Air Standard Cycle

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Carnot Cycle
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Statement:- It states that all engines operating between a given constant temp. of sink &
source, none has higher efficiency than a reversible engine.

In the early 19th century, steam engines came to play an increasingly important role in
industry and transportation. However, a systematic set of theories of the conversion of thermal
energy to motive power by steam engines had not yet been developed. Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot
(1796-1832), a French military engineer, published Reflections on the Motive Power of Fire in 1824.
The book proposed a generalized theory of heat engines, as well as an idealized model of a
thermodynamic system for a heat engine that is now known as the Carnot cycle. Carnot developed
the foundation of the second law of thermodynamics, and is often described as the "Father of
thermodynamics."

It states that all engines operating between a given constant temp. sink, none has higher
efficiency than a reversible engine.

This cycle theoretically permits the conversion of maximum quantity of heat energy
into mechanical energy, as being reversible cycle. In other words, it gives the maximum
efficiency that is possible to obtain in heat engine.

In carnot cycle, the working substance is subjected to cyclic operations consisting of

two Isotheramal & two reversible adiabatic operations.

The engine imagined by carnot has air as its working substance enclosed in cylinder, in
which frictionless piston moves. The walls of cylinder & piston are perfect non-conductor of
heat.

The engine is assumed to work between two sources of infinite heat capacity, one at
higher temp. & the other at a lower temp.

 Now let’s consider the four stages of

carnot cycle.

Let the engine cylinder contains 1

kg of air at its original condition
represented by point on P-V & T-S
diagram.

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$ɧⱤɘλ’ƶ [[ 1 ]]
 Process 1-2 :- Heat addition at Isothermal (Constant volume) expansion process.
Process 2-3 :- Reversible Isentropic (Adiabatic) expansion process.
Process 3-4 :- Heat rejected at Isothermal compression process.
Process 4-1 :- Reversible Isentropic compression process.

 Considering constant volume heat addition process (1-2)

Heat supplied per kg in workdone during isothermal expansion
𝑣
 H.S. / kg = 𝑝1 𝑣1 log ( 2) According to gas characteristics eqn
𝑣1
𝑣2 𝑝1 𝑣1 = 𝑚1 𝑅 𝑇1
But = Expansion ratio = 𝑟1 But 𝑚1 = 1 𝑘𝑔
𝑣1
 𝑝1 𝑣1 = 𝑅 𝑇1
 H.S. / kg = 𝑹 𝑻𝟏 𝐥𝐨𝐠 (𝒓𝟏 )-------(1)

 Considering reversible isentropic expansion process (2-3)

Workdone during isentropic expansion = Decrease in internal energy
𝑝2 𝑣2 −𝑝3 𝑣3 𝑚𝑅𝑇2 −𝑚𝑅𝑇3
= =
γ−1 γ−1

𝒎𝑹 (𝑻𝟐 −𝑻𝟑 )
 W =
𝛄−𝟏

 Considering isothermal compression process (3-4)

Heat rejected per kg in workdone during isothermal compression process
𝑣
 H.R. / kg = 𝑝3 𝑣3 log ( 3 ) According to gas characteristics eqn
𝑣4
𝑣3 ∴ 𝑝3 𝑣3 = 𝑅 𝑇3
But = Compression ratio = 𝑟2
𝑣4  H.R. / kg = 𝑹 𝑻𝟑 𝐥𝐨𝐠 (𝒓𝟐 ) ------- (2)

 Considering reversible isentropic compression process (4-1)

Workdone during isentropic compression = Increase in internal energy
𝑝1 𝑣1 −𝑝4 𝑣4 𝑚𝑅𝑇1 −𝑚𝑅𝑇4
= =
γ−1 γ−1

𝒎𝑹 (𝑻𝟏 −𝑻𝟒 )
 W =
𝛄−𝟏

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$ɧⱤɘλ’ƶ [[ 2 ]]
 The decrease in internal energy during isentropic expansion is equal to increase in
internal energy during isentropic compression process. Hence their net effect during the
whole cycle is zero.

We know that,
Net workdone/kg of air = H.S./kg – H.R./kg
= 𝑅 𝑇1 log (𝑟1 ) − 𝑅 𝑇3 log (𝑟2 )
Let Compression ratio (𝑟2 ) = Expansion ratio (𝑟1 ) = 𝑟
If expansion & compression ratio are not equal then cycle is not closed.

 Net workdone/kg of air = 𝑅 𝑇1 log (𝑟) − 𝑅 𝑇3 log (𝑟)

= 𝑹 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒓 (𝑻𝟏 − 𝑻𝟑 )

𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒
 Air Standard Efficiency (ASE) = 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑆𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑

𝑅 log 𝑟 (𝑇1 −𝑇3 ) 𝑇1 −𝑇3

= =
𝑅 𝑇1 log 𝑟 𝑇1

𝑻𝟑
 ASE = 𝟏 −
𝑻𝟏

ALTERNATIVE PROOF
 Considering isothermal heat addition (supplied) expansion process (1-2)
 H.S./kg = 𝒌𝒗 (𝑻𝟐 − 𝑻𝟏 ) ----------------------- (a)
 Considering isothermal heat rejected compression process (3-4)
 H.R./kg = 𝒌𝒗 (𝑻𝟑 − 𝑻𝟒 ) ----------------------- (b)
𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒
 Air Standard Efficiency (ASE) = 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑆𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑

𝐻.𝑆.− 𝐻.𝑅. 𝑘𝑣 (𝑇2 −𝑇1 )− 𝑘𝑣 (𝑇3 −𝑇4 ) (𝑇2 −𝑇1 ) (𝑇3 −𝑇4 )
= = = −(
𝐻.𝑆. 𝑘𝑣 (𝑇2 −𝑇1 ) (𝑇2 −𝑇1 ) 𝑇2 −𝑇1 )

(𝑻𝟑 −𝑻𝟒 )
 ASE = 𝟏−( ---------- (1)
𝑻𝟐 −𝑻𝟏 )
 Considering reversible isentropic compression process (4-1)
1
𝑇1 𝑣4 γ−1 𝑣4 𝑇 γ−1 𝑣4
=( ) or = (𝑇1) Let , = 𝑟 = Compression Ratio
𝑇4 𝑣 1 𝑣1 4 𝑣1

𝑇1
 = 𝑟 γ−1  𝑻𝟏 = 𝑻𝟒 𝒓𝛄−𝟏 ---------- (i)
𝑇4

 Considering reversible isentropic expansion process (2-3)

1
𝑇2 𝑣3 γ−1 𝑣3 𝑇2 γ−1 𝑣3
=( ) or =( ) Let , = 𝑟 = Expansion Ratio
𝑇3 𝑣2 𝑣2 𝑇3 𝑣2

𝑇2
 = 𝑟 γ−1  𝑻𝟐 = 𝑻𝟑 𝒓𝛄−𝟏 ---------- (ii)
𝑇3

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$ɧⱤɘλ’ƶ [[ 3 ]]
  Above eqn (i) & (ii) put in eqn (1) In terms of temperature
(𝑇3 −𝑇4 )
 ASE = 1 − (𝑇 ASE = 1 −
1
2 −𝑇1 ) 𝑟 γ−1

(𝑇3 −𝑇4 ) 𝑇1
=1−
(𝑇3 𝑟 γ−1 − 𝑇4 𝑟 γ−1 )
 = 𝑟 γ−1
𝑇4
1
(𝑇3 −𝑇4 ) ASE = 1 − 𝑇1
=1− 𝑇4
𝑟 γ−1 (𝑇3 −𝑇4 )
𝑻 𝑻
𝟏 ASE = 𝟏 − 𝑻𝟒 = 𝟏 − 𝑻𝟑
 ASE =𝟏− 𝟏 𝟐
𝒓𝛄−𝟏

In above theory, we have taken temp. at points 1,2,3 & 4 as T1 , T2 ,T3 & T4 respectively in order
to keep similarity between Carnot Cycle & others cycles. But some authors take it T1 (for points
1 & 2) & T2 (for points 3 & 4). In this case they obtain relation for ASE as,

𝑇2
∴ 𝐴𝑆𝐸 = 1 −
𝑇1
 Limitation of Carnot cycle :-
 It is impossible to construct an engine working on Carnot’s Cycle. Because in case of
carnot cycle, isothermal expansion 1-2 will have to be carried out extremely slow
ensure that air is always at temperature TH.
Similarly isothermal compression 3-4 will have to be carried out extremely slow.
But isentropic (adiabatic) expansion 2-3 & isentropic compression 4-1 should be
carried out quickly as possible in order to approach ideal adiabatic condition & we
know that sudden changes in speed of an engine are not possible in actual practice. Also
it is impossible to completely eliminate friction between various moving parts of engine
& heat losses due to conduction & radiation.
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Examples :-
(1) A carnot engine, working between 650 K & 310 K, produces 150 kJ of work. Find ASE & heat
added during process. (Ans:- 52.3 % , 286.8 kJ )
(2) While undergoing a carnot cycle, the working fluid receives heat at a temp of 317C & rejects
heat at a temperature 22C. Find the theoretical efficiency of cycle. If the engine working on
this cycle absorbs 2100 kJ/min from the hot body. Calculate the net work done in kJ/sec & Theo.
Power of the engin (Ans :- 50% , 17.5 kJ/sec , 17.5 MW )
(3) The temp limits for a carnot cycle using air as working fluid are 420C & 10C. Calculate the
efficiency of the cycle & the ratio of adiabatic expansion. Take  = 1.4 (Ans:- 59.16% , 9.38)
(4) An engineer claims his engine to develop 3.75 KW. On testing, the engine consumes 0.44 kg of
fuel per hour having C.V. of 42000 kJ/kg . The maximum temp recorded in the cycle is 1400C &
minimum is 350C. Find whether the engineer is justified in his claim.
(5) A carnot engine operates between two reservoir at temp T1 & T3. The work output of the engine
0.6 times the heat rejected. The difference between temp of source & sink is 200C. Calculate
the ASE, source temperature & sink temp. (Ans:- 37.5% , 260.3C & 60.3C )
(6) A carnot cycle works with isentropic compression ratio 5 & isothermal expansion ratio 2. The
volume of air at the beginning of isothermal expansion is 0.3 m3. If the maximum temp & pr is
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$ɧⱤɘλ’ƶ [[ 4 ]]
 limited to 550 K & 21 bar. Determine (a) Minimum temp of cycle (b) ASE (c) pressure at all
salient points (d) workdone per cycle (e) mean effective pressure (Ans :- 289K , 47.15 %, 10.5
bar, 1.103 bar, 2.206 bar, 201 kJ, 76.7 bar )
(7) In Carnot cycle, the maximum pressure & temp are limited to 18 bar & 410C. The ratio of
isentropic compression is 6 & isothermal expansion is 1.5. Assuming the volume of air at the
beginning of isothermal expansion as 0.18 m3. Determine (i) Temp & pressure at main points (ii)
ASE (iii) m.e.p. (iv) Power of engine if there are 210 working cycle per minute. (Ans:- 234.90
kW,0.466 bar, 51.2%)
(8) A heat engine:
(A) converts heat input to an equivalent amount of work
(B) converts work to an equivalent amount of heat
(C) takes heat in, does work, and loses energy heat
(D) uses positive work done on the system to transfer heat from a low temperature reservoir to a
high temperature reservoir.
(8) A heat engine that in each cycle does positive work and loses energy as heat, with no heat energy
input, would violate:
(A) the zeroth law of thermodynamics (C) the second law of thermodynamics
(B) the first law of thermodynamics (D) the third law of thermodynamics
(9) A Carnot cycle:
(A) is bounded by two isotherms and (C) consists of two isothermal and two
two adiabatics on a p-V graph constant volume processes
(B) is any four sided process on a p-V graph (D) only exists for an ideal gas
(10) A Carnot engine operates between 200° C and 20° C. Its maximum possible efficiency is:
(A) 90% (B) 100% (C) 38% (D) 72%
(11)Which of the following is NOT a state variable?
(A) Work (B) Internal energy (C) Entropy (D) Temperature
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Otto Cycle
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It is also known as constant volume cycle as the heat is received & rejected at constant
volume. The Otto cycle is the idealized cycle for the spark ignition internal combustion engine.
It serves as the theoretical model for the gasoline engine.

The Otto cycle, which was first proposed by a Frenchman, Beau de Rochas in 1862, was first used on an
engine built by a German, Nicholas A. Otto, in 1876.

 Assumptions :-
1. The working fluid in the engine cylinder is air & it behaves as a perfect gas i.e. obeys
gas laws & has constant specific heat.
2. The air is compressed adiabatically (without friction) according to law 𝑝𝑣 𝛾 = 𝐶
3. The heat is supplied to the air at constant volume by bringing a hot body in contact
with end of engine cylinder (head).
4. The air is expanded adiabatically (without friction) according to law 𝑝𝑣 𝛾 = 𝐶
5. The heat rejected at constant volume by bringing cold body with cylinder head.

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$ɧⱤɘλ’ƶ [[ 5 ]]
 This cycle is shown above on p-v and T-s diagrams.
Process 1-2: Reversible adiabatic compression of air.
Process 2-3: Heat addition at constant volume.
Process 3-4: Reversible adiabatic expansion of air.
Process 4-1: Heat rejection at constant volume.

 Let the engine cylinder contain m kg of air at point 1.

In terms of temperature
 Heat supplied during constant volume process (2-3) 1
ASE = 1 − 𝑟γ−1
H.S./kg = 𝒌𝒗 (𝑻𝟑 − 𝑻𝟐 )---------------- (1)
𝑇
 Heat rejected during constant volume process (4-1)  2 = 𝑟 γ−1
𝑇1
H.R./kg = 𝒌𝒗 (𝑻𝟒 − 𝑻𝟏 )---------------- (2) ASE = 1 − 𝑇
1
2
𝑇1
 Net workdone/kg = H.S./kg – H.R./kg
= 𝑘𝑣 (𝑇3 − 𝑇2 ) − 𝑘𝑣 (𝑇4 − 𝑇1 ) ASE = 𝟏 −
𝑻𝟏
𝑻𝟐
= 𝒌𝒗 [(𝑻𝟑 − 𝑻𝟐 ) − (𝑻𝟒 − 𝑻𝟏 )]
𝑇3
𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒  = 𝑟 γ−1
 Air Standard Efficiency (ASE) = 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑆𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑
𝑇4
1
ASE = 1 − 𝑇3
𝑘𝑣 [(𝑇3 −𝑇2 )−(𝑇4 −𝑇1 )] 𝑇4
=
𝑘𝑣 (𝑇3 −𝑇2 )
𝑻
ASE = 𝟏 − 𝑻𝟒
(𝑇3 −𝑇2 )−(𝑇4 −𝑇1 ) 𝟑
= (𝑇3 −𝑇2 )
𝑻𝟒 −𝑻𝟏
 ASE =𝟏− ------- (3)
𝑻𝟑 −𝑻𝟐
 Consider isentropic compression process (1-2)
𝑇2 𝑣 γ−1 𝑣1
= ( 1) Let = Compression Ratio = 𝑟
𝑇1 𝑣2 𝑣2

𝑇2
 = 𝑟 γ−1 𝑻𝟐 = 𝑻𝟏 𝒓𝛄−𝟏 ------------ (4)
𝑇1

 Consider isentropic expansion process (3-4)

𝑇3 𝑣 γ−1 γ−1
𝑇 𝑣
= ( 4)  𝑇3 = (𝑣1 ) (As 𝑣4 = 𝑣1 & 𝑣3 = 𝑣2 )
𝑇4 𝑣3 4 2

𝑇3
 = 𝑟 γ−1 𝑻𝟑 = 𝑻𝟒 𝒓𝛄−𝟏 ------------ (5)
𝑇4

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$ɧⱤɘλ’ƶ [[ 6 ]]
  Eqn (4) & (5) put in eqn (3)
𝑇4 −𝑇1 𝑇4 −𝑇1 (𝑇4 −𝑇1 )
 ASE =1− =1− γ−1
=1−
𝑇3 −𝑇2 𝑇4 𝑟 − 𝑇1 𝑟 γ−1 𝑟 γ−1 (𝑇4 −𝑇1 )

𝟏
 ASE =𝟏−
𝒓𝛄−𝟏

 The efficiency increases with increase in compression ratio (𝑟). In actual practice, 𝑟
can’t be increased beyond 7 or 10.
𝒑 𝒗 −𝒑 𝒗 𝒑 𝒗 −𝒑 𝒗
( 𝟑 𝟑 𝟒 𝟒 )−( 𝟐 𝟐 𝟏 𝟏 )
𝛄−𝟏 𝛄−𝟏
 Mean Effective Pressure (𝒑𝒎 ) =
𝒗𝟏 −𝒗𝟐

 However, high compression ratios can lead to auto ignition or engine knock.
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑟=
𝐶𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

𝐶𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 + 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑘𝑒 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

=
𝐶𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑣𝑐 +𝑣𝑠
=
𝑣𝑐
𝒗𝒔
 𝒓 = 𝟏+
𝒗𝒄
𝑣𝑠 𝜋
 Clearance Volume (𝑣𝑐 ) = Swept or Stroke Volume (𝑣𝑠 ) = 𝑑2 𝑙
𝑟−1 4
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Examples :-
(1) In otto cycle, the temp at the beginning & end of isentropic compression are 316 K & 596 K
respectively. Determine the air standard efficiency & compression ratio. Take  = 1.4
(Ans:- 47% , 4.885 )
(2) An engine, working on otto cycle, has a cylinder diameter 150 mm & a stroke of 225 mm. the
clearance volume is 1.25E-3 m3. Find the ASE take  = 1.4 (Ans:- 43.6%)
(3) In otto cycle engine, the temp & pressure at the beginning of compression are 43C & 100 kPa
respectively & at the end of isentropic compression is 323C. If the temp at the end of constant
volume heat addition is 1500C . Calculate (i) expansion ratio (ii) ASE (iii) temp & pressure at the
end of adiabatic expansion. Take  = 1.4 (Ans:- 4.87, 46.95%, 297.5 kPa, 941 K )
(4) An engine working on the ideal otto cycle, has a clearance volume 0.03 m 3 & swept volume of 0.12
m3. The pressure & temp at the beginning of compressions are 100 kPa & 373 K. if the pressure at
the end of constant volume heat addition is 2500 kPa . Calculate (i) ASE (ii)The temp at the salient
points of cycle. Assume  = 1.4 (Ans :- 47.5 %, 710.06 K, 1865.013 K, 980 K )
(5) In an otto cycle, air at 1 bar & 290 K is compressed isentropically until the pressure is 15 bar. The
heat is added at constant volume until the pressure rises to 40 bar. Calculate ASE & the mean
effective pressure. Take kv = 0.717 kJ/kg K & Ru = 8.314 kJ/kg mole K (Ans :- 53.85%, 5.68 bar )
(6) In air standard otto cycle, the compression ratio is 7 & compression begins at 1 bar & 313 K. The
heat added is 2510 kJ/kg. Find (i) maximum temp & pressure (ii) workdone per cycle (iii) cycle
efficiency (iv) mep (Ans :- 93.94 bar, 1929.383 K, 2230.36 kJ/kg, 54.08%, 2898.07 kPa )
(7) The air standard Otto cycle comprises
(a) two constant pressure processes and two constant volume processes
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$ɧⱤɘλ’ƶ [[ 7 ]]
 (b) two constant pressure and two constant entropy processes
(c) two constant volume processes and two constant entropy processes
(d) none of the above.
(8) The thermal efficiency of theoretical Otto cycle
(a) increases with increase in compression ratio (c) increases with increase in isentropic index 
(b) does not depend upon the pressure ratio (d) follows all the above.
(9) The work output of theoretical Otto cycle
(a) increases with increase in compression ratio (c) increases with increase in adiabatic index 
(b) increases with increase in pressure ratio (d) follows all the above.
(10) The stroke and bore of a four stroke spark ignition engine are 250 mm and 200 mm respectively.
The clearance volume is 0.001 . If the specific heat ratio , the air standard cycle efficiency of the engine
is _____ (GATE – 2007)
(A) 46.40 % (B) 56.10 % (C) 58.20 % (D) 62.80 %
(11) Which one of the following is Not a necessary assumption for the air standard Otto-cycle? (GATE-
2008)
(A) All processes are both internally as well as externally reversible.
(B) Intake and exhaust processes are constant volume heat rejection processes.
(C) The combustion process is a constant volume heat addition process.
(D) The working fluid is an ideal gas with constant specific heats.
(12) In air standard Otto-cycle, the compression ratio is 10. The condition at the beginning of the
compression process is 100 kPa and 27C . Heat added at constant volume is 1500 KJ/Kg, while 700 kJ/kg
of heat is rejected during the other constant volume process in the cycle. Specific gas constant for air
=0.287 kJ/kg K. the mean effective pressure (In kPa) of the cycle is ______ (GATE
- 2008)
(A) 103 (B) 310 (C) 515 (D) 1032
(13) The crank radius of a single-cylinder I.C engine is 60 mm and the diameter of the cylinder is 80 mm.
The swept volume of the cylinder in is _____ (GATE- 2011)
(A) 48 (B) 96 (C) 302 (D) 603
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Diesel Cycle
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Air standard diesel cycle is idealized cycle for diesel engine. It is also known as constant
pressure cycle as heat is received at constant pressure process (Isobaric).

 Assumptions :-
1. The working fluid in the engine cylinder is air & it behaves as a perfect gas i.e. obeys
gas laws & has constant specific heat.
2. The air is compressed adiabatically (without friction) according to law 𝑝𝑣 𝛾 = 𝐶
3. The heat is supplied to the air at constant pressure by bringing a hot body in contact
with end of engine cylinder (head).
4. The air is expanded adiabatically (without friction) according to law 𝑝𝑣 𝛾 = 𝐶
5. The heat rejected at constant volume by bringing cold body with cylinder head.

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$ɧⱤɘλ’ƶ [[ 8 ]]
 This cycle is shown above on p-v and T-s diagrams.
Process 1-2: Reversible adiabatic Compression.
Process 2-3: Constant pressure heat addition.
Process 3-4: Reversible adiabatic expansion.
Process 4-1: Constant volume heat rejection.
 Let the engine cylinder contains m kg (1 kg) of air at point 1.
 Heat supplied during constant pressure process [Isobaric] (2-3)
 H.S./kg =𝒌𝒑 (𝑻𝟑 − 𝑻𝟐 ) ------------ (1)
 Heat rejected during constant volume process[Isochoric] (4-1)
 H.R./kg = 𝒌𝒗 (𝑻𝟒 − 𝑻𝟏 ) ----------- (2)

 Net workdone/kg = H.S./kg – H.R./kg

= 𝒌𝒑 (𝑻𝟑 − 𝑻𝟐 ) − 𝒌𝒗 (𝑻𝟒 − 𝑻𝟏 )
𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒
 Air Standard Efficiency (ASE) = 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑆𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑
𝑘𝑝 (𝑇3 −𝑇2 ) −𝑘𝑣 (𝑇4 −𝑇1 )
=
𝑘𝑝 (𝑇3 −𝑇2 )

𝑘𝑣 (𝑇4 −𝑇1 )
=1−
𝑘𝑝 (𝑇3 −𝑇2 )

𝟏 𝑻𝟒 −𝑻𝟏
 ASE =𝟏− [ ] ------- (3)
𝛄 𝑻𝟑 −𝑻𝟐
 Consider isentropic compression process (1-2)
𝑇2 𝑣 γ−1 𝑣1
= ( 1) Let = Compression Ratio = 𝑟
𝑇1 𝑣2 𝑣2

𝑇2
 = 𝑟 γ−1 𝑻𝟐 = 𝑻𝟏 𝒓𝛄−𝟏 ------------ (i)
𝑇1
 Consider constant pressure heat addition process (2-3)
𝑣2 𝑣3 𝑇3 𝑣3 𝑣3
=  = Let = Cut off Ratio = 
𝑇2 𝑇3 𝑇2 𝑣2 𝑣2
𝑇3
 =ρ 𝑇3 = 𝑇2 ρ  𝑻𝟑 = 𝑻𝟏 𝒓𝛄−𝟏 𝛒 --------------- (ii)
𝑇2

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$ɧⱤɘλ’ƶ [[ 9 ]]
  Consider isentropic expansion process (3-4)
𝑇3 𝑣 γ−1 𝒗𝟒 𝑣4 𝑣2 𝑣1 𝑣2 𝒓
= ( 4) Let = Expansion Ratio = × = × = (As 𝑣1 = 𝑣4 )
𝑇4 𝑣3 𝒗𝟑 𝑣3 𝑣2 𝑣2 𝑣3 𝛒

𝑇3 𝒓 γ−1 𝑇1 𝑟 γ−1 ρ 𝑟 γ−1

 =( )  = 𝑻𝟒 = 𝑻𝟏 
𝛄
------------ (iii)
𝑇4 𝛒 𝑇4 ργ−1

 Eqn (i) , (ii) & (iii) put in eqn (3)

1 𝑇4 −𝑇1 1 𝑇1 γ −𝑇1 1 γ −1
 ASE =1− [ ] =1− [ ] =1− [ ]
γ 𝑇3 −𝑇2 γ 𝑇1 𝑟γ−1 ρ− 𝑇1 𝑟 γ−1 γ 𝑟γ−1 ρ − 𝑟 γ−1

1 γ −1
=1− [ ]
γ 𝑟γ−1  −1

𝟏 𝛄 −𝟏
 ASE =𝟏− [ ]
𝒓𝛄−𝟏 𝛄 (  −𝟏 )

From the above equation, it is observed that, the thermal efficiency of the diesel engine
can be increased by increasing the compression ratio (𝑟), by decreasing the cut-off ratio (), or
γ −1
by using a gas with large value of γ. Since the quantity in above equation is always
γ (  −1 )
greater than unity. The efficiency of a Diesel cycle is always lower than that of an Otto cycle
having the same compression ratio. However, practical Diesel engines uses higher
compression ratios compared to petrol engines.
𝑣1 −𝑣4 −1
% of cut off (𝑥) = × 100 = × 100
𝑣3 −𝑣4 𝑟−1
𝒙
=𝟏+ (𝒓 − 𝟏 )
𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝒑 𝒗 −𝒑 𝒗 𝒑 𝒗 −𝒑 𝒗
𝒑𝟑 (𝒗𝟑 −𝒗𝟐 )+ ( 𝟑 𝟑 𝟒 𝟒 )−( 𝟐 𝟐 𝟏 𝟏 )
𝛄−𝟏 𝛄−𝟏
 Mean Effective Pressure (𝒑𝒎 ) =
𝒗𝟏 −𝒗𝟐

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Examples :-
(1) In a diesel engine, the compression ratio is 13:1 & fuel is cut off at 8% of stroke. Find ASE of the
engine. Take  = 1.4 (Ans:- 58.3%)
(2) Calculate the percentage loss in ideal Diesel engine with compression ratio 14. If the fuel cut off
delayed from 5% to 8%. (Ans:- 2.1% )
(3) An ideal Diesel engine has a diameter 150 mm & stroke 200 mm. The clearance volume is 10 per
cent of swept volume. Determine the compression ratio & the air standard efficiency of the engine
if cut of takes place at 6 per cent of the stroke. (Ans:- 11, 57.53%)
(4) An air engine works on Diesel cycle: Air is taken in at atmospheric pressure of 110 kPa & temp of
16C, and is compressed adiabatically, the pressure at the end of the stroke being 3500 kPa. Heat is
taken in at constant pressure, the expansion afterwards takes place adiabatically, the rato of
expansion being 5. The air is exhausted at the end of the stroke, the heat is assumed to be rejected
at constant volume. Find the ASE. Take kp = 1.0035 kJ/kg K & kv = 0.7165 kJ/kg K. (Ans:- 54.83%)
(5) The compression ratio of an ideal air standard Diesel cycle is 15. The heat transfer is 1465 kJ/kg of
air. Find the pressure & temp at the end of each process. Determine cycle efficiency & mean
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$ɧⱤɘλ’ƶ [[ 10 ]]
 effective pressure if inlet conditions are 300 K & 1 bar. (Ans:- 886.25K, 2343.96K, 1171.77K,
57.33%, 1022.74 kPa )
(6) Find the ASE for otto & diesel cycles on the basis of equal compression ratio of 10 & equal heat
rejection of 840 kJ/kg. The suction conditions are 1 bar & 328 K. (Ans:- 60%, 48.4%)
(7) Two engines are to operate on Otto & Diesle cycles with the following data : Maximum temp =
1500K , Exhaust Temp = 700K, Ambient condition = 1 bar & 300k. Compare the compression ratios,
maximum pressures, the efficiencies of two engines. (Ans:- 0.546, 1, 0.917 )
(8) In ideal Diesel cycle, the pressure & temp at the commencement of the compression stroke are 95
kPa & 15C. The pressure at the end of adiabatic compression is 3600 kPa, and it is 1125 kPa when
the piston displaces 25% of the stroke volume. Find: (i) maximum temp reached in the cycle (ii) ASE
(iii) m.e.p. (iv) approximate % of expansion stroke at which cut off takes place. (Ans :- 1472K,
60.57%, 463.77 kPa, 6% )
(9) In an ideal Diesel cycle the temp at the beginning of& end of compression are 57C & 603
respectively, whilst those at the beginning of& end of expansions are 1950C & 870C respectively.
Determine per kg of working fluid for which R = 0.287 kJ/kg K &  = 1.4. 9i) the heat received (ii) the
heat rejected (iii) Net workdone (iv) Thermal Efficiency. If the compression ratio is 14:1 & the
pressure at the beginning of compression is 100 kPa, determine maximum pressure in the cycle.
(Ans:- 1343 kJ/kg, 583 kJ/kg. 760 kJ/kg, 56.59%, 4023 kPa )
(10) The volume ratio of compression & expansion for diesel engine as measured from an
indicator diagram are 15.3 & 7.5 respectively. The pressure & temp at the beginning of compression
are 1 bar & 27C. Assuming an ideal engine. Determine pm , ratio of maximum pressure to m.e.p &
ASE. Also find fuel consumption per kWh if indicated thermal efficiency is 0.5 of ideal efficiency &
mechanical thermal efficiency is 0.8 & C.V. = 42000 kJ/kg (Ans:- )
(11) For same compression ratio
(a) thermal efficiency of Otto cycle is greater than that of Diesel cycle
(b) thermal efficiency of Otto cycle is less than that of Diesel cycle
(c) thermal efficiency of Otto cycle is same as that for Diesel cycle
(d) thermal efficiency of Otto cycle cannot be predicted.
(12) In air standard Diesel cycle, at fixed compression ratio and fixed value of adiabatic index (γ)
(a) thermal efficiency increases with increase in heat addition cut-off ratio
(b) thermal efficiency decreases with increase in heat addition cut-off ratio
(c) thermal efficiency remains same with increase in heat addition cut-off ratio
(d) none of the above.
(13)The ASE of Diesel cycle having fixed compression ratio will decrease with increase in …..
(a) Cut off Ratio (c) Compression Ratio
(b) Expansion Ratio (d) Explosion Ratio
(14)In a Diesel cycle, the ratio of volume cylinder at the point of cut off 7 clearence volume is known as ……
(a) Cut off Ratio (c) Compression Ratio
(b) Expansion Ratio (d) Explosion Ratio
(15)Diesel cycle is also known as
(a) constant volume cycle (c) constant temperature cycle
(b) constant pressure cycle (d) none of the mentioned
(16)A diesel engine has compression ratio from
(a) 6 to 10 (b) 10 to 15 (c) 16 to 20 (d) 25 to 40

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$ɧⱤɘλ’ƶ [[ 11 ]]
=======================================================================================
Dual Combustion Cycle
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It is also known as a dual combustion or limited pressure cycle or mixed cycle because
the heat is taken partly at constant volume & partly at constant pressure. This cycle is
combination of Otto & Diesel cycles. It is sometimes called semi-diesel cycle because semi-
diesel engines work on this cycle. This cycle is used in modern high speed oil engines.

 Assumptions :-
1. The working fluid in the engine cylinder is air & it behaves as a perfect gas i.e. obeys
gas laws & has constant specific heat.
2. The air is compressed adiabatically (without friction) according to law 𝑝𝑣 𝛾 = 𝐶
3. The heat is partly supplied to the air at constant volume by bringing a hot body in
contact with end of engine cylinder (head) & remaining heat is supplied to air at
constant pressure.
4. The air is expanded adiabatically (without friction) according to law 𝑝𝑣 𝛾 = 𝐶
5. The heat rejected at constant volume by bringing cold body with cylinder head.

This cycle is shown above on p-v and T-s diagrams.

Process 1-2: Reversible adiabatic Compression.
Process 2-3: Constant volume heat addition.
Process 3-4: Constant pressure heat addition.
Process 4-5: Reversible adiabatic Compression.
Process 5-1: Constant volume heat rejection.
 Let the engine cylinder contain m kg of air at point 1.
 Heat supplied during constant volume process (2-3)
H.S./kg = 𝒌𝒗 (𝑻𝟑 − 𝑻𝟐 ) + 𝒌𝒑 (𝑻𝟒 − 𝑻𝟑 ) ---------------- (1)

 Heat rejected during constant volume process (4-1)

H.R./kg = 𝒌𝒗 (𝑻𝟓 − 𝑻𝟏 ) ---------------- (2)

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$ɧⱤɘλ’ƶ [[ 12 ]]
  Net workdone/kg = H.S./kg – H.R./kg
= 𝒌𝒗 (𝑻𝟑 − 𝑻𝟐 ) + 𝒌𝒑 (𝑻𝟒 − 𝑻𝟑 ) − 𝒌𝒗 (𝑻𝟓 − 𝑻𝟏 )

𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒
 Air Standard Efficiency (ASE) = 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑆𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑

𝑘𝑣 (𝑇3 −𝑇2 )+𝑘𝑝 (𝑇4 −𝑇3 )−𝑘𝑣 (𝑇5 −𝑇1 )

=
𝑘𝑣 (𝑇3 −𝑇2 )+𝑘𝑝 (𝑇4 −𝑇3 )

𝑘𝑣 (𝑇5 −𝑇1 )
=1−
𝑘𝑣 (𝑇3 −𝑇2 )+𝑘𝑝 (𝑇4 −𝑇3 )
(𝑻𝟓 −𝑻𝟏 )
 ASE = 𝟏 − (𝑻 ------- (3)
𝟑 −𝑻𝟐 )+𝛄 (𝑻𝟒 −𝑻𝟑 )

 Consider isentropic compression process (1-2)

𝑇2 𝑣 γ−1 𝑣1
= ( 1) Let = Compression Ratio = 𝑟
𝑇1 𝑣2 𝑣2

𝑇2
 = 𝑟 γ−1 𝑻𝟐 = 𝑻𝟏 𝒓𝛄−𝟏 ------------ (i)
𝑇1

 Consider constant volume heat addition process (2-3)

𝑝2 𝑝3 𝑇3 𝑝3 𝑝3
=  = Let = Explosion Ratio = 
𝑇2 𝑇3 𝑇2 𝑝2 𝑝2
𝑇3
 =  𝑇3 = 𝑇2   𝑻𝟑 = 𝑻𝟏 𝒓𝛄−𝟏  --------------- (ii)
𝑇2

 Consider constant pressure heat addition process (3-4)

𝑣4 𝑣3 𝑇4 𝑣4 𝑣4
=  = Let = Cut off Ratio = 
𝑇4 𝑇3 𝑇3 𝑣3 𝑣3
𝑇4
 =ρ 𝑇4 = 𝑇3 ρ  𝑻𝟒 = 𝑻𝟏 𝒓𝛄−𝟏  𝛒 --------------- (ii)
𝑇3

 Consider isentropic expansion process (4-5)

𝑇4 𝑣 γ−1 𝒗𝟓 𝑣5 𝑣2 𝑣1 𝑣3 𝒓
= ( 5) Let = Expansion Ratio = × = × = (As 𝑣1 = 𝑣5 & 𝑣2 = 𝑣3 )
𝑇5 𝑣4 𝒗𝟒 𝑣4 𝑣2 𝑣2 𝑣4 𝛒

𝑇4 𝒓 γ−1 𝑇1 𝑟 γ−1  ρ 𝑟 γ−1

 =( )  = 𝑻𝟓 = 𝑻𝟏   ------------ (iv)
𝛄
𝑇5 𝛒 𝑇5 ργ−1

 Eqn (i) , (ii) ,(iii) & (iv) put in eqn (3)

(𝑇5 −𝑇1 ) (𝑇1 γ  −T1 )
ASE = 1 − (𝑇 =1−
3 −𝑇2 )+γ (𝑇4 −𝑇3 ) (𝑇1 𝑟γ−1−𝑇1 𝑟γ−1 ) +  (𝑇1 𝑟γ−1  ρ−𝑇1 𝑟γ−1 )

( γ  −1)
=1−(
𝑟γ−1 − 𝑟γ−1 ) +  ( 𝑟γ−1  ρ− 𝑟γ−1)

( γ  −1)
=1−
𝑟γ−1[ (−1) +  (  ρ−)]

𝟏 ( 𝛄  −𝟏)
 ASE =𝟏− [ ]
𝒓𝛄−𝟏 ( −𝟏) +   ( 𝛒−𝟏)

𝒑𝟒 𝒗𝟒 − 𝒑𝟓 𝒗𝟓 𝒑 𝒗 −𝒑 𝒗
𝒑𝟑 (𝒗𝟒 −𝒗𝟑 )+ ( )−( 𝟐 𝟐 𝟏 𝟏 )
𝛄−𝟏 𝛄−𝟏
 Mean Effective Pressure (𝒑𝒎 ) =
𝒗𝟏 −𝒗𝟐

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$ɧⱤɘλ’ƶ [[ 13 ]]
========================================================================
Examples :-
(1) An oil engine working on the dual combustion cycle has cylinder diameter 25 cm & stoke of 36 cm.
The clearance volume is 1600 cm3 and cut off takes place at 5% of stroke. The explosion ratio is 1.4.
Find ASE of the engine. Take  =1.4 (Ans:- 60.5% )
(2) The swept volume of diesel engine working on Diesel cycle is 0.0053 m3. The maximum pressure is
65 bar. Fuel injection ends at 5% of stroke. The temp& pressure at start of compression are 80C &
0.9 bar. Determine ASE. Take  =1.4 (Ans:- 60.5% )
(3) In a compression ignition engine, working on a dual combustion cycle, pressure & temp at the start of
compression are 1 bar & 300 K respectively. At the end of compression, pressure reaches a value of 25 bar.
420 kJ of heat is supplied per kg of air during constant volume heating & pressure becomes 2.8 bar at the
end of isentropic expansion. Estimate the ideal efficiency of cycle. Take kp = 1.005 kJ/kg K & kv = 0.712 kJ/kg
K. (Ans:- 58.6%)
(4) In compression ignition engine working on ideal dual combustion cycle, the pressure & temp at the
beginning of compression are 1 bar & 127C. The pressure at the end of compression is 30 bar and maximum
pressure of the cycle is 50 bar. During combustion, half of heat is added at constant volume and half at
constant pressure. Both the compression & expansion curves are adiabatic and heat is rejected at constant
volume. Calculate the temp at the salient points of cycle ad ideal thermal efficiency. Take kp = 1.005 kJ/kg K
& kv = 0.712 kJ/kg K (Ans:- 738.8C, 1488C, 1991C, 674.3C, 61.14%)
(5) A high speed Diesel engine working on the ideal dual combustion cycle has compression ratio of 11. The
pressure & temp before compression are 100 kPa & 90C. If the maximum pressure in the cycle is 5000 kPa
& the constant pressure heat addition continues for 1/20 th of the stroke. Find Workdone per kg of air &
ASE. Take kp = 0.9965 kJ/kg K & kv = 0.7118 kJ/kg K . (Ans: 787 kJ/kg , 59.52%)
(6) A compression engine, working on dual combustion cycle, has compression ratio of 10 & 2/3rd of total heat
supplied is taken in at constant volume & reminder at constant pressure. The maximum pressure in the cycle
is 4200 kPa & the pressure & temp at beginning of compression are 105 kPa & 303 K. Assuming the working
fluid to be air throughout cycle, find ideal mean effective pressure of the cycle in kPa & ASE. Take kp = 0.9965
kJ/kg K & kv = 0.7118 kJ/kg K . (Ans: 389.73 kPa)
(7) The compression ratio of single cylinder engine working on limited pressure cycle is 9. The maximum
pressure in the cylinder is 60 bar. The pressure & temp of the air at beginning of cycle are 1 bar & 30C. Heat
is added during constant pressure process up to 4% of stroke. Cylinder Diameter = 250 mm & stroke length =
300 mm. Find (i) ASE (ii) Power developed if cycle 3 per second. (Ans: 57.86%)
(8) An engine working on mixed cycle has a pressure of 1 bar and 50C before compression. The air is
then compressed isentropically to 1/15th of its original volume. The maximum pressure is twice the
pressure at the end of isentropic compression. If the cut off ratio is 2, determine the temp at the
end of each process & the ideal thermal efficiency. Take  = 1.4 (Ans: 954.19 K, 1908.40 K, 3816.79
K,, 1704.80 K, 61.85% )
(9) An ideal dual cycle engine works with stroke volume of 10 liters of air with a compression ratio 16.
The pressure & temp of air before isentropic compression are 1 bar & 300 K. If the heat is added at
constant pressure 70 bar & 5% of the stroke. Determine (i) Pressure Ratio (ii) Cut off Ratio (iii) Mass
of air contained in the cylinder (iv) Heat Supplied (v) Heat Rejected (vi) Net Workdone (vii) ASE (viii)
m.e.p. (Ans: 1.443, 1.75, 0.012 kg, 15.20 kj, 5.54 kJ, 9.66 kJ, 63.6%, 9.66 bar )
(10) Which statement is right ?
(a) Diesel > Dual < otto (c) Dual > otto > Diesel
(b) otto > Dual > Diesel (d) Dual < otto > Diesel

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$ɧⱤɘλ’ƶ [[ 14 ]]
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$ɧⱤɘλ’ƶ [[ 15 ]]