[C]

An introduction
to the coating of
ophthalmic lenses
 Content

Content 3
Preface 4
1. Why are coatings applied in vacuum? 6
2. The “kinetic theory of gases” and coating 6
3. Chemistry of vapour deposition 7
4. The vacuum system 8
4.1 High-vacuum system with oil diffusion pump 8
4.2 High-vacuum system with turbo molecular pump(s) 9
5. Vacuum pumps 9
5.1 Rotary roughing pumps 9
5.2 Oil diffusion pump 11
5.3 Cooling baffle 11
5.4 Turbo-molecular pump 12
6. Procedural equipment in the vacuum chamber 13
6.1 Thermal evaporator 13
6.2 Electron beam gun 13
6.3 Ion source 14
6.4 Substrate holder and mask 15
6.5 Meissner trap 15
6.6 Film thickness measurement 16
6.7 Substrate heater 16
6.8 Glow discharge device 16
7. Antireflection coating 17
7.1 Principle of a λ/4 layer 18
7.2 Quality standards for ophthalmic lenses 19
8. Steps in the coating process 20
9. Alternative methods of applying antireflection coatings 21
10. AR applications 23
11. Applications for coatings 27
12. Criteria for the reproducibility on Satisloh box coater systems 27
12.1 Vacuum 27
12.2 Deposition rate (deposition speed) 29
12.3 Distance between evaporator and lens 29
12.4 Cleanliness of the equipment 30
12.5 Gas flow 30
12.6 Substrate temperature 31
12.7 Ion beam gun 31
12.8 Distributor mask 32
12.9 Electron Beam Evaporator (EBE) 33
12.10 Film thickness measurement (quartz crystal oscillator) 33
12.11 Hard lacquer coating on plastic lenses 33
12.12 Washing prior to coating 34
References and acknowledgements 36
Pressure units 36

3
 Preface

This brochure provides an overview of the technology used in the manufacture of filter and anti-reflection
coatings for ophthalmic lenses.

Our booklet is addressed at staff members in coating laboratories and prescription grinders who are direct-
ly or indirectly concerned with coating equipment.

The first industrial use of vacuum coatings dates back to the 1930s. In those days the only substrates of
adequate quality were glass lenses, and most coatings were applied for antireflection purposes.
Antireflection coatings on glass ophthalmic lenses entered the German market in 1959.

The material used for single antireflection coatings was magnesium fluoride (MgF2), which can be readily
melted and evaporated in a thermal unit. Lenses were first cold-coated with MgF2, then cured at about
300°C in a tempering furnace. When metal vacuum vessels of adequate quality became available, the glass
substrates were heated to 300° C during the vapour-deposition process in order to attain the required hard-
ness and abrasion resistance of the coatings. Multi-layer coatings could not be produced at that time
because most high-refractive-index materials are metal oxides, which could not be readily evaporated by
thermal means. At the same time, coating design was a laborious manual process; neither computers nor
software were available.

Not until the early 1970s, when the electron-beam evaporator was developed, did the technology of filter
coatings and multi-layer antireflection coatings enter a phase of rapid development. Progress toward the
coating of plastic substrates followed soon afterwards.

Satis Vacuum has built coating equipment since 1964. The early “bell” units were used to apply coatings
with various colours and absorption levels for sunglass lenses; many of these plants are still in service
today. Box coaters using electron-beam evaporators followed later. These were far more flexible in terms of
the materials that could be employed as coatings.

With such technologies as chemical vapour deposition (CVD) and sputtering, Satisloh is now expanding the
range of potential coating applications.

From the very beginning, Satis Vacuum specialised in delivering complete packages.
The spectrum of products and services of SATIS includes cleaning, coating and vacuum equipment as well
as instruments for quality inspection. The program is rounded off with sandblasting booths, tempering
ovens and laminar-flow boxes.

Why do ophthalmic lenses require antireflection treatment?

Materials from which ophthalmic lenses are currently manufactured include glass, CR39, polycarbonate and
high-index plastics. The higher-index variants have the advantage that a lens with a given optical action can
be made thinner and thus much lighter in weight, and therefore more pleasant for the wearer.

Antireflection coating has three advantages:

1) Improved visual acuity
2) Better cosmetic appearance
3) Reduction in disturbing reflected images, resulting
in less eye fatigue

4
The antireflection coating suppresses reflections at the front and back surfaces of the ophthalmic lens.
Reflected images, which lead to visual “ghosts” and blurred vision, are virtually eliminated. A normal lens
with a refractive index of 1.50 reflects about 4% of incident light per surface; a lens with an index of 1.67
already reflects more than 6% per surface. It is not difficult to imagine that these index values – and glass
lenses can have even higher ones and thus reflect even more – lead to disturbing reflections when lenses
are not coated, and these reflections impair visual acuity. At the same time, an increase in reflectance as
the index rises also means a decrease in transmission. It is often forgotten that sunglasses also improve in
terms of visual comfort when provided with an antireflection coating. Nor should the cosmetic value of anti-
reflection coatings be neglected.
Any glasses wearer who has experienced the difference between uncoated and coated lenses will always
opt for the antireflection coating.
The following describes the steps that ophthalmic lenses pass through during manufacture:

Glass lenses: Milling, Grinding, Polishing, Washing, Coating

Plastic lenses: Milling, Grinding or high-speed CNC machining, Polishing, Washing (this is the initial
step for injection-moulded lenses), Lacquering, Second washing (depending on
storage between steps), Outgassing in a furnace, Coating

The outgassing step is very important for plastic lenses, as these absorb water in the course of storage. If
lenses with a high moisture content are placed in the vacuum system, pumping times will be prolonged.
umping times will be prolonged.

Preface to the 2nd Edition

It has hardly been a year since Satisloh presented the first edition of the brochure “A brief introduction to
the coating of ophthalmic lenses” by Dieter Gröne in two languages at the MIDO 2005.
Since then the merger of Satis Vacuum and LOH to Satisloh has proven successful and you, our clients,
have accompanied us well along the way.
This brochure too was very well received, to such an extent that the first edition has virtually run out of
stock.
Therefore it is high time to present a revised edition with an additional chapter “Criteria for the Reproduci-
bility on box coater systems by Satisloh”.

We hope that this brochure will continue to be a good reference guide around the subject of coating glas-
ses and will help all technicians involved in the manufacturing process to solve problems.

Baar(CH) / Wetzlar, January 2006

Michael Witzany

5
 Why are coatings 1.
applied in vacuum?

Consider a material heated and evaporated in a closed vessel the size of a vacuum chamber. It is not hard
to see that the evaporated material will be deposited on the walls of the vessel and on the substrates posi-
tioned at the top of the chamber. It is certain that the film produced does not have the same chemical com-
position as the initial material in the evaporator. The coating also has very little resistance to abrasion and
smearing for two reasons. First, as the material is transported from the evaporator to the surfaces being
coated, it undergoes chemical reactions with gases in the chamber. Second, further reactions take place in
the process of deposition and furthermore the impact energy is low on account of collisions with residual
gas particles during transport.

In order to minimise these effects, the chamber has to be evacuated before the coating material is
evaporated.

The “kinetic theory of gases” 2.

and coating

When material particles escape from the heated evaporator into the vacuum chamber, they collide with
molecules of residual gases. In practice, a vacuum is produced in the chamber so that as many as
possible of the evaporated particles will reach the substrates (ophthalmic lenses) without colliding with the
residual gas and in this way losing velocity. The resulting increase in impact energy leads to optimal coa-
ting quality. As gas molecules move through the chamber, they experience many collisions, which change
both their speed and their direction.

The particles move in an irregular zigzag path. The higher the gas pressure in the chamber, the shorter the
distance the particles travel between collisions. Of course, the distances between collisions vary, but a
mean free path L can be defined as a statistical value characterising the average of all the distances bet-
ween collisions.
The table below gives some reference values for air at 20° C:
5 -5
At 1000 mbar = 10 Pa L = 6,6 X 10 cm
2 -3
At 1,33 mbar = 1,33 X 10 Pa L = 5 X 10 cm
-3 -1
At 1,33 X 10 mbar = 1,33 X 10 Pa L = 5 cm
-4 -2
At 1,33 X 10 mbar = 1,33 X 10 Pa L = 50 cm
-5 -3
At 1,33 X 10 mbar = 1,33 X 10 Pa L = 500 cm

The mean free path is inversely proportional to the pressure; the lower the pressure, the longer the mean
free path. In other words, the better the vacuum, the further the molecules can travel without colliding.
The ratio for a constant temperature is:

p x L = constant = c*
Where p = pressure, L = mean free path, c* = a constant that depends on the gas present

-1
c* = 6,67 x 10 [cm x Pa] applies for air

6
The mean free path is a function of the gas, because molecules of different gases have different diameters.
Air consists of several gases, and so the gas-dependent constant is blended from a number of constants.
Air at 20° C contains 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 0.9% argon, and tiny amounts of noble gases.

The information presented above has two vital consequences for vacuum deposition processes:
• Because the mean free path is a statistical quantity, it is not the case that all molecules of the
evaporated material escaping from the evaporator into a chamber with a pressure of
1.33 x 1010-2 Pa reach a substrate 50 cm away without collision. In fact, more than half the
molecules do experience a collision, and this means that a variety of reactions occur. A
chamber of similar size is therefore pumped down to (about) 10-3 Pa before coating is begun.
• The proper initial pressure depends on the size of the vacuum chamber, specifically on the
spacing between the evaporator source and the substrate holder.

Chemistry of 3.
vapour deposition

In the discussion that follows, keep in mind that the great majority of chemical reactions take place as
individual films are deposited on the substrate surface.

It very often happens that we want to modify the chemical composition of the evaporated substance befo-
re or during deposition, or on the other hand that there is a danger of the material being modified (if only
slightly) during evaporation against our intention. A typical example is the manufacture of coatings from tita-
nium dioxide (TiO2).
where we admit a well-defined quantity of oxygen (O2) to the vacuum chamber in order to cause complete
oxidation to TiO2. Another example of a reactive coating process used for ophthalmic lenses is the
production of silicon nitride coatings by sputtering. Here a pure silicon target is used as the sputtering sour-
ce, and the reaction with nitrogen (N2) yields the Si3 N4 coating material.

Because high-index coatings applied to ophthalmic lenses by vacuum deposition are mostly oxides,
virtually the only gas used in this way is oxygen. Examples of such coatings are TiO2,Ti2O3,Ta2O5, ZrO2, HfO2
etc. It is important, of course, to hold the level of oxygen in the residual gas constant, other vapour-depo-
sition parameters being equal. Control devices come into play here. If the partial pressure of oxygen is not
kept constant, the deposited films will not have the calculated index values and absorption may occur. Both
properties depend on the degree of oxidation of the vapour-deposited film.

7
 The vacuum system 4.

The vacuum system has a capacity and features specially selected for the process of depositing films on
ophthalmic lenses. This section of the booklet will describe currently available versions of Satisloh equip-
ment. All units can be modified to suit purchaser requirements.

High-vacuum system with oil diffusion pump 4.1

Substrate holder
High-vacuum valve

Vacuum Roughing (bypass) valve

chamber
Baffle

Evaporator Roots pump

Meissner cold trap
Diffusion pump Bypass valve
Rotary vane pump

Fig. 1 Schematic diagram of an HV plant using an oil diffusion pump

The high-vacuum valve is mounted in an “appendage” to the vacuum chamber with its internals. For the
design calculations, the volume of the appendage belongs to the chamber.
The Roots and rotary vane pump combination is connected to the chamber through the roughing (fore vacu-
um) valve.
The baffle and the oil diffusion pump hang below the opening of the high-vacuum valve disk.

A bypass valve with a direct connection to the rotary pumps is located on the fore vacuum side of the oil
diffusion pump.

The control system actuates the valves in the correct order when the chamber is being pumped down.

The sequence of operations is as follows:

When all pumps and the baffle are ready for operation, the roughing valve is opened and the Roots and rota-
ry vane pump combination initially pumps the chamber down to some 5 Pa.
If the fore vacuum pressure of the oil diffusion pump should rise beyond a programmed limit during this
step, the roughing valve is closed and the bypass valve is opened until the pressure limit is reached again.
The initial configuration is then restored. When the pressure in the chamber drops to 5 Pa, the roughing
valve to the chamber is closed and the bypass valve to the diffusion pump is opened. The disk of the high-
vacuum valve is opened shortly after this and the chamber is then pumped down by the oil diffusion pump
8
until the initial pressure of the process (high vacuum) is attained.
At a pre-programmed value of the pressure, the Meissner trap cooling is turned on in order to boost
the pump capacity for water vapour. The maximum initial pressure for the vapour-deposition process is
3 x10-3Pa (3 x 10-5mbar).
The Meissner trap is heated again after the deposition process, the high-vacuum valve is closed, and the
chamber is let down to atmosphere with an air inlet valve.

High-vacuum system with turbo molecular pump(s) 4.2

Vacuum systems can also be fitted with turbo molecular pumps instead of oil diffusion pumps in order to
lower operating costs by reducing the electric power consumption (see Fig. 6).

This option has the further advantage of eliminating the long daily heating cycle of the diffusion pump,
because turbo pumps reach their nominal speed and rated suction, and are ready for service, some 5-6
minutes after being turned on. As many as three such pumps are flanged directly onto the chamber, depen-
ding on its size; a version with high-vacuum valves is also available. The slide valves used in these systems
take up little space by virtue of their flat construction.

The magnetic rotor bearing makes it possible to mount turbo-molecular pumps in horizontal position; oil
diffusion pumps always have to be installed vertically.

There is no need of a baffle to suppress oil back-streaming, because turbo pumps do not use oil as
working fluid.

Vacuum pumps 5.

Rotary roughing pumps 5.1

Most Satisloh vacuum systems built for ophthalmic lens coating employ two kinds of rotary roughing
pumps:

• Rotary vane pumps

• Roots pumps

Because rotary vane pumps lose much of their suction capacity at pressures around 1 Pa, this type is com-
bined with a Roots pump, which maintains its suction down to the 10–1 Pa range.
Pump-down times would be unacceptably long if both kinds of pumps were not used.

9
 Fig. 2

Fig. 2 illustrates the principle of a rotary vane pump. The rotor compartment has an eccentric shaft bearing
the rotor. The vanes in the rotor are pushed outward by springs. As the rotor turns clockwise, the volume in
the right-hand part of the compartment increases (suction phase) at first, then decreases again (ejection
phase) after the vanes pass through the 12 o’clock position.

An oil duct supplies oil to form a film or pool that lubricates the vane and helps seal it against the wall of
the rotor compartment, thus prolonging vane life and making the pump more efficient.

A gas ballast valve is also shown in Fig. 2. A gas ballast is a metered quantity of air admitted into the rotor
compartment. It prevents water vapour from condensing during the ejection phase, when the gas mixture
is being compressed. As a result, air and water vapour are discharged and no water-oil emulsion is formed.

The gas ballast is needed only in the initial pumping phase; after this phase, the Meissner cold trap (see
Section 6.5) prevents the condensation of water vapour.

Fig. 3 illustrates the principle of a Roots pump.

This mechanism is named for the American

Philander H. Roots, who, in collaboration with his
brother Francis M. Roots, developed the known
principle into the “Roots blower” around 1868.

The two counter rotating figure-eight-shaped rotors

are arranged so that they do not touch each other
or the pump casing; clearances are of the order of
0.1 mm.

Fig.. 3: Pump cycles I to IV of a Roots pump

10
It is not difficult to see that the volume enclosed by the rotors again expands on the intake side (top) and is
compressed on the discharge side (bottom).

The rotors run dry in their compartment, so that there is no lubricating oil in the vacuum region. The only
lubrication is that of the shaft seals and gears. This pump, with a rotary vane pump on its upstream side,
–1
can produce an ultimate vacuum of the order of 10 Pa.

Oil diffusion pump 5.2

Fig. 4 illustrates the construction of an oil diffusion pump. The heater (H) heats the oil in the boiler (S) and
vaporises it into the jet system. From the jet nozzles (A to D), the vapour issues obliquely downward at seve-
ral times the speed of sound. Gas molecules from the vacuum chamber are accelerated by collisions with
vapour molecules, conveyed by stages into the fore vacuum compartment and compressed.

The oil vapour, on the other hand, condenses on the water-cooled jacket of the pump and flows down into
the oil bath to be re-vaporised. The Roots and rotary vane pump combination conveys gas molecules from
the chamber to the discharge via the fore vacuum port.

Operation of a diffusion pump:

H Heater
S Boiler
PK Pump body
KR Cooling pipes
FA High-vacuum flange
G Molecules of the gas being
pumped
DS Vapour stream
V Fore vacuum port
A, B, C, D Jet (nozzle) assemblies
T Working fluid

Fig. 4

Cooling baffle 5.3

To prevent oil vapour from the diffusion pump escaping into the vacuum chamber through the open high-
vacuum valve, a cooled baffle is mounted above the diffusion pump. Back-streaming of oil vapour must be
avoided at all costs, because it would condense everywhere in the chamber – and hence on the substrates
– and block the formation of adherent films. Fig. 5 shows a cross section of a baffle installed between the
high-vacuum valve and the oil diffusion pump in order to minimise back-streaming. The deep-chilled impin-
gement plates and the creep barrier are arranged so that the baffle is optically tight.

Any back-streaming oil vapours will impinge on the cold plates, where they condense on account of the low
plate temperature and thus cannot get into the process chamber.
11
 Baffles in use today are usually fitted with two
independent cooling loops, one for a cryogenic
coolant such as liquid nitrogen or Polycold, the
other for water.

Fig. 5

Turbo-molecular pump 5.4

Fig. 6 is a cutaway view of a turbo-molecular pump.
Such a pump works in a way basically similar to the
jet engine of an aeroplane. The active part of the
turbo pump comprises a rotor and a stator. The rotor
vanes are angled to the plane of rotation; so are the
fixed vanes of the stator, but in the opposite direction.
The rotor turns at several ten thousand revolutions
per minute. The uppermost rotor vanes strike gas
molecules from the chamber, which are then deflec-
ted by the next stator vanes so that they pass into the
region of the next rotor vane, and so forth.

12
 Procedural equipment 6.
in the vacuum chamber

Thermal evaporator 6.1

The thermal evaporator consists of two electrodes between which a “boat” can be mounted. The boat, or
crucible, material depends on what material is to be evaporated; in our case it is usually molybdenum. The
electrodes are supplied with a voltage of 24 V from a transformer; the current flowing through them and the
boat is some hundreds of amperes.

The boat heats up to such a temperature that the material in it evaporates. A shutter arranged above the
evaporator is opened after preheating and closed again after the programmed film thickness (see Section
6.6) is attained. The electrodes are connected to a water cooling loop.

Electron beam gun 6.2

The electron beam gun comprises the gun body, the electron emitter (beam generator) with its filament, and
the rotating crucible with a variety of sockets for crucible inserts.

Heater

Substrat holder

Distribution
mask
Vacuum chamber

Meissner trap
Thermal
Ion gun evaporator

Electron beam
gun

process gas

Fig. 7: Vacuum chamber

13
 Electrons leave the beam generator, which is heated
by current from the cathode filament transformer, and Rotating crucible
are accelerated by an imposed high voltage of 8 kV
as shown in Fig. 8. A permanent magnet system
external to the gun body deflects electrons escaping
from the filament into a curved trajectory that ends in
the rotating crucible. An array of coils built into the
gun body permits the additional deflection of the
electron beam in two directions. A wide range of Cathode
beam images in the crucible, varying both longitudi-
nally (along the electron beam) and laterally (transver- Gun body
sely to the beam) can be produced by the application
Cathode (filament)
of various currents and frequencies. A program num-
ber is then assigned to each beam image (up to eight
programs) and invoked as needed by the vapour-
deposition program. If there is no current in the
deflection coils, the electron beam strikes the cruci-
ble at a point. The gun body and the crucible plate are
water-cooled.
Filament transformer
Oxygen is admitted in a controlled fashion near the (isolating transformer)
Negative high voltage
evaporator so that the material being deposited can
enter into a chemical reaction - oxidation, in the pre-
sent case. The air inlet device can be programmed for Fig. 8
a constant flow rate or a constant pressure.

Ion source 6.3

A current of some 20 amperes flowing through the cathode heats it until electrons can escape. The applied
magnetic field confines the electrons between the cathode and the anode. Argon gas enters the electrode
space from below through the gas distributor plate. The argon becomes ionised, yielding positive argon
ions, because of the high electron density. Large numbers of argon ions exit the space and are accelerated
toward the substrate holder, where they bombard the ophthalmic lenses in the course of pre-cleaning and
coating. In the pre-cleaning step, this bombardment removes water films that may be present; while coa-
ting is in progress it compacts particles of material that have been deposited on the surface. The accelera-
tion of the positive ions toward the substrate holder is boosted by a negative electric charge on the dome.
Controls are integrated into the power supply of the ion source to maintain the programmed setpoint values.

14
 Cathode

Anode

Gas distributor
Argon
Magnet

Fig. 9: Illustrates how the ion beam gun works

Substrate holder and mask 6.4

In the interest of the most uniform possible film thickness, the substrate holder is always made in the form
of a dome. It may be in one piece (full dome) or divided into sectors. The full dome offers the advantage of
a larger capacity. An overhead drive rotates the substrate holder at a controlled speed. The diameter of the
openings for the lens mounting rings is specified by the customer. A distributor mask is placed between the
evaporator and the dome. Its final form is set when the equipment is placed in service and is a function of
the coating process and the coating materials to be applied. The purpose of the mask is to equalise the rate
of deposition from the centre to the rim of the substrate holder and thus to keep the film thickness uniform.
Because the deposition rate (rate of film thickness growth) and the distribution pattern may differ widely
from one film material to another, a pivoted mask extension is provided. The time when the mask extension
is active can be included in the control program.

Meissner trap 6.5

A Meissner trap, essentially a coil that can be held either at a temperature below –100° C or at room tem-
perature, is usually installed in the vacuum chamber. At pressures below about 10-2 Pa as the chamber is
pumped down, the greater part of the residual gas – as much as 90% – is water vapour. Free water vapour
would take a long time to remove and hence would result in long process cycles. To avoid this effect, water
molecules are frozen to the trap surface, where they remain throughout the process. The water is released
(evaporated) and pumped out only after coating is complete.

15
 Film thickness measurement 6.6
A piezoelectric quartz crystal oscillator is used to determine the thickness of the film deposited. The oscil-
lator, with a suitable crystal holder, is installed in the coating unit. A new quartz crystal with a characteristic
frequency around 6 MHz is set in oscillation. The deposited film loads the quartz and slows its oscillation,
lowering the frequency. The change in frequency is converted to a film thickness by a microprocessor, and
the rate of frequency change is also a measure of the deposition rate. The crystal holder is mounted in the
middle of the dome, and parameters for thickness, rate, power and heating time can be programmed for
each kind of film.

Substrate heater 6.7

Glass lenses to be coated with typical materials such as MgF2 must be heated to about 300° C by a sub-
strate heater installed in the coating unit. Such temperatures are not used for plastic lenses, of course. In
this case, the ion source plays a role in ensuring good film quality at temperatures under 70° C. Adhesion
depends on pre-cleaning, while hardness is achieved by ion bombardment during the coating operation.
There are, however, systems equipped only for plastic lenses, and radiant heating from below is used in
these units. One or more thermocouples linked to temperature controllers help to maintain the programmed
temperature values. In order to degas coating systems in regular intervals, it is advisable to use a substra-
te heating from above, which is able to reach temperatures of up to 300°C.

Glow discharge device 6.8

A glow discharge can also be used to pre-clean the substrates. Glowing works according to the following
principle:
An aluminium rod cathode is mounted in the vacuum chamber below the dome. A negative high voltage of
roughly 1000 V is imposed on this cathode. At a certain pressure (set by the controlled admission of air or
nitrogen), this voltage produces a “glow plasma” in which free electrons are accelerated toward the sub-
strate holder, cleaning the substrate surfaces. This discharge takes its name from the visible glow, the
colour of which depends on what gas species is present. If argon is involved, the gas appears to glow blue;
a reddish to violet colour is seen with air. The glow current is held constant by adjusting the rate of gas
admission.

It must be kept in mind that the glow discharge is suitable only for pre-cleaning the substrates.

16
 Antireflection coating 7.

A normal glass (BK7) lens reflects approximately 4.2% per surface. Higher-index lenses (often used for
stronger corrections) can reflect up to about 10% per surface, depending on the type of glass. Reflections
from the ophthalmic lens back into the eye have a strongly negative impact on visual acuity. Automobile dri-
vers are among those who value antireflection-coated lenses highly; uncoated lenses produce an unplea-
sant reflection of the headlights of an overtaking vehicle in night driving. Antireflection coating also impro-
ves visual contrast in daylight. Fig. 10 dramatically illustrates the effect of an antireflection coating.

Improvement in transparency when reflec-

tions are suppressed. The mount holds a
stack of five glass plates, each with an
antireflection coating applied on both sides
to the central region while the outer annulus
remains uncoated. Due to high multiple
reflections of the uncoated regions, the
writing underneath cannot be seen.

Fig. 10
The degree of reflection at a boundary between air and a lens surface is calculated for normally incident
light with the Fresnel formula:

2
R = [(n – 1) / (n + 1)] n = refractive index of the glass

For example, if light is incident on a lens or flat of BK7 glass, which has an n of 1.52, the reflected light inten-
sity is R = 4.25%. The same value applies to the back surface. The net reflection losses of a lens or flat are
often calculated by simply adding these two values.
Thus Rtotal = 4,25% + 4,25% = 8,5% for our example.

A result obtained in this way, however, is only approximate. Multiple reflections occur between the front and
back, and an exact theoretical analysis involves a series expansion, so that the approximate formula above
becomes:

2 2
Rtotal = (2R – 2R )/(1 – R )

For our example with n = 1.52, the smaller value Rtotal = 8,16% is easily found instead of the approximate
8.5%. The differences are still greater for higher indices.

An example:
Let n = 1.65 and consider normally incident light. A reflectance of R = 6% is found for a single surface,
and hence an approximate value of 12% for the front and rear surfaces. When allowance is made for
multiple reflections, however, the exact result is Rtotal = 11,32%.

17
 Principle of a λ/4 layer 7.1
In the wave theory of electromagnetic radiation, the physical wavelength is symbolised by the Greek letter
lambda (λ). The visible spectrum has wavelengths of 380 nm to 780 nm according to the ISO; ultraviolet
(UV) radiation begins below 380 nm, while infrared (IR) commences above 780 nm.

Reflections are suppressed by a technique involving the superposition (interference) of light waves. The
wave reflected from the front surface of a layer is reduced in amplitude if the wave returning from the inter-
face between the layer and the glass is oscillating in exactly the opposite sense – that is, if it has changed
in phase by π – and thus cancels the front reflection. This is always the case when the refractive index of
the layer is lower than the refractive index of the glass. As a basic principle: A wave reflected from an inter-
face undergoes a phase change that is equal to 0 if the wave is incident in a medium whose refractive index
is higher than that of the medium on the other side of the interface, or in the inverse case. A wave trans-
mitted through the interface does not change in phase. (See Figs. 11a/b for an illustration).

Now consider a single film with a low refractive index (ns < nG, where S and G refer to the film and the glass).
The degree to which reflections can be suppressed by such a layer in the visible region of the spectrum
depends on the two index values; total cancellation occurs if the amplitude condition.

2
ns = nG

is satisfied. This expression holds only when the ambient medium is air with n = 1. For example, if the glass
is BK7 with nG = 1.525, a film material with ns = 1.235 will be needed. Unfortunately, no such material is avai-
lable at present. A reflectance of 1.3% is obtained with MgF2, a material that is still in use. The minimum of
the spectral reflection is specified by the phase condition:

nsds = λ/4

To meet strict quality standards, today’s antireflection coatings are multiple films of materials varying in
refractive index. While the mathematics is many times more complicated than the formulas stated above,
the fundamentals are the same.

Destructive interference

E E: incident light wave

R1: Reflection from front surface
R2: Reflection form second surface
with phase shift corresponding
to λ /2
➾ cancels out R1

n0: 0 (refractive index of air)

n1: Refractive index of layer
n2: Refractive index of substrate

Fig. 11a
18
 Constructive interference

E: Incident light wave

E R1: Reflection from front surface
R2: Reflection form second surface
with phase shift corresponding
to λ
➾ reinforces R1 result: R3

n0: 0 (refractive index of air)

n1: Refractive index of layer
n2: Refractive index of substrate

Fig. 11b

Quality standards for ophthalmic lenses 7.2

The ground, polished and coated lens must meet stringent requirements. The transparency, resistance to
environmental effects, and optical action must comply with the quality standards of today. It is not hard to
imagine the expectations for a coated lens. Temperatures dropping to -40° are not uncommon in winter-
time; in summertime, glasses may be deliberately or inadvertently left in a car where the temperature can
quickly rise above 50° C if the car is standing in the sun. Ophthalmic lenses should be cleaned daily, but
this is not always done with the proper means. It goes without saying that the lens, even with its highly com-
plicated antireflection coating, must come through all these processes without perceptible damage.
A pair of glasses today will be worn for an average of four years, so the standard of durability is extremely
tough. This is why it is so important that coating equipment be kept in good condition by regular cleaning
and maintenance.

The development of highly stable coating systems suited to the substrate surface is just as important. The
Satisloh development laboratory in Milan is charged with this task. What is more, finished coatings are sub-
ject to the Satisloh quality testing program in a veritable torture chamber for coatings. Lenses must pass a
series of drastic tests before the product is finally released. Satisloh also offers its customers a program of
in-process tests. The net effect is a guarantee that coated ophthalmic lenses will deliver the utmost safety,
stability and quality.

19
 Steps in the coating process 8.

The operation begins after the crucibles have been charged, the quartz crystal replaced, the proper process
chosen, and the dome with lenses put in place. The pump-down cycle starts with roughing and proceeds
to high-vacuum pumping. At a programmed pressure value, the Meissner trap is activated. When the initi-
al process pressure has been reached, the ion gun is turned on to pre-clean the substrates, which have in
the meantime been brought to the correct temperature, as the heating is activated while pumping is in pro-
gress. The evaporator is set in operation after pre-cleaning. The crucible called for in the program is selec-
ted and its contents preheated in order to permit melting and outgassing. If oxygen is to be admitted during
application of a film, the proper valve is opened during this preheat phase. Deposition on the substrates
begins after the shutter above the evaporation source is opened. The shutter closes again once the desired
film thickness has been attained. If the program does not include further films, the evaporator is now tur-
ned off; otherwise, the deposition step is repeated. The ion gun can also be activated during the coating
process if the program specifies this action.

When the last film in the program has been completed, the heating is shut off and the Meissner trap is hea-
ted up again. Water held on it in frozen form is evaporated and pumped out. Next, the high-vacuum valve
is closed and the air inlet valve is opened. The unit signals when the chamber is down to atmosphere so
that the operator can remove the lenses and commence preparations for the next process.

As an example of a complete vapour-deposition process, IONCOTE ZB-ML – a new standard in

the Satisloh Ioncote ZB-ML process will now be descri- ophthalmic lens coating technology
bed:

1. The plastic lens, already hard-coated (lacquered), is

first pre-cleaned with the ion source. Then the adhe- Easy-Clean Sealing Layer (Aulon/CV)
sion aid (e.g., SA1G) is deposited. Abrasion Resistant Buffer Layer
2. Four optically active films, alternating between high- Ion-Plasma Treatment
and low-index materials, are applied next.
3. The ion source is now operated for about two Abrasion Resistant Buffer Layer
minutes in order to enhance the scratch resistance. Proprietary Adhesion Layer
4. Three further optically active films are deposited next. Plasma-Pretreatment
5. Finally, the hydrophobic film (known as Cleanvac,
Existing Factory Applied
Aulon or Satin) is applied. Anti Scratch Coating

Lens

Fig.12: IONCOTE ZB-ML layer stack

20
 Alternative methods 9.
of applying antireflection coatings

Coating processes currently used for ophthalmic lenses can essentially be broken down into four groups:

a) PVD process
b) PECVD process
c) SOL-GEL process
d) Sputtering (cathodic sputtering))

The PVD process is the physical vapour deposition described already. Under vacuum, a material is heated
until it melts, then further heated to evaporate it. The material in vapour form is deposited on substrates by
condensation. Some materials, such as silicon monoxide SiO or zinc sulphide ZnS, go directly from the solid
to the gas phase in a process called sublimation.

In the PECVD (plasma enhanced chemical vapour deposition) process, gases capable of reacting with a
plasma are admitted in the vacuum chamber. The plasma breaks the gas down into a portion that precipi-
tates on the substrates and a gaseous portion that is removed by the pump system. The latest advances in
chemical vapour deposition involve plasma-assisted processes. SCHOTT, in Mainz, has devised a process
in which the vacuum chamber is first charged with a reactive gas and a plasma pulse is ignited. The reac-
tion product is deposited from the gas on the substrate with a very high degree of uniformity.
This process is repeated until the required film thickness has been attained. Next, by replacing the gas and
reactivating it with the pulsed plasma, a film with a different refractive index can be applied. Stacks of films
alternating between high- and low-index materials can be deposited in this way. Through proper selection
of gases, hard and hydrophobic films can also be combined with antireflection films, yielding a complete
package suitable for ophthalmic or filter technology. Known as PICVD (plasma-impulse chemical vapour
deposition), the process has the advantages that lenses can be coated on both sides in a very short time
(approx. 4 min). Coatings can be applied to glass, CR39 and polycarbonate.

Fig.13: Lens taken out of PICVD reactor 21

 Similar stacks of high- and low-refractive materials can also be created with the SOL-GEL process, which
is not a vacuum process but involves a dipping operation similar to the lacquering of plastic lenses. After
dipping, the films are heated and allowed to absorb water vapour so that hydrolysis takes place, yielding a
reaction product and liberating the solvent. The lenses, with their coatings in gel form, are next tempered in
a furnace at several hundred degrees Celsius. Residual water is driven off and a hard film of metal oxide is
formed from the gel.

Arranging several dip baths in series, with different solutions, makes it possible to deposit stacks of films
made up of (for example) SiO2 and TiO2. The chemistry of this process is rather complicated and demands
precise control of both the dipping apparatus and the temperature of the curing furnace.

The SOL-GEL process is especially well-suited to large-area flats. Applications of this technology date back
to the 1930s. This process is today industrially applied at the company SCHOTT- GLASWERKE for coating
large flats.

Sputtering (cathodic sputtering)

Sputtering technology is today used in ophthalmic optics as well as precision optics, opto-electronics, and
semiconductor technology. Satisloh manufactures the SP-200 sputtering system for ophthalmic lenses (Fig.
14). This unit is distinguished by a small footprint (approx. 1.2 m2) and a short processing time (four lenses
coated on both sides in 15 min with the flip-over system). The equipment is fully automated and features a
magnetron cathode. Sputtering is carried out by imposing a high voltage on the cathode with the target
mounted on it. As is the case with the glow discharge, a plasma can thus be produced to supply the nee-
ded charge carriers for the remainder of the process. Positive gas ions are accelerated toward the negati-
vely charged cathode and knock particles out of the target; these particles are then deposited on the sub-
strate. Sputtering thus involves not bulk heating but atomic collisions. The atoms knocked out of the target
impinge on the substrate with an energy
some 10 times as high as the evaporated
particles in a vapour deposition process.
Behind the cathode plate on which the tar-
get is fixed is a permanent magnet array
whose field lines extend in front of the tar-
get. The magnetic field causes the electrons
to move along spiral trajectories, increasing
the distance they travel and thus boosting
the probability of ionisation. As a conse-
quence, the gas has a much greater ionisa-
tion density. The resulting deposition rates
are quite comparable with those in vapour
deposition processes. A normal diode
system would deliver only about 1/10 of this
rate. For ophthalmic optics, a target of a
special silicon compound is used; the pro-
cess gases (oxygen O2 and/or nitrogen N2)
react with this to form silicon dioxide, a low-
index film material, and silicon nitride or sili-
con oxy-nitride, a high-index material.

Fig.14: SP-200

22
Charged substrate holders are placed in the lock chamber, which is then pumped down. The shutoff valve
to the coating chamber is opened next, and coating begins after argon and the reactive gas have been
admitted. Alternating the reactive gases yields alternately high- and low-index films. The entire process is
automated.

In precision optics, opto-electronics and semiconductor technology, the SP-100 system can be applied,
which differs little from what has been described. The main difference between the two units is in the con-
struction of the substrate holder. Also here, ready-to-use recipes can be supplied with the equipment on
request. The touch-screen-based control system simplifies operation and permits the entry of a new reci-
pe, if required. If a different target is needed for a particular application, it can of course be employed.

AR applications 10.

The range of materials used to make ophthal- 5

BK7
mic lenses has expanded enormously in recent
years. At first, the only material coated was 4
Reflectance (%)

BK7, but it has now been necessary to modify 3

both the equipment design and the film mate-
2
rials and thicknesses to handle higher-index
grades of glass. Fig. 15 shows the result of a 1
monolayer antireflection coating (MgF2) on
0
BK7. The minimum reflectance achieved is 400 450 500 550 600 650 700
about 1.3%. Lambda (nm)

Fig. 15

In Fig. 16 you can see the result of a two-film 5

BK7
antireflection coating. Here the minimum is
4
approx. 1.2%, but the flanks of the curve are
Reflectance (%)

much steeper. A violet reflection is produced. 3

This system is made up of a high-index film
2
and a low-index one.
1

0
400 450 500 550 600 650 700
Lambda (nm)

Fig. 16

23
 In order to meet today’s higher quality stan- 5
dards, most coatings now applied are multi- BK7

layer systems. Fig. 17 illustrates an example. 4

Reflectance (%)
The spectral reflectance over a broad band of 3
the visible spectrum is far below the reflectan-
2
ce of an uncoated surface.
1

0
400 450 500 550 600 650 700
Lambda (nm)

Fig. 17

Fig. 18 is a plot of the sensitivity of the human

eye over the visible range of wavelengths. The %
sensitivity is a maximum around 550 nm and 100
decreases toward zero at 400 nm and 700 nm.
This plot also shows that the right and left
flanks of an antireflection system can hardly be
80
seen, if they are perceptible at all.
60
The multi-layer (broad-band) antireflection
system is designed with a gentle maximum in
the reflectance at wavelengths where the eye 40
is most sensitive. This has a purely cosmetic
effect in determining the colour of the film as 20
viewed from outside. By modifying the thik-
kness of the individual layers, this maximum
can be shifted to give a desired reflection 0
colour. It is not, however, recommended that nm 400 500 700 700
the maximum be eliminated, because tiny vari-
ations in the process would then produce a V´(λ): sensitivity in night vision
residual reflected colour varying from blue to V(λ): sensitivity in daylight vision
red. The effect of the short and long-wave- Fig. 18
length flanks of the reflectance curve would be
clearly perceptible.

Glass lenses are mostly coated hot (at approx. 300° C). Excellent coating quality is achievable under these
conditions. The situation is quite different with plastic lenses, which must be coated at low temperatures.
Ophthalmic lenses are currently manufactured from CR39, polycarbonate and PMMA. Deposition tempera-
tures for these depend on the material and range from 60 to 70° C. Plastic lens materials are also made with
higher refractive indices. Higher indices, in both plastic and glass, allow lenses to be made thinner and thus
lighter.

Naturally, plastic lenses are much more scratch-sensitive than glass ones, and they must also be coated
at lower temperatures. There are two approaches to resolving this dilemma. The first is to apply a hard
lacquer coating by dipping or spinning before the vacuum coating is deposited. Special equipment is avai-
lable for both methods. In the spinning process, the lens is rotated at a very high speed and a precisely
defined droplet of lacquer is applied to it; the rotation distributes the lacquer uniformly over the lens surfa-
ce. The lacquer is then cured (polymerised) with UV light or in a furnace. The process must be performed
on each lens individually. Dip coating is preferable for long production runs. Here a group of lenses are first

24
washed and then dipped in the lacquer. ext the lenses are pulled from the lacquer bath at a precisely
defined speed. The viscosity and the pulling speed must be matched and controlled precisely in order to
achieve the desired coating thickness and uniformity. The coated lenses are then heated to polymerise the
lacquer coating.

Depending on the way in which they are stored after lacquering, the lenses can now be forwarded directly
to the vacuum system for coating, or else they must first be cleaned. The system of antireflection layers is
then deposited on top of the hard-coat.

Satisloh has developed special processes for depositing a hard-coat under the antireflection coating but in
the same vacuum cycle.

The spectral reflectance of AR and hard-coated lenses shows a certain waviness throughout the visible
range, as Fig. 19 illustrates. These variations arise from the hard-coat under the antireflection system. In the
example of Fig. 19, the hard coat does not have the same refractive index as the lens material. The obser-
ved effect is due to interference, as described earlier, but here the layer thickness is somewhat greater, so
that the curve shows not just one minimum in the visible range but a series of minima and maxima gover-
ned by the coating thickness.

5 The nominal thickness of the hard-coat as a

function of the difference in index should be
4
CR39 great enough that “shifts” in the spectral
Reflectance (%)

3 reflectance due to variations in thickness have

no effect on the eye’s colour perception. The
2
closer the spacing of the maxima and minima,
1 the less effect there is on the residual reflected
0
colour. Here is a rule of thumb: If the differen-
400 450 500 550 600 650 700 ce in refractive index is up to Δn = 0.05, the
Lambda (nm) nominal layer thickness must be at least 2μ.
Fig. 19

Glasses wearers show a growing preference for the lighter plastic lenses, and more than 60% of lenses sold
are now made of plastic. Development work on coatings for plastic lenses have therefore been stepped up.
Satisloh has devised a number of antireflection coatings that give excellent results on unlacquered plastic
lenses (CR39) and on hard-coated lenses. The final hydrophobic coating makes the lenses much easier to
clean.

The processes for unlacquered lenses (CR39) are known as:

• MULTIQUARTZ 95
• MULTIQUARTZ Z-P

25
 They offer very good antireflection effectiveness and a scratch sensitivity comparable to that of uncoated
plastic lenses. In the following processes, the hard-coat is applied in the same vacuum cycle before the
antireflection coating:
• IONCOTE PLUS
• IONCOTE Z-PLUS
• IONCOTE PLUS II
• IONCOTE ZB PLUS II

A third family of processes make it possible to apply coatings to lacquered plastic lenses: These are:
• IONCOTE 2P-S
• IONCOTE Z
• IONCOTE ZB-ML und IONCOTE KAPPA

26
 Applications for coatings 11.

Coatings used on sunglass lenses must protect the eyes from glare as well as harmful ultraviolet radiation.
Since 1965 Satis Vacuum has been producing “bell” units in which these coatings can be applied to glass
lenses in a range of absorption levels and colours. The coatings are applied from thermal evaporators.
Coating colours include brown, blue, green, yellow and grey, and reflective coatings can also be deposited.

Fashionable absorption colours can be applied to CR39 lenses by dipping. The lenses are dipped into a hot
liquid from which the colour pigments migrate into the lens surface or the colourable hard lacquer. Bell units
cannot be employed because of the high temperatures they require. Hard-coated polycarbonate, however,
can be given a fashionable reflective coating in the 1200-DLF box coater systems in combination with bulk-
coloured base materials. The results are highly reproducible. These coatings are marketed under the SPEC-
TRAFLEX brand. Brown-coloured coatings with various absorption levels can also be deposited with the
1200-DLF apparatus.

Criteria for the reproducibility

on Satisloh box coater systems 12.

Daily handling
Vacuum 12.1
The deposition of coatings under vacuum is subject to both physical and chemical influences. The residu-
al gas present in the vacuum chamber influences the quality and the composition of the coating.

The initial pressure for the coating process will therefore be selected as to suppress any negative interfe-
rence (see table on p. 6) This initial pressure will by factory default be set to 3.10-3 Pa. This pressure is mea-
sured with an ionisation measuring tube. The result is shown on a monitor. Since this value depends on the
precision of the tube, it should be ensured that the measuring tube is not used for too long. Usually the pre-
cision is acceptable for three to four months. Thereafter it should be replaced.

In the case of "constant pressure" processes, the deviation can be detected early through a slow tenden-
cy to lower values of the oxygen gas flow when coating with S15G. By determining the current refractive
index of the S15G layer, the pressure during the reactive coating (S15G) can be “calibrated”.

27
 Example for calculating the refractive index of a layer
Usually it is only necessary to calibrate the refractive index of the S15G layer.
As S15G is a highly refractive layer, at an optical layer thickness of n . λ /4 (n = 1,3,5,7.....) an increased
reflection is found. In order to obtain a clearly defined maximum (relatively sharp increase to maximum), a
layer thickness of 3/4 λ has to be deposited, calculated for λ=520nm. The deposition will be done reacti-
vely by oxygen. Then the spectral reflection will be measured with a spectrometer (e.g. Perkin Elmer). The
substrate refractive index is taken into the formula for calculation. Glass has a refractive index of 1.52 and
CR39 of 1.49.

The formula is:

nS =
(
nG ⋅ 1+ R )
1− R

If the measured maximum value of the reflection is 30% (this is considered as R = 0.3 in the formula) and
the substrate is CR39 with an index of 1.49, then the following result is found:

nS =
(
1.49 ⋅ 1+ 0.3 )
1− 0.3

1.49 ⋅1.548
nS =
0.452

nS = 1.49 ⋅ 3.425

nS = 5.103

nS = 2.26

An index of 2.30 is calculated for S15G for the IONCOTE ZBML process on CR 39, according to process
protocol. As a conclusion from this result, the index would have to be increased by a lower oxygen
proportion.

Constant flow processes have to be monitored to see whether the obtained total pressure (incl. oxygen flow)
is slowly increasing. This may be caused by a lack of precision from the measuring tube. In extreme cases,
this may lead to lenses taken out of the system having the correct reflection colour, but the layer not featu-
ring the correct hardness and adhesion. This may, however, also be caused by the effects of outgassing or
leaks in the vacuum chamber.

If the initial pressure is not reached within the programmed time, but only after several more minutes, this
may be due to the following causes:
1. Too much outgassing due to unclean chamber walls.
2. Insufficient degassing of plastic lenses.
3. Leak in the system
4. Humidity in the coating lab too high (max. 45% RH at max. 25°C)

28
The leak rate must be lower than 5 . 10 Pa.l/s sein. This value is stored in the program for determination
-3

of the leak rate.

Should the programmed initial pressure not be reached within the programmed time, it should under no cir-
cumstances be changed to a higher value (“worse vacuum”). By doing so, the physical and chemical
aspects of the process could be influenced in a negative way.
• Excessive proportion of air molecules as residual gas with pressure regulated processes
• Decreasing mean free path, also see Section 2 (specifically a problem with flow-regulated
processes)

Deposition rate (deposition speed) 12.2

On the one hand, the rate during deposition determines the packing density and hardness and – in reacti-
ve processes under admission of oxygen – on the other hand the degree of oxidation in the layer, influen-
cing the refractive index. Rate deviations are acceptable within certain tolerances.
Longer lasting deviations during a deposition may influence the distribution of coating thickness over the
substrate holder (dome).
The positioning of the focal spot of the electron beam or the focusing of the electron beam may also influen-
ce the rate. The readjustment is described on pages 34-35.
With SiO2 (S3F)), however, the rate can sometimes be more dispersed, but lasting only for a very short time.
This is caused by the granulate of the material and is acceptable, as long as the average value over the ent-
ire deposition time meets the set rate.
A longer lasting negative deviation can also be caused if the programmed maximum output of the electron
beam evaporator has been set too low.
An exceeded maximum output, on the other hand, will lead to the rate overshooting, which will result in very
long tuning.
Additionally, the so-called Soak Power 2 will have to be selected closely below the deposition output, in
order to avoid strong overshoots.

Distance between evaporator and lens 12.3

So-called “spot” evaporators are usually used for the coating of optical layers, which ensure that the vapour
spreads mostly in the form of a sphere.

The following rule applies for the depositing coating thickness:

When evaporation is done from a ESV source or a thermal source (boat), within a distance r (radius of the
sphere surface) a certain amount of vapour is deposited. The coating thickness obtained in this process
decreases at 1/r2 (sphere surface increases at r2). Wenn man also den Abstand verdoppelt, erreicht man nur
noch 1/4 der Schichtdicke.

So if the distance is doubled, only 1/4 of the coating thickness is obtained. In other words, the distance
from the source increases with the square, but mathematically inversely proportional.
2
Coating thickness is proportional 1/distance

An example:
• At distance 1 the coating thickness = 1 / 12 = 1
• At distance 2 the coating thickness = 1 / 22 = 1/4

29
 At double the distance, the radius of the sphere surface that is reached by the vapour beam also dou-
bles. (R2 = 2 x R1)

An example: R1 = 25 cm
R2 = 50 cm therefore
(Skugel = 4πR2)
Surface S1 = 7854 cm2
Surface S2 = 31416 cm2 = 4 x S1

The amount of material evaporated remains the same, but the surface has in size, so the deposited coa-
ting thickness is only 1/4.

This depicts that relatively small changes in the distance between evaporator and substrate will cause major
(unacceptably high) differences in the coating thickness, which will automatically lead to changes in the
reflection colour.

Reasons for unacceptable changes in spacing may be:

• Wobbling of the turning carousel (+/- 1.5 mm = total 3 mm are barely acceptable)
• Warped dome segments (e.g. due to one-sided sandblasting with excessive pressure)
• Use of “ring in ring” for inserting the lenses

Cleanliness of the equipment 12.4

According to the Satisloh cleaning recommendation the lining panels in the system chamber must be
periodically changed to one third and sandblasted. When sandblasting the panels, care should be taken to
avoid excessive pressure. The panels might warp under excessive pressure. Periodic changing (1/3, 1/3,
1/3) has the advantage that the system is never totally unclean but never freshly cleaned either. This results
in an average degree of cleanliness over a longer period of time, which has a positive effect on the repro-
ducibility of the coatings. Thicker built-up layers of deposit on the lining panels act like a sponge when the
chamber is opened during the cooling phase. They practically suck up the ambient air from the lab. When
the chamber is subsequently pumped down, these absorbed gases are released and might extend the time
until the initial pressure is reached, or they affect reactive processes to such an extent that correct refracti-
ve indexes will not be achieved. Water vapour (steam) in particular will prevent that initial pressure is rea-
ched in time. Therefore a suitable relative humidity in the lab has to be ensured (approx. 45% max.).

Gas flow 12.5

In most cases, oxygen (O2) is used for the reactive deposition of titanium oxide (S15G). The gas flow shown
(among others) on the monitor should always be equal within tight tolerances for a specific coating. When
the oxygen flow is too low during the coating with S15G, it will turn out grey and is no longer fully transpa-
rent. Furthermore the refractive index of this coating will be higher. An excessive portion of oxygen in the
residual gas can easily lead to yellowish/brown layers. The argon flow for the ion gun is automatically adju-
sted by its control unit in order to keep the programmed currents (filament current / anode current / neu-
tralisation current) constant. Please also observe the information in Section 1 Vacuum!

30
Substrate temperature 12.6
The temperature of ophthalmic glass lenses in the dome influences both the refractive index of the coatings
as well as the adhesion resistance. Increased temperature will lead to higher mobility of impacting material
particles during coating. This will prevent the "column growth" specific for some deposition materials,
therefore a higher packing density is ensured. This guarantees a constantly high refractive index of the
deposited coatings and at the same time increases resistance against mechanical and chemical influences.
Excessive substrate temperature will lead to fissures forming in the coatings. It is therefore advisable to
regularly control the temperatures and the temperature distribution during coating with a built-in drag indi-
cator thermometer. Every warning on the monitor regarding temperature should be followed up by checkin
the individual heater circuits on the monitor and taking corrective action if required.

Possible fault reasons are:

• Lacking contact of the thermocouple
• Faulty thermocouple
• alfunctioning heating circuit

In the event of uneven heating distribution, after checking the thermocouples, the individual heating circu-
its should be readjusted. The above also applies to plastic lenses. Of course all this has to be performed at
lower temperatures, otherwise the lenses would be destroyed. In order to still achieve good adhesion, the
ion gun is used to pre-clean the lens surface and roughen it microscopically, which prevents water adsorp-
tion. Roughening achieves good bonding of the coating to the surface and increases the adhesion.

Ion beam gun 12.7

The ion beam gun has its own regulating and controlling device, keeping the programmed parameters auto-
matically constant. The gas flow is readjusted to maintain the anode, neutralisation and emission current
constant and within tight limits. In order to obtain and meet the programmed parameters, the ion gun must
be in good condition.

The following is of particular importance:

a) Reliable electric connections for filament current and anode current

When the ion gun is removed from its water-cooled plate, three contact pins become visible underneath .
These may show surface corrosion after some time. These contact pins should therefore be regularly cle-
aned with finest sandpaper or Scotch Brite.
Equally, the three antipoles (in the water-cooled base plate) have to be cleaned, preferably with a very fine
round file of minimal diameter. Those said three antipoles are sometimes widened and have to be bent back
with a small pair of needle-nosed pliers, taking extreme care not to damage the isolators.
The ends of the electric feed cables going through the bottom of the chamber to the cooled base plate (ion
gun) are fitted with little push-on contacts. These push-on contacts are attached to the cable with tiny Allen
screws. These have to be checked for tightness during an overall cleaning of the system. The contact sur-
faces of the filaments also have to be cleaned at every replacement.

b) Anode and gas distributor plate (parts of the ion gun)

Whenever the filaments of the ion gun are replaced, the anode should be carefully cleared of deposited lay-
ers with paper tissue (such as that used for final cleaning of lenses) in connection with a vacuum cleaner.
Graphite anodes should in any case be cleaned in this way. For metal anodes it is advisable to use finest
sandpaper instead of paper tissue.

31
 Under no circumstances may graphite anodes and gas distributor plates be cleaned with alcohol or any
other liquid!

Both the anode and the gas distributor plate, particularly when made of graphite, are subject to a certain
wear. The inner cone of the anode will become larger over a relatively long period and as a result the tuning
of the ion gun will take longer.

At some stage the point is reached when the system issues an error or fault message, such as: "Ion gun
not yet switched on".

A cavity eventually leading to a hole will slowly develop in the centre of the gas distribution plate. This has
to be monitored. Checking is fairly easy, as one looks directly onto the gas distribution plate when looking
into the ion gun from above. The operating manual of the ion gun states that the gas distribution plate has
to be replaced at a residual thickness of 1.25 mm inside the cavity. For this reason this thickness has to be
measured at every routine overall cleaning.

c) Isolators
Whenever the ion gun is opened for cleaning, the white or reddish isolators have to be checked to ensure
that none are broken or chipped. These must be replaced! (The continuous use of such damaged isolators
may lead to flashovers inside the ion gun and therefore to malfunctions.).

Distributor mask 12.8

Service technicians of Satisloh will be happy to assist you.

The distributor mask is designed in such a way that for the processes installed by Satisloh an even coating
thickness is ensured over the entire dome. Typically it consists of the static lower part and the pivotable part
mounted above.

Mechanical interference (such as sandblasting with excessive pressure) may warp the masks, which leads
to a blockage of the pivotable part. It helps to occasionally check the proper functioning of the extendable
mask when the chamber is opened.

The cardan joints on the drive-shaft for the extendable mask have to be taped up before any sandblasting
is carried out, otherwise they might become blocked. Upon installation of any hitherto unused process, a
new mask must essentially be manufactured. The Satisloh service technicians will gladly assist you in this
regard.

32
Electron Beam Evaporator (EBE) 12.9
For safety reasons, the high voltage feed cables are covered with a metal hood in front of the electron beam
evaporator. Before lifting this hood, these feed cables must be earthed. On the hood is a swivel lid secured
by a knurled screw. After opening the lid, the high voltage cables have to be earthed by means of the
earthing rod.

Warning:
These actions may only be carried out by trained personnel. The relevant safety regulations must
be observed. (8000V!!)

Correct installation of the filament of the EBE

The correct installation of the filament of the EBE is of vital importance for the shape of the electron beam
and the shape of the focal spot on the evaporation material. This is adjusted according to the material and
is important for the reproducibility of the evaporation. For this reason Satisloh offers an installation gauge
for installing the filament. Equally crucial is thorough cleaning of the grooves in the pressure blocks for recei-
ving the filament legs whenever the filament is replaced, to remove any oxide layers and scales. This will
ensure a reliable contact. The isolators may not be polluted by dark-grey to black deposits. Otherwise there
is a risk of flashovers, which will lead to shorts.

Film thickness measurement (quartz crystal oscillator) 12.10

The quartz crystal holder is fitted up in the centre of the dome. For each single coating, the separate con-
trol unit is fed with the data stored in the process controller and regulates the parameters for thickness and
rate according to the programmed values. The quartz crystals are located in a screw-in holder and are con-
nected to the electronic unit via three telescopic spring pins. The contact surfaces of the telescopic pins
should be cleaned carefully with a soft cloth or cotton and alcohol every week .

Care should be taken to avoid bending. The side of the screw-in holder facing the coating process should
occasionally be cleaned with fine sandpaper or Scotch Brite, but may not be sandblasted.

Thicker layers may flake off and form deposit as tiny flakes on the quartz crystal, leading to faulty measu-
rements or even an interruption in the coating process.

Hard lacquer coating on plastic lenses 12.11

As there are various types of lacquers with equally diverse properties, a few comments are appropriate. In
principle the surface structure of colourable lacquers is different from non-colourable ones. Those lacquers
are more porous and therefore less scratch resistant. A final coating process may lead to a slightly brighter
colour. In order to compensate for this phenomenon, the lenses are coloured slightly darker before the vacu-
um coating and subsequently discoloured. So the upper layer of the lacquer is then “colour free” and
protected from possible discolouring effects.
Similar things apply for the effect of increased transmission by means of an antireflection coating. If the des-
ired light transmission with antireflection coating has been specified, then the colouring process has to be
adjusted accordingly.
It is advisable for the client to contact Satisloh before introducing a new type of lacquer in order to arrange
for trial coatings, as the adhesion might also meet the desired standard. Should front and rear surfaces of
a lens be coated with different lacquers – some products are lacquer-coated by dipping and after final sur-
face processing may be spin-coated with a different lacquer on the processed side – then trial coatings in
the Satisloh laboratories can determine the necessary adjustments for the antireflection coating process.
33
 Washing prior to coating 12.12
If the lenses undergo a hard-coating process (plastic lenses), prior cleaning takes place in the washing
system. This also applies to glass lenses before coating in the vacuum system. It must ensured that inte-
rim storage is dust-free.

Particular care must be taken to ensure that the filter cartridges are replaced regularly. The DI water in the
last basin of the washing system may not have a conductance value significantly above 0,1μS.

Beam settings 1200-DLF (Satisloh sweep controller)

1. In the basic display on the touch screen, select ES Evaporator

2. In the new window that appears, select ESQ 1

3. Then go into MANUAL

4. In the window “Electron beam evaporator source 1” in the area beam settings press “Movement
change On” and confirm

5. Now a red LED glows next to MODIFY ENABLE on the sweeper control unit

6. Now the round 5-pin plug on the cable of the sweep setting device has to be connected to the sweep
controller

7. Now a new beam setting is possible

8. Please be aware that these changes only apply to the currently valid sweep program

9. Now you can select on the sweep controller, whether you want to change the beam in the longitudi-
nal or lateral direction. Longitudinal means along the beam, so from front to back. Lateral means the
horizontal level. With the button Function Select you can now choose whether you want to change
frequency, amplitude or position of the beam. A corresponding lamp will illuminate above or under
each name. We recommend not using the Change option on the far left. After each change, both in
longitudinal as well as lateral direction, the new setting has to be stored by pressing the SAVE
button.
10. For safety reasons, after a change that has produced the desired result, the 5-pin plug of the sweep
setting device should be pulled immediately. This prevents unintentionally entered changes in other
sweep programs too.
11. Then the beam setting “ON” has to be deactivated again.

34
Beam settings 1200-DLS (Temescal sweep controller)

1. In the basic display on the touch screen, select ES Evaporator

2. In the new window which appears, select ESQ 1
3. Then go into MANUAL
4. In the window “Electron beam evaporator source 1” in the area beam settings press “Movement
change On” and confirm
5. Now on the sweeper control unit a red LED will light up next to MODIFY ENABLE
6. Now the 9-pin plug of the setting box has to be connected to the sweep controller
7. Now a new beam setting is possible
8. Please be aware that these changes only apply to the currently valid sweep program
9. On the sweep controller you can now select whether you want to change the beam in the longitudi-
nal or lateral direction. Longitudinal means along the beam, so from front to back. Lateral means the
horizontal level. On the setting box (on the cable) you can now choose whether you want to change
frequency, amplitude or position of the beam. After having made the corresponding selection, the
changes can be made by turning the knob “MODIFY”
10. For safety reasons, after a change that has produced the desired result, the plug should be pulled
immediately. This prevents unintentionally entered changes in other sweep programs too
11. Then the beam setting “ON” has to be deactivated again

Worterklärungen / Glossary

Filament = Glühfaden (wörtlich Faden) für ES Verdampfer und Ion Gun

Ion Gun = Ionenstrahlkanone
Soakpower = Einschmelzleistung
Sweep = Ablenkung (für Brennfleck ES Verdampfer)

35
 References and acknowledgements

Fig. 2, 3, 4 and 5 Wutz/Adam/Walcher

Theorie und Praxis der Vakuumtechnik, [Theory and practice of
vacuum technology], Vieweg Verlag, Okt.1981
Fig. 6 Pfeiffer Vakuum brochure
Fig. 9 nstruction manual, Commonwealth Scientific Corp., USA
Fig.15,16,17,19 General Description of the Treatments for
Ophthalmic Applications, Dr. G. Viscomi (Satis Vacuum) Febr. 2000
Fig. 18 Handbuch für Augenoptik [Manual of ophthalmic optics],
Carl Zeiss Oberkochen
Fig. 10 Dünne Schichten für die Optik [Thin films for optics]
Dr. Hugo Anders
Wissenschaftliche Verlagsgesellschaft mbh, Stuttgart 1965

Preface: Cooperation Larry Clark, Satisloh of America

Sections 2, 7, 7.1 Cooperation Dr. Werner Lobsiger, Satisloh Switzerland
Preface sections 2, 6, 7, 10 and12 Cooperation Michael Witzany, Satisloh Germany

Pressure units

Torr millibar Pascal

2
760 1013 1013 X 10 (atmospheric pressure)
1 1,3332 133,32
–3 –3 –1
1 X 10 1,33 X 10 1,33 X 10
–5 –5 –3
1 X 10 1,33 X 10 1,33 X 10

Satisloh AG Satisloh North America Inc.

Neuhofstrasse 12 N116 W18111 Morse Dr.
CH - 6340 Baar Germantown, WI 53022
Switzerland USA
Phone: +41 (0)41 766 16 16 Phone: +1 (262) 255 6001
Fax: +41 (0)41 766 16 10 Fax: +1 (262) 255 6002
Mail: info@satisloh.com Mail: info.usa@satisloh.com
www.satisloh.com