SEDIMENTARY

DEPOSITIONAL
ENVIRONMENT
Depositional Environments
▶ ​A depositional environment
▶ ​is anywhere sediment accumulates
▶ ​especially a particular area
▶ ​where a distinctive kind of deposit originates
▶ ​from physical, chemical, and biological processes ​▶ ​Three
broad areas of deposition include
▶ ​continental
▶ ​transitional
▶ ​marine
▶ ​each of which has several specific environments

Marine Environments
Marine ​environments
Marine Environments
▶ ​Marine environments include:
 shelf ​▶ ​continental slope ​▶ ​continental rise ​▶
▶ ​continental
deep-seafloor ▶​ ​Much of the detritus eroded from continents

is eventually deposited in ​marine environments ▶​ ​but

sediments derived from chemical and organic activity are
found ​here as well, such as
▶ ​limestone
▶ ​evaporites
▶ ​both deposited in shallow marine environments

Detrital Marine Environments

▶ ​The gently sloping area adjacent to a continent is a
continental shelf
▶ ​It consists of a high-energy inner part that is periodically
stirred up by
waves and tidal currents
▶ ​Its sediment is mostly sand, shaped into large
cross-bedded dunes
▶ ​Bedding planes are commonly marked by wave-formed
ripple marks,
▶ ​Marine fossils and bioturbation are typical

Slope and Rise

▶ ​The low-energy part of the shelf has mostly mud

with marine ​fossils, and interfingers with inner-shelf

sand
▶ ​Much sediment derived from the continents

crosses the ​continental shelf and is funneled into

deeper water through

submarine canyons
▶ ​It eventually comes to rest on the continental slope

and ​continental rise as a series of overlapping

submarine fans
Slope and Rise
▶ ​Once sediment passes the outer margin of
the self,
the ​shelf-slope break​, turbidity currents
transport it
▶ ​So sand with graded bedding is common
▶ ​Also common is mud that settled from
seawater
Characteristics of deposits
▶ ​lithology– mainly sand and mud, with some gravel
▶ ​mineralogy: – mature quartz sands, shelly sands
▶ ​texture – generally moderately to well sorted
▶ ​bed geometry – sheets of
variable thickness, large lenses formed by ridges
and bars
▶ ​sedimentary structures –
cross-bedding, cross- and ​horizontal lamination,
hummocky and swaley crossstratification
Characteristics of deposits
(cont.)
▶ ​palaeocurrents – flow directions very variable,
reflecting tidal currents, longshore drift, etc.
▶ ​fossils – often diverse and
abundant, benthic forms are characteristic
▶ ​colour – often pale yellow-
brown sands or grey sands and muds
▶ ​facies associations – may be
overlain or underlain by coastal, deltaic, estuarine or
deeper marine facies.
Detrital Marine Environments ​▶
Shelf, slope and rise environments ​▶
The main avenues of sediment
transport
▶ ​across the shelf are submarine canyons
Turbidity currents ​carry sediment to the

submarine fans
Sand with ​graded bedding and mud settled

from seawater
Deep Sea
▶ ​Beyond the continental rise, the seafloor is
▶ ​nearly completely covered by fine-grained deposits
▶ ​no sand and gravel
▶ ​or no sediment at all
▶ ​near mid-ocean ridges ​▶ ​The
main sources of
sediment are:
▶ ​windblown dust from continents or oceanic islands
volcanic
ash
▶ ​shells of microorganisms dwelling in surface waters
of the
ocean
Deep Sea
▶ ​Types of sediment are:
▶ ​pelagic clay,
▶ ​whichcovers most of the deeper parts of the
seafloor
▶ ​calcareous (CaCO​3​) and siliceous (SiO​2​)
oozes
▶ ​made up of microscopic shells
Carbonate Environments
▶ ​Carbonate rocks are
▶ ​limestone, which is composed of calcite
▶ ​dolostone, which is composed of dolomite
▶ ​most dolostone is altered limestone ​▶ ​Limestone is similar to
detrital rock in some ways
▶ ​Many limestones are made up of
▶ ​gravel-sizedgrains
▶ ​sand-sized grains
▶ ​microcrystalline carbonate mud called micrite
▶ ​but the grains are all calcite
▶ ​and are formed in the environment of deposition,
▶ ​not transported there

Limestone Environments
▶ ​Some limestone form in lakes,
most limestone by is deposited in warm shallow seas ​▶ ​on
▶ ​but
carbonate shelves and ​▶ ​on carbonate platforms rising from
oceanic depths ​▶ ​Deposition occurs where
▶ ​little detrital sediment, especially mud, is present ​▶ ​Carbonate
barriers form in high-energy areas and may be
▶ ​reefs ▶​ ​banks
of skeletal particles ​▶ ​accumulations of spherical
carbonate grains known as ​oolites
▶ ​which make up the grains in ​oolitic limestone

Carbonate Shelf
▶ ​The carbonate ​shelf is attached ​to a continent

Carbonate Platform
▶ ​Carbonates may be deposited on a platform
▶ ​rising from oceanic depths ​▶ ​This example shows a
cross-section
▶ ​of the present-day Great Bahama Bank
▶ ​in the Atlantic Ocean southeast of Florida

Carbonate Subenvironments
▶ ​Reef rock tends to be
​ ​composed
▶ ​structureless ▶ of skeletons of corals, mollusks,
sponges and other organisms ​▶ ​Carbonate banks are made
up of
▶ ​layers with horizontal beds ​▶ ​cross-beds ​▶ ​wave-formed ripple
marks ​▶ ​Lagoons tend to have
▶ ​micrite ​▶ ​with marine fossils ​▶ ​bioturbation

Types of Carbonate Platform

• ​Reefs ​form a unique coastal feature since
they are ​biological in origin.
• Modern reefs are built by a complex community of
coral​, algae, sponges and other marine invertibrates
• most reefs grow in warm, clear, shallow waters in
tropical ​regions
volcanic island surrounded ​by ​reef ​a fringing Reef
​ mounds
are visible through the shallow waters in the lagoon
The global distribution of modern coral reefs ​Community of
organisms in a reef

Three Main Types

Of all coral reefs in the world, only
three types distinguish itself from the
 others. These include...
Barrier Reefs
A barrier reef is a coral reef parallel to the shore but is separated by a channel of
water.

Atolls
An atoll is a ring-shaped coral reef, consisting of a coral rim that encircles a lagoon.

Fringing Reefs
A fringing reef is a reef that forms around a land mass.
A fringe reefs first begins to grow along the coast of a newly-
formed volcanic island
As the island subsides, the reef grows upward and ​develops
a barrier ​separating the lagoon from open water
Further ​subsidence completely submerges the island while
the reefs continues to grow
• ​Fringing reefs
• ​Barrier reefs
• ​platform reefs
• ​atolls ​- ring structured reef.
• Darwin was first to ​propose how an ​atoll
might have formed, in 1842 on the voyage
of the Beagle.
Types of reefs
Coral Reefs Video ​Atoll Video

Characteristics of deposits
▶ ​lithology – limestone
▶ ​mineralogy – calcite and aragonite
▶ ​texture – variable, biogenic structures in reefs, well
sorted in shallow water
▶ ​bed geometry – massive reef build-ups on rimmed
shelves and extensive
sheet units on ramps
▶ ​sedimentary structures – cross-bedding in oolite shoals
▶ ​palaeocurrents – not usually diagnostic, with tide, wave
and storm driven
currents
▶ ​fossils – usually abundant, shallow marine fauna most
common
▶ ​colour – usually pale white, cream or grey
▶ ​facies associations – may occur with evaporites,
associations with
terrigenous clastic material may occur

Evaporite Environments
▶ ​Evaporites consist of
▶ ​rock salt ​▶ ​rock gypsum ​▶ ​They are found in
environments such as
 lakes ​▶ ​saline lakes ​▶ ​but most of the
▶ ​playa
extensive deposits formed in the ocean ​▶
Evaporites are not nearly as common ​▶ ​as
sandstone, mudrocks and limestone, ​▶ ​but can be
abundant locally
Evaporites
▶ ​Large evaporite deposits
▶ ​lie
beneath the Mediterranean Seafloor
▶ ​more than 2 km thick ​▶ ​in western Canada, Michigan, Ohio, New

York, ▶​ ​and several Gulf Coast states ▶​ ​How some of these

deposits originated ​▶ ​is controversial, but geologists agree ​▶ ​that
high evaporation rates of seawater ​▶ ​caused minerals to
precipitate from solution ​▶ C
​ oastal environments in arid
regions
▶ ​such as the present-day Persian Gulf ​▶ ​meet the requirements

Evaporites
restricted inflow of normal seawater ​▶ ​into the lagoon ​▶
▶ ​with
leading to increased salinity and salt depositions

• Evaporites ​could form in an

environment similar to this if the area

were in an
​ arid region,
Evaporite Depositional Setting
▶ ​A shallow-water to deep-basin setting exists where a
basin is well below
sea level but is only partly filled with evaporating seawater,
which is periodically replenished. The deep-water setting
will be evident if the basin subsequently fills with seawater
and the deposits overlying the evaporites show deep
marine characteristics such as turbidites.
▶ ​A shallow-water to shallow-basin setting is one in which
evaporites are
deposited in salterns but continued subsidence of the
basin allows a thick succession to be built up. The
deposits will show the characteristics of shallow-water
deposition throughout.
▶ ​A deep-water to deep-basin setting is a basin filled with
hypersaline water
in which evaporite sediments are formed at the shallow
margins and are redeposited by gravity flows into deeper
parts of the basin.
▶ ​Normally graded beds generated by turbidites and poorly
sorted deposits
resulting from debris flows are evidence of redeposition.
Other deep-water facies are laminated deposits produced
by settling of crystals of evaporate minerals out of the
water body.
▶ ​As a basin fills up, the lower part of the succession will
be deeper water facies and the overlying succession will
show characteristics of shallow- water deposition.

Deep Basin Depositional Pattern

▶ ​Bull’sEye Pattern - 2000). If the
barred basin is completely enclosed the water body
will ​gradually shrink in volume and ​area
▶ ​Teardrop Pattern - If equilibrium
is reached between the inflow and the evaporative
loss then stable conditions will exist across the basin
and tens to ​hundreds of metres of a single ​mineral
can be deposited in one place
Characteristics of deposits
▶ ​lithology– gypsum, anhydrite and halite
▶ ​mineralogy – evaporite minerals
▶ ​texture – crystalline or amorphous ▶​ ​bed geometry –

sheets in lagoons and barred basins,nodular in ​sabkhas

▶ ​Sedimentary structures – intrastratal solution breccias
and ​deformation
▶ ​palaeocurrents – rare
▶ ​fossils– rare
▶ ​colour – typically white, but may be coloured by
impurities
▶ ​facies associations – often with shallow marine
carbonates
Continental sedimentary environments –
Classification Chart
Alluvial Fan Fluvial Lacustrine Dunes
Rock type Breccia,
​
conglomerate, arkose
(http://www.dc.peachnet.edu/~pgore/​g​eology/historical_lab/environmentch
art.htm)
Conglomerate, sandstone, siltstone, shale
Siltstone, shale,limestone or evaporites
Quartz arenite (sandstone) or gypsum
Terrigenous Terrigenous Terrigenous,
Composition ​
carbonate, or evaporite
Terrigenous or evaporite
Clay to gravel Clay to gravel
Grain Size ​
(Fining upward)
Clay to silt or ​sand (Coarsening ​upward)
Sand
Angular Rounded to
Grain Shape ​
angular
----- ​Rounded
Poor Variable Variable Good ​
Sorting ​ Sedimentary Structures
Cross-bedding and graded bedding
Asymmetrical ripples,cross- bedding,graded bedding,tool marks
Symmetrical ripples, lamination, cross-bedding, graded bedding
Cross-bedding
Transitional sedimentary environments
DELTA BARRIER
BEACH
LAGOON TIDAL FLAT
Rock Type Sandstone,
siltstone, ​shale, coal
Quartz ​arenite, ​coquina
Siltstone, ​shale, ​limestone
Siltstone, shale, calcilutite, ​dolostone or gypsum
Composition Terrigenous Terrigenous
or carbonate
Terrigenousc arbonate, or evaporite
Terrigenous, carbonate, or evaporite
Grain Size Clay to sand Sand Clay to silt Clay to silt
Grain Shape --- Rounded to
angular
--- ---
Sorting Poor Good Poor Variable
Inorganic Sedimentary Structures
Cross- bedding, graded bedding
Cross- bedding, symmetrical ripples
Lamination, ripples, cross- bedding
Lamination, mudcracks, ripples, cross-bedding
Organic or Biogenic Sedimentary ​Structures
Trails, burrows
Tracks, trails, burrows
Trails, burrows
Stromatolites, trails, tracks, burrows
Fossils Plant
fragments, shells
Marine shells Marine shells Marine shells
Marine sedimentary environments
REEF CONTINENTAL
SHELF
CONTINENTAL SLOPE AND RISE
Rock Type Fossiliferous
limestone
Sandstone, shale, ​siltstone, fossiliferous limestone, oolitic limestone
Litharenite, siltstone, and shale ​(or limestone)
Composition Carbonate Terrigenous or
carbonate
Terrigenous or carbonate
Grain Size Variable,
framework, ​few to no grains
Clay to sand Clay to sand
Grain Shape --- --- ---
Sorting --- Poor to good Poor
Inorganic Sedimentary Structures
--- Lamination, cross-
bedding
Graded bedding, cross-bedding, lamination, flute marks, tool marks
(turbidites)
Organic or Biogenic Sedimentary Structures
--- Trails, burrows Trails, burrows
Fossils Corals, marine
shells
Marine shells Marine shells, rare plant
fragments
Increased ​Tidal P
​ o​w​e​r ​-
​ ase​d ​Wave
Incre ​ ​Power
 Tide ​Dominated
Estuary
Wave ​Dominated ​Estuary

La​go​on

Tidal ​Flat
Estuary
Strand ​Plain

Shoreface

River ​Dom​inal​a
ominate​d
Tide​/​Ocean
Current ​Dominated
Shelf
​ ve​/​Storm ​Dominated
Wa
Shelf
<​ide ​Dominate​d
Delta
Shelf

Subtidal
Delta ​ve ​Dominate​d
D​e​lta
Shoreface
Intertidal

Supratidal
Tidal ​Flat
River
Strand ​Plain

Sand
D
Mud
D
Marsh
CPH​-​110797​.​01

History from Sedimentary Rocks

▶ ​Howdo we know whether sedimentary rocks were
deposited on
▶ ​continents—river floodplains or desert sand dunes? ​▶ ​at the
water's edge? ​▶ ​in the sea? ▶​ ​Sedimentary rocks
▶ ​preserve evidence of surface depositional processes ▶​ ​also,
many contain fossils
▶ ​These things give clues to the depositional environment ▶ ​
Depositional environments are specific areas
▶ ​or environments where sediment is deposited

Paleogeography
▶ ​Paleogeography deals with
▶ ​Earth’s geography of the past ​▶ ​Using interpretations
▶ ​of depositional environment ​▶ ​such as the ones just discussed ​▶
we can attempt to reconstruct
▶ ​whatEarth’s geography was like ​▶ ​at these locations at various
times in the past ​▶ F
​ or example,
 Navajo Sandstone shows that a vast desert ​▶ ​was present in
▶ ​the
what is now the southwest ​▶ ​during the Jurassic Period

Paleogeography
▶ ​Detailed studies of various rocks
▶ ​in several western states
▶ ​allow us to determine
▶ ​with some accuracy
▶ ​how the area appeared
▶ ​during the Late Cretaceous ​▶ ​A broad coastal plain
▶ ​sloped gently eastward
▶ ​from a mountainous region
▶ ​to the sea

Paleogeography
▶ ​Later, vast lakes,
▶ ​river
floodplains, alluvial fans
▶ ​covered much of this area

▶ ​and the sea had withdrawn from the ​continent ▶​ ​Interpretations

the geologic record
▶ ​we examine later
▶ ​will be based on similar
▶ ​amounts of supporting evidence