 0.583
- TAN [ 0.5 / R * (1 - 4*R2)0.5] - [ 2*R * (1 - 4*R2)0.5 ]
-1
Deff 4.18
h Centre Distance (from mill centre to media top layer), mts R 0.139
Deff Mill effective diameter, mts a 0.578
R h/Deff, ratio of centre distance to mill effective diameter Target -
2 Torque factor matrix u - -
Material Grinding Fitting Type Torque
- - -
None Balls 0.73
None Rods 0.55 - -
Coars e/Medium
Danula Balls 0.75 - -
Cement
Sonex Balls 0.66 - -
& Raw
None Balls 0.69
Meal - -
None Cylpebs 0.73
Fine
Danula Balls 0.71 - -
Danula Cylpebs 0.75 - -
Coars e/Medium None Balls /Cylpebs 0.69
Coal - -
Medium Danula Cylpebs 0.71
- -
2 Power consumption, net Pn 0.514 * F * u * n * Deff * a F 175
kW F Grinding media weight, tons u 0.73
u Torque factor n 16
n Mill speed, rpm Deff 4.18
Deff Mill effective diameter, mts a 0.578
a Arm of gravity, - Pn 2538
Target -
3 Power consumption, gross Pg Pn * 100 * 100 Pn 2450
kW Em * Eg Em 95
Em Motor efficiency, % Eg 95
Eg Gearbox/girth gear efficiency, % Pg 2715
Target -
4 New production rate NPB Formula-1 OPB 170
(Mill output Vs. Blaine) tph OPB OB 3000
Exp ( ( NB - OB ) * 0.49 / 1000 ) NB 3200
OPB Old production rate, tph NPB 154
OB Old blaine, cm2/gm Target -
NB New blaine, cm2/gm

Formula-2 OPB 170

OPB * ( OB / NB )1.3 OB 3000
OPB Old production rate, tph NB 3200
OB Old blaine, cm2/gm NPB 156
NB New blaine, cm2/gm Target -
5 New production rate NPR OPR * ( 2 - log ( OR ) ) OPR 150
(Mill output Vs. Residue) tph ( 2 - log ( NR ) ) OR 11.5
OPR Old production rate, tph NR 9.5
OR Old residue, % NPR 138
NR New residue, % Target -
6 Gypsum set point GSP 21500 * ( Scem - Sclk ) Scem 2.1
(at weigh feeder) tph Pu * ( 100 - Fgyp ) Pu 90
Scem Target SO3 content in cement, % Sclk 0.3
Pu Gypsum purity, % Fgyp 4.8
Sclk SO3 content in clinker, % GSP 4.52
Fgyp Free moisture in gypsum, % Target -
7 Maximum ball size MBS 36 * F0.5 * { ( SG * Wi ) / ( %C * Deff0.5 ) }0.333 F 15
mm F Feed size (sieve size in mm which retains 20% material), mm SG 3
SG Specific weight of feed material, gm/cm3 Wi 15
Wi Bond's work index, kWh/t %C 75
%C Mill speed as %critical, % Deff 5.1
Deff Mill effective diameter, mts MBS 90
Target -
8 %Filling %F 112.5 - ( 125 * h / Deff ) h 2.5
% h Free height, mts Deff 4.155
Deff Mill effective diameter, mts %F 37.3
Target -
 Ball Mill Performance & Efficiency
S. Description Symbol Formula Example
No.

9 Circulation factor C Formula-1 FF 150

- F+G CR 170
F C 2.13
F Fresh feed rate, tph Target 2-3
G Coarse return, tph

Formula-2 Rg 21.25
Rg - Rf Rf 9.14
Rg - Rm Rm 16.78
Rg Residue of coarse return, % C 2.71
Rf Residue of fines, % Target 2-3
Rm Residue of separator feed, %
10 Circulation load CL ( C - 1 ) * 100 C 2.6
% C Circulation factor, - CL 160
Target -
11 Separator efficiency SE Formula-1 Ro 100
% [log(Ro/Rf) - C * log[{Ro+(C-1)*Rg} / {Rf+(C-1)*Rg}]]*100 Rf 17.68
log(Ro/Rf) - C * log[{Ro+(C-1)*100} / {Rf+(C-1)*100}] C 1.79
Ro Residue of fresh feed, % Rg 83.78
Rf Residue of fines, % SE 80.7
C Circulation factor, - Target 70-80
Rg Residue of coarse return, %

Formula-2 (Fines Efficiency) Rf 17.68

( 100 - Rf ) * 100 Rm 46.91
( 100 - Rm ) * C C 1.79
Rf Residue of fines, % SEf 86.6
Rm Residue of separator feed, % Target 70-80
C Circulation factor, -

Formula-3 (Coarse Efficiency) Rg 83.78

Rg * ( C - 1 ) * 100 C 1.79
C * Rm Rm 46.91
Rg Residue of coarse return, % SEc 78.8
C Circulation factor, - Target 70-80
Rm Residue of separator feed, %
12 Critical speed nc 42.3 / Deff0.5 Deff 4.15
rpm Deff Mill effective diameter, mts Pn 20.8
Target -
 F.L. Smidth's ATOX Vertical Roller Mill
S. Description Symbol Unit Relationship Example

No.

1 Mill Type - - Input 1 for Raw Mill and 2 for Coal Mill 1

1 Mill Number Mn - 30, 32.5, 35, 37.5, 40, 42.5, 45, 47.5, 50, 52.5, 55, 57.5, 60 42.5

2 Grinding Pressure GP bars Input value 151

3 Raw material - - Input value Limestone

4 Density of Material RM kg/m3 Input value 1500

5 Density of Material under Roller RMR %surplus Input value 33

6 Coefficient of Friction CoF - Input value 0.10

7 Power Input to Motor Pm kW Input value 2417

8 Production Rate PR tph Input value 411

9 Table Diameter Dtb mts Mn / 10 4.25

10 Roller Diameter Dr mts 0.6 * Dtb 2.55

11 Roller Width Wr mts 0.2 * Dtb 0.85

12 Mean Diameter of Track Dtk mts 0.8 * Dtb 3.4

13 Table Speed N rpm 56 / Dtb0.5 27.2

14 Velocity of Track Vt m/s 0.05235 * Dtk * N 4.8

15 Radiation Surface Area Ar m2 0.3166 * Mn2 572

16 Roller Pressure per Roller Pr kN Dr * Wr * Ps 1514

17 Specific Roller Pressure Ps kN/m2 ( GP + 46.67 ) / 0.283 698

18 Gripping Angle a radian 3 * CoF 0.30

19 Maximum Material Pressure MMP kN/m2 4 * Ps / a 9313

20 Material Bed Thickness T mm 30 * Dr 77

21 Maximum Feed Size Fm mm 50 * Dr 128

22 Dam Ring Height DRH mm 36 * Dtb 153

23 Compaction Ratio CR - [ ( Dr * a2 * 1000 ) / ( 4 x T ) ] + 1 1.75

24 Power /Over-Rolling of Material Po kWh/t [MMP * (CR-1) / 3 ] / [RM * {1+(RMR / 100)} * 3.6] 0.324

25 Grinding Circulation n times Pm / ( PR * Po ) 18

26 Grindability, design Gn kWhn/t Pd / PR 5.34

27 Grindability, gross Gg kWhg/t Pm / PR 5.88

28 Material Retention Time t sec 15 * Dtb0.5 31

29 Design Power Consumption Pd kW 0.844 * CoF * Ps * Dtb2.5 2195


O2 = Back-end oxygen
BZT = Burning zone temp.
BET = Back-end temp.
Low
B.Z.T.
Low Nor
B.E.T. B.E.T.
Low Low
1 Nor 4 Nor
2 Hgh 5 Hgh
3 6
Case Action to be taken
1 When BZ is very low :
a) Reduce kiln speed
b) Reduce fuel rate
When BZ is slightly low :
c) Increase ID fan speed
d) Increase fuel rate
2 a) Reduce kiln speed
b) Reduce fuel rate
c) Reduce ID fan speed
3 a) Reduce kiln speed
b) Reduce fuel rate
c) Reduce ID fan speed
4 a) Increase ID fan speed
b) Increase fuel rate
5 a) Decrease fuel slightly
6 a) Reduce fuel rate
b) Reduce ID fan speed
7 When BZ is very high :
a) Increase kiln speed
b) Increase ID fan speed
c) Reduce fuel rate
When BZ is slightly high :
d) Increase ID fan speed
8 When BZ is very high :
a) Increase kiln speed
b) Reduce fuel rate
c) Increase ID fan speed
When BZ is slightly high :
d) Reduce fuel rate To lower BZ temp. & raise O2%
9 When BZ is very high :
a) Increase kiln speed
b) Reduce fuel rate
When BZ is slightly high :
c) Reduce fuel rate
10 When BZ is very low :
a) Reduce kiln speed
When BZ is slightly low :
b) Increase ID fan speed
c) Increase fuel rate To raise BZ temp.
11 When BZ is very low & O2
is in lower part of range :
a) Reduce kiln speed
b) Reduce fuel rate
c) Reduce ID fan speed
d) Increase fuel rate
12 When BZ is very low :
a) Reduce kiln speed
b) Reduce fuel rate
c) Reduce ID fan speed
When BZ is slightly low &
O2 in higher part of range :
d) Reduce ID fan speed
13 a) Increase ID fan speed
b) Increase fuel rate To maintain BZ temp.
14 None However, do not get overconfident
15 When O2% is in upper part
of the range :
a) Reduce ID fan speed To reduce BE temp.
When O2% is in lower part
of the range :
b) Reduce fuel rate
c) Reduce ID fan speed
Kiln Operating Conditions
O2
Nor
B.Z.T.
Hgh Low Nor Hgh
B.E.T. B.E.T. B.E.T. B.E.T.
Low Low Low Low
7 Nor 10 Nor 13 Nor 16 Nor
8 Hgh 11 Hgh 14 Hgh 17
9 12 15
Reason Case Action to be taken
16 When BZ is very high :
To increase BZ and BE temp. a) Increase kiln speed
To move the O2% into range b) Increase ID fan speed
c) Reduce fuel rate
To raise the BE temp. & O2% for d When BZ is slightly high :
To raise BZ temp. & to return O2% into range d) Increase ID fan speed
To raise BZ temp.
To raise O2% for c 17 When BZ is very high :
To maintain BE temp. a) Increase kiln speed
To raise BZ temp. b) Reduce fuel rate
To raise O2% for c b) Increase ID fan speed
To reduce BE temp. (be sure, BET is in down-trend) When BZ is slightly high :
To raise BE temp. & increase O 2% for b c) Reduce fuel rate
To maintain BZ temp.
To raise O2% 18 When BZ is very high :
To raise O2% for b a) Increase kiln speed
To lower BE temp. & maintain BZ temp. b) Decrease fuel rate
When BZ is slightly high :
To avoid over-heating of the BZ c) Decrease fuel rate
To raise BE temp. & O2% 19 When BZ is very low :
a) Reduce kiln speed
b) Reduce ID fan speed
To lower BE temp. and raise O2% & BE temp. When BZ is slightly low :
c) Increase fuel rate
To avoid over-heating
To lower BZ temp.
To raise O2% & maintain BE temp. 20 When BZ is very low :
a) Reduce kiln speed
b) Reduce ID fan speed
To lower BE temp. & avoid over-heating When BZ is slightly low :
To lower BZ & BE temps. and raise O2% c) Increase fuel rate
21 When BZ is very low :
To lower BZ & BE temps. and raise O2% a) Reduce kiln speed
b) Redice ID fan speed
To raise BE & BZ temps. c) Increase fuel rate
When BZ is slightly low :
To raise BE temp. and to raise O2% for c d) Reduce ID fan speed
22 a) Increase ID fan speed
b) Increase fuel rate
23 a) Reduce ID fan speed
To raise BZ temp. slightly
To raise O2% for c 24 a) Reduce ID fan speed
To maintain BE temp. b) Reduce fuel rate slightly To maintain BZ temp.
To raise BZ temp. 25 When BZ is very high :
a) Increase kiln speed
To raise BZ temp. b) Increase ID fan speed
To raise O2% for c When BZ is slightly high :
To lower BE temp. c) Increase ID fan speed
26 When BZ is very high :
To reduce BE temp. & lower O2%. BE temp. should a) Increase kiln speed
be rising also, if not, continue raising fuel rate & raise b) Increase ID fan speed
ID fan speed c) Reduce fuel rate
To raise BE temp. When BZ is slightly high :
d) Reduce fuel rate
27 When BZ is very high :
a) Increase kiln speed
b) Reduce fuel rate
When BZ is slightly high :
c) Reduce fuel rate
To raise O2% for c d) Reduce ID fan speed
To lower BE temp. & maintain BZ temp.
sheet 1 of 2
Hgh
B.Z.T.
Low Nor Hgh
B.E.T. B.E.T. B.E.T.
Low Low Low
19 Nor 22 Nor 25 Nor
Hgh 20 Hgh 23 Hgh 26 Hgh
18 21 24 27
Reason
To avoid overheating
To raise BE temp.
To lower BZ temp.
To raise BE temp. & lower BZ temp. (if O2% raises
during this, disregard it till temps. are controlled)
To avoid overheating
To lower BZ temp.
To maintain BE temp.
To lower BZ temp. (if O2% raises during this, disregard
it till temps. are controlled)
To avoid overheating & lower BE temp.
To lower BZ temp.
To lower BZ & BE temp.
To raise BE & BZ temp.
To maintain BE temp.
To raise BZ temp. & lower O2% (BE temp. should be
rising also, if not, continue raising fuel rate & raise
ID fan speed
To raise BZ temp.
To maintain BE temp. (if O2 is still available after this
move, increase fuel rate also)
To raise BZ temp. & lower O2%
To raise BZ temp.
To lower BE temp. & O2%
To raise BZ temp. & lower O2%
To riase BZ temp. and reduce BE temp. & O2%
To raise BE temp.
To maintain BZ temp. & reduce O2%
To lower O2%
To lower BE temp. & O2%
To avoid overheating
To raise BE temp. & lower BZ temp.
To raise BE temp. & lower BZ temp. (if O2% raises
during this, disregard it till temps. are controlled)
To avoid overheating
To maintain BE temp.
To lower BZ temp.
To lower BZ temp. (if O2% raises during this, disregard
it till temps. are controlled)
To lower BZ & BE temp.
To lower BZ temp.
To lower BZ temp.
To lower BE temp. (if O2% raises during this, disregard
it till temps. are controlled)
 sheet 2 of 2
Pie - Chart for Kiln Conditions

27 1

26 2

25 3

BE-Hgh BE-Low
4
24 BE-Nor BE-Nor

BE-Low BE-Hgh

5
23 BE-Hgh BE-Low
BZ-Low
BZ-Hgh
BE-Nor BE-Nor
22 6

BE-Low BZ-Nor BZ-Nor BE-Hgh

O2-Low
O2-Hgh
7
21 BE-Hgh BE-Low

BZ-Low BZ-Hgh

BE-Nor BE-Nor 8
20 O2-Nor

BE-Low BZ-Hgh BZ-Low BE-Hgh

9
19 BZ-Nor
BE-Hgh BE-Low

BE-Nor BE-Nor 10
18
BE-Low BE-Hgh
BE-Hgh BE-Low 11
BE-Nor
17

12
16

15 13
14
 Kiln Performance & Efficiency
S. Description Symbol Formula Example
No.
1 Degree of filling DF 3.2 * P P 4300
% Deff 3 * n * s Deff 3.67
P Clinker production, tpd n 4.2
Deff Burning zone effective diameter, mts S 4
n Kiln speed, rpm DF 16.57
s Kiln slope, % Target 14-16
2 Thermal loading TL Formula-1 F 10500
or Gcal/hr/m2 F * NCV NCV 6500
Burning zone loading A * 1000 * 1000 A 13.52
F Fuel rate in kiln, kg/hr TL 5.05
NCV Net calorific value of fuel, kcal/kg-fuel Target 4.0-5.0
A Burning zone cross-sectional area, m2

Formula-2 P 6000
P*H H 273
A * 24 * 1000 A 13.52
P Clinker production, tpd TL 5.05
H Specific heat consumption in kiln, kcal/kg-clinker Target 4.0-5.0
A Burning zone cross-sectional area, m2
3 Volumetric loading VL P P 6000
tpd/m3 A*L A 13.267
P Clinker production, tpd L 68
A Burning zone cross-sectional area, m2 VL 6.65
L Kiln length, mts Target 5.0-6.0
4 Material residence time in kiln RTK 19 * L L 68
min Deff * n * s Deff 4.11
L Kiln length, mts n 4.25
Deff Burning zone effective diameter, mts S 4
n Kiln speed, rpm RTK 18.5
s Kiln slope, % Target 20-25
5 Clinker residence time in cooler RTC 1.55 * A * Ps A 97.37
(Empirical relationship from min P Ps 700
F.L. Smidth) A Cooler grate cross-sectional area, m2 P 6000
Ps Static pressure at clinker droping area, mmWg RTC 17.6
P Clinker production, tpd Target 20-25
6 True CO2 in kiln exit gas TCO2 100 * ( CO2 + CO ) CO2 36.5
vol% 100 + ( 1.89 * CO ) - ( 4.78 * O2 ) CO 0.002
CO2 Kiln exit gas CO2, vol% O2 4.2
CO2 Kiln exit gas CO, vol% TCO2 45.7
O2 Kiln exit gas O2, vol% Target -
7 Excess air EA 79 * O2 O2 2.8
% 0.21 * ( 100 - CO2 ) - O2 CO2 26.5
O2 O2 content in gas, vol% EA 17.5
CO2 CO2 content in gas, vol% Target 10-15
8 Radiation heat losses RHL 4 * 10-8 * ( T4 - t4 ) T 517
kcal/hr/m2 T Radiating body temperature, K t 305
t Ambient air temperature, K RHL 2512
Target -
9 Convection heat losses CHL 80.33 * ( ( T + t ) / 2 )-0.724 * ( T - t )1.333 T 443
kcal/hr/m2 T Radiating body temperature, K t 308
t Ambient air temperature, K CHL 760
Target -
10 Forced convection heat losses FCHL 28.03 * ( ( T + t ) / 2 )-0.351 * v0.805 * D-0.195 * ( T - t ) T 525
(when wind speed > 3.0 m/s) kcal/hr/m2 T Radiating body temperature, K t 302
t Ambient air temperature, K v 5
v Wind speed, m/s D 4.15
D Radiating body diameter, mts FCHL 2088
Target -
11 %Ash absorption in clinker %AA CC * Ash CC 26
 Kiln Performance & Efficiency
S. Description Symbol Formula Example
No.
% P Ash 15
CC Coal consumption, tph P 208
Ash Ash content in fuel (as fired basis), % %AA 1.88
P Clinker production, tph Target -
12 Raw Mix:Clinker ratio RMCK 100 - %AA %AA 1.74
(dust to kiln) - 100 - LOI LOI 35.58
%AA %Ash absorption, % RMCK 1.525
LOI Loss on ignition of raw mix, % Target -
13 Raw Mix:Clinker ratio RMCS ( 100 - %AA ) * 100 %AA 1.74
(dust to silo) - ( 100 - LOI ) * ( 100 - DL ) LOI 35.58
%AA %Ash absorption, % DL 8.5
LOI Loss on ignition of raw mix, % RMCS 1.667
DL Dust losses from preheater, % Target -
14 Heat of reaction HR ( 4.282 * CaCO3 * RMCK ) + ( 3.085 * MgCO3 * RMCK ) CaCO3 75.1
or kcal/ + ( 222 * Al2O3 / ( 100 - LOI ) ) + ( 11.6 * CH2O * RMCK ) RMCK 1.53
Theoretical heat required to kg-clinker - ( 511.6 * SiO2 / ( 100 - LOI ) ) - ( 59 * Fe2O3 / ( 100 - LOI ) ) MgCO3 1.6
produce 1 kg of clinker - ( 1000 * ( K2O + Na2O ) / ( 100 - LOI ) ) LOI 34.5
or - ( 79 * C * RMCK ) - ( 32 * S * RMCK ) Al2O3 4.17
Clinkerisation heat CaCO3 CaCO3 content in kiln feed, % CH2O 1.05
RMCK Kiln feed:Clinker ratio, - SiO2 13.47
(including Heat of combustibles) MgCO3 MgCO3 content in kiln feed, % Fe2O3 2.41
LOI LOI content in kiln feed, % K2O 0.38
Al2O3 Al2O3 content in clinker, % Na2O 0.27
CH2O Water of crystalisation in kiln feed, % C 0.2
SiO2 SiO2 content in clinker, % S 0.04
Fe2O3 Fe2O3 content in clinker, % HR 389
K2O K2O content in clinker, % Target -
Na2O Na2O content in clinker, %
C Carbon content in kiln feed, %
S Sulphur as pyrites in kiln feed, %
15 False air w.r.t. mix FAMO ( O2mix - O2gas ) * 100 O2mix 3.6
(based on O2 analysis) % 21 - O2gas O2gas 2.8
O2mix O2 content in mixture of gas, vol% FAMO 4.4
O2gas O2 content in unmixed gas, vol% Target 5-7
16 False air w.r.t. gas FAGO ( O2mix - O2gas ) * 100 O2mix 3.6
(based on O2 analysis) % 21 - O2mix O2gas 2.8
O2mix O2 content in mixture of gas, vol% FAGO 4.6
O2gas O2 content in unmixed gas, vol% Target 5-7
17 False air w.r.t. mix FAMC ( CO2gas - CO2mix ) * 100 CO2mix 32.1
(based on CO2 analysis) % CO2gas CO2gas 34.5
CO2mix CO2 content in mixture of gas, vol% FAMC 7.0
CO2gas CO2 content in unmixed gas, vol% Target 5-7
18 False air w.r.t. gas FAGC ( CO2gas - CO2mix ) * 100 CO2mix 32.1
(based on CO2 analysis) % CO2mix CO2gas 34.5
CO2mix CO2 content in mixture of gas, vol% FAMC 7.5
CO2gas CO2 content in unmixed gas, vol% Target 5-7
 3.67

252
1638000
273 682.5
240.2769
260.3
 Raw Mix Chemistry
S. Description Symbol Formula Example
No.
1 Lime saturation factor LSF C * 100 C 43.84
- 2.8 * S + 1.18 * A + 0.65 * F S 12.11
C Lime as CaO, % A 2.68
S Silica as SiO2, % F 2.52
A Alumina as Al2O3, % LSF 113
F Ferric oxide as Fe2O3, % Target 85-115
2 Silica modulus SM S S 12.11
- A+F A 2.68
S Silica as SiO2, % F 2.52
A Alumina as Al2O3, % SM 2.33
F Ferric oxide as Fe2O3, % Target 2.0-2.5
3 Alumina modulus AM A A 2.68
- F F 2.52
A Alumina as Al2O3, % AM 1.06
F Ferric oxide as Fe2O3, % Target 1.2-1.8
4 Hydraulic modulus HM C C 43.84
- S+A+F S 12.11
C Lime as CaO, % A 2.68
S Silica as SiO2, % F 2.52
A Alumina as Al2O3, % HM 2.53
F Ferric oxide as Fe2O3, % Target 1.7-2.3
5 Silicic acid modulus SAM S S 12.11
- A A 2.68
S Silica as SiO2, % SAM 4.52
A Alumina as Al2O3, % Target 2.5-3.5
6 Total alkalies TAN N + 0.658 * K N 0.45
(as Na2O equivalent) % N Sodium oxide as Na2O, % K 0.61
K Potassium oxide as K2O, % TAN 0.85
Target -
7 Total alkalies TAK 1.52 * N + K N 0.45
(as K2O equivalent) % N Sodium oxide as Na2O, % K 0.61
K Potassium oxide as K2O, % TAN 1.29
Target -
8 Tri-calcium silicate C3S Formula-1 (for Cement) C 66.2
or % 4.071 * ( C - FC ) - 7.602 * S - 6.718 * A - 1.43 * F - 2.852 * SO FC 1.02
Alite C Lime as CaO, % S 20.56
FC Free lime as CaO, % A 6.04
S Silica as SiO2, % F 3.32
A Alumina as Al2O3, % SO 0.31
F Ferric oxide as Fe2O3, % C3S 62.8
SO Sulphur tri-oxide as SO3, % Target 45-60

Formula-2 (for Clinker) C 66.2

4.071 * ( C - FC ) - 7.602 * S - 6.718 * A - 1.43 * F - 2.852 * SO" FC 1.02
where SO" = SO -1.292 * N - 0.85 * K S 20.56
Use SO" only if SO" > 0, otherwise put SO" as 0 A 6.04
C Lime as CaO, % F 3.32
FC Free lime as CaO, % SO 0.31
S Silica as SiO2, % N 0.45
A Alumina as Al2O3, % K 0.61
F Ferric oxide as Fe2O3, % SO" -0.79
SO Sulphur tri-oxide as SO3, % C3S 63.7
N Sodium oxide as Na2O, % Target 45-60
K Potassium oxide as K2O, %
9 Di-calcium silicate C2S 2.867 * S - 0.7544 * C3S S 20.56
or % S Silica as SiO2, % C3S 63.8
Belite C3S Tri-calcium silicate C2S 10.8
Target 15-25
 Raw Mix Chemistry
S. Description Symbol Formula Example
No.
10 Tri-calcium aluminate C3A Formula-1 (for Cement) A 6.04
or % 2.65 * A - 1.692 * F F 3.32
Aluminate A Alumina as Al2O3, % C3A 10.4
F Ferric oxide as Fe2O3, % Target 6-11

Formula-2 (for Clinker) A 6.04

2.65 * A - 1.692 * ( F + Mn ) F 3.32
A Alumina as Al2O3, % Mn 0.01
F Ferric oxide as Fe2O3, % C3A 10.4
Mn Manganese oxide as Mn2O3, % Target 6-11
11 Tetra-calcium alumino ferrite C4AF Formula-1 (for Cement) F 3.32
or % 3.043 * F C4AF 10.1
Ferrite F Ferric oxide as Fe2O3, % Target 10-16

Formula-2 (for Clinker) F 3.32

3.043 * ( F + Mn ) Mn 0.01
F Ferric oxide as Fe2O3, % C4AF 10.1
Mn Manganese oxide as Mn2O3, % Target 10-16
12 Free lime FC Formula-1 LSF 99
(Source : The Chemistry of % 0.33 * ( LSF - 95 ) + 1.8 * ( SM - 2 ) + 0.93 * S45 + 0.56 * C125 SM 2.1
Cement & Concrete, F.M. Lea) LSF Lime saturation factor, - S45 0.47
SM Silica modulus, - C125 0.03
S45 SiO2 residue on 45 microns sieve, % FC 2.0
C125 CaCO3 residue on 125 microns sieve, % Target 0-1

Formula-2 LSF 99
0.35 * ( LSF - 96 ) + 1.58 * ( SM - 1.6 ) + 0.55 * A45 + 0.12 * T125 SM 2.1
LSF Lime saturation factor, - A45 0.47
SM Silica modulus, - T125 0.03
A45 Alkali insoluble residue on 45 microns sieve, % FC 2.1
T125 Total residue on 125 microns sieve, % Target 0-1
13 Burning index (for clinker) BI C3S C3S 63.8
- C3A + C4AF C3A 10.4
C3S Tri-calcium silicate C4AF 10.1
C3A Tri-calcium aluminate BI 3.1
C4AF Tetra-calcium alumino ferrite Target 2.6-4.0
14 Burning factor (for clinker) BF LSF + 10 * SM - 3 * ( M + TAN ) LSF 99
- LSF Lime saturation factor, - SM 2.2
SM Silica modulus, - M 1.82
M Magnesia as MgO, % TAN 0.86
TAN Total alkalies as Na2O equivalent, % BF 113
Target 100-200
15 Burning temperature (minimum) BT 1300 + 4.51 * C3S - 3.74 * C3A - 12.64 * C4AF C3S 63.8
deg.C C3S Tri-calcium silicate C3A 10.4
C3A Tri-calcium aluminate C4AF 10.1
C4AF Tetra-calcium alumino ferrite BT 1421
Target -
16 Alkali-Sulphur ratio Q ( K / 94 ) + ( N / 62 ) - (Cl / 71 ) K 0.6
- ( SO / 80 ) N 0.4
K K2O in kiln feed, % Cl 0.003
N Na2O in kiln feed, % SO 0.93
Cl Cl in kiln feed, % Q 1.1
SO SO3 in kiln feed, % Target 0.8-1.2
 Raw Mix Chemistry
S. Description Symbol Formula Example
No.
17 Liquid phase LP Formula-1 (at 1340 deg.C) F 3.32
% 6.1 * F + M# + N + K M 2.21
F Ferric oxide as Fe2O3, % N 0.45
M Magnesia as MgO, % K 0.61
# If MgO > 2.0, then use MgO = 2.0 LP 23.3
N Sodium oxide as Na2O, % Target 22-30
K Potassium oxide as K2O, %

Formula-2 (at 1400 deg.C) A 6.04

2.95 * A + 2.2 * F + M# + N + K F 3.32
A Alumina as Al2O3, % M 2.21
F Ferric oxide as Fe2O3, % N 0.45
M Magnesia as MgO, % K 0.61
# If MgO > 2.0, then use MgO = 2.0 LP 28.2
N Sodium oxide as Na2O, % Target 22-30
K Potassium oxide as K2O, %

Formula-3 (at 1450 deg.C) A 6.04

3 * A + 2.25 * F + M# + N + K F 3.32
A Alumina as Al2O3, % M 2.21
F Ferric oxide as Fe2O3, % N 0.45
M Magnesia as MgO, % K 0.61
# If MgO > 2.0, then use MgO = 2.0 LP 28.7
N Sodium oxide as Na2O, % Target 22-30
K Potassium oxide as K2O, %

Formula-4 (at 1450 deg.C) C3A 10.4

1.13 * C3A + 1.35 * C4AF + M# + N + K C4AF 10.1
C3A Tri-calcium aluminate M 2.21
C4AF Tetra-calcium alumino ferrite N 0.45
M Magnesia as MgO, % K 0.61
# If MgO > 2.0, then use MgO = 2.0 LP 28.4
N Sodium oxide as Na2O, % Target 22-30
K Potassium oxide as K2O, %
18 %Ash absorption in clinker %AA CC * Ash CC 26
% P Ash 15
CC Coal consumption, tph P 208
Ash Ash content in fuel (as fired basis), % %AA 1.88
P Clinker production, tph Target -
19 Raw Mix:Clinker ratio RMCK 100 - %AA %AA 1.74
(dust to kiln) - 100 - LOI LOI 35.58
%AA %Ash absorption, % RMCK 1.525
LOI Loss on ignition of raw mix, % Target -
20 Raw Mix:Clinker ratio RMCS ( 100 - %AA ) * 100 %AA 1.74
(dust to silo) - ( 100 - LOI ) * ( 100 - DL ) LOI 35.58
%AA %Ash absorption, % DL 8.5
LOI Loss on ignition of raw mix, % RMCS 1.667
DL Dust losses from preheater, % Target -
21 Calcium carbonate as CaCO3 CCO C - Cs C 43.8
(derived from CaO) % 0.5608 Cs 0.2
C Lime as CaO, % CCO 77.7
Cs Lime as CaO in silicates, % Target -
22 Magnesium carbonate as MgCO3 MCO M - Ms M 2.05
(derived from MgO) % 0.478 Ms 0.01
M Magnesia as MgO, % CCO 4.3
Ms Magnesia as MgO in silicates, % Target -
23 Total carbonates TC CCO + MCO * 1.1904 CCO 77.1
% CCO Calcium carbonate as CaCO3, % MCO 3.2
MCO Magnesium carbonate as MgCO3, % CCO 80.9
Target -
 Raw Mix Chemistry
S. Description Symbol Formula Example
No.
24 Sulphate modulus MSO SO SO 0.31
(Source : F.L. Smidth) % 0.85 * TAK TAK 1.29
SO Sulphur tri-oxide as SO3, % MSO 0.28
TAK Total alkalies as K2O equivalent, % Target -
25 Soluble alkalies SA Formula-1 (if MSO <= 0.5) SO 0.31
(Source : F.L. Smidth) % 1.18 * SO SA 0.37
SO Sulphur tri-oxide as SO3, % Target -

Formula-2 (if 0.5 < MSO <= 1.0) SO 0.31

0.7 * SO + 0.2 * TAK TAK 1.29
SO Sulphur tri-oxide as SO3, % SA 0.48
TAK Total alkalies as K2O equivalent, % Target -

Formula-3 (if MSO > 1.0) SO 0.31

0.8 * SO SA 0.25
SO Sulphur tri-oxide as SO3, % Target -

Formula-4 Ns 0.07
1.52 * Ns + Ks Ks 0.11
Ns Soluble Na2O, % SA 0.22
Ks Soluble K2O, % Target -
26 28-days mortar strength D28 52 - 10 * SA + 0.15 * C3S SA 0.37
(@ 300 m2/kg surface and 4% MPa SA Soluble alkalies, % C3S 63.8
gypsum) C3S Tri-calcium silicate D28 57.9
(Source : F.L. Smidth) Target -

S. Description
No.
1 Lime saturation factor
Duda's Cement Data Book, Vol.1
2 Silica modulus
Duda's Cement Data Book, Vol.1
3 Alumina modulus
Duda's Cement Data Book, Vol.1
4 Hydraulic modulus
Duda's Cement Data Book, Vol.1
5 Silicic acid modulus
Duda's Cement Data Book, Vol.1
6 Total alkalies
(as Na2O equivalent)
Cement Manufacturer's Handbook,
Kurt E. Peray
7 Total alkalies
(as K2O equivalent)
Cement Manufacturer's Handbook,
Cement Chemistry
Symbol Formula Effect on Clinker/Cement on Account of
Lower Value Higher Value
LSF C * 100 # Fast setting in cement # High early strength in cement
- 2.8 * S + 1.18 * A + 0.65 * F # Easy to burn # Hard to burn
C Lime as CaO, % [for Cement, CaO = (CaO-0.7*SO3)] # More formation of C2S # Excessive free CaO
S Silica as SiO2, % # Reduces C3S content # Lining eaten off quickly
A Alumina as Al2O3, %
F Ferric oxide as Fe2O3, %
SM S # Easy to burn # Poor refractory coating
- A+F # Ring formation # Slow setting/hardening of cement
S Silica as SiO2, % # Ball formation # Reduction in liq. phase
A Alumina as Al2O3, % # Higher liquid phase # Increased fuel consumpn.
F Ferric oxide as Fe2O3, % # High kiln radiations
AM A # Low heat of hydration in cement # High early strength cement
- F # Slow setting of cement # C & S reaction more difficult
A Alumina as Al2O3, % # Low shrinking of cement # Easy to burn
F Ferric oxide as Fe2O3, %
HM C # Mostly insufficient strength in # Poor stability of volume
- S+A+F cement # Hard to burn
C Lime as CaO, % # High heat of hydration
S Silica as SiO2, % # Resistance to chemical attack
A Alumina as Al2O3, % decreases
F Ferric oxide as Fe2O3, %
SAM S # Favourable coating conditions if maintained between 2.5-3.5
- A
S Silica as SiO2, %
A Alumina as Al2O3, %
TAN N + 0.658 * K # Decreases liquid content # Operational problems due to
% N Sodium oxide as Na2O, % # Decreases coating formation alkali cycles
K Potassium oxide as K2O, % # Causes alkali expansion
TAK 1.52 * N + K # Decreases liquid content # Operational problems due to
% N Sodium oxide as Na2O, % # Decreases coating formation alkali cycles
K Potassium oxide as K2O, % # Causes alkali expansion
 Cement Chemistry
S. Description Symbol Formula Effect on Clinker/Cement on Account of
No. Lower Value Higher Value
Kurt E. Peray
 Cement Chemistry
S. Description Symbol Formula Effect on Clinker/Cement on Account of
No. Lower Value Higher Value
8 Tri-calcium silicate C3S Formula-1 (for Cement) # Responsible for high early strength of cement
or % 4.071 * ( C - FC ) - 7.602 * S - 6.718 * A - 1.43 * F - 2.852 * SO # Hard to burn
Alite C Lime as CaO, %
Cement Manufacturer's Handbook, FC Free lime as CaO, %
Kurt E. Peray S Silica as SiO2, %
A Alumina as Al2O3, %
F Ferric oxide as Fe2O3, %
SO Sulphur tri-oxide as SO3, %

Formula-2 (for Clinker)

9 Di-calcium silicate
or Belite
Cement Manufacturer's Handbook,
Kurt E. Peray
4.071 * ( C - FC ) - 7.602 * S - 6.718 * A - 1.43 * F - 2.852 * SO"
where SO" = SO -1.292 * N - 0.85 * K
Use SO" only if SO" > 0, otherwise put SO" as 0
C Lime as CaO, %
FC Free lime as CaO, %
S Silica as SiO2, %
A Alumina as Al2O3, %
F Ferric oxide as Fe2O3, %
SO Sulphur tri-oxide as SO3, %
N Sodium oxide as Na2O, %
K Potassium oxide as K2O, %
C2S 2.867 * S - 0.7544 * C3S # Responsible for late strength of cement
% S Silica as SiO2, %
C3S Tri-calcium silicate
 Cement Chemistry
S. Description Symbol Formula Effect on Clinker/Cement on Account of
No. Lower Value Higher Value
10 Tri-calcium aluminate C3A Formula-1 (for Cement) # Very reactive
or % 2.65 * A - 1.692 * F # Flash setting of cement
Aluminate A Alumina as Al2O3, %
Cement Manufacturer's Handbook, F Ferric oxide as Fe2O3, %
Kurt E. Peray

Formula-2 (for Clinker)

2.65 * A - 1.692 * ( F + Mn )
A Alumina as Al2O3, %
F Ferric oxide as Fe2O3, %
Mn Manganese oxide as Mn2O3, %
11 Tetra-calcium alumino ferrite C4AF Formula-1 (for Cement) # Hardly influences the strength development
or % 3.043 * F # Increases darkness in cement
Ferrite F Ferric oxide as Fe2O3, % # Unsoundness in cement
Cement Manufacturer's Handbook, # Causes leaching & effloresence
Kurt E. Peray Formula-2 (for Clinker) in concrete & masonary work
3.043 * ( F + Mn )
F Ferric oxide as Fe2O3, %
Mn Manganese oxide as Mn2O3, %
12 Free lime FC Formula-1 # Unsoundness in cement
The Chemistry of Cement & Concrete, % 0.33 * ( LSF - 95 ) + 1.8 * ( SM - 2 ) + 0.93 * S45 + 0.56 * C125
F.M. Lea

Formula-2
0.35 * ( LSF - 96 ) + 1.58 * ( SM - 1.6 ) + 0.55 * A45 + 0.12 * T125
LSF Lime saturation factor, -
SM Silica modulus, -
S45 SiO2 residue on 45 microns sieve, %
C125 CaCO3 residue on 125 microns sieve, %
A45 Alkali insoluble residue on 45 microns sieve, %
 Cement Chemistry
S. Description Symbol Formula Effect on Clinker/Cement on Account of
No. Lower Value Higher Value
T125 Total residue on 125 microns sieve, %
13 Burning index (for clinker) BI C3S
Cement Manufacturer's Handbook, - C3A + C4AF
Kurt E. Peray C3S Tri-calcium silicate
C3A Tri-calcium aluminate
C4AF Tetra-calcium alumino ferrite
14 Burning factor (for clinker) BF LSF + 10 * SM - 3 * ( M + TAN )
Cement Manufacturer's Handbook, - LSF Lime saturation factor, -
Kurt E. Peray SM Silica modulus, -
M Magnesia as MgO, %
TAN Total alkalies as Na2O equivalent, %

15 Burning temperature (minimum) BT 1300 + 4.51 * C3S - 3.74 * C3A - 12.64 * C4AF
Binani Cement Ltd, India deg.C C3S Tri-calcium silicate
C3A Tri-calcium aluminate
C4AF Tetra-calcium alumino ferrite

16 Alkali-Sulphur ratio Q ( K / 94 ) + ( N / 62 ) - (Cl / 71 ) If Q=1, Equilibrium (medium hard coating in kiln)

FLS - Kiln manual - ( SO / 80 ) If Q>1, SO3 Excess (hard coating in kiln)
K K2O in kiln feed, % If Q<1, Alkali Excess (soft coating in kiln)
N Na2O in kiln feed, %
Cl Cl in kiln feed, % Major plugging problems if,
SO SO3 in kiln feed, % SO3>10-30, Na2Oeq.>10-20, Cl>0.2-0.5 gm/kg-clk

17 Excess sulphur ES 1000 * SO - 850 * K - 650 * N # Increased SO2 emission

FLS - Kiln manual - SO SO3 in kiln feed, % # Coating in preheater
K K2O in kiln feed, % # Ring Formation
N Na2O in kiln feed, % # Weakening of long term

S. Description
No.
18 Liquid phase
Cement Manufacturer's Handbook,
Kurt E. Peray
19 Calcium carbonate as CaCO3
(derived from CaO)
FLS - Heat of Reaction programme
20 Magnesium carbonate as MgCO3
(derived from MgO)
FLS - Heat of Reaction programme
21 Total carbonates
FLS - Heat of Reaction programme
Cement Chemistry
Symbol Formula Effect on Clinker/Cement on Account of
Lower Value Higher Value
LP Formula-1 (at 1340 deg.C) # Decreased clinker formation rate # Increased power consumption
% 6.1 * F + M# + N + K # Impairs burnability for cement grinding
# Improper nodulisation # Excessive coating
# Hard to burn # Lump formation
Formula-2 (at 1400 deg.C)
2.95 * A + 2.2 * F + M# + N + K
Formula-3 (at 1450 deg.C)
3 * A + 2.25 * F + M# + N + K
Formula-4 (at 1450 deg.C)
1.13 * C3A + 1.35 * C4AF + M# + N + K
A Alumina as Al2O3, %
F Ferric oxide as Fe2O3, %
M Magnesia as MgO, %
# If MgO > 2.0, then use MgO = 2.0
N Sodium oxide as Na2O, %
K Potassium oxide as K2O, %
C3A Tri-calcium aluminate
C4AF Tetra-calcium alumino ferrite
CCO C - Cs
% 0.5608
C Lime as CaO, %
Cs Lime as CaO in silicates, %
MCO M - Ms
% 0.478
M Magnesia as MgO, %
Ms Magnesia as MgO in silicates, %
TC CCO + MCO * 1.1904
% CCO Calcium carbonate as CaCO3, %
MCO Magnesium carbonate as MgCO3, %
 Cement Chemistry
S. Description Symbol Formula Effect on Clinker/Cement on Account of
No. Lower Value Higher Value
22 Loss on ignition LOI 0.44 * CCO + 0.524 * MCO + CH2O + OM
Simple mathematical calculation % CCO Calcium carbonate as CaCO3, %
MCO Magnesium carbonate as MgCO3, %
CH2O Combined H2O, %
OM Organic matter, %

23 Sulphate modulus MSO SO

FLS - International Cement Production % 0.85 * TAK
Seminar SO Sulphur tri-oxide as SO3, %
TAK Total alkalies as K2O equivalent, %
24 Soluble alkalies SA Formula-1 (if MSO <= 0.5)
FLS - International Cement Production % 1.18 * SO
Seminar

Formula-2 (if 0.5 < MSO <= 1.0)

0.7 * SO + 0.2 * TAK

Formula-3 (if MSO > 1.0)

0.8 * SO

Formula-4
1.52 * Ns + Ks
SO Sulphur tri-oxide as SO3, %
TAK Total alkalies as K2O equivalent, %
Ns Soluble Na2O, %
Ks Soluble K2O, %
25 28-days mortar strength D28 52 - 10 * SA + 0.15 * C3S
(@ 300 m2/kg surface 4% Gyp) MPa SA Soluble alkalies, %
FLS - International Cement Production C3S Tri-calcium silicate
Seminar

26 Degree of calcination DOC ( LOIF - LOIS ) * 100

FLS - Kiln manual % LOIF
LOIF Loss of ignition in kiln feed, %
 Cement Chemistry
S. Description Symbol Formula Effect on Clinker/Cement on Account of
No. Lower Value Higher Value
LOIS Loss of ignition in sample, %
 Conversion Factors : ppm to mg/m3 or mg/Nm3

NO2 SO2 CO

1 Mol. wt. 46 64 28

2 kg-moles in 1 kg air 0.021739 0.015625 0.035714

3 Corresponding air, Nm3 0.49 0.35 0.80

4 Density, kg/Nm3 2.054 2.857 1.250

5 Site pressure, mmWg 9827 9827 9827

6 Site temp, deg.C 30 30 30

7 Density, kg/m3 1.759 2.447 1.071

8 Concentration, ppm 100 200 300

9 Conversion factor (ppm-mg/m3) 1.759 2.447 1.071

10 Conversion factor (ppm-mg/N3) 2.054 2.857 1.250

11 Concentration, mg/m3 176 489 321

12 Concentration, mg/Nm3 205 571 375

c:\work\prdn\excel\426113919.xls : Conversion Prodn. Deptt. - Binani Cement Ltd.

 Fuel and Combustion
S. Description Symbol Formula Example
No.
1 Gross calorific value GCV 80.8 * C + 22.45 * S + 339.53 * H - 35.89 * O C 70.86
kcal/kg-fuel S 0.58
C Carbon content in fuel, wt% H 3.87
S Sulphur content in fuel, wt% O 6.08
H Hydrogen content in fuel, wt% GCV 6834
N Nitrogen content in fuel, wt% Target -
2 Net calorific value NCV GCV - 52.53 * H - 6 * m GCV 6834
kcal/kg-fuel H 3.87
GCV Gross calorific value of fuel, kcal/kg-fuel m 1.93
H Hydrogen content in fuel, wt% NCV 6619
m Moisture content in fuel, wt% Target -
3 Useful heat value UHV 8900 - 138 * ( Ash + m ) Ash 14.99
kcal/kg-fuel Ash Ash content in fuel, wt% m 1.93
m Moisture content in fuel, wt% UHV 6565
Target -
4 Standard coal factor SCF ( 1 - m / 100 ) * NCV / 7000 m 1.93
- m Moisture content in fuel, wt% NCV 6500
NCV Net calorific value of fuel, kcal/kg-fuel SCF 0.911
Target -
5 Stoichiometric Combustion SCA Formula-1 NCV 6500
Air kg/s NCV * F F 11000
or 709 * 3600 SCA 28.01
Minimum Combustion NCV Net calorific value of fuel, kcal/kg-fuel Target -
Air F Fuel rate in kiln, kg/hr

Formula-2 C 70.78
[ 0.11594 * C + 0.34783 * ( H - O / 8 ) + 0.04348 * S ] * F H 3.46
3600 O 5.12
C Weight% of Carbon in fuel S 0.71
H Weight% of Hydrogen in fuel F 11000
O Weight% of Oxygen in fuel SCA 28.17
S Weight% of Sulphur in fuel Target -
F Fuel rate in kiln, kg/hr

Formula-3 m 1.9
10.478 * ( 100 - m ) * GCV * F GCV 6700
100 * 7000 * 3600 F 10500
m Weight% of Moisture in fuel SCA 28.70
GCV Gross calorific value of fuel, kcal/kg-fuel Target -
F Fuel rate in kiln, kg/hr
6 Specific Stoichiometric SSCA Formula-1 NCV 6500
Combustion Air kg/kg-fuel NCV SSCA 9.17
or 709 Target -
Specific Minimum NCV Net calorific value of fuel, kcal/kg-fuel
Combustion Air
Formula-2 C 70.78
0.11594 * C + 0.34783 * ( H - O / 8 ) + 0.04348 * S H 3.46
C Weight% of Carbon in fuel O 5.12
H Weight% of Hydrogen in fuel S 0.71
O Weight% of Oxygen in fuel SSCA 9.22
S Weight% of Sulphur in fuel Target -

Formula-3 m 1.9
10.478 * ( 100 - m ) * GCV GCV 6700
100 * 7000 SSCA 9.84
m Weight% of Moisture in fuel Target -
GCV Gross calorific value of fuel, kcal/kg-fuel

Formula-4 SCF 0.925

10.478 * SCF SSCA 9.69
 Fuel and Combustion
S. Description Symbol Formula Example
No.
SCF Standard coal factor, - Target -
7 Theoretical Flame Temperature TFT 3.107 * NCV NCV 6500
deg.C SCA SSCA 9.28
NCV Net calorific value of fuel, kcal/kg-fuel TFT 2176
SSCA Specific stoichiometric combustion air, kg/kg-fuel Target -
8 True CO2 in kiln exit gas TCO2 100 * ( CO2 + CO ) CO2 36.5
vol% 100 + ( 1.89 * CO ) - ( 4.78 * O2 ) CO 0.002
CO2 Kiln exit gas CO2, vol% O2 4.2
CO2 Kiln exit gas CO, vol% TCO2 45.7
O2 Kiln exit gas O2, vol% Target -
9 Burner Tip Velocity BTV 4 * Ps 0.5 Ps 1800
m/s Ps Static pressure in duct, mmWG BTV 170
Target -
10 %Primary Air %PA PA * 100 PA 2.05
% SCA SCA 27.24
PA Primary air, kg/s %PA 7.53
SCA Stoichiometric combustion air, kg/s Target -
11 Flame Momentum FM %PA * BTV %PA 11.2
or %.m/s %PA %Primary air, % BTV 150
Relative Impulse BTV Burner tip velocity, m/s FM 1680
(Source : F.L. Smidth) Target 1000-2000