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2 1 INTRODUCTION
~ - - - _ ( - ~ _ - - ~ ~ ~ - - i - i l ^ - - ~ ~ - - ~ i i - - c ~~ i ~ = 1_111__ -_1 _ X _ l i . X I X - - - l . ” - “ . I X I I 1 1 1 - - c
scatter in properties and the probability of failure in the weakest areas. The geometry and
orientation of the reinforcement affect the anisotropy of the system.
The phases of the composite system play different roles, which depend on the type and
application of the composite material. In the case of low- to medium-performance com-
posite materials, the reinforcement, usually in the form of short fibers or particles, may
provide some stiffening but only limited strengthening of the material. The matrix, on
the other hand, is the main load-bearing constituent governing the mechanical properties
of the material. In the case of high-performance structural composites, the normally con-
tinuous fiber reinforcement is the backbone of the material, which determines its stiffness
and strength in the fiber direction. The matrix phase provides protection for the sensitive
fibers, bonding, support, and local stress transfer from one fiber to another. The interphase,
although small in dimensions, can play an important role in controlling the failure mech-
anisms, failure propagation, fracture toughness and the overall stress-strain behavior to
failure of the material.
Fig. 1.3 Diagram illustrating usage of composite materials in various components of the Boeing 777 aircraft. (Courtesy of
Boeing Commercial Airplane Group.)’
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1.3 Applications 5
1 1 1 - - ~ ~~
carbon/epoxy composites are highly desirable in military aircraft, such as the B-2 bomber
(Fig. 1.7). Small unmanned air vehicles are also made almost entirely of composites
(Fig. 1.8). The solar-powered flying wing Helios shown in Fig. 1.9, used by NASA for
environmental research, was made of carbon and Kevlar fiber composites. It had a wing
span of 75 m (246 ft) and weighed only 708 kg (1557 lb).
Composites are used in various forms in the transportation industry, including auto-
motive parts and automobile, truck, and railcar frames. An example of a composite leaf
spring is shown in Fig. 1.10, made of glass/epoxy composite and weighing one-fifth of the
original steel spring. An example of an application to public transportation is the Cobra
tram in Zurich (Fig. 1.11).
Ship structures incorporate composites in various forms, thick-section glass and
carbon fiber composites and sandwich construction. The latter consists of thin composite
facesheets bonded to a thicker lightweight core. Applications include minesweepers and
1.3 Applications 7
.
Fig. 1.9 Solar-powered flying wing
Helios. (Courtesy of Stuart Hindle,
Sky Tower, Inc.; NASA Dryden
Flight Center photograph.)’
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8 1 INTRODUCTION
.
corvettes (Figs. 1.12 and 1.13). Composite ship structures have many advantages such as
insulation, lower manufacturing cost, low maintenance, and lack of corrosion.
In the energy production field, carbon fiber composites have been used in the blades
of wind turbine generators that significantly improve power output at a greatly reduced
cost (Fig. 1.14). In offshore oil drilling installations, composites are used in drilling risers
like the one installed in the field in 2001 and shown in Fig. 1.15.
1.3 Applications 9
Fig. 1.15 Composite drilling riser for offshore oil drilling: 15 m (49 ft) long, 59 cm (22 in) inside diameter, 315 bar pressure;
manufactured for Norske Conoco A/S and other oil companies. (Courtesy of Professor Ozden Ochoa, Texas A&M
University, and Dr. Mamdouh M. Salama, ConocoPhillips.)
Biomedical applications include prosthetic devices and artificial limb parts (Figs. 1.16
and 1.17). Leisure products include tennis rackets, golf clubs, fishing poles, skis, and
bicycles. An example of a composite bicycle frame is shown in Fig. 1.18.
Infrastructure applications are a more recent development. Composites are being used
to reinforce structural members against earthquakes, to produce structural shapes for
buildings and bridges, and to produce pipes for oil and water transport. An 80 cm (32 in)
composite pipeline, made of glass/polyester composite is shown in Fig. 1.19. An example
of a composite bridge is the 114 m (371 ft) long cable-stayed footbridge built in Aberfeldy,
Scotland, in 1992 (Fig. 1.20). The deck structure rails and A-frame towers are made of
glass/polyester, and the cables are Kevlar ropes.'
1.3 Applications 11
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1.4 OVERVIEW OF ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS
Composites have unique advantages over monolithic materials, such as high strength, high
stiffness, long fatigue life, low density, and adaptability to the intended function of the
structure. Additional improvements can be realized in corrosion resistance, wear resistance,
appearance, temperature-dependent behavior, environmental stability, thermal insulation
and conductivity, and acoustic insulation. The basis for the superior structural performance
of composite materials lies in the high specific strength (strength to density ratio) and high
specific stiffness (modulus to density ratio) and in the anisotropic and heterogeneous char-
acter of the material. The latter provides the composite with many degrees of freedom for
optimum configuration of the material system.
Composites also have some limitations when compared with conventional monolithic
materials. Below is a brief discussion of advantages and limitations of composites and
14 1 INTRODUCTION
conventional structural materials (mainly metals) when compared on the basis of various
aspects, that is, micromechanics, macromechanics, material characterization, design and
optimization, fabrication technology, maintenance and durability, and cost effectiveness.
1.4.1 Micromechanics
When viewed on the scale of fiber dimensions, composites have the advantage of high-
stiffness and high-strength fibers. The usually low fracture toughness of the fiber is
enhanced by the matrix ductility and the energy dissipation at the fibedmatrix interface.
The stress transfer capability of the matrix enables the development of multiple-site and
multiple-path failure mechanisms. On the other hand, the fibers exhibit a relatively high
scatter in strength. Local stress concentrations around the fibers reduce the transverse ten-
sile strength appreciably.
Conventional materials are more sensitive to their microstructure and local irregular-
ities that influence the brittle or ductile behavior of the material. Their homogeneity makes
them more susceptible to flaw growth under long-term cyclic loading.
1.4.2 Macromechanics
In macromechanical analysis, where the material is treated as quasi-homogeneous, its
anisotropy can be used to advantage. The average material behavior can be controlled and
predicted from the properties of the constituents. However, the anisotropic analysis is more
complex and more dependent on the computational procedures. On the other hand, the
analysis for conventional materials is much simpler due to their isotropy and homogeneity.
materials, optimization is limited usually to one or two geometric parameters, due to the
few degrees of freedom available.
The fabrication process is one of the most important steps in the application of composite
materials. Structural parts, rather than generic material form, are fabricated with relative-
ly simple tooling. A variety of fabrication methods suitable for various applications are
available. They include autoclave molding, filament winding, pultrusion, fiber placement,
and resin transfer molding (RTM). Structural components consisting of different mater-
ials, such as honeycomb sandwich structures, can be manufactured in one step by the
so-called cocuring process. Thus, the number of parts to be assembled and joints required
can be reduced significantly. On the negative side, composite fabrication is still dependent
to some extent on skilled hand labor with limited automation and standardization. This
requires more stringent, extensive, and costly quality control procedures.
In the case of conventional materials, material and structure fabrication are two sepa-
rate processes. Structures usually necessitate complex tooling and elaborate assembly, with
multiple elements and joints.
.
1 investigation of basic characteristics of the constituent and composite materials
2. material optimization for given service conditions
3. development of effective and efficient fabrication procedures and evaluation of
their effect on material properties
4. development of analytical procedures and numerical simulation models for deter-
mination of composite material properties and prediction of structural behavior
5. development of effective experimental methods for material characterization,
stress analysis, and failure analysis
6. nondestructive evaluation of material integrity and structural reliability
7 . assessment of durability, flaw criticality, and life prediction
1. significant progress in materials science and technology in the area of fibers, poly-
mers, and ceramics
2. requirements for high-performance materials in aircraft and aerospace structures
3. development of powerful and sophisticated numerical methods for structural
analysis using modem computer technology
4. the availability of powerful desktop computers for the engineering community.
The initial driving force in the technology development, dominated by the aerospace
industry, was performance through weight savings. Later, cost competitiveness with more
conventional materials became equally important. In addition to these two requirements,
today there is a need for quality assurance, reproducibility, and predictability of behavior
over the lifetime of the structure.
New developments continue in all areas. For example, new types of carbon fibers have
been introduced with higher strength and ultimate strain. Thermoplastic matrices are used
under certain conditions because they are tough, have low sensitivity to moisture effects,
and are more easily amenable to mass production and repair. Woven fabric and short-fiber
reinforcements in conjunction with liquid molding processes are widely used. The design
of structures and systems capable of operating in severe environments has spurred
intensive research in high-temperature composites, including high-temperature polymer-
matrix, metal-matrix, ceramic-matrix and carbon/carbon composites. Another area of
References 17
interest is that of the so-called smart composites and structures incorporating active and
passive sensors. A new area of growing interest is the utilization of nanocomposites and
multiscale hybrid composites with multifunctional characteristics.
The utilization of conventional and new composite materials is intimately related to
the development of fabrication methods. The manufacturing process is one of the most
important stages in controlling the properties and assuring the quality of the finished
product. A great deal of activity is devoted to intelligent processing of composites aimed
at development of comprehensive and commercially viable approaches for fabrication of
affordable, functional, and reliable composites. This includes the development and use of
advanced hardware, software, and online sensing and controls.
The technology of composite materials, although still developing, has reached a stage
of maturity. Prospects for the future are bright for a variety of reasons. The cost of the basic
constituents is decreasing due to market expansion. The fabrication process is becoming
less costly as more experience is accumulated, techniques are improved, and innovative
methods are introduced. Newer high-volume applications, such as in the automotive
industry and infrastructure, are expanding the use of composites greatly. The need for
energy conservation motivates more uses of lightweight materials and products. The need
for multifunctionality is presenting new challenges and opportunities for development
of new material systems, such as nanocomposites with enhanced mechanical, electrical,
and thermal properties. The availability of many good interactive computer programs and
simulation methods makes structural design and analysis simpler and more manageable for
engineers. Furthermore, the technology is vigorously enhanced by a younger generation of
engineers and scientists well educated and trained in the field of composite materials.
REFERENCES